Carib Studies Module 2 Notes

Ah bad man we name – A.L.L.

CONCEPTUALIZING DEVELOPMENT
 Expected Learning Outcomes
1. Analysis of the Concepts of Development
2. Grasp of the interrelationships among the
different approaches to development (human,
economic, sustainable)
3. Grasp of the different indicators of development
4. Grasp of the different factors that promote and
hinder development
5. Evaluation of how development has been
influenced by political, social, cultural,
environmental and technological factors
 Concepts of Development
• Development has been understood to have 3 different
interpretations:
1. Development as an enactment of human values: This
concept essentially says for anything to develop, improvement
must be based on some values which are being implemented.
For example one may argue that for an economy to develop
there must be an implementation of values which raise the
standard of living
2. Development as increasing differentiation or complexity:
This concept essentially means that for anything to develop it
must become more complex and differentiated where the
component parts will interrelate with deeper linkages. Pretty
self explanatory.
3. Development as liberation or human freedom: This states
that for people to be developed there must be an
accompanied growth in autonomy, the options they can
pursue and the self-efficacy (the significance of their actions).
For example people see education and its ability to empower
people to rise in their societies
 Approaches to development
• There are three main approaches to
development:
1. Economic Development
2. Human Development
3. Sustainable Development
 Economic Development
• The specific goal of development in the
decolonization era was economic development
through economic growth
• This referred to ‘an increase in the value of goods
and services produced by a country within a
specific time period’
• It was expected that the problems of poverty and
backwardness would be solved once Caribbean
countries experienced improvements in
economic growth
 Economic Growth Indicatorss
• There were various indicators measure this ‘development’ however
they only measured accurately economic growth.
• These included:
1. Gross National Product (GNP): Value of goods and services from a
country plus any foreign revenue. GNP per capita is = GNP ÷
population.
2. Gross Domestic Product (GDP): The total market value of the goods
and services of a country in a given year. GDP per capita = GDP ÷
population
3. Population Growth Rate: calculated by considering birth and death
rates and migration statistics therefore if one has a smaller
population then GDP & GNP per Capita should rise
4. Age dependency ratio: the ratio of people under 15 and over 65
(dependents) to the working age population (those between 15-64).
The theory is if there are more working aged people to take care of
dependents the government would spend less taking care of them.
 Economic Development (Cont’d)
• The traditional emphasis was to implement measures
which solely increased production while limiting
population growth
• This formed the basis of economic policies in the
Caribbean from the 60’s to the 80’s and these
ethnocentric approaches modelled in a uniform way
not addressing the problems faced by citizens.
• While production did increase to some extent the
citizen has by large part not benefitted from this
growth.
• Economic development has evolved since then to focus
not only on economic growth on welfare of the people
and poverty reduction
 Economic Development Indicators
• The economic and non economic indicators of
development are collectively used to assess the level of
development among countries.
• Some Economic Indicators of Development include:
• Levels of Industrialization
• Employment Levels
• Economic structures (Primary, Secondary, Tertiary Industries)
• The Levels of local and foreign debt
• Levels of foreign aid receipts
• National Resource Accounting
– How natural resources are depleted to drive productivity
• Purchasing Power Parity (PPP):
– Assesses the impacts of inflation, shortages and dislocation of the
economy
 Human Development
• The Human Development Paradigm (HDP) in the 90’s
brought together ideas from economic development and
sustainable development to find a more holistic way of
describing development but putting humans at the centre.
• The HDP has three basic views
1. That people are the end means of development: so if our
quality of life increases we observe development
2. That development is largely about broadening people’s
choices so they’ll have more opportunities to improve
themselves in ways that’ll make them happy and bring income
3. That poverty and income inequality are the major problems in
human societies which prevent good quality of life
 Human Development
• Therefore human development as envisaged by
the HDP includes improving the quality of life of
people through the four areas of: empowerment,
equity, productivity and sustainability
• The notion comes not from ethnocentric views as
empowerment i.e. broadening human choices
differ considerably among countries. In one
country it may be through education, another
may be through opening crown lands
 Sustainable Development
• A concept of advancing a people’s quality of life,
through both economic growth and development
and human without compromising future
generations and their capacity to meet their own
needs.
• In this type of development if human
development needs are compromised imporvents
will be unsustainable
• So yeah all types of development are connected
here
 Sustainable Development
• If equity is compromised so will the environment be. In
severely unequal places like Haiti where daily survival is
more of priority than the well being of future generations
the environment will be exploited i.e. cutting of forests
which lead to soil erosion
• Hence measures must be implemented to reduce
inequality and poverty.
• Big companies often exploit the environments to make a
profit like destroying forests, overfishing and polluting.
• Therefore measures to increase the empowerment of
citizens to raise issues against the interests of big business
is critical to ensue sustainability.
 Sustainable Development
• Equity:
– Refers to the commitment on the part of the people
and government of a country to enable all social
groups to access the opportunities that the country
offers and be fair to all groups as they grasp these
opportunities
• Productivity (Based on equity)
– Refers to an understanding that if people have equal
access to educational and job opportunities then their
productivity will probably increase. So if one has
adequate job qualifications they probably won’t be in
a dead end job where there is no challenge.
 Sustainable Development
• Empowerment (Based on equity)
– Refers to the degree to which individuals have a
feeling of self-efficacy, meaning that they have a
knowledge that they are capable of doing things
to improve their lives. If people have equal
opportunities to be productive citizens they’ll
probably be happy and will have a high esteem
making them make broad decisions in their best
interest
 Non Economic indicators of
Development
• Life Expectancy
• Levels of Education
• Ratio of Doctors to the Population
• Labour Productivity
• Distribution of Income
• Improved institutions and attitudes
• Urbanization
• Birth and Death Rates
• A nationally coordinated system of policy
measures
 Indicators and examples of them
associated with the paradigm
A nationally National Sustainable
Sustainability coordinated system Development Plan
of policy measures
Improved Increase in Literacy Levels
Empowerment institutions and Gender Equity at the
attitudes workplace
GDP per Capita Energy efficiency
Productivity GNP per Capita Internet Usage
Increase in modern
knowledge
Levels of income Child malnutrition
Equity Social and Economic
Equalization
 Factors that influence development:
Political Ideologies
• These are systems of belief about governance
and power that reflect the needs and aspirations
of particular social groups ex. Capitalism,
communism and socialism. Capitalism is the
prevailing ideology in the Caribbean.
