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Sources included in the report:
http://criminal-justice.iresearchnet.com/criminology/critical-criminology/
https://wikimili.com/en/Wade_Clark_Mackey
https://www.detectiveedu.org/what-is-criminology/
https://criminal-justice.iresearchnet.com/criminology/critical-criminology/4/
https://criminal-justice.iresearchnet.com/criminology/critical-criminology/5/
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strain_theory_(sociology)
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URKUND A1958IVCriminology.docx (D54881448)
Introduction
Critical criminology is the
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theoretical perspective in criminology which focuses on demanding
traditional understandings and discovering false beliefs about crime and criminal justice,
usually but not exclusively by simply taking a conflict viewpoint, such as Marxism, feminism,
political economy theory or critical theory. Critical criminology frequently takes
a point of
view of examining the genesis of crime and characteristics of ‘justice’ within a new structure
of class and status inequalities. Law and punishment of crime usually are viewed as linked to
be able to a approach to
social inequality and as the implies of making and perpetuating this inequality.
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Critical criminology
is an umbrella expression for a variety of criminological theories plus perspectives that

challenge primary assumptions of mainstream (or conventional) criminology in several
substantial way and supply alternative approaches to knowing crime and
its manage. Mainstream criminology is occasionally referred
to by essential criminologists as establishment, management, managerial, correctional, or

positivistic criminology. Its focus will be regarded as excessively filter and predominantly
directed towards individual offenders, street offense, and social engineering about behalf of
the state. Typically the critical criminological perspectives reject the claims of medical
objectivity made on behalf of mainstream criminology as well because the privileged status
regarding the scientific method. Despite the fact that some critical criminologists use an
empirical approach together with using quantitative analysis, very much critical criminology
adopts a great interpretive and qualitative approach to the understanding of interpersonal
reality in the sphere of crime as well as its handle.
The unequal distribution regarding power or of fabric resources within modern-day societies
gives a unifying point associated with departure for all pressures of critical criminology.
Definition of Critical Criminology: Criminology, critical Also termed revolutionary criminology,

this perspective appeared in the early 1971s, as an explicitly politicized body of work. Drawing
on varieties of Marxism (and in some instances anarchism), it adopted a conflict perspective
2
plus located emphasis when the oppressive power of the state, its control over the meaning
and prosecution of offense, and the exploitation regarding the powerless by funds. Crime was
viewed and explained like a product of the social and traditional processes related to
capitalism itself. The standard treatment is succumbed Ian The singer, Paul Walton, and Jock
Young, The newest Criminology (1973) Crime and its control are usually major preoccupations
of men and women almost
everywhere. Public perceptions of offense and its control are in many respects altered by
media representations
as well as
the agendas of the regulating elites. The immense importance of critical criminology, then, is
based on its capacity to
be able to expose the standard myths concerning crime as well as control and also to provide
an alternative foundation for understanding these greatly consequential dimensions in
our interpersonal existence. The historical origins of critical criminology, its principal modern-
day strains, and some of its main substantive concerns are recognized within the paragraphs
that follow. In addition, some conjecture is offered
in connection with future prospects of critical criminology Origins of Critical Criminology

Criminology attempts to build ideas that make clear why several crimes occur and exactly why
criminals commit crimes. The particular
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theories are tested simply by observing behavior and learning statistics. Criminological
theories are usually then used to design how society responds
in order
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to crime, both regarding avoiding future incidences of crime and responding to criminals
who commit those crimes. The study of criminology dates back to the beginning of the 18th
century, when scholars started distinguishing the act of committing a crime from sin by
attempting to clarify that why crime occurred. This first venture into the study of crime was
3
referred to as classical criminology. In the beginning of the 19the century, modern

criminology started to take shape, with the study of criminology being recognized as a sub-
discipline of psychology, sociology, and economics. During this time, criminological societies
and journals of criminology started to emerge, and criminologists were conducting
observations and experiments based on their theories. The latter part of the 20th century
brought about the 3rd phase of criminology known as independent criminology, which saw
this field of study pulling away from the larger disciplines of sociology and psychology and
standing on its own as a separate social science. A number of universities started to offer it
as undergraduate and graduate programs and professional associations and journals
became widespread.
Classism is differential treatment depending on social class or even perceived social class.
Classism will be the systematic oppression associated with subordinated class groups in order
to advantage and strengthen the particular dominant class groups. It is the systematic
assignment associated with characteristics of worth plus ability based on interpersonal class.
The 1960s because an era is connected with the intensification of various forms of conflict
within society, so it will be not surprising that the core theme of discord received more
attention during this era. Thorsten Sellin, a socialist in his youth, produced one early version of
a criminological approach that focused on the centrality of discord in the 1930s, and George
Vold subsequently produced a pioneering criminological theory textbook in the 1950s that
highlighted the significance of group discord for the understanding of crime and its control. In
the 1960s, Austin Turk, Richard Quinney, and William M. Chambliss (with Robert Capital t.
Seidman) introduced influential variations of conflict theories to the field of criminology.
Turmoil theory focuses on the particular unequal distribution of strength within society as the
fundamental kick off point for the particular understanding of crime as well as its control, with
some groupings better positioned than other people to progress their interests by means of
law. Conflict criminology supplied a simple point of reduction for radical criminology plus,
subsequently, critical criminology. Turk has become a proponent of the “nonpartisan” version
of turmoil theory, which takes the particular position that the main role of power plus
authority in defining criminal offense and guiding criminal proper rights processes can be
evaluated empirically without identifying along with a particular political plan. Quinney,
adopting the publication associated with his seminal conflict concept text, The Social Actuality
of Crime (1970), shifted through a amount of levels of theory development, through radical to
critical in order to beyond. Chambliss also eventually became more directly determined with
radical and essential criminology. The era associated with the 1960s (extending through the
late 1960s to the early 1970s) was a period of much social turmoil, including, for example , the
emergence of black energy, feminist and gay rights movements, and consumer and
environmentalist movements; the developing opposition to the Vietnam war; the surfacing of
a highly visible counterculture and illicit drug use; and the embracing of radical ideology by a
conspicuous section of college and graduate college students. From the late 1960s, a full-
fledged radical sociology experienced emerged that challenged premises, methods, principal
concerns, and corporate or governmental affiliations of mainstream sociology. Chemical.
