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The Impact of Political Violence During the Spanish General Election of 1936
Manuel Álvarez Tardío
Journal of Contemporary History 2013 48: 463
DOI: 10.1177/0022009413481823
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Article
Journal of Contemporary History
48(3) 463–485
The Impact of Political ! The Author(s) 2013
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DOI: 10.1177/0022009413481823
Election of 1936
Manuel Álvarez Tardı́o
Rey Juan Carlos University, Madrid, Spain
Abstract
Political violence was a significant force in Europe between the two world wars, and the
Spanish Second Republic (1931–6) was no exception to this general trend. The purpose
of this article is to analyse its role in the campaign leading up to the February 1936
general election – the last to be held prior to the outbreak of the Civil War. Without
doubt, this election constituted a crucial moment in Spain’s new experiment with
democratic competition, and for this reason, the presence and characteristics of vio-
lence during the campaign are useful tools for analysing the process of democratic
consolidation and its peculiar features. Until the present, historians have possessed a
certain amount of information on electoral violence in the Spain of February 1936, but
this has remained incomplete and is poorly documented. Therefore, this study presents
the results of a more thoroughgoing and systematic analysis of the subject, based on a
rigorous examination of the available primary sources. In addition, it also introduces a
reflection on the comparative prior context of interwar European politics.
Keywords
democracy, elections, political violence, Second Republic, Spain, twentieth Century
Corresponding author:
Manuel Álvarez Tardı́o, Facultad de Ciencias Sociales, Paseo de Artilleros s/n, Madrid 28032, Spain.
Email: manuel.tardio@urjc.es
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464 Journal of Contemporary History 48(3)
1 On Germany, see S.G. Payne, La Europa Revolucionaria: Las Guerras Civiles que Marcaron el Siglo
XX (Madrid 2011), 146; for comparisons between the role of violence in the cases of Nazism and
Fascism, R.O. Paxton, Anatomı´a del Fascismo (Barcelona 2005), 82–3, and A. Lyttelton, ‘Fascism
and Violence in Post-War Italy: Political Strategy and Social Conflict’, in W.J. Mommsen and
G. Hirschfeld, Social Protest, Violence, and Terror in Nineteenth and Twentieth Century Europe
(New York 1982), 257–75; on Austria, see G. Botz, ‘Political Violence, its Forms and Strategies in
the First Austrian Republic’, in Mommsen and Hirschfeld, Social Protest, Violence, and Terror, 300–29,
and on Portugal, R. Ramos, A Segunda Fundaçao (1890–1926) (Estampa 1994), 607–33.
2 J.J. Linz, The Breakdown of Democratic Regimes: Crisis, Breakdown & Reequilibration (Baltimore,
MD 1978), 14–5, 56–61; S. Kalyvas, La Lógica de la Violencia en la Guerra Civil (Madrid 2010).
3 J-P. Azéma and M. Winock, La Troisie`me Re´publique (Paris 1976), 264–5; M. Larkin, France since
the Popular Front: Government and People, 1936–1996 (Oxford 1997), 50; E. Weber, L’Action Française
(Paris 1964), V, 353–451.
4 C. Tilly, L. Tilly and R. Tilly, The Rebellious Century, 1830–1930 (Cambridge, MA 1975).
5 S.G. Payne, ‘Political Violence during the Spanish Second Republic’, Journal of Contemporary
History, 25, 2/3 (May–June 1990), 269.
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Tardı́o 465
played by the police and the state, must be evaluated using concrete data. In this
sense, it is a question of strengthening the foundations for a wider study of political
violence in this period, working on the principle that, as Stathis Kalyvas has asserted,
any ‘study of violence must deal with the thorny problem of data’. Indeed, the latter
aspect includes overcoming the common problem of this data appearing ‘out of
context’, that is, without ‘information about the exact circumstances that sur-
rounded the violence (who, where, when, how, for whom)’.6 Secondly, this electoral
violence should not be understood merely as a by-product of political modernization
and the tension generated by the struggle to win votes, but also as a symptom of an
underlying systemic fracture which was, in turn, related to the dominant political
cultures’ inability to accept defeat. Regarding the latter, this study also introduces a
reflection on the comparative prior context of interwar European politics.
For the purposes of this article, the term ‘electoral violence’ will be employed as a
sub-category within a broader conceptualization of political violence. It denotes
actions carried out by either individuals or groups which produce physical damage
to people or property, and which aim to limit or eradicate party competition within
the electoral process.7 The resulting intimidation and/or elimination of the oppon-
ent curtails political pluralism, in the process infringing on freedom of conscience,
association, assembly and expression.