• During the post colonial era since the emphasis
was economic growth under Capitalism and yet
poverty was still a problem some believed to
increase the way of life of the people alternative
ideologies should be implemented.
 Factors that influence development:
Political Ideologies
• These people were influenced by the Dependency
theorists of Latin America who stated that the
colonial condition encouraged dependency,
underdevelopment and poverty through an
imbalance in the trading relationships and the
indoctrination of the superiority of the mother
country.
• So the attempt was to focus on decreasing
poverty rather than on economic growth which
came into direct contravention with the moneyed
classes which ruled at the time.
 Factors that influence development:
Political Ideologies
• Ideologies can foster fragmentation and makes countries vulnerable
to external interference in domestic affairs of the countries e.g.
Cuba and also limits the extent to which countries are able to forge
a coordinated foreign policy. On the other hand the region has been
able to maintain stable and democratic governments, which have
provided opportunities for economic stability and favourable
investment climate
• The Marxist type revolutions which took place in Cuba (1959) and
Grenada (1979) and the attempts to establish such principles in
Guyana (1960’s & 1970’s) were focused on increasing human
development through increasing Equality.
• Cuba’s economy became centrally planned, with the state owning
all productive enterprises and property. The population gained in
exchange goods and services at cheap prices, free health care and
housing. However productivity decreased due to corruption.
 Factors that influence development:
Social Factors
• These include poverty and inequality
(distribution of wealth and stagnant mobility)
• Distribution of wealth and resources can
either hinder or promote development.
• Caribbean society has always been one
characterized by social stratification where the
elites owned the capital, the middle owned
some property while the lower classes only
had their labour to sell.
 Factors that influence development:
Social Factors
• If wealth is unevenly distributed then this can hinder
development. When concentrated in the hands of a few it
can lead to low level of investment, high unemployment,
high level of unskilled labour force as there is low
expenditure on education. It can also result in corruption.
As a consequence there is low productivity among high-
income earners, capital flight and brain drain. It leaves
government with a high borrowing from international
sources, which results in higher taxation rate and rising
inflation. To solve this, incentives for production have to be
offered to attract investors and government has to increase
its involvement in areas such as infrastructure!
development, education, minimum wage, high tax on
luxury items, harsh penalties for offenders, better auditing
and accountability.
 Factors that influence development:
Social Factors
• Most countries of the Caribbean ex. Jamaica
display an inequitable distribution of wealth. In
Jamaica it is skewed in favour of the ruling class,
which consists of large landowning families, local
capitalists, international capitalist and a small
number of strategically placed professional
managers. These classes of people in Jamaica
control the commanding heights of the economy
(in 1970s less than 1% of the population
controlled 70% of the wealth in the economy.
Majority of the wealth concentrated in the hands
of 21 families
 Factors that influence development:
Social Factors
Changing class boundaries
• If within society there are no avenues or scope
for social mobility then this can lead to
antagonism as people will see themselves as
inferior as or less important than those who
occupy higher status. A rigid class structure
breeds insecurity/ mistrust and this can have a
negative impact on development. Some avenue
for upward social mobility must exist to reward
people who are industrious, visionary and
productive
 Factors that influence development:
Economic Factors
• These factors dictate how limited resources are
used to satisfy needs and unlimited wants
• Since resources are limited it is essential to
allocate them in the most efficient way possible
for the benefit of most people.
• Resources can be divided into Land, Labour,
Capital and visionary Leadership.
• Leadership ensures stability and is what will
envision for the future what’s needed and have
that available when the time comes.
 Factors that influence development:
Economic Factors
• So factors are:
– The maximum use of resources
– Efficient usage of time, money and energy
– Reducing the effects of external events (war, crime)
• A country can increase resources this through
– Discovery of natural resources
– Increasing foreign investments
– Expanding the skilled labour force
– Technological Advances
• When these resources are properly allocated
– Goods and services in the local market will become more competitive
– Economic benefits will accrue, facilitating higher employment
– Social benefits will accrue increasing employment also and when this
increased revenue is well spent human development will increase
 Factors that influence development:
Technological Factors
• These relate to the use of mechanical and electric
instruments to solve practical problem of
production
• When used properly there can be increases in:
– Management Effectiveness and Performance
Efficiency
– Organized functions and intelligent workforce
– New products and services
• However competition from outside forces can
reduce the demand in traditional goods and
actually reduce development and growth
 Environmental Factors
• These relate directly to nature but indirectly to
economics because we need raw materials as
well as land to dump our waste.
• If the environment is sustainably taken care of
the carrying capacity of the land can increase
leading to boosts in the productive sectors
(primary, secondary and tertiary industries) as
well as through tourism
GLOBALIZATION
 Contextualising Development:
Globalization and Regionalism
• Expected Learning Outcomes
– Define Globalisation
– Compare Globalisation and Internationalisation
– Present a critique of the work of organizations that
attempt to facilitate globalisation.
– Assess the ways in which Globalisation affects
development in the region
– Describe the evolution of the integration movement in
the Caribbean
– Explain the ways in which the integration movement
has affected development in the region
 Defining Globalization
• Globalization : the process whereby ‘flows of
trade, finance and information between
countries are broadened and deepened so
that they function as one global market’, as if
they had no borders.
• For example a Singapore University in Jamaica
would have the same privileges in Jamaica as
in Singapore.
 Defining Globalization
• Globalization has been derived by the ICT sector
in recent times
• For example the internet exists without borders
to some extent (except VEVO).
• This is the logical meaning of globalization where
when applied to trade, finance or communication
where a commodity is available to all
everywhere, as if the nation state didn’t exist. For
example The universality of Cell Phone usage
 Defining Globalization
• A truly globalized world only exists when there is
a ‘level playing field for all’ where everyone can
benefit from trade in technology.
• For example Cell phones in the Sahara to the
Caribbean are used touching all income groups
and backgrounds
• Information access has been able to allow
ordinary citizens to access the prices globally of
produce and services to challenge old
monopolies
 Defining Globalization
• Monopolies are therefore no longer as profitable
as they were so there is a question as to how
Capitalist Organizations can function in a
globalized world
• Globalization is therefore a process which erodes
distinctions between various places removing
advantages that certain groups enjoy
• Globalization produces in knowledge an area
where all parts of the world are able disseminate
their own cultural knowledge
 Defining Internationalization
• Internationalization is a more accurate term to
describe world now concerning the institution
of the World Bank or IMF in finance or trade.
• Internationalization of flows in trade, capital
and finance refers to increasing interactions
among the countries of world as their markets
become more integrated and as their trade
volume increases.