Wright Mills (who died prematurely in 1964) has been one seminal source of inspiration, and
parallel revolutionary approaches were developed in many other cognate procedures,
4
including history, economics, and political science. All these developments both influenced
and were reflected within the field of criminology. Criminologists that became disenchanted
with the limitations of a dominating liberal response to the problem of crime, with its
emphasis on incremental social reforms and rehabilitation programs, were searching for an
alternative approach to understanding crime and criminal justice. Some prominent faculty at
the University of California (Berkeley) School of Criminology were key figures in the promotion
of a radical criminology, which contributed to the school being shut down in 1974. Herman
and Julia Schwendinger, affiliated with this school, published an influential article calling for an
expansion of the scope of criminological concern beyond the parameters of state-defined
crime and increased attention to other identifiable forms of social harm. However , self-
identified radical criminologists continued to encounter many forms of resistance and some
barriers to professional advancement. Research funding was less available to support the
projects of radical criminologists compared to it was for popular criminological research that
has been regarded as useful in dealing with conventional types of crime. From the finish of the
1970s, Quinney had become fairly disenchanted with the standard concerns of academic
scholars and of criminologists specifically. In the years that followed, he pursued a range of
projects, often wholly taken off criminological concerns, including explorations in
phenomenology; existentialism; crucial philosophy; liberation theology; Buddhism; and
autobiographical, reflexive work. However, he also made seminal contributions to the
establishment (with Harold Pepinsky) of a major strain of critical criminology called
peacemaking criminology, and several generations of radical and crucial criminologists have
drawn inspiration from his work. Some other criminologists during this period also produced
influential contributions to the particular establishment of a major criminology: Within the Usa
Declares they included Bill L. Chambliss, Tony Erstaunt, John Takagi, Elliott Currie, plus
Raymond J. Michalowski, amongst others. In several additional countries versions associated
with major criminology surfaced since properly. Ian Taylor, John Walton, and Jock Young’s The
particular New Criminology: Regarding the Social Theory associated with Deviance (1973),
which surfaced away from meetings associated with the Nationwide Deviancy Meeting in the
particular United Empire, was obviously a broadly read try to uncover the limitations of
current theories connected with crime and create the new framework according to the
recognition of the capability of the capitalist condition to determine criminality within ways
suited to the state’s own ends. The writers of this book known as for a sort of criminological
theory and analysis that will operated independently and not really being a handmaiden to
repressive state policies. By the particular ending from the 1970s, a lot of the initial major
political and cultural power of the earlier component of that decade got disintegrated. An e
book entitled Major Criminology: The Coming Downturn (1980), edited by Adam Inciardi, was
obviously a controversial selection of critical (and appreciative) interpretations of radical
criminology. If the radical criminology that emerged during the particular 1970s was never the
fully unified enterprise, this became much more fragmented throughout the course of the
particular 1980s. Going forward through that period, the expression critical criminology
increasingly out of place radical criminology, as well as the introduction of distinctive strains
associated with critical criminology became considerably evident. Scholars who keep to these
various stresses of critical criminology are generally united in that these people will draw
some fundamental motivation through the discord and neo-Marxist perspectives created in
5
the particular 1972s, inside their rejection associated along with mainstream positivistic
approaches given that a means of unveiling fundamental truths about legal offense and
criminal proper rights, and their commitment in order to searching for connections among
theoretical and empirical function and progressive policy endeavours and action. Although a
few critical criminologists continue in order to work within much more the particular other of
the previously conflict and neo-Marxist viewpoints, many more have grown to be a lot more
carefully recognized with crucial viewpoints that have emerged (or already been put on
criminological phenomena) a lot more recently. The current period has been viewed as each
politically and culturally a lot more conservative than the particular period of the sixties, yet
critical criminology offers already been a reasonably strenuous existence inside criminology,
despite—or perhaps due to the fact of—this much less receptive social environment. The
particular Division upon Critical Criminology, which posts the journal Critical Criminology, has
been an especially large division within the American Society of Criminology since its
establishment in 1988. Every year, the Division on Critical Criminology attracts recruits among
new criminology graduate students who recognize that their ideological orientation and
research interests are at odds with those of mainstream criminology. In the sections that
follow, the principal strains of critical criminology are recognized and described, along with a
number of more recent emerging strains. Strain theory Strain theories state that certain
strains or stressors increase the likelihood of crime. These strains lead to negative emotions,
such as frustration and anger. These emotions create pressure for corrective action, and crime
is one possible response. Crime may be used to reduce or escape from strain, seek revenge
against the source of strain or related targets, or alleviate negative emotions. For example ,
individuals experiencing chronic unemployment may engage in theft or drug selling to obtain
money, seek revenge against the person who fired them, or take illicit drugs in an effort to
feel better. The major versions of strain theory describe 1) the particular strains most likely to
lead to crime, 2) why strains increase crime, and 3) the factors that lead a person to or
dissuade a person from responding to strains with crime. All strain theories acknowledge that
only a minority of strained individuals turn to crime. Emile Durkheim developed the first
modern strain theory of crime and deviance, but Merton’s classic strain theory and its
offshoots came to dominate criminology during the middle part of the 20th century. Classic
strain theory focuses on that type of strain involving the inability to achieve monetary success
or the somewhat broader goal of middle-class status. Classic strain theory fell into decline
during the 1970s and 1980s, partly because research appeared to challenge it. There were
several attempts to revise strain theory, most arguing that crime may result from the inability
to achieve a range of goals—not just monetary success or middle-class status. Robert Agnew
developed his general strain theory (GST) in 1992, and it has since become the leading edition
of strain theory plus one of the main theories of crime. GST targets a broad variety of strains,
including the inability to achieve a variety of goals, the loss of valued possessions, and
negative treatment by others. GST has been applied to a range of topics, including the
explanation of gender, race/ethnicity, age, community, and societal differences in crime rates.