Of course electoral violence was by no means the child of the interwar period.
Even prior to the widespread adoption of universal suffrage, the increasingly com-
petitive nature of elections had prompted violence of varying degrees and charac-
ter. In mid-nineteenth century Great Britain, violent incidents were not uncommon
in closely-fought electoral contests.8 Political violence also remained a virtual daily
reality in the United States, where the level of party competition remained rela-
tively high throughout the nineteenth century. For decades, a stable constitutional
and representative order proved no obstacle to its survival in both countries, and to
some extent a degree of violence was not only tolerated, but also viewed as justified
based on the opposition’s alleged use of illegitimate tactics.9 In any event, both
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466 Journal of Contemporary History 48(3)
countries did see a significant decline in violence during the closing decades of the
nineteenth century, although it would subsequently resurface periodically.
Prior to 1923 – the year in which Primo de Rivera’s coup brought an end to the
constitutional regime in place since 1876 – Spain experienced violence which ebbed
and flowed with the opening and closing of elections.10 As was the case in other
countries, this violence was largely incidental, born of the pressures originating
from a diverse range of factors; in this respect the Spanish experience was distinct
to that of Latin American nations such as Bolivia or Peru.11 Yet from 1931 to 1936,
the situation changed. During this period, political conflict reached particularly
high levels not only at election time, but also both prior to and after the voting
had taken place. Furthermore, violence did not remain circumscribed to the cam-
paign itself, suggesting that it was a symptom of underlying institutional problems:
the fact that the defeated found it difficult to accept election results; the fear that
the victors would use electoral success as a pretext to abuse their power once in
office; conflicts over the legitimacy of the system itself; and the consequent disloy-
alty or semi-disloyalty to the same on the part of certain political actors.12 In this
sense, the electoral violence that would be witnessed in Spain during the 1930s was
distinct to that experienced in Britain or the United States prior to 1914. At the
same time it exhibited parallels with that endured by countries such as Germany,
Italy, Poland and Portugal during the interwar period.13
An episode related by Angelo Tasca regarding the municipal elections in
Bologna, held on 21 November 1920, is particularly pertinent. In the aftermath
of a resounding defeat, the ‘local Fascists, furious . . . declared at every opportunity
that they would block the operation of the Socialist municipality. On the eve of the
handover of the council to the Socialists . . . they issued the battle-call for the fol-
lowing day. . .’ In turn, the Socialists – victors at the ballot box – decided to fortify
themselves with guns and bombs in the town hall. When the new mayor appeared
on the balcony and was proclaimed by the multitudes, the Fascists began to shoot;
nine deaths resulted from the violence which ensued. Symptomatic of a serious
problem at the heart of the Italian liberal state, these events were the opening salvo
for a violent offensive directed at the ‘whole of Italy’.14 During the critical juncture
of 1919–24, Italy saw the number of victims at election times soar. The day after the
10 In the hotly-contested general election of 1919, there were four deaths, M. Fernández Almagro,
Historia del Reinado de Don Alfonso XIII (vol. 2) (Madrid 1986), 58; see also J. Varela Ortega, Geografı´a
del Caciquismo en España (1875–1923) (Madrid 2001), 603–15.
11 On Peru, see V. Peralta Ruiz, ‘Reforma electoral, violencia y revolución en el Perú, 1896-1909’, in
C. Malamud and C. Dardé (eds), Violencia y Legitimidad. Polı´tica y Revoluciones en España y Ame´rica
Latina, 1840–1910 (Santander 2004), 186–95; on Bolivia, see M. Irurozqui, ‘El bautismo de la violencia:
Indı́genas patriotas en la revolución de 1870 en Bolivia’, in Malamud y Dardé, Violencia y Legitimidad,
156–73.
12 It has been asserted that in 1930s Spain, ‘there was scarcely any political grouping which did not see
force as an acceptable alternative to the ballot box’, see E. Ucelay-Da Cal, ‘Buscando el levantamiento
plebiscitario: insurrecciona-lismo y elecciones’, Ayer, 20 (1995), 78.
13 For a new contextualization of political violence in the history of the Spanish Second Republic, see
M. Álvarez Tardı́o and R. Villa Garcı́a, El precio de la exclusión. La polı´tica durante la Segunda
República (Madrid 2010).
