DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

The foods we eat taste good to us, but cannot be used by the body as they are.
The nutrition the cells of the body need to keeping growing and working must be in a
simple form: amino acids, simple sugars, and fatty acids. It is the job of the digestive
system to take the complex organic molecules of the foods we ingest - proteins,
carbohydrates, and fats and break them down into their simple building blocks. This
process is called digestion. Once digestion has occurred, the simple molecules (nutrients)
are absorbed from the digestion system by the cardiovascular and lymphatic systems and
transported to cells throughout the body.

The digestive system may be broken into two parts: a long, winding, muscular tube
accompanied by accessory digestive organs and glands. That open-ended tube, known
as the alimentary canal or digestive tract, is composed of various organs. These organs
are, in order, the mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, and large
intestine. The rectum and anus form the end of the large intestine. The accessory dige-
stive organs and glands that help in the digestive process include the tongue, teeth,
salivary glands, pancreas, liver, and gall bladder.
 The walls of the alimentary canal from the esophagus through the large intestine
are made up of four tissue layers. The innermost layer is the mucosa, coated with
mucus. This protects the alimentary canal from chemicals and enzymes that break
down food and from germs and parasites that might be in that food. Around the mucosa
is the submucosa, which contains blood vessels, nerves, and lymph vessels. Wrapped
around the submucosa are two layers of muscles that help move food along the canal.
The outermost layer, the serosa, is moist, fibrous tissue that protects the alimentary
canal and helps it move against the surrounding organs in the body.

Mouth
Food enters the body through the mouth, or oral cavity. The lips form and protect
the opening of the mouth, the cheeks form its sides, the tongue forms its floor, and the
hard and soft palates form its roof. The hard palate is at the front; the soft palate is in
the rear. Attached to the soft palate is a fleshy, fingerlike projection called the uvula
(from the Latin word meaning littlegrape). Two U-shaped rows of teeth line the mouth-
one above and one below. Three pairs of salivary glands open at various points into the
mouth.

Pharynx
The pharynx, or throat, is a short, muscular tube extending about 5 inches (12.7
centimeters) from the mouth and nasal cavities to the esophagus and trachea. It serves
two separate systems: the digestive system (by allowing the passage of solid food and
liquids) and the respiratory system (by allowing the passage of air).

Esophagus
The esophagus, sometimes referred to as the gullet, is the muscular tube
connecting the pharynx and stomach. It is approximately 10 inches (25 centimeters) in
length and 1 inch (2.5 centimeters) in diameter. In the thorax, the esophagus lies behind
the trachea. At the base of the esophagus, where it connects with the stomach, is a
strong ring of muscle called the lower esophageal sphincter. Normally, this circular
muscle is contracted, preventing contents in the stomach from moving back into the
esophagus.

Stomach
The stomach, which receives food from the esophagus, is located in the upper
left quadrant of the abdomen. The stomach is divided into the fundic, cardiac body and
pyloric regions. The mucosal lining of the stomach is simple columnar epithelium with
numerous tubular gastric glands. The gastric glands open to the surface of the mucosa
through tiny holes called gastric pits. The secretions of the exocrine gastric glands-
composed of the mucosa, parietal, and chief cells-make up the gastric juice. The
products of the endocrine cells are secreted directly into the bloodstream and are not a
part of the gastric juice. The endocrine cells secrete the hormone gastrin, which
functions in the gastric activity
 Small and large intestine
The small intestine is divided into the duodenum, jejunum and ileum. It finishes the
process of digestion, absorbs the nutrients, and passes the residue on to the large
intestine. The liver, gallbladder, and pancreas are accessory organs of the digestive
system that are closely associated with the small intestine.
The large intestine is larger in diameter than the small intestine. It consists of the
colon, rectum and anal canal. Unlike the small intestine, the large intestine produces no
digestive enzymes. Chemical digestion is completed in the small intestine before the
chyme reaches the large intestine. Functions of the large intestine include the absorption
of water and electrolytes and the elimination of feces.