It has also been applied to many types of crime and deviance, including corporate crime,
police deviance, bullying, suicide, terrorism, and eating disorders. Much evidence suggests
that the strains identified by GST increase the likelihood of crime, although the predictions of
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GST about the types of people most likely to respond to these strains with crime have received
less support.
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Strain theory is a
sociology and criminology theory developed in 1957 by Robert K. Merton. The theory states
that society puts pressure on individuals to achieve
socially accepted goals (such as the American dream)
though they lack the means, this leads to strain which may lead the individuals to commit
crimes.
Examples being selling drugs or becoming involved in prostitution to gain financial security
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When two conflicting social values or beliefs are competing in an individual’s everyday life,
the person encounters value strain. The 2 conflicting social facts are usually competing
personal beliefs internalized in the person’s worth system. A cult associate may experience
strain when the mainstream culture as well as the cult religion are each considered
important in the particular cult member’s daily lifestyle. Other examples include the 2nd
generation of immigrants in the usa who have to follow by the ethnic lifestyle rules enforced
in the particular family while simultaneously changing to the American lifestyle with peers
and college. In China, rural women appreciate gender egalitarianism recommended by the
communist
federal government, but at the exact same time, they are stuck
in cultural sexual elegance as traditionally cultivated simply by Confucianism. Another

example that will might be present in establishing countries is the gear values of traditional
collectivism and modern individualism. Once the two conflicting values are usually taken as
equally essential within a person’s daily lifestyle, the person experiences excellent strain.
When one worth is more important
compared to other, there is after that little if any strain.
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Strain might either be:
Structural: this particular describes the processes at the societal level which filter down and
affect how the individual perceives his or her needs, i. e. if particular social structures are
inherently inadequate or there is inadequate regulation, this may change the individual's
perceptions as to means and opportunities; Individual: this refers to the frictions and pains
experienced by an individual as he or she looks for ways to satisfy his or her needs, i. e. if the
goals of a society become significant to an individual, actually achieving them may become
more important than the means adopted.
General strain theory (GST) is a sociology and criminology theory developed in
the 1992 by Robert Agnew.
The core idea of general strain theory is that people who experience strain or stress become
distressed or upset which may lead them to commit crime in order to cope. One of the key
principle of this theory is emotion as the motivator for crime.
The theory had been developed to conceptualize the entire range of sources within society
where strain perhaps originates from, which Merton's
stress theory does not. The particular theory also targets the particular
perspective of goals regarding status, expectations and course rather than focusing upon
money( as Merton's concept does). Examples of Common Strain Theory are individuals who
use illegal medications to make themselves feel
a lot better, or a student attacking his peers to finish the harassment they leads to. GST
introduces 3 major sources of strain this kind of
as -Loss of optimistic stimuli (death of loved ones or friend) -Presentation associated with
negative stimuli (physical plus verbal assaults) -The
lack of ability to reach a preferred goal.
III. Principal Strains of Crucial Criminology A. Peacemaking Criminology The modern day form
of peacemaking criminology is principally the product of two recognized, prolific, and highly
original critical criminologists: Richard Quinney and Harold Pepinsky. These people have
8
collaborated to put together the premier readers on the subject, Criminology as Peacemaking
(1991). The basic themes of a peacemaking criminology have been concisely determined as
follows: connectedness, caring, and mindfulness. Individual suffering and suffering on the
planet are taken to be inseparable. We should avoid personalizing evil and building false
schemes that pigeonhole human beings as professional citizens or reprehensible crooks.
Instead, we should give attention to our common humanity and choose affirmative ways of
contacting and interacting with others. Responses to the situation of crime must commence
with attending to ourselves as human beings; we need to experience with the criminal rather
than making the legal suffer for us. Completely, peacemaking criminology calls for a
fundamental transformation in our way of thinking about crime and legal justice.