14 A. Tasca, El Nacimiento del Fascismo (Barcelona 1969), 114.
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Tardı́o 467
November 1919 elections – which had not produced results favourable to his
party – Mussolini commissioned ‘a group of arditi who subsequently hurled a
bomb at the procession’ of the victors. There were nine injured as a consequence.
After many months of preparation and a growing number of victims, the election
campaign of 1921 brought more than 100 deaths. Unheard of in previous contests,
this figure reflected even greater levels of violence: in fact in some regions, the
elections took place ‘in an atmosphere of terror’.15
In the case of Germany, political violence had been present since the immediate
aftermath of the First World War. Although it declined between 1924 and 1929,
neither greater institutional stability nor an improved economic situation proved
sufficient to effect its total eradication from the political scene. During this period
there were ‘constant confrontations between rival paramilitary groupings’, and by
the late 1920s ‘gang fighting between Nazis and Communists’ had become even
more frequent, although ‘the Nazis sometimes attacked Socialists as well’.16
Yet from 1930 onwards, the toll taken by violence ‘increased dramatically’, a
fact which made itself felt above all at election time. In 1932, political clashes
produced 155 deaths in Prussia, at least 105 of which occurred during the two
months prior to the 31 July Reichstag elections. Furthermore, ‘the police recorded
461 political disturbances resulting in 400 injured and 82 deaths during the first
seven weeks of the campaign’. Nevertheless, all this would be overshadowed by the
campaign of terror and violence unleashed by the Nazis in spring 1933.17
Despite its evident importance, electoral violence was not the exclusive preserve
of Fascism’s rise to power. Even prior to the First World War, in Republican
Portugal the so-called Radical Democrats had employed their private militias to
attack the premises of other parties and newspaper offices, specializing in ‘a
scorched earth policy’ aimed at safeguarding ‘the monopoly of political action
and the control of power achieved between October 1910 and 1913’. In Poland,
political violence appeared at various moments, and assumed a particular prom-
inence in the March 1928 elections. Even prior to the tragic episode of February
1934, it also played a significant role in Austria – a country in which both the
Socialists and the nationalist right possessed well-organized paramilitary wings.
Finally, after the return of King George II to Greece and the calling of elections
for 26 January 1936, there were numerous ‘violent incidents’ in a campaign domi-
nated by the polarisation between Venizelists and anti-Venizelists.18
15 The quotation is from Tasca, El Nacimiento del Fascismo, 48, 147; for the deaths during the 1921
elections, see P.L. Ballini, Le Elezioni Nella Storia d´Italia dall´Unità al Fascismo (Bologna 1998), 1996–7;
R. de Felice, Mussolini il Fascista. La Conquista del Potere, 1921–1925 (Turin 1966), 36–9.
16 S.G. Payne, Historia del Fascismo (Barcelona 1995), 220; on the Stahlhelmers’ violence and elec-
tions, see P. Fritzsche, De Alemanes a Nazis 1914–1933 (Madrid 2006), 166.
17 R.J. Evans, La Llegada del Tercer Reich (Barcelona 2005), 309–10, 376. For a categorization and
analysis of violence during the last five years of the Weimar Republic, see P.H. Merkl, ‘Approaches to
Political Violence: the Storm-troopers, 1925–33’, in Mommsen and Hirschfeld, Social Protest, Violence,
and Terror, 369.