 Defining Internationalization
• Internationalization is more accurate because it
recognizes the nation-state. It conceives
interactions between nations and conceives the
nations not as equal.
• There is no deepening or broadening of linkages
in capital, trade and finance as is the case for
globalization
• Since there is a distinction which needs to be
addressed between internationalization and
globalization
 Multi/Transnational Organisations
• This is a business organization/corporation /enterprise that has its
headquarters (parent company) in one country (usually advanced
capitalist/industrialized countries) and has branches/subsidiaries/franchises
and plants in many countries.
• They seek out the best profit opportunities and are largely unconcerned with
issues such as poverty, inequality and unemployment alleviation. Such
organizations carry out substantial amounts of financing, production sales
research and development in their foreign operations. They have great
economic power (large capital base such as cash, stocks bonds and
technology). They are usually based on manufacturing or mineral industries
(extractive and primary industries) and operate in fields that involve frequent
technological change. Such firms have a large research organization at its
headquarters base where they develop new products and processes. They
then train workers in foreign plants to use these skills. Some MNCs grant
foreign companies licenses to use their methods and processes instead of
setting up plants of their own. A MNC may have fewr plants in one country
that produces complete products to be sold in several countries while in
other cases the plants in many countries may produce components or parts
of the finished products. This gives MNCs a larger area from which to choose
the most economical locations for specialized plants. The companies can then
sell products at lower prices than would otherwise be possible.
 Critiquing Globalization and
Internationalization processes
• This section seeks to analyse the process of
internationalization of markets not only the economic
dimensions of impacts but the cultural and political
responses as well.
• Developmental agencies such as the World Bank have used
this process as a path to development for use by
developing countries
• Internationalization occurs between unequal partners i.e.
superpowers, TNC’s, industrialized countries, developing
countries and poorer ones. There is no ‘super government’
to administer so in many cases richer countries take
advantage of the process more than others
 Critiquing Globalization and
Internationalization processes
• The processes are illustrated below
1. Expansion of Free Trade: Trade liberalization requires countries to
remove tariffs placed on imports to protect their own industries.
Calls to do so when ignored can lead to restrictions from lager free
trade areas
2. Measures to tighten efficiency: Increases output while educing costs
leading to increased mechanization and some times laying off
workers. This is done to increase competitiveness in industrial
counties looking to take advantage of trade liberalization with low
production costs.
3. The persistence of tariffs: This often subsidises production costs in
developed countries to remain competitive i.e. flooding foreign
markets (protectionism) while maintaining their own.
4. Market integration: Integration of trade markets between
developing and developed countries increasing the volume of trade
in recent times. Opening markets to capital flow has always been
seen as the main way of increasing
 Critiquing Globalization and
Internationalization processes
6. Dominance of TNC’s: These firms operate as large
internationally integrated production systems with for
example, headquarters in Europe but Factories in Guyana
and Mines in Trinidad. They are driven more by the profit
motive than the needs of the country and its people
often generating little employment due to high
modernization and capital focus
7. Homogenization of Institutions: Multilateral
Organizations such as the World Bank and the IMF lend
money to assist the internationalization of markets as a
key factor of development. They coerce governments to
accept recommendations regarding Capital and finance.
As a result these countries have similar institutions.
 Multilateral Agencies
• These are agencies or institutions where many
members are able to participate on even footing,
dedicated to achieving certain goals and have devised
procedures for all to follow in pursuit of these goals
and has devised procedures for all to follow in pursuit
of these goals ex. The World Bank, IMF, WTO
• All these had a genesis after WWII and were formed
after a special UN meeting at Bretton Woods in New
Hampshire in 1945 and are known as ‘Bretton Woods
Institutions’. The goal was to ensure economic
development of all countries to prevent recurrences of
catastrophes like the World Wars and the Great
Depression.
 The World Bank
• This was established after WWII and initially
called the International Bank for Reconstruction
and Development (IBRD). It has its HQ in
Washington DC and has over 184 member
countries.
• The Presidents are customarily US nationals
• The Bank is involved in providing Capital for
projects to promote development.
• It once had sole focus on economic growth but
switched to poverty reduction based on the new
definitions of development
 The World Bank
• Long term focus is to promote equity and productivity in
education, health and industry. The bank makes loans conditional to
improve aspects of social life which go against freedom, equity and
human rights.
• The bank has been accused of ‘western imperialism’ as it endorses
internationalization of markets through trade liberalization policies
giving impetus for richer countries to profit from developing free
market trade.
• The Bank has also been accused of US biased market liberalization.
As the Bank supports TNC’s in oil & other sectors which have been
shown not to decrease poverty
• The World Bank today focuses its activities on developing countries
and privileges to developed ones but has helped to boost economic
growth in some countries but has gained less from where human
development is concerned
 The IMF
• As a Bretton Woods Institution the International
Monetary Fund (IMF) works closely with the World
Bank having the same membership and HQ but instead
having a customary European president. They balance
each other via the Washington Consensus
• The IMF focuses on fostering global monetary
cooperation and ensuring financial stability worldwide
extending loans and technical assistance to expand
trade and help countries balance payments and be
stable fiscally. Reducing debt is likely to boost
economic growth. Globally the IMF is responsible for
overseeing the entire international financial system
 The IMF
• IMF industries are based solely on austerity and are the
same for all developing countries including:
1. Keeping interest rates high to balance currency
2. Devalue the currency to boost exports
3. Reducing Government spending in non-productive sectors
(health and education)
4. Privatization of state owned enterprises
• These austerity measures (structural adjustment policies)
had to be agreed upon by the respective governments
before giving assistance. Implementation of SAP’s has
resulted in widespread unemployment before giving
assistance, and increased poverty while simultaneously
ensuring a profit to the debtor nations in ALL CASES.
 The WTO
• The World Trade Organization was formed in 1995 with the
demise of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade
(GATT). Its HQ is in Geneva (Switzerland) and has 148
members. It not only regulates trade in goods like GATT but
services in telecommunication and banking. It is more
modern than the IMF or World Bank and clearly speaks of
Globalization
• Its function is to remove all barriers or encumbrances of
any kind to trade within the world. Its activities have the
potential to facilitate globalization in its logical sense
• The WTO is the only international body established to
oversee the rules of international trade and to make rules
there has to widespread consensus which is far more
advanced than the Bretton Woods institutions however
there are accusations of subverting the democratic process.