Peacemaking criminology is by any measure a heretical challenge to the dominant
assumptions of mainstream criminological perspectives. It can be criticized as a type of
utopianism, but at a minimum it serves as a provocative antidote to the explicit or implied
cynicism or pessimism of other criminological perspectives. Peacemaking criminology has
some affinity with an anarchic or abolitionist criminology, but this latter perspective is more
directly associated with the controversial proposition that people would be better off without
a elegant state (and its laws) and would be better off without prisons and a elegant justice
system. Peacemaking criminology can be associated with the expanding restorative justice
movement, which calls for a shift away from a retributive justice system that targets
identifying and punishing perpetrators of criminal offenses and to a system that focuses on
mending harm through a supportive endeavor involving the falsely accused, the victim, and
the community. The restorative proper rights approach has been accepted by some part of
the mainstream (and even conservative) community, and at minimum some critical
criminologists think it has been co-opted by the criminal proper rights system. Others,
however, assume that it is constantly on the have modern potential. The job of peacemaking
criminologists has been aimed to sensitizing people to counterproductive, inherently unjust
reactions to conventional varieties of criminal offense. B. Postmodernist Criminology Even
though a postmodernist criminology has been discovered together stress of critical
criminology, postmodern thought itself is by no means necessarily connected with a
progressive plan; on the contrary, much postmodernist thought is seen as either consciously
apolitical or inherently conservative and reactionary. Any attempt to characterize a
postmodernist criminology— or postmodern thought itself—encounters difficulties. It can be
best described as a loose assortment of themes and tendencies. Postmodernists reject
totalizing concepts (e. g., the state), they reject positivism, and they reject the potential of
collective action to transform society. Postmodernism contends that modernity is no longer
liberating but has become rather a force of subjugation, oppression, and repression. For
postmodernism, language plays the core role in the individual connection with reality. The
postmodernist “deconstruction” of texts unearths the instability and relativity of meaning in
the world. Within critical criminology specifically, Stuart Henry and Dragan Milovanovic have
produced a pioneering effort—which they call constitutive criminology—to incorporate
elements of postmodernist thought with the critical criminological project. They are especially
focused on highlighting the role of ideology, discursive procedures, symbols, and sense data
in the production of meaning in the world of crime. We must, they contend, know how those
who engage in criminal offense, who seek to control it, and who research it “co-produce” its
9
which means. C. Feminist Criminology This particular perspective has especially concentrated
on exposing the overall patterns of patriarchialism and male dominance in all realms
pertaining to crime and the legal system. Whatever their differences, feminists such as Meda
Chesney- Lind, Carol Smart, and Kathleen Daly have been quite united in identifying and
opposing social arrangements that contribute to the oppression of women. Direct types of
male violence (e. g., rape and spouse abuse) targeting women inevitably have been a major
preoccupation of feminist criminology. In addition to those types of crime that specifically and
directly target females, feminist criminologists have also sought to demonstrate the broader
vulnerability of females to a range of crimes not in this category, like the multinational
corporate exploitation of labor in sweatshops in developing countries. At least some feminist
criminologists have also focused on the nature of female involvement in criminal behavior and
the social and cultural forces which have led to a higher level of female involvement in such
activity in the most recent era. Some types of unlawful (and deviant) activity have always
involved females to a substantial degree, with prostitution and sex work as primary examples.
Feminist criminologists who have explored female involvement in sex work have not been
unified in their characterization of such female offenders—are they exploited victims or
liberated women? —and indeed, no single feminist criminological perspective is uniformly
adopted. The focus of criminological research historically has been overwhelmingly directed
towards male offenders. The feminist movement, since the 1970s, has had a substantial
impact on an array of cultural attitudes and social policies, and feminist criminologists have
played some role in promoting policies, like the reform of rape laws and regulations to
diminish the further victimization of rape sufferers and the recognition of sexual harassment
as a considerable offense. They have also played a significant role in the analysis of the actual
results of such policy endeavours. D. Left Realism This viewpoint emerged largely in Excellent
Britain and Canada within the period after 85 as a response in order to the perceived
analytical plus practical deficiencies of major criminology, especially in the neo-Marxist form.
Jock Youthful in England and Walt DeKeseredy in Canada have got been among the major
promoters of this viewpoint. Left realists realized that will right-wingers were able in order to
largely preempt the criminal offense issue, because the concern of street crime is usually
pervasive and intense and typically has more immediacy than fear of elite crime. Radicals who
either ignore street crime or, a whole lot worse, are seen because romanticizing street
criminals drop all credibility in the eyes of their largest potential constituency. Furthermore,
traditional radical criminology does not attend to the fact that the principal victims of street
crime are disadvantaged members of society and that conventional crime persists in
noncapitalist societies. Left realists also reject one-dimensional interpretations of state
crackdowns on street crime that characterize it exclusively as repression. However, left realists
vehemently deny that their work leads in the same direction as right realists, plus they differ
from right realists in many ways: They prioritize social justice over order; reject biogenetic,
individualistic explanations of criminality and highlight structural factors; are not positivistic,
insofar as they are usually concerned with social which means of crime as properly as criminal
behavior plus the links between lawmaking and lawbreaking; plus they are acutely aware of
the restrictions of coercive intervention and therefore are more likely to tension informal
control. Left realist criminology insists on participating in to the community and also the state,
the victim and also the offender. It argues that will some traditional criminological analysis
10
methods can be utilized to generate research that will can serve progressive goals. Some left
realists have got focused on the criminal offenses of powerful corporations. Right here,
however , the tendency offers been to call with regard to more regulation and tougher
sanctions against lawbreakers that cause immense, demonstrable harm but who have been
capable to shield themselves from criminalization due to their own wealth and influence.
Completely, left realists may be stated to advocate policies and practices toward both
standard and corporate crime that are realistic as well because progressive. The preceding
sections identified four principal stresses of critical criminology that are quite universally
acknowledged as such. In the following sections, several some other strains that are
increasingly also acknowledged to be significant stresses of
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critical criminology are identified.
IV. Emerging Strains of Critical Criminology A. Newsmaking Criminology and General public
Criminology Karl Marx notoriously argued that one should not be content to clarify the entire
world; one should modify it. It is an enduring complaint about many types of academic
disciplines that these people are insular and self-indulgent and make no measurable impact
on the “real” world. Certainly they do not contribute to the alleviation of human suffering, in
its various manifestations. Critical criminologists may be especially sensitive to this type of
critique plus the need for some type of praxis whereby “real-world” distinctions are effected.
Newsmaking criminology, as originally promoted simply by Gregg Barak, calls regarding
direct engagement by essential criminologists with a wide public constituency through
positively seeking out in order to place across a critical criminological perspective on issues
associated with crime and criminal proper rights in mass media shops. Increasingly, of
course, this is recognized that initiatives to reach a wider audience—especially a younger
audience—must involve the Internet. Within a somewhat parallel problematic vein, Elliott
Currie, among other people, has recently promoted the public criminology with the critical
dimension. Too a lot of criminology— including several of critical criminology—is considered
to be narrowly focused or implementing terminology and forms associated with analysis that
are understandable to only hardly any additional (like-minded) criminologists rather than
handling pressing substantive issues this kind of as harmful present felony justice policies in
forms—and forums—capable of reaching the broader public. Such endeavours enhance the
question of whether or not newsmaking or public criminologists can realistically expect
in order to inform and engage the public massively resistant in order
to such engagement and mainly distracted by a powerful culture of entertainment. B.