18 For Portugal, see F. Rosas, ‘Pensamiento y acción polı́tica en el Portugal del siglo XX (1890–1976).
Ensayo interpretativo’, in B. Gómez and D. Palacios, Una Historia Polı´tica de Portugal: La Difı´cil
Conquista de la Democracia (Madrid 2006), 58; for Austria, G. Brook-Shepherd, The Austrians:
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468 Journal of Contemporary History 48(3)
In the most authoritative published account on the February 1936 Spanish elec-
tions – a work which is also a model study of electoral sociology – its author, Javier
Tusell, concluded that ‘with some exceptions, the incidents which occurred during
the campaign were not particularly grave’.19 It is surprising that the analysis of
violence warranted only a couple of paragraphs of the study’s two extensive vol-
umes. It seems that Tusell collected some samples of this violence, but since these
did not appear to indicate high levels of tension, they were granted little import-
ance. However, this material served to support his overall argument, which was
that despite ideological polarization and conflict between the political blocs, ‘a
more moderate spirit’ had prevailed during the campaign.20
Quite naturally, Tusell’s analysis and conclusions have been restated by many
subsequent works, thereby strengthening the notion that the 1936 election was not
especially violent. Moreover, this accords with the widely-held view that the pre-
vious elections of the Republican period had also not been overly characterized by
violence.21
However, certain aspects of this period’s political history may lead us to
question this interpretation: the February 1936 election took place in the after-
math of a turbulent period, and against a background of powerful ideological
conflict between the proponents of revolution and the forces of counter-
revolution.22
Besides, there is also evidence that the 1933 election had in fact been character-
ized by a significant degree of violence. According to the most recent and exhaust-
ive study of this subject, there were more than 300 acts of violence during the
campaign. From 10 October to 3 December 1933, that is from the opening of
the canvas until election day of the second round, 34 people died.23 Taking into
account this evidence, as well as the aforementioned immediate political context,
one might wonder what really occurred during the February 1936 election. Was the
latter really an exception to the rule which, according to a recent study,
A Thousand-Year Odyssey (New York 2002), 279–90; for Greece, G.T.H. Mavrogordatos, Stillborn
Republic: Social Coalitions and Party Strategies in Greece, 1922–1936 (Los Angeles, CA 1983), 52; on
Poland, see A. Misiuk, ‘Police and Policing Under the Second Polish Republic, 1918–1930’, in G. Blaney
Jr (ed.) Policing Interwar Europe: Continuity, Change and Crisis, 1918–1940 (Basingstoke 2007), 166–9.
19 J. Tusell, Las Elecciones del Frente Popular (Madrid 1971), I, 317.
20 Ibid., 318.
21 W.J. Irwin, The 1933 Cortes Elections (New York 1991) added nothing to our understanding of
electoral violence.
22 Stanley G. Payne signals the ‘plebiscitary, decisive, and even eschatological character’ of the elec-
tion, El Colapso de la República (Madrid 2005), 273; Gabriele Ranzato has emphasized the ‘impassioned
tones’ and the ‘demonisation of the opponent’ during the campaign, see G. Ranzato, El Eclipse de la
Democracia: La Guerra Civil Española y sus Orı´genes, 1931–1939 (Madrid 2006), 239; Jesús Pabón
spoke of ‘an alarming vehemence’, an expression which Javier Tusell, Las Elecciones del Frente
Popular, I, 316, considered to be quite accurate.
23 I am grateful to Roberto Villa Garcı́a for providing me with these statistics. He is the author of La
República en las Urnas. El despertar de la democracia en España (Madrid 2011), an impressive work on
1933 election.
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Tardı́o 469
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470 Journal of Contemporary History 48(3)
Table 1. Political Violence: the first round of the 1936 election and the 1933 election
Political Violence: the first round of the 1936 election
1 to 31 January 21 5 15
1 to 15 February 7 2 30
16 February 9 1 10
Total 37 8 55
Political Violence: the first round of the 1933 election
Deaths Seriously and very seriously injured
10 Oct to 19 Nov 27 58
The overall figures which this study has yielded are presented in Table 1.31,32 This
data provides a total of 37 fatalities during the 1936 electoral campaign, while the
tally of 55 seriously or very seriously injured indicates that the total number of
deaths could well have been greater. Eight deaths have been classified as uncertain,
since we lack the information necessary to connect them categorically with acts of
political violence.33
As one specialist in the study of political violence has observed, ‘murder is by no
means the sum of violence’s scope, but it is an index lacking in ambiguity which can
be gauged in a more reliable manner than other options’. For this reason, it is
fundamental ‘as the primary indicator of violence in quantitative studies’.34
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Tardı́o 471
In the present study, it is clear that the total number of fatalities and serious injuries
indicates violence of a greater magnitude than has been hitherto assumed.
Of course, the statistics alone do not tell us much about the nature of political
violence during the period at hand, and it is therefore necessary to analyse the
qualitative information surrounding the events which produced these deaths.
The classification of these incidents is a complex task, but broadly speaking the
deaths were usually the result of two distinct types of situations:
These two sets of circumstances generated around 60 per cent of the fatalities
and 50 per cent of the injured. In the other categories the figures decline notably,
ranging between one and three deaths, with the exception of one situation which
would increasingly reproduce itself from mid-January onwards, albeit less fre-
quently than the two aforementioned main categories: attacks by armed men on
workers who broke with union discipline in relation to strikes or labour conflicts
(six recorded deaths and three injured). In some instances, the victims were workers
who sympathized with conservative parties, or who had obtained their jobs with
the assistance of Falangists, as was the case with Laureano Montero, murdered in
Madrid on 17 January. There are also some examples of attacks by armed anarch-
ists on UGT (the Socialist union) members, such as the mid-January murder of
Agapito Martı́n Fernández, also in Madrid.35 Finally, in relation to the injured, the
category which includes attacks and politically-motivated assaults reached a total
of 20 cases, reflecting high levels of premeditated violence against opponents – in
particular during the most intense period of the campaign, that is to say the two
weeks prior to election day, and on election day itself.