Accesory organs

Tongue
The muscular tongue is attached to the base of the mouth by a fold of mucous
membrane. On the upper surface of the tongue are small projections called papillae,
many of which contain taste buds. Most of the tongue lies within the mouth, but its base
extends into the pharynx. Located at the base of the tongue are the lingual tonsils, small
masses of lymphatic tissue that serve to prevent infection.

Teeth
Humans have two sets of teeth: deciduous and permanent. The deciduous teeth
(also known as baby or milk teeth) start to erupt through the gums in the mouth when a
child is about six months old. By the age of two, the full set of twenty teeth has
developed. Between the ages of six and twelve, the roots of these teeth are reabsorbed
into the body and the teeth begin to fall out. They are quickly replaced by the thirty-two
permanent adult teeth. The third molars, the wisdom teeth, may not erupt because of
inadequate space in the jaw. In such cases, they become impacted or embedded in the
jawbone and must be removed surgically.

Teeth are classified according to shape and function. Incisors, the chisel-shaped
front teeth, are used for cutting. Cuspids or canines, the pointed teeth next to the
incisors, are used for tearing or piercing. Bicuspids (or premolars) and molars, the back
teeth with flattened tops and rounded, raised tips, are used for grinding.

Each tooth consists of two major portions: the crown and the root. The crown is
the exposed part of the tooth above the gum line; the root is enclosed in a socket in the
jaw. The outermost layer of the crown is the whitish enamel. Made mainly of calcium,
enamel is the hardest substance in the body.
 Underneath the enamel is a yellowish, bonelike material called dentin. It forms
the bulk of the tooth. Within the dentin is the pulp cavity, which receives blood vessels
and nerves through a narrow root canal at the base of the tooth.

Salivary glands
Three pairs of salivary glands produce saliva on a continuous basis to keep the
mouth and throat moist. The largest pair, the parotid glands, are located just below and
in front of the ears. The next largest pair, the submaxillary or submandibular glands, are
located in the lower jaw. The smallest pair, the sublingual glands, are located under the
tongue.

Pancreas
The pancreas has both endocrine and exocrine functions. The endocrine portion
consists of the scattered islets of Langerhans, which secrete the hormones insulin and
glucagon into the blood. The exocrine portion is the major part of the gland. It consists
of pancreatic acinar cells that secrete digestive enzymes into tiny ducts interwoven
between the cells. Pancreatic enzymes include anylase, trypsin, peptidase, and lipase.
Pancreatic secretions are controlled by the hormones secretin and cholecystokinin

Liver
The liver is the largest gland in the body. It has a variety of functions and many of
these are vital to life. Hepatocytes perform most of the functions attributed to the liver,
but the phagocytic Kupffer cells that line the sinusoids are responsible for cleansing the
blood.

Gall bladder
The gall bladder is a small, pouchlike, green organ located on the undersurface
of the right lobe of the liver. It measures 3 to 4 inches (7.6 to 10 centimeters) in length.
The gall bladder function is to store bile, of which it can hold about 1.2 to 1.7 ounces (35
to 50 milliliters).
The liver continuously produces bile. When digestion is not occurring, bile backs up the
cystic duct and enters the gall bladder. While holding the bile, the gall bladder removes
water from it, making it more concentrated. When fatty food enters the duodenum once
again, the gall bladder is stimulated to contract and spurt out the stored bile

Rectum and anus

The rectum continues from the signoid colon to the anal canal and has a thick
muscular layer. It follows the curvature of the sacrum and is firmly attached to it by
connective tissue. The last 2 to 3 cm of the digestive tract is the anal canal, which
continues from the rectum and opens to the outside of the anus. The mucosa of the
rectum is folded to form longitudinal anal columns. The smooth muscle layer is thick and
forms the internal anal sphincter at the superior end of the anal canal. The sphincter is
under involuntary control. There is an external anal sphincter at the inferior end of the
anal canal. The sphincter is composed of skeletal muscle and is under voluntary control.