Cultural Criminology The reputation from the profoundly stylistic and symbolic dimension of
particular types of lawbreaking and deviant behavior has been a primary focus of social
criminology. This critical criminological approach, pioneered by Jeff Ferrell, among others,
offers sought to provide rich or “thick” descriptions of people who live in the margins of the
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standard social order, including, among others, drug users, graffiti writers, motorcyclists,
and skydivers, drawing on an ethnographic approach that often entails direct participant
observation because well as on autobiographical and journalistic accounts. The “crimes of
style” that cultural criminology addresses are best understood in connection to the contested
political environment within which these people occur and as representations of cultural
values that challenge, on various amounts, the dominant cultural value system of
contemporary community. Some critics have complained that cultural criminologists
overempathize with the social deviants and “outlaws” about whom they write and that they
neglect to adequately value the perspective and legitimate concerns of the users of society
charged with addressing their activities. However , cultural criminology provides us with a
colorful and multilayered appreciation of a range of marginalized users of society. C. Convict
Criminology Prison convicts have been a considerable focus of criminological issue from the
outset. Nevertheless , a recently established convict criminology puts forth the notion— quite
parallel to claims made by gender- and race-focused criminological perspectives—that the
genuine experience of prison convicts often fails to fully emerge from the studies of
conventional or managerial criminology. Furthermore, people who have served time in
prison also provide a unique perspective on correctional reforms. A number of former
convicts have become professors of criminology and criminal justice and have published
books and articles on the prison experience. At least some of them have become a key part
of the development of convict criminology. Their insider knowledge of the world of prisons
makes them uniquely qualified to conduct ethnographic studies of prison life. They might
also be said to have an extra measure of credibility in claims that existing policies of
incarcerating huge numbers of nonviolent offenders, including many low-level drug
offenders, and then subjecting them to demeaning and counterproductive conditions, do not
work and should be abandoned. Convict criminology accordingly adopts core themes of
critical criminology in calling for understanding crime and its control from the bottom up and
in exposing the profound limitations of public policies imposed on a profoundly
disadvantaged segment of the population. D. Critical Race Criminology If gender has been
one substantial variable in relation to crime and criminal justice, race has certainly been
another. Accordingly, some critical criminologists have focused on both the historical role of
racism in producing discriminatory treatment towards people of color in all aspects of crime
and criminal justice as well as the role that enduring (if less manifestly obvious) types of
racism continue to play in promoting images of criminals and policies and practices in
processing criminal offenders. It is well-known that racial minorities—and African American
men in particular—are greatly overrepresented in the correctional system, and some of the
work of critical race criminologists is directed towards demonstrating how this
overrepresentation not only reflects embedded racist elements of our criminal law and
criminal justice system but also contributes towards supporting a lucrative prison industry.
Beyond the strains of critical criminology discussed earlier, there are some additional
emerging strains or proposed strains, although it remains to be seen whether they will be
widely embraced and further expanded. Queer criminology explores the manifestations of
homophobia in the realm of crime and criminal justice. Green criminology exposes and
analyzes social practices and policies that are environmentally dangerous. Countercultural
criminology calls for addressing the “colonial” issues largely neglected in mainstream
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criminology and critical criminology. Certainly there is some critical criminological work
coming out of developing countries today addressing the crime and crime control issues
afflicting these countries and, more typically now, by drawing on indigenous intellectual
traditions, as opposed to simply applying Western (Occidental) theories and frameworks.
Biocritical criminology is a call for critical criminologists to acknowledge that genes play some
role in at least certain types of criminal behavior, and a cooperative endeavor between
criminologists with a biosocial orientation and critical criminologists might disentangle the
relative contributions of the political economy, the societal environment, and biogenetic
factors in the emergence of criminal behavior. Species-related critical criminology calls for
recognition that animals (or species other than human) are victims of a broad range of
crimes by social institutions and specific human beings. E. Summary It should be apparent
from the preceding discussion that critical criminology is an exceptionally diverse enterprise.
It is also characterized by some measurable internal criticism, for example, from those who
remain committed to the original utopian project of radical criminology and a fundamental
transformation of society and from those who have adopted a more limited, practical
approach of exposing limitations of mainstream criminological approaches to crime and
criminal justice and promoting piecemeal reforms. Such pluralism is perhaps inevitable in
critical criminology, and ideally the diverse strands of this enterprise complement and
reinforce
one another.
The Substantive Concerns of Critical Criminology Critical criminologists have got attended to
conventional varieties of criminal activity—such as road crime and drug trafficking—but if
they have done therefore, they have been specifically concerned with demonstrating just
how these conventional varieties of criminality best understood in relationship to the
attributes associated with a capitalist political economic climate. Accordingly, the approach
associated with critical criminologists to this kind of varieties of crime differs through that of
mainstream criminology, that is more likely in order to target individual attributes, logical
calculations and routine routines, situational factors, as well as the a lot more immediate
environment. The research associated with domestic violence and rape, with a range
associated with studies exploring the ethnic forces that both market such violence and who
have resulted in its past marginalization with the criminal justice program, has become a
major preoccupation associated with feminist and left-realist criminologists. The role of
“masculinities” such crimes, as properly as in various varieties of street crime, has already
been explored as well. Within recognition from the expanded participation of females in
regular varieties of crime—as one result of various liberating makes within society—some
critical criminologists have addressed such issues as female gang people and their
involvement within gang violence, with unique emphasis on disparities of power. Some
critical criminologists have focused on newer kinds of crime, such because hate crimes, which
possess a controversial status within the larger society. The challenge here is to demonstrate
why such crimes possess demonstrably harmful consequences that warrant recognition of
their
13
own special character and the reason
why they should not become viewed as protected by the traditional liberal commitment to
freedom of speech. Ethnic, racial, and sexual minority groups
happen to be
among the favored targets of such crime, and immigrant areas remain especially vulnerable.
critical criminologists have been especially receptive to the declare that probably the most
considerable kinds of crime are those committed by the powerful, not the powerless.