The foregoing information points towards the purely ideological nature of
much of this conflict. Groups sympathizing with one party or another did not
hesitate to resort to violence and to the use of various weapons (usually knives or
guns), not only in order to settle disputes, but above all to control the streets.
As will be explained in more detail below, this type of incident occurred with
great frequency, even while only a small number of deaths and serious injuries
were the result.
35 ABC, El Sol, El Heraldo de Madrid and El Socialista (10, 11, 17, 18, 19 January 1936).
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472 Journal of Contemporary History 48(3)
Table 2. Classification of actions which led to deaths and serious or very serious injuries
(1 January to 16 February 1936)
Deaths Injured
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Tardı́o 473
Falange 1 6 7
Right-wing (general) 2 1 3
CEDA (including youth wing) 4 7 11
Traditionalists 1 1
Workers affiliation unknown (likely right-wing) 3 3
Total right-wing 10 15 25
Radical Republicans 1 1
Total centre 1 1
Left Republicans 1 2 3
Left-wing (general) 6 7 13
Socialists (including youth wing) 2 2 4
Anarchists 1 2 3
Communists 2 1 3
Unknown (likely left-wing) 2 2 4
Total left-wing 14 16 30
Civil Guard 2 2
Assault Guard 2 1 3
Total police 2 3 5
Night watchmen 1 1
Workers of unknown affiliation 3 3
Unknown 7 20 27
Total 37 55 92
However, in very few cases has it been possible to ascertain who cast the first
stone – that is, which side instigated the violence, regardless of whether they were
the ones whose actions produced deaths or injuries. Naturally this complicates the
task of drawing conclusions, and the fact that a greater percentage of fatalities
corresponds to one political grouping or another should not imply that they had
not provoked the violence in the first place. However, it has been possible to con-
firm one piece of information which speaks for itself: in nine out of 10 cases of
deaths at the hands of the police, there had been some prior act of aggression on
the part of either the victim or his associates. The latter were in most instances
individuals linked to left-wing parties (Communists and Socialists). One particu-
larly notorious case during the campaign was the deaths of two Anarchists in Arcos
de la Frontera. These men had participated in an attack which had resulted in the
death of a labourer, but subsequently managed to escape. When the police located
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474 Journal of Contemporary History 48(3)
Right-wing (general) 2 2 4
Monarchists 1 1
Falange 2 4 6
CEDA (including youth wing) 2 4 6
Unknown (likely right-wing) 1 3 4
Total right-wing 7 14 21
Radical Republicans
Total centre 0 0 0
Left-wing (general) 5 8 13
Socialists (including youth wing) 1 2 3
Communists 1 1 2
Anarchists 2 4 6
Unknown (likely left-wing) 4 4 8
Total left-wing 13 19 32
Civil Guard arrest or search (prior aggression) 5 2 7
Civil Guard self-defence (prior aggression) 1 1
Assault Guard arrest or search (no further information) 1 1
Assault Guard act of violence initiated by others 1 1 2
Total police 8 3 11
Rural watchman 3 1 4
Unknown 6 18 24
Total 37 55 92
them and attempted to make an arrest, they responded to the customary ‘Hands
up!’ with a shower of bullets which hit one of the officers. During the shoot-out
which followed, two of the gunmen died, and one of their associates was injured.36
A further relevant aspect is the geographical distribution of violent incidents
which resulted in deaths. The conclusions which can be drawn on this issue are
significant only up to a certain point, since the results are distorted considerably by
the fact that some very serious injuries did not ultimately lead to death. For this
reason, the map presented below, which includes all acts of violence – with and
without death-toll – is more revealing. Nevertheless, to the extent that fatalities
indicate ‘absolute levels of violence’, their distribution also has a certain
36 The Civil Governor confirmed the press version of events, ABC (18, 19 January 1936); El Heraldo
de Madrid (18 January 1936); El Sol (19 January 1936). For another case which followed a similar
sequence of events and occurred on election day in Culleredo, La Coruña, see El Heraldo de Madrid (17
February 1936); ABC and El Socialista (18 February 1936).