 The WTO
• The US, TNC’s, Japan and the EU are said to exert
undue pressure on developing countries in the decision
making process
• Recently WTO meetings all over the world have been
met with protests, demonstrations and criticisms. Talks
have even broken down as consensus becomes even
more difficult and developing countries refuse to
accept some decisions.
• Here we see when developed countries are faced with
the prospect of globalization they back down in favour
of internationalization of ‘fair trade’ where they only
benefit.
 The Context of Development
• Caribbean Exports have decreased for a variety of
reasons including:
– The removal of trade preferences
– The underselling of local products by cheaper foreign
goods and services
– The closure of both large and small firms who cannot
compete with the technological efficiencies of foreign
manufacturers
• This means that the context of (unbalanced)
development for Caribbean countries has been one of
spiralling debt and decreasing productivity and output
due to reliance on ‘free trade ideologies’
 Regional Integration
• The Caribbean is divided among European
languages and traditions and any form of regional
integration was relatively unthinkable until 1994
and the formation of the Association of
Caribbean States (ACS).
• The English speaking Caribbean with their
similarities have long founded different
associations including: The West Indies
Federation, CARIFTA and CARICOM. At the Sub
regional level the Organization of Eastern
Caribbean states were formed.
 Regionalism and Globalization
• Under systems of increasing globalization smaller nation
states have found it more advantageous to integrate some
parts of their operations so that they can better deal with
the threat posed by the free market ideology.
• In the Caribbean we tried political integration using the
federation model, which was not successful then began
anew via CARIFTA. This was aimed at using the free-market
ideas to reap benefits through functional cooperation of
trade.
• This limited amount of cooperation led Caribbean countries
to seek deeper associations, especially in the free market,
as a strategy for development endorsed by world bodies.
This effort was CARICOM
 The West Indies Federation
• This was an early attempt at developing a
political union among the British Territories
except: Guyana, Belize, the Bahamas and the
Virgin Islands.
• A federation is group of self governing
territories which are states or nations in their
own right but the overarching authority for all
of them is under a centralized federal
government.
 The West Indies Federation
• The West Indian Federation came into being January 1958 following
Montego Bay Conference in 1947 and subsequent meetings in 1953, 1956,
1957.
• Legislatures of all British colonies in region, except Bahamas, met and a
regional economic committee
• Committees were set up to investigate means of achieving economic unity.
A Standing Closer association Committee was also set up to devise a
federal constitution. Final agreement was reached in 1957 where Imperial
government retained responsibility for defence, external affairs and
financial stability. There would be a senate of 19 nominated members and
a House of Representative of 45 elected members. There would be a
Governor General, Prime Minister and 10 ministers. The federal seat of
government would be in Trinidad. Elections were held in March 1958 with
the West Indies Federal Labour Party (WIFLP) supported by N.W. Manley,
Eric Williams and Grantley Adams defeating the Democratic Labour Party
(DLP) supported by Bustamante and Gomes WIFLP 26 to 19 seats. This
integration step was mainly a political one but lasted only four years
 The West Indies Federation
• This was due to Eric Williams of Trinidad and his refusal
to accept unrestricted freedom of movement into his
territory and Alexander Bustamante’s referendum in
1961 to come out of the federation – which he won.
• The aims of WIF
• strengthen the movement for self government,
• promote economic development
• safe guard the democratic system against dictatorship and
communism The achievements
• facilitation of the movement from colonialism to independence,
• the coming together of smaller states made their effectiveness in
dealing with international bodies such as UN
 CARIFTA
• CARIFTA (Caribbean Free Trade Association) came into being 1968
following the Dickenson Bay Agreement signed in 1965.
• Membership included former federation members as well as Belize.
• Aim was to promote economic and social development in the
region by encouraging free trade among members. This meant
removal of custom duties, taxes and licensing arrangements which
had prevented greater volume of trade among the territories
• Benefits
• region open up to free trade,
• a larger market and enhanced economic growth
• As a result of the benefits accrued, cooperation under CARIFTA was
deepened and evolved into CARICOM. (Caribbean
Community/Common Market)
•
CARICOM
CARICOM came into being with the signing of the Treaty of Chaguaramas
signed on July 4, 1973 by Jamaica. Trinidad, Barbados and Guyana. It
began operation on 1st August. Presently membership includes CARIFTA
members as well as Haiti and Suriname.
• Main objectives
• improvement in economic development through trade liberalization (removal of trade
barriers)
• functional cooperation in areas such as health, education, culture, broadcasting, transrx
meteorological services, technical assistance, disaster management
• Common policies in dealing with non member states and transnational companies.
Benefits:
• services offered by various institutions
• economic strength as resources are pooled,
• better negotiations with trading partners,
• larger market for individual states,
• stronger persuasive voice in global matters,
• stronger Caribbean identity and better appreciation of cultures,
• benefits of talents of individual member states,
• establishment of CCJ as well as CSME
• Failures:
• competition among member states in air transport,
• WISCO plagued by problems
• ideals of common currency and passport still not achieved
 OECS
• The Organisation of Eastern Caribbean States (OECS) came into being on June 18th
1981, when seven Eastern Caribbean countries signed a treaty agreeing to
cooperate with each other and promote unity and solidarity among the Members.
The Treaty became known as the Treaty of Basseterre, so named in honour of the
capital city of St. Kitts and Nevis where it was signed.
• The basis of the organization was that following the collapse of the West Indies
Federation, and prior to the signing of the Treaty of Basseterre, two caretaker
bodies were created: the "West Indies Associated States Council of Ministers
(WISA) in 1966 and the Eastern Caribbean Common Market (ECCM) in 1968
• The OECS is now a nine member grouping comprising Antigua and Barbuda,
Commonwealth of Dominica, Grenada. Montserrat, St Kitts and Nevis, St Lucia and
St Vincent and the Grenadines. Anguilla and the British Virgin Islands are associate
members of the OECS.
• The mission is to be a major regional institution contributing to the sustainable
development of the OECS Member States by assisting them to maximise the
benefits from their collective space, by facilitating their intelligent integration with
the global economy; by contributing to policy and program formulation and
execution in respect of regional and international issues, and by facilitation of
bilateral and multilateral co-operation.
 Association of Caribbean States
• The ACS was established in 1994 among the 25
countries in the Caribbean region – together
comprising of a population of 237 million people and
form the world’s fourth largest trading block
• The primary aim in setting up this wider Caribbean
body was to promote economic cooperation and to
encourage a coordinated approach to issues of
importance to all the countries in the region – trade,
tourism, transportation, health, science etc. It is often
the case that issues of prudence transcend national
borders and even of regional entities like CARICOM and
demand a wider range of cooperation.