Accordingly, some crucial criminologists have taken up Sutherland’s call to attend to white-
collar crime, with special emphasis on the offences of large, powerful corporations. Within
capitalist societies, corporations operate in an environment of unequal distribution of market
power and relentless pressure to increase profit or growth, and they violate laws when the
potential great things about doing so are regarded as outweighing the potential costs. State
rules of corporate activity
will be substantially inhibited by the disproportionate influence of companies for
making and administering laws and regulations through the states’ require to foster capital
deposition. Friedrich Engels—the collaborator associated with Marx—put forth the state in
the 19th millennium that the ownership course was guilty of homicide because it is
completely aware that personnel within factories and mines may die violent, premature
fatalities due to unsafe circumstances. Some critical criminologists these days target the
persistence associated with “safety crimes” in the particular workplace and the continuous
relative neglect of
this kind
of crimes by most criminologists. Others have addressed environment crimes carried out
within the interest of increasing profit, and it
also would seem most likely that concern over this kind of
14
crimes will intensify within the future. The creation and distribution of many harmful
products, from faulty transportation vehicles to dangerous pharmaceuticals to genetically
revised foods, are ongoing issues appealing in this
world.
15
Hit and source - focused comparison, Side by Side:
Left side: As student entered the text in the submitted document.

Right side: As the text appears in the source.
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2 61% 2: http://criminal-justice.iresearchnet.com/criminology/critical-
criminology/ 61%
Critical criminology
Critical criminology is an umbrella term for a variety of
is an umbrella expression for a variety of criminological theories criminological theories and perspectives that challenge core
plus perspectives that challenge primary assumptions of assumptions of mainstream (or conventional) criminology in
mainstream (or conventional) criminology in several substantial some substantial way and provide alternative approaches to
way and supply alternative approaches to knowing crime and understanding crime and its control. Mainstream criminology is
sometimes referred to by critical criminologists as
its manage. Mainstream criminology is occasionally referred
establishment, administrative, managerial, correctional, or
to by essential criminologists as establishment, management, positivistic criminology. Its focus is regarded as excessively
managerial, correctional, or positivistic criminology. Its focus will narrow and predominantly directed toward individual offenders,
be regarded as excessively filter and predominantly directed street crime, and social engineering on behalf of the state. The
towards individual offenders, street offense, and social critical criminological perspectives reject the claims of scientific
engineering about behalf of the state. Typically the critical objectivity made on behalf of mainstream criminology as well as
criminological perspectives reject the claims of medical the privileged status of the scientific method. Although some
objectivity made on behalf of mainstream criminology as well critical criminologists apply an empirical approach with the use
because the privileged status regarding the scientific method. of quantitative analysis, much critical criminology adopts an
Despite the fact that some critical criminologists use an empirical interpretive and qualitative approach to the understanding of
16
approach together with using quantitative analysis, very much social reality in the realm of crime and its control. The unequal
critical criminology adopts a great interpretive and qualitative distribution of power or of material resources within
approach to the understanding of interpersonal reality in the contemporary societies provides a unifying point of departure
sphere of crime as well as its handle. for all strains of critical criminology.
The unequal distribution regarding power or of fabric resources

within modern-day societies gives a unifying point associated
with departure for all pressures of critical criminology.
criminology/ 81%
everywhere. Public perceptions of offense and its control are in
many respects altered by media representations everywhere. Public perceptions of crime and its control are in
many respects distorted by media representations
criminology/ 60%
the agendas of the regulating elites. The immense importance of
critical criminology, then, is based on its capacity to the agendas of the governing elites. The immense significance of
critical criminology, then, lies in its capacity to
criminology/ 69%
17
our interpersonal existence. The historical origins of critical our social existence. The historical origins of critical criminology,
criminology, its principal modern-day strains, and some of its its principal contemporary strains, and some of its major
main substantive concerns are recognized within the paragraphs substantive concerns are identified in the paragraphs that
that follow. In addition, some conjecture is offered follow. In addition, some speculation is offered
18
Instances from: https://wikimili.com/en/Wade_Clark_Mackey
1 53% 1: https://wikimili.com/en/Wade_Clark_Mackey 53%
theoretical perspective in criminology which focuses on theoretical perspective in criminology which focuses on
demanding challenging traditional understandings and uncovering false
beliefs about crime and criminal justice, often but not exclusively
traditional understandings and discovering false beliefs about by taking a conflict perspective, such as Marxism, feminism,
crime and criminal justice, usually but not exclusively by simply political economy theory or critical theory. Critical criminology
taking a conflict viewpoint, such as Marxism, feminism, political frequently takes a perspective of examining the genesis of crime
economy theory or critical theory. Critical criminology frequently and nature of 'justice' within the social structure of a class and
takes status inequalities. Law and punishment of crime are viewed as
connected to
a point of
view of examining the genesis of crime and characteristics of

‘justice’ within a new structure of class and status inequalities.