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Tardı́o 475
However, the information which this research has uncovered regarding the role of
violence in the campaign – irrespective of whether or not it generated deaths or
serious injuries – is of even greater interest. Although to a certain extent fatalities
allow us to measure extreme levels of hostility, they do not necessarily reflect
electoral violence’s wider complexities. In order to decipher this complexity, both
the volume of incidents and their individual characteristics must be examined.
More than 400 acts of violence took place between the start of 1936 and 16
February, with 249 of these occurring in the 15 days prior to the election.
Nonetheless, these figures should be treated as minimums, not least because they
will undoubtedly rise as a result of the information being uncovered by new local
studies. Secondly, the tallies presented here do not include a number of incidents
37 Quotation taken from S. Straus, ‘Definitions and Subtypes: A Conceptual Analysis of Genocide’,
unpublished article (Berkley 2000), 27, cited in Kalyvas, La Lógica de la Violencia, 38.
38 On this tension, El Heraldo de Madrid (28 January 1936); El Socialista (9 February 1936). The
Minister of the Interior despatched a circular to the Civil Governor of Cáceres ordering that the forces
of law and order carry out regular weapons searches in order to avoid bloodshed, Archivo Histórico
Provincial de Cáceres, Gobierno Civil, unclassified material, cited in F. Ayala Vicente, La Violencia
Polı´tica en la Provincia de Cáceres durante la Segunda República (1931–1936) (Brenes 2003), 128.
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476 Journal of Contemporary History 48(3)
Figure 1. Map of deaths and injuries caused by political violence during the first round of the
1936 elections.
39 El Sol (9 February 1936); ABC (8, 10 February 1936); El Heraldo de Madrid (8 February 1936).
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Tardı́o 477
40 ABC (31 January 1936); El Sol (29, 30 January 1936); El Heraldo de Madrid (29 January 1936); El
Socialista (30 January 1936); Ahora (29 January 1936).
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478 Journal of Contemporary History 48(3)
were a total of 24, of which eight out of every 10 detainees were left-wingers. Of
course, this statistic may well be a reflection of the authorities’ particular antipathy
towards Popular Front candidates – especially acute in some localities – although it
does also suggest that some Popular Front leaders played a prominent role in local
political violence and intimidation.
In terms of their quantity and political colouring, four types of conflict stand out
(see Table 6). As far as the final category is concerned, 70 per cent of these attacks
were directed against the offices of conservative parties. Without doubt the most
serious of these episodes occurred in Vigo on 7 February, when armed trade union-
ists attacked the offices of the Falange. At first the only confirmed death was that of
a young Anarchist, cut down by shots fired by a plain-clothed Assault Guard who
had happened to be nearby, and who would subsequently lose an arm. Several days
later a Falangist who had been seriously injured in the exchange also passed
away.41
41 There were also four seriously injured, see Ahora (8, 9, 11, 13 February 1936); El Heraldo de Madrid
(8 February 1936); El Socialista (8 February 1936); La Vanguardia (8 February 1936); ABC (8 February
1936); G. Seonae, Los Orı´genes de la Derecha Gallega: la CEDA en Galicia (1931–1936) (La Coruña
1998), 248, follows the version published by El Ideal de Galicia (8, 13 February 1936), and states that
there was only one death, accompanied by five seriously injured.
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Tardı́o 479
42 Although it is by no means the only example, an important case which is fairly representative of the
manner in which these attacks or aggressions proceeded is the murder of the CEDA member and
‘municipal judge’ of Cuevas del Valle, Ávila, by a Communist, El Socialista (1 February 1936); ABC
(1, 4 February 1936); El Heraldo de Madrid (31 January 1936); Ahora (5 February 1936).
43 El Heraldo de Madrid (20 January 1936); ABC (21, 22 January 1936); El Sol (22 January 1936);
Diario de Sesiones de las Cortes (June 19, 1936), 1518–9.
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480 Journal of Contemporary History 48(3)
for organizing mass displays of support and distributing campaign material. Thus
it is hardly surprising that the extremists groups among the Socialists and
Communists would target the party with particular zeal. Yet on the other hand,
evidence has been found of only one Falange rally being disrupted, which might
indicate not only that the Falangists were less active, but also that they incited
greater fear and were more inclined to greet violence with violence (see Table 8).44
Finally, there is the question of the geographical distribution of this violence.
This map, considerably more significant than that displaying the death-toll, reveals
that electoral violence was to a great degree concentrated in Madrid, particularly in
terms of clashes or aggressive acts between opposing groups. The province experi-
enced one of every seven incidents, a proportion which is unmatched – even in
relative terms – by other cities.