 Free Trade Area of the Americas
• The FTAA is a proposed agreement to
eliminate or reduce trade barriers among
nation states of the western hemisphere
(except Cuba)
Promotion and hindering of integation
• FACTORS PROMOTING REGIONAL INTEGRATION
– Close proximity to each other through air and sea travel
– Shared common history
– Shared common culture in terms of dress, language, cuisine, music and
general lifestyle
– Similar economic, political and social problems (unemployment, few physical
resources, lack of adequate capital, poor housing, inadequate health facilities
etc.
• FACTORS HINDERING REGIONAL INTEGRATION
– Different strategies for economic growth
– Territorial interests supercede regional interest
– Some concessions to foreign investors run contrary to CARICOM objectives
– Stifled regional trade due to similarity in products
– Separatism and particularism: until recently distrust, self interest and disunity
among Anglophone, francophone and Hispanic nations
 Institutions in the Integration
Movement: UWI
• Established 1948 on the recommendation of the Irvine Commission
and was affiliated to London university. The first campus was
established at Mona in Jamaica, later expanded with opening of St
Augustine (1960) and Cave Hill(1963) campuses. Became known as
UWI in 1962 (prior to this it was UCWI). More recently 11 centers
have been established in non campus territories. Offers full time,
part time and distance education. Funding comes mainly from
governments of the region and fees.
• UWI takes care of tertiary system of education in the region. It
brings regional cooperation through the various courses offered,
from certificate to post graduate level to meet the various needs of
the English speaking Caribbean. Recently the institution embarked
upon an expansion programme as well as programme
diversification in order to serve the needs of the region better and
thus make a bigger contribution toward economic growth and
development
 Institutions in the Integration
Movement: UWI
• UWI faces challenges from
– Foreign universities which offer degrees by distance teaching
– Off shore universities
– individual governments which sec need for a local university
– expansion to increase percentage of graduates from 10 - 20%
– allowing children of poor to acquire tertiary education while governments
insist that students pay a portion of costs
• UWI enhances regional integration and development by
– offering a curriculum which is relevant to the needs of the region
– producing skilled personnel in business, government and industry >
– producing people who are committed to the region ® by developing science
and technology
– by producing research which contributes to development of private sector
– by producing research which helps in solving society's problems
– by raising level of innovation and entrepreneurship in the region -
– breaking down barriers and dispelling ignorance and prejudice of and towards
other nationals
– forges lasting friendships and family relationships
 Institutions in the Integration
Movement: CXC
• CXC was established inl972 to serve as regional examining body for
the secondary education system. Caricom members as well as other
English speaking territories have their secondary school graduates
examined by CXC on an annual basis. CXC offers secondary level
certification, advanced proficiency and associate degrees. It ensures
that the education of the Caribbean people is geared towards the
needs of the region thus fostering economic development;
examination by the region, of the region and for the region; syllabus
reflect learning from a Caribbean perspective.
• CXC creates employment opportunities: administrators, curriculum
officers, measurement expert, content specialist's markers,
supervisors, examiners. Through CXC foreign exchange is kept in the
region rather than going to England. UWI creates interaction among
peoples of the region. Regional integration, av/areness of
commonality, sense of brotherhood
 Institutions in the Integration
Movement: CTO
• Caribbean tourism organization CTO
• This organization was launched in 1989 with the merger of CTO and CTRC. Its main
aim is
the development of sustainable tourism in the region (economic and social
benefit). This they
have done through
– tourism marketing
– research and information management
– human resource development
– product development and technical assistance
– consultancy services.
Achievements of CTO include
– annual conference on tourism held in the Caribbean
– sponsoring trade shows in Europe
– CTO chapters in major markets in Europe and North America
– maintain tourism information for the public and private sector
– maintain up to date websites where information can be accessed
– advertise Caribbean as one destination Challenges
– getting governments to become more ware of their need to support tourism
– changing the perception of the public so that tourism becomes more acceptable as an
economic entity getting a greater share of tourist market
– getting local operators to refine their product
 Institutions in the Integration
Movement: WICB
• This was established in 1925 (makes it one of the oldest examples
of regional cooperation) to establish and sustain West Indies cricket
as the porting symbol of the West Indies as well as to develop and
promote WI cricket for the benefit and enjoyment of the West
Indies people, clients and other stakeholders. The board controls,
regulates and arranges cricket in the region through competitions
(under 15, under 19, Seniors, setting up of an academy (St. Georges
University in Grenada). It consists of a president, two members
from each of Trinidad, Jamaica, Barbados and Guyana and one from
the other territories.
• Its functions include
– selecting a cricket team to represent the region in international
competitions
– arrange inter territorial matches
 Institutions in the Integration
Movement: CSME
• CSME is a single enlarged economic space created through the
removal of restrictions and resulting in the free movement of
goods, services, persons (artistes, media workers, university
graduates, sportspersons, musicians), capital and technology. It
confers the right on CARICOM nationals to establish business in any
CARICOM member state and to be treated in the same manner as a
national of that state.
• The main pillars of CSME are the provision for free movement of
capital; free movement of goods, services and people ( use of
IDs/other form of identification, CARICOM National line at ports of
entry, common passport) within CSME; the establishment of
common trade and economic policy; harmonization of economic,
fiscal and monetary policies (foreign exchange controls abolished
no restrictions on Capital market activity, companies will be able to
operate across border); a common currency.
 Institutions in the Integration
Movement: CSME
• Under CSME benefits will include goods being traded in free market
conditions, people of approved categories are moving freely, capital
is moving, increase inflow of new capital, entrepreneurship and
technology, larger market opportunities, greater opportunities for
travel, study and work in CARICOM countries, increased
employment opportunities and improved standard of living secure
platform for entry into FTAA, greater economies of scale-pan
Caribbean Brands, strengthened competitiveness, lower consumer
prices, creation of regional companies, increased opportunities to
invest through direct stock ownership or mutual fund investments
• CSME tests our capacity as a region to do what is necessary.