Law and punishment of crime usually are viewed as linked to
19
Instances from: https://www.detectiveedu.org/what-is-criminology/
6 50% 6: https://www.detectiveedu.org/what-is-criminology/ 50%
theories are tested simply by observing behavior and learning theories are tested by observing behavior and studying
statistics. Criminological theories are usually then used to design statistics. Criminological theories are then used to shape how
how society responds society responds
7 92% 7: https://www.detectiveedu.org/what-is-criminology/ 92%
to crime, both regarding avoiding future incidences of crime and to crime, both in terms of preventing future incidences of crime
responding to criminals who commit those crimes. The study of and responding to criminals who commit those crimes. The
criminology dates back to the beginning of the 18th century, study of criminology dates back to the beginning of the 18th
when scholars started distinguishing the act of committing a century, when scholars began distinguishing the act of
crime from sin by attempting to clarify that why crime occurred. committing a crime from sin by attempting to explain that why
This first venture into the study of crime was referred to as crime occurred. This first venture into the study of crime was
classical criminology. In the beginning of the 19the century, referred to as classical criminology. In the beginning of the
modern criminology started to take shape, with the study of 19the century, modern criminology began to take shape, with
criminology being recognized as a sub-discipline of psychology, the study of criminology being recognized as a sub-discipline of
sociology, and economics. During this time, criminological psychology, sociology, and economics. During this time,
societies and journals of criminology started to emerge, and criminological societies and journals of criminology began to
criminologists were conducting observations and experiments emerge, and criminologists were conducting observations and
based on their theories. The latter part of the 20th century experiments based on their theories. The latter part of the 20th
brought about the 3rd phase of criminology known as century brought about the third phase of criminology known as
independent criminology, which saw this field of study pulling independent criminology, which saw this field of study pulling
away from the larger disciplines of sociology and psychology and away from the larger disciplines of sociology and psychology and
standing on its own as a separate social science. A number of standing on its own as a separate social science. A number of
universities started to offer it as undergraduate and graduate universities began to offer it as undergraduate and graduate
20
programs and professional associations and journals became programs and professional associations and journals became
widespread. widespread.
21
Instances from: https://criminal-justice.iresearchnet.com/criminology/critical-criminology/4/
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critical criminology are identified.
Critical Criminology
IV. Emerging Strains of Critical Criminology A. Newsmaking
Criminology and General public Criminology Karl Marx IV. Emerging Strains of Critical Criminology A. Newsmaking
notoriously argued that one should not be content to clarify the Criminology and Public Criminology Karl Marx famously argued
entire world; one should modify it. It is an enduring complaint that one should not be content to explain the world; one should
about many types of academic disciplines that these people are change it. It is an enduring complaint about many forms of
insular and self-indulgent and make no measurable impact on academic disciplines that they are insular and self-indulgent and
the “real” world. Certainly they do not contribute to the make no measurable impact on the “real” world. Certainly they
alleviation of human suffering, in its various manifestations. do not contribute to the alleviation of human suffering, in its
Critical criminologists may be especially sensitive to this type of various manifestations. Critical criminologists may be especially
critique plus the need for some type of praxis whereby “real- sensitive to this type of critique and the need for some form of
world” distinctions are effected. Newsmaking criminology, as praxis whereby “real-world” differences are effected.
originally promoted simply by Gregg Barak, calls regarding Newsmaking criminology, as originally promoted by Gregg
direct engagement by essential criminologists with a wide public Barak, calls for direct engagement by critical criminologists with
constituency through positively seeking out in order to place a broad public constituency through actively seeking out
across a critical criminological perspective on issues associated opportunities to put across a critical criminological perspective
with crime and criminal proper rights in mass media shops. on issues of crime and criminal justice in mass media outlets.
Increasingly, of course, this is recognized that initiatives to reach Increasingly, of course, it is recognized that efforts to reach a
a wider audience—especially a younger audience—must involve broader audience—especially a younger audience—must involve
the Internet. Within a somewhat parallel problematic vein, Elliott the Internet. In a somewhat parallel vein, Elliott Currie, among
Currie, among other people, has recently promoted the public others, has recently promoted a public criminology with a critical
criminology with the critical dimension. Too a lot of dimension. Too much of criminology— including some of critical
criminology— including several of critical criminology—is criminology—is regarded as narrowly focused or adopting
considered to be narrowly focused or implementing terminology terminology and forms of analysis that are comprehensible to
22
and forms associated with analysis that are understandable to only a small number of other (like-minded) criminologists
only hardly any additional (like-minded) criminologists rather instead of addressing pressing substantive issues such as
than handling pressing substantive issues this kind of as harmful harmful present criminal justice policies in forms—and
present felony justice policies in forms—and forums—capable of forums—capable of reaching a broader public. Such initiatives
reaching the broader public. Such endeavours enhance the raise the question of whether newsmaking or public
question of whether or not newsmaking or public criminologists criminologists can realistically expect
can realistically expect

criminology/4/ 92%
to such engagement and mainly distracted by a powerful culture
of entertainment. B. Cultural Criminology The reputation from to such engagement and largely distracted by a formidable
the profoundly stylistic and symbolic dimension of particular culture of entertainment. B. Cultural Criminology The
types of lawbreaking and deviant behavior has been a primary recognition of the profoundly stylistic and symbolic dimension of
focus of social criminology. This critical criminological approach, certain forms of lawbreaking and deviant behavior has been a
pioneered by Jeff Ferrell, among others, offers sought to provide primary focus of cultural criminology. This critical criminological
rich or “thick” descriptions of people who live in the margins of approach, pioneered by Jeff Ferrell, among others, has sought to
the standard social order, including, among others, drug users, provide rich or “thick” descriptions of people who live at the
graffiti writers, motorcyclists, and skydivers, drawing on an margins of the conventional social order, including, among
ethnographic approach that often entails direct participant others, drug users, graffiti writers, motorcyclists, and skydivers,
observation because well as on autobiographical and journalistic drawing on an ethnographic approach that often involves direct
accounts. The “crimes of style” that cultural criminology participant observation as well as on autobiographical and
addresses are best understood in connection to the contested journalistic accounts. The “crimes of style” that cultural
political environment within which these people occur and as criminology addresses are best understood in relation to the
representations of cultural values that challenge, on various contested political environment within which they occur and as
amounts, the dominant cultural value system of contemporary representations of cultural values that challenge, on various
community. Some critics have complained that cultural levels, the dominant cultural value system of contemporary
23
criminologists overempathize with the social deviants and society. Some critics have complained that cultural criminologists
“outlaws” about whom they write and that they neglect to overempathize with the social deviants and “outlaws” about
adequately value the perspective and legitimate concerns of the whom they write and that they fail to adequately appreciate the
users of society charged with addressing their activities. perspective and legitimate concerns of the members of society
However , cultural criminology provides us with a colorful and charged with addressing their activities. However, cultural
multilayered appreciation of a range of marginalized users of criminology provides us with a colorful and multilayered
society. C. Convict Criminology Prison convicts have been a appreciation of a range of marginalized members of society. C.