Three regions stand out as especially violent: Madrid, Galicia and some areas of
Andalucia. Indeed, if we add Castilla la Mancha to this list – or at least a part of
this broad and complex region – almost two-thirds of all violence is accounted for.
44 In Seville two out of every three new members joining the Falange during the first half of 1936
chose to register themselves in the Falange de la Sangre [Blood Falange], ‘which is how the Primera
Linea [Frontline] came to be known as a result of its leading role in violent activities’. In contrast to the
CEDA’s youth wing, the Falangists openly sought opportunities for action, see J.A. Parejo Fernández,
Las Piezas Perdidas de la Falange: El Sur de España (Sevilla, 2008), 39–56; on the Falange and the 1936
election, see S.G. Payne, Falange: Historia del Fascismo Español (Madrid 1985), 107–16.
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Tardı́o 481
On the other hand, some northern areas, such as most of Castilla Leon, Navarre,
La Rioja, Aragon and the Basque Country, display relatively low rates of violence,
at times practically none whatsoever. Moreover, it is noteworthy that Barcelona
does not figure in a higher position, as one might expect given its history of conflict.
If Galicia, Asturias and Barcelona are excluded, the northern portion of the coun-
try experienced only 15 per cent of the violence, while between them Andalucia,
Extremadura and Castilla la Mancha saw around 40 per cent of recorded incidents.
This evidence confirms that many of the regions which had hitherto manifested
high levels of political and social offences continued to play a leading role. In fact,
between 1931 and 1933 the highest incidences of these types of crimes had occurred
in Madrid, most of the Andalucian provinces and La Coruña. Barcelona, and to a
lesser extent Valencia, are exceptions to this pattern, as they had experienced
heightened conflict during the early years of the Republic. Nonetheless, what all
of these regions had in common was their significant levels of mobilization and
electoral support for the parties of the left.45
45 For information on political and social offences, see Rey, ‘Reflexiones sobre la . . .’, 62–4.
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482 Journal of Contemporary History 48(3)
46 ABC (7, 10, 11, 22 January 1936); El Sol (7, 10, 11, 12 January 1936); Ahora (10, 11 January 1936);
for Orense, see also El Ideal Gallego (10 January 1936), cited in G. Seonae, Los Orı´genes de la Derecha
Gallega, 248.
47 El Heraldo de Madrid (13 January 1936); ABC (15 January 1936).
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Tardı́o 483
impartial manner. It was symptomatic that it was deemed necessary to request that
they cease permitting ‘that the law be flouted’ as far as freedom of expression and
assembly were concerned.48
As well as the violence that went hand in hand with the distribution of campaign
material, in Madrid there was the addition of an almost intolerable increase in
political and trade union-related conflict. As a result, in the final week of January
the Dirección General de Seguridad (General Directorate of Public Order) found
itself obliged to establish a special procedure for carrying out weapons searches and
seizures in the streets.49 However, in terms of the conflicts which were taking place
across the country, Madrid was the mere tip of the iceberg. In fact, it was the
mayor of Ferrol who, on 6 February, deemed it necessary to issue an edict restating
the fact that there were no restrictions on the putting up of electoral material, and
that anyone who attempted to impede it would be fined. He would not be alone.
Day in day out, the Socialists accused various local and provincial authorities,
including the governor and numerous mayors in Badajoz, of selective compliance
with the law and impartiality in their use of force. Finally, hours before voting
began, in Madrid as well as in Barcelona, the authorities announced extraordinary
measures designed to prevent the distribution of campaign literature in public
places and bars. The decision was also taken to intensify the checkpoints already
in place to search individuals for weapons.50
In the light of these examples of official conduct, as well as the evidence analysed
above, it is clear that electoral violence exploded with greater force than has hith-
erto been supposed during the long election campaign of 1936. In some localities it
was neither sporadic nor entirely spontaneous. Clashes between activists,
attacks and the violent disruptions of rallies occurred to a degree which simply
cannot be ignored.