Globalization presents harsh reality for small states. The survival of
Caribbean hinges on our preparedness to face open international
competition and to adapt to technological developments
THEORIZING CARIBBEAN
DEVELOPMENT
 Expected Learning Outcomes
1. Explain what is meant by an ideology
2. Describe the Values underlying the following
ideologies: pan-Africanism, negritude,
Marxism, Feminism, Capitalism, Indo-
Caribbean and Indigenous Perspectives
3. Identify the key thinkers in these intellectual
traditions
4. Analyse the Impact of each of these
ideologies
 Ideology
• This is a fairly coherent and comprehensive set of
ideas that explains and evaluates social
conditions, helps people understand their place
in society and provides a program for social and
political actions
• Each ideology must be interpreted based on our
experiences within colonialism, exploitation,
ethnocentrism and nationalism
• Main ones include: Pan-Africanism, negritude,
Capitalism, Marxism, Indo-Caribbean and
Indigenous perspectives
 Pan-Africanism
• This is a specific ideology which states that the
survivals of Africa in the diaspora should be
studied and active links made to Africa as the
motherland
• It originated in the 18th century by black people in
the US trying to escape slavery to go back to
Africa as they believed they were wrongfully
kidnapped from their homeland. These ideas
eventually developed into Pan-Africanism
 Pan-Africanism
• Under Henry Sylvester Williams in 1900 the first
Pan Africa Conference in London took place. The
main objectives were
• To promote the universal link black people all share
• To raise black consciousness about Africa
• Freeing Africa from political and economic contrl from
Europe
• Repatriation of Blacks to Africa
• Seeking unification of the Continent
• Individuals from the Caribbean significant to the
movement included: Marcus Garvey, Cybil Briggs,
Claude McKay, George Padmore and C.L.R. James
 Marcus Garvey (he’s the only one I’m
studying still)
• Born in St. Ann, Jamaica in 1887
• Had to leave school early to work and became involved in printing, the
newspaper business and politics
• He established the UNIA (Universal Negro Improvement Association) in
1914.
• It was formed in Jamaica to improve the lot of the poor, i.e. Black People
• He migrated to the US and the UNIA chapter he formed there blossomed
and eventually became the HQ of the movement
• He founded other institutions up in the US like the African Communities
League (ACL) and the Universal African Black Cross Nurses to address the
needs of the Black Underclass.
• His Black Star Line was an ambitious project to transport people and goods
to Africa and was a symbol of black commercial success.
• Through his newspapers – the Negro World, the Blackman and the New
Jamaican he attempted to raise the consciousness of Black people and to
preach about the freedom of African countries which were under colonial
rule, and the Unification of Africa.
 Marcus Garvey (he’s the only one I’m
studying still)
• His ideas and message came at a time when the US and Caribbean were at
hardship especially among the poor.
• His public appearances always proclaimed pride in the African race and
emphasised that Black people should see God in their own image
• This stance was heard by those marginalized in white-dominated Capitalist
society
• In 1930 this message was also taken up by the Rastafari who translated his
words to mean the existence of a black god. The statements he made like
a king will come out of Africa and the prominence he gave to Haile
Selassie’s coronation convinced them that the Rastafari movement should
declare Selassie as ‘King of Kings and Lord of Lords’
• His advocacy for repatriation was also taken up wholeheartedly by the
Rastafari movement
• Garvey is a national hero of Jamaica and lives on through music, and in the
inspiration he gave to budding politicians, trade union leaders, the civil
rights movement and the decolonization movement of the Caribbean and
Africa based on nationalism
Pan Africanism in the British Caribbean
• In the interwar years between 1918-1939 there
was growing discontent of colonial control. The
newspapers of Garvey found their way to all
Caribbean countries and influenced the
formation of UNIA chapters all over including
Cuba, Trinidad and Jamaica.
• In the 1930’s there were widespread riots and the
growth of trade unions. The dispossessed were
enchanted by the rhetoric of the black
empowerment they read in Garvey’s newpapers
Pan Africanism in the British Caribbean
• The hatred they felt merged into a struggle for the downfall
of colonialism and a growing consciousness of Black Unity
and black nationalism.
• The first Rastafari were very much influenced by Garvey
who fused the black nationalist message from the Bible
with a prophecy that ‘princes shall come out of Ethiopia’.
They revered Garvey like a second John the Baptist since
Haile Selassie was proclaimed emperor of Ethiopia
• In this period there was a surge of nationalist sentiment
which coincided with the return of Caribbean soldiers from
WWI. They had a broader experience of the politics as they
suffered discrimination under the hands of British soldiers.
This Pan-African rhetoric deepened the decolonization
movement.
Pan Africanism in the British Caribbean
• This all came to a head when in 1935 Italy
attempted to annex Ethiopia, causing
Selassie’s exile. This was seen as a naked act of
aggression by many Caribbean people. Where
Trinidadian workers refused to unload the
docks of some Italian ships and where some
Caribbean men attempted to enlist in the
Ethiopian Army
 Pan African Sentiment
• These again swept up in the late 1960’s and 1970’s with the messages of
Malcolm X and Stokley Carmichael on Black Power. This again coincided
with a period of economic downturn.
• The industrialisation by invitation policies werent working out for the
newly independent Caribbean countries with rabid unemployment
• Black power analysts felt that the government and black intelligentsia
failed the people. The felt British colonial overlords were merely replaced
by a black elite with ethnocentric ideas
• This movement had long lasting consequences for the Caribbean as a
lecturer at UWI Mona and Black Power Activist, Walter Rodney was
prevented by authorities from returning to Jamaica to teach in 1968.
Students at the Campus led a mass protest where 3 died and unrest
spread to other campuses. The unrest spread to Trinidad’s St. Augustine
where the National Joint Action Committee (NJAC) a black empowerment
organization started essentially a revolution joined by indian sugar
workers, the unemployed and trade unions culminating in 1970 in the
mutiny of the Army and a state of emergency
 Pan African Sentiment
• There were similar incidents in the Grenada
with the National Jewel Movement took over
the government in 1979
 Negritude
• This is a unique brand of Pan-Africanism which originated in
the 60’s in French colonies calling for all people of African
Origin to celebrate their blackness and didn’t recognize
geographical or regional distinctions
• The main thinkers were Frantz Fanon and Aime Cesaire –
Martiniquans, Leon Damas of French Guiana and Leopold
Senghor who later became the head of state of Senegal
• The movement began in Paris where members published a
journal providing a forum to express sentiments regarding
the French policy of total assimilation of its colonies and
the side lining of African culture and the impossibility of
independence there.
 Negritude
• Negritude mainly focused on black consciousness and black
bride because as these activists saw it – living in a context
where French culture and civilization was expressed
threatened the core of black identity.
• In Martinique and Guadeloupe small Marxist groups sought
to mobilize people to overthrow the French with no
success.