In terms of allocating responsibility, we need to establish which parties propa-
gated a discourse of exclusion and wore their intransigence with pride. In no sense
has it been demonstrated that the deaths which occurred during this period were
mainly caused by the Civil Guard or Assault Guard, as has sometimes been
claimed – supposedly because the aforementioned were particularly violent or
outdated compared with police forces in the rest of Europe.51 The evidence over-
whelmingly points to police responsibility for no more than one in five deaths, and
in 90 per cent of these cases the fatalities were the result of prior aggression or
armed resistance to the authorities. Moreover, these percentages suggest a need to
reconsider the role of the Spanish police, or at least cease to resort to unproven
commonplaces regarding their special hostility towards the left, or their complicity
with anti-republican conservatism. Even in a context as fraught as that of February
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484 Journal of Contemporary History 48(3)
1936, nothing indicates that the Civil Guard failed to comport themselves as they
had done for years previously: this entailed, as Fernando del Rey has asserted, that
‘in the majority of cases’ they limited themselves to ‘securing compliance with the
law in accordance with orders received either from the Ministry of the Interior or
its subordinates in the provinces’.52
As has been seen, during the election campaign the left suffered almost double
the number of fatalities experienced by the right. However, the evidence also
reveals that the former were responsible for initiating the violence in a high per-
centage of cases, while they caused twice as many deaths as the right: 42 per cent of
those for which the responsible party has been identified. The right, in turn, was
responsible for 22 per cent of deaths, while only two fatalities and four serious
injuries can be attributed to Cedistas. As noted above, the CEDA was the main
conservative party, and it also experienced the greatest number of disrupted rallies.
One can therefore conclude that the majority of its members complied with the
message of the party’s leadership: they did not make violence the leit motiv of their
mobilization strategy.53
Finally, we should pay attention to the four categories which are key to the
examination of electoral violence: clashes between activists; party events disrupted;
assaults on party offices; and attacks on individuals. These four types represent
almost 70 per cent of the violent episodes recorded during the campaign, and thus
cannot be dismissed as merely anecdotal. In some places and for some candidates,
this violence constituted clear intimidation, and represented a serious obstacle to
freedom of expression and assembly. Furthermore, the evidence indicates that it
was individuals and groups recognized by the media as ‘left-wing’ which were the
most active in the selective use of violence to impede their opponents’ ability to
proselytize and mobilize. Among the cases which have been identified, the initiative
originated with the Socialists and Communists in two out of every three clashes. On
the right, the Falangists also manifested a similar proclivity for proactive violence,
if less substantial given their comparative lack of importance and presence at this
moment in time. As regards the issue of disrupted political events, three out of four
cases for which we have sufficient information involved events staged by conser-
vative parties, almost invariably the CEDA.
Political violence in January and February 1936 was not so extensive as to
prevent effective political competition, but it was a clear symptom of heightened
tension and the apocalyptic mood with which many approached the election. It
claimed numerous victims, and also became an issue of growing concern for the
authorities, who on not a few occasions found themselves overwhelmed. At a time
when political violence had become so commonplace, it is possible that a total of
52 Rey, ‘Reflexiones sobre la . . .’, 40; for a contextualization of the role of the Civil Guard, see G.
Blaney Jr., ‘Keeping Order in Republican Spain, 1931–1936’, in G. Blaney Jr., Policing Interwar Europe,
31–68.
53 On violence and the CEDA’s discourse, see M. Álvarez Tardı́o, ‘La CEDA y la Democracia
Republicana’, in F. del Rey, Palabras como puños. La intransigencia polı´tica en la Segunda República
(Madrid 2011), 384–409.
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Tardı́o 485
almost 100 dead or seriously injured did not, in itself, have a great impact on public
opinion. Nevertheless, it clearly demonstrated the dominant political cultures’ lack
of respect for either the adversary or the existence of competing political opinions.
It had become virtually impossible for some participants in Spanish politics to
admit that their opponents had any right to occupy public space, place their posters
on walls, or even hold a political meeting.
Biographical Note
Manuel Álvarez Tardı́o is Senior Lecturer in the History of Political Thought and
Social and Political Movements at Rey Juan Carlos University of Madrid. His
research has focused on the political history of Spain and Europe in the interwar
period, especially on the relations between politics and religion, the Second
Republic and the transition to democracy. He has been a visiting research fellow
at the universities of Tufts (Boston), Madison-Wisconsin (USA) and the Sorbonne
(Paris). Author or co-author of Anticlericalismo y libertad de conciencia. Polı´tica y
religión en la Segunda República Española (Madrid 2002); El camino a la democracia
en España. 1931 y 1978 (Madrid 2005); and El precio de la exclusión. La polı´tica
durante la Segunda República (Madrid 2010). Coeditor of The Spanish Second
Republic Revisited. From Democratic Hopes to Civil War (1931–1936) (Brighton
2011). He is currently working on political life and electoral violence in the Spanish
Second Republic.
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