• Aime Cesaire resigned from the French Communist Party
on the grounds that a race struggle was different from a
class struggle.
• In Pan-Africanism there was an urge to move away from
Capitalism so there were experiments with communism but
that too was a European ideology.
 Negritude
• Franz Fanon was a more radical pan africanist. He
was a student of Cesaire and worked in France
and Algeria as a psychologist experiencing first
hand the barbarity of the French police fighting
Algerians against their independence
• Fanon saw no other way other than the violent
overthrow of colonial governments through his
documentations of the struggle in the books The
Wretched of the Earth and Black Skin
 Economic Perspectives:
Industrialization by Invitation
• Sir Arthur Lewis is a St. Lucian, distinguished
economist, Vice Chancellor of the University of the
West Indies (UWI) and Nobel Prize Winner for his
strategies to improve economic growth for his theory
later known as ‘Industrialization by Invitation’
• He was influenced by Operation Bootstrap initiated by
Puerto Rico in the 30’s & 40’s where cheap available
labour would be used as an incentive to attract
multinational companies to establish industries
alongside tax free concessions.
• The result was that Peurto Rico became industrialized
with mixed success.
 Economic Perspectives:
Industrialization by Invitation
• Lewis’ theory was only based on the context that the British West
Indies with our mainly agricultural base needed to stimulate
industrial growth
• Lewis reasoned that what we had in great abundance was unskilled
labour due to our monocrop economies and among the
unemployed and we didn’t have much capital so in the short term
we could invite MNC’s with money to set up operations here – earn
large profits by employing the cheap labour, subsidies and tax
holidays. In the monocrop industries labour prices would therefore
rise as workers would be absorbed into manufacturing
• The products would the be distributed by the MNC’s themselves in
markets MNC’s commanded so by using MNC’s in this way
Caribbean countries wouldn’t need to set up additional
infrastructure as we didn’t have any, nether rely on tarrifs.
 Economic Perspectives:
Industrialization by Invitation
• Lewis envisaged through this a jumpstart in economic
diversification, higher wages in agriculture and higher
wages from the MNC’s as well as the gaining of the
knowledge necessary to run our own manufacturing
industries once MNC’s left amd rise to emrge out of
Colonialism optimistically.
• The strategy however failed, as stated by critics due to the
fact that we invited the MNC’s but did not control them.
MNC’s were provided infrastructure such as warehouses,
light, water, etc. and tax breaks and subsidies but when the
initial period was up they left with no provision to train
citizens added to the fact that these were mainly Capital
intensive industries left the region with an overall loss.
 Marxism and Neo-Marxism
• Marx’s theory saw society as evolving through various stages of economy
and the relationships of different groups where the economy and the
relationships of different groups within the economy defined the type of
society that evolved.
• For example early society developed along lines of equal work i.e.
egalitarian society then as dominant groups began to subjugate others via
slavery a system of social stratification developed.
• As the economy developed it became necessary to have workers that had
some type of freedom to make decisions and develop skills. This could not
could not happen in a slave system so the feudal system had to develop. In
each case Marx was able to show that societies underwent change when
contradictions or tensions developed in the economy, bringing about
changes in the social relations between groups.
• This happened in the industrial revolution were society had become
organized into workers (with their labour to sell) and capitalists (those
who owned the means of production for example capital, banks and
businesses)
 Marxism and Neo-Marxism
• Under this system we saw the capitalist
dedicated to extracting maximum labour for the
lowest wages and where the workers struggled
for better wages and working conditions.
• It was inevitable given this state of affairs where
the rich grew richer and the poor poorer that
action would come from trade unions agitating
for more wages and eventually the workers will
seek to overthrow that type of society.
 Marxism and Neo-Marxism
• The next stage Marx described is socialism to bring about a classless
society which can only come about when all people share in the
means of production
• According to Marx only when people see through the false
consciousness of socialism can they be socialized i.e. recognize the
need for socialism.
• Communism was next on this stage of development as stated by
Marx that eventually the state will wither away as people see that
no group should exploit to form a truly democratic society.
• Marx criticised capitalism but saw it as a means through which
people would build a communal society hence the appeal of the
ideology in the Caribbean as Marxist society could free the
disenfranchised from oppression
 Marxism and Neo-Marxism
• Within the Caribbean Michael Manley, Forbes Burnham, Maurice Bishop were influenced by Marxist/Neo-Marxist
ideology and sought to implement policies that would create a just and equal society. (They had attended
universities in Europe-England- where they were introduced to Marxist thoughts, had become disillusioned with
the capitalist path i economic development, was influenced by the success of Cuban revolution)
• Democratic Socialism in Jamaica
• Michael Manley came to power in Jamaica in 1972 against background of popular social unrest, widespread call
for social reform. Thought was that previous leaders did not do enough to help population who were trampled on
by white middle class domination and exploitation. Manley developed commitment to social justice and equality.
(Inequalities and inequity he saw through his work as a trade unionist). Manley embarked on nationalization
programme with majority shares in the transport sector, electricity and telephone bauxite levy on bauxite
companies ( increase revenue)
• Legislation was passed to protect vulnerable in society: family Court Act, Maternity leave Act, Minimum wage Act
• Co-operate socialism in Guyana
• After independence in 1966, Burnham adopted a socialist type of economic development in Guyana. Constitution
was amended to retlect cooperative socialism. This type of governance opposed all social economic and political
systems, which permitted exploitation of man by man. V/anted to extend socialist democracy to provide citizens
with oprx>rtunity to participate in management and decision making process in the country (people participation)
Burnham nationalized sugar, bauxite and communication sectors. Government then could redistribute wealth
through social programmes (health education). Lack of financial resources made it difficult - had to turn to IMF
Socialism in Grenada
• In Grenada Maurice Bishop formed the New jewel Movement to rid the country of colonial political thinking (Eric
Gairy). Society was doniinated by capitalist system of production Bishop nationalized banks, transportation and
media, improved working conditions, health and education. Rejoined with other socialist states such as Cuba (got
technical support to build airport and scholarships to study in Cuba). This proved disastrous including heavy debt
burden, internal conflict (murdered by members of his movement, invaded by
USA
 British Capitalism
• Capitalism in its simplest terms means free market enterprise. It is a
way of organizing the economy whereby the exchange of goods and
services is done according to the forces of the market i.e. demand
and supply. Modern view is that of free trade.
• Under a free trade system government has little say in the
distribution of goods and services. The two major ideal of
capitalism is privately owned capital and investment and profit
making. British capitalism in the New World had one objective -
profit making (get wealthy). The plantation system of production
used African slave labour thereby making huge profits.. .in no time
they became wealthy as evidenced by the plantation houses
constructed across the region. The large profits accrued allowed
them to live opulent lives in the Caribbean as well as Britain.
 British Capitalism
• According to Walter Rodney (Guyanese) Capitalism was introduced into
the Caribbean with the first transshipment of African slaves across the
Atlantic. This form of capitalism was one-sided, in short this system was
non-negotiable. It was non-negotiable because the Africans had no say in
the system and also the fact that the system was forced upon the Africans
(How Europe Underdeveloped Africa ,) Intellectuals Eric Williams and CLR
James( Trinidadians) in their writings epitomized the thoughts of
Caribbean people on British capitalism.
• Williams argued that slavery was purely economic and embodied the
capitalist ideal of the British. Hence when slavery became unprofitable the
British which once embraced this system deemed it savage and
uneconomical and abandoned the system (Capitalism and Slavery). While
Williams was able to recognize the brutality of the system of slavery he
never lost sight of the fact that the system was economical and slavery
was just another means to the economic success of the British..
 British Capitalism
• CLR James in the Black Jacobins points out that the system of slavery and
colonialism had to be brutal to ensure that the system of capitalism worked and
worked well. The brutality was not only mental but also psychological. The Black
West Indian was constantly reminded of his/her blackness and this blackness was
closely linked to backwardness and inferiority. Over time blacks in the West Indies
came to believe this myth. Once the myth was engrained into their psyche the
British was ensured of the success of capitalism. British capitalism only involved
the Caribbean to the extent that the position of the Caribbean performed only to
the needs of the British government. This forced arrangement was that the
Caribbean produced and the British consumed. Whatever benefit was returned to
the Caribbean was only done to ensure that capitalism survived to further enrich
Britain.
• This concept of development is attributed to St. Lucian economist Sir Arthur Lewis
(Nobel Prize for Economics). This was based on a concept adopted in Puerto Rico
called Operation Bootstrap. This concept became the model on which economies
of the English speaking territories within the region were fashioned. Following
economic systems such as communal, encomienda, slavery and the plantation
system, many economists felt that for the Caribbean to be economically viable
there was a need for the economy to be reorganized. After all, despite the many
economic systems the region was still experiencing problems of an economic
nature.
 Feminism
• A Feminist is an advocate of woman's rights; anyone who recognizes female oppression and fights
for the correction of this oppression. To be feminist is to be calling for equality of the sexes. Part of
the feminist agenda is for women and their issues to be on the front burner; on centre stage. It
concerns the celebration of women's achievement as for too long the contribution women have
made to society has gone unnoticed, unrecorded and unrecognized. The origin of Caribbean
feminism is unique due to its long history. Black women of the . Caribbean have been fighting
oppression ever since their sale and capture on the west coast of Africa. They were constantly in
the quest for freedom.
• Women used their bodies to attack the system of slavery- infanticide, and acts of infertility were
common. When this was not the option they turned on the master and his property burnt fields,
damaged equipment and animals, killed their masters. Under slavery women out of necessity
became brutal and militant. In order to survive she had to become a feminist. Following
emancipation, women's focus changed. They now had to struggle against the same black men, with
whom they were enslaved, for visibility and equality. They had to find new tools with which to fight
oppression. The new tools became academics and literature. If their voices are to be heard they
had to become qualified like the men or more qualified. The views, issues and concerns became
audible through literature. In the literature the women authors dramatized the different problems
and complexities facing women they also attempted to deconstruct and reconstruct new ideas
about women and femininity.
• While doing so the achievements of women are being celebrated eg. Verene Shepherd uses her
knowledge of history to refocus attention away from men in history. She has given women a voice
and a face in history to women.
 Feminism
• One of the major inroads into Caribbean feminism has been made
by CAFRA (Caribbean Association for Feminist Research and Action).
Through this group women are able to explore and celebrate their
achievements. It provides a voice for women.
• Through the Women and Development Unit (UWI) information
about the status of women is made available to government and
NGO, which can then be used to guide formulation of policy
concerning the welfare of women. These many women's
organization have been created to champion the cause; National
Organisation of Women (Barbados) Sistren (Jam), CARIWA. These
among others highlight role of women in many endeavours such as
labour movement, provide a forum for discussion of issues and
provide an inspiration for young women and urge governments to
implement legislations on women's issues such as rape, sexual
harassment
 Amerindian Perspectives
• Amerindian groups have been targets of European opinions
which saw them as a primitive, inferior, barbaric, uncivilized
to be eliminated, overworked, enslaved. Caribbean
Intellectual perspective seeks to dispel the view that these
people did not have a history. (Walter Rodney (History of
Guyanese working people); CLR James (Black Jacobins)
Hilary Beckles (Black Rebellion in Barbados). There is the
need to view the indigenous people not only in terms of
the labour they provided (encomienda) but the cultural
contribution they have made. (Kalinago resisted Europeans
and halted the advance of European settlement, left us
architectural styles, foods, craft, farming systems)
 Indo-Caribbean Perspectives
• Emancipation of slaves led to the introduction of indentured workers from Asia (Indian and China).
Indians came in large numbers to Guyana, Trinidad and Cuba and to a much lesser extent Jamaica
between in 19m century. Influenced by contractual arrangements and colonialism, they have also
produced several writings, which expressed their culture and responses within the Caribbean. In
Caribbean they found harsh conditions (refer to indentureship; low wages, withholding of pay,
overcrowded dilapidated unsanitary barracks, restricted movements, harsh penalties, poor
nutrition, overwork disease. In response Indians protested, went on strikes, riots; others
repatriated others cultivated plots practiced thrift and industry, complained to immigration gents,
created organizations such as East Indian National Association in Trinidad, staged cultural activities
such as Divali, Pbagwa, Hosay. The coming of the East Indians resulted in increase in East Indian
population; even exceeding African population in Guyana and Trinidad By 20th century they have
made significant strides: moved from cane fields to education, commerce and health sectors,
reversal in trend of illiteracy, higher paying jobs.
• Although they have been associated with labour, the East Indians have showed their resilience to
achieve economic independence and so have been able to influence the economies of the
countries in which they have lived. In addition they have moved into areas of politics especially
Trinidad and Guyana ( Jagan, Panday, Jagdeo etc. Intellectual writers who have highlighted Indo-
Caribbean thoughts include VSNaipaul ( Nobel prize winner for Literature) and Samuel Selvon