considerable focus of criminological issue from the outset. Convict Criminology Prison convicts have been a significant focus
Nevertheless , a recently established convict criminology puts of criminological concern from the outset. However, a recently
forth the notion— quite parallel to claims made by gender- and established convict criminology puts forth the notion— quite
race-focused criminological perspectives—that the genuine parallel to claims made by gender- and race-focused
experience of prison convicts often fails to fully emerge from the criminological perspectives—that the authentic experience of
studies of conventional or managerial criminology. Furthermore, prison convicts often fails to fully emerge from the studies of
people who have served time in prison also provide a unique conventional or managerial criminology. Furthermore, people
perspective on correctional reforms. A number of former who have served time in prison also offer a unique perspective
convicts have become professors of criminology and criminal on correctional reforms. A number of former convicts have
justice and have published books and articles on the prison become professors of criminology and criminal justice and have
experience. At least some of them have become a key part of the published books and articles on the prison experience. At least
development of convict criminology. Their insider knowledge of some of them have become a key part of the development of
the world of prisons makes them uniquely qualified to conduct convict criminology. Their insider knowledge of the world of
ethnographic studies of prison life. They might also be said to prisons makes them uniquely qualified to conduct ethnographic
have an extra measure of credibility in claims that existing studies of prison life. They might also be said to have an extra
policies of incarcerating huge numbers of nonviolent offenders, measure of credibility in claims that existing policies of
including many low-level drug offenders, and then subjecting incarcerating huge numbers of nonviolent offenders, including
them to demeaning and counterproductive conditions, do not many low-level drug offenders, and then subjecting them to
work and should be abandoned. Convict criminology accordingly demeaning and counterproductive conditions, do not work and
adopts core themes of critical criminology in calling for should be abandoned. Convict criminology accordingly adopts
understanding crime and its control from the bottom up and in core themes of critical criminology in calling for understanding
24
exposing the profound limitations of public policies imposed on crime and its control from the bottom up and in exposing the
a profoundly disadvantaged segment of the population. D. profound limitations of public policies imposed on a profoundly
Critical Race Criminology If gender has been one substantial disadvantaged segment of the population.
variable in relation to crime and criminal justice, race has
certainly been another. Accordingly, some critical criminologists D. Critical Race Criminology If gender has been one significant
have focused on both the historical role of racism in producing variable in relation to crime and criminal justice, race has
discriminatory treatment towards people of color in all aspects certainly been another. Accordingly, some critical criminologists
of crime and criminal justice as well as the role that enduring (if have focused on both the historical role of racism in producing
less manifestly obvious) types of racism continue to play in discriminatory treatment toward people of color in all aspects of
promoting images of criminals and policies and practices in crime and criminal justice as well as the role that enduring (if
processing criminal offenders. It is well-known that racial less manifestly obvious) forms of racism continue to play in
minorities—and African American men in particular—are greatly promoting images of criminals and policies and practices in
overrepresented in the correctional system, and some of the processing criminal offenders. It is well-known that racial
work of critical race criminologists is directed towards minorities—and African American men in particular—are greatly
demonstrating how this overrepresentation not only reflects overrepresented in the correctional system, and some of the
embedded racist elements of our criminal law and criminal work of critical race criminologists is directed toward
justice system but also contributes towards supporting a demonstrating how this overrepresentation not only reflects
lucrative prison industry. Beyond the strains of critical embedded racist elements of our criminal law and criminal
criminology discussed earlier, there are some additional justice system but also contributes toward supporting a lucrative
emerging strains or proposed strains, although it remains to be prison industry. Beyond the strains of critical criminology
seen whether they will be widely embraced and further discussed earlier, there are some additional emerging strains or
expanded. Queer criminology explores the manifestations of proposed strains, although it remains to be seen whether they
homophobia in the realm of crime and criminal justice. Green will be widely embraced and further expanded. Queer
criminology exposes and analyzes social practices and policies criminology explores the manifestations of homophobia in the
that are environmentally dangerous. Countercultural realm of crime and criminal justice. Green criminology exposes
criminology calls for addressing the “colonial” issues largely and analyzes social practices and policies that are
neglected in mainstream criminology and critical criminology. environmentally harmful. Countercultural criminology calls for
Certainly there is some critical criminological work coming out of addressing the “colonial” issues largely neglected in mainstream
25
developing countries today addressing the crime and crime criminology and critical criminology. Certainly there is some
control issues afflicting these countries and, more typically now, critical criminological work coming out of developing countries
by drawing on indigenous intellectual traditions, as opposed to today addressing the crime and crime control issues afflicting
simply applying Western (Occidental) theories and frameworks. these countries and, more typically now, by drawing on
Biocritical criminology is a call for critical criminologists to indigenous intellectual traditions, as opposed to simply applying
acknowledge that genes play some role in at least certain types Western (Occidental) theories and frameworks. Biocritical
of criminal behavior, and a cooperative endeavor between criminology is a call for critical criminologists to acknowledge
criminologists with a biosocial orientation and critical that genes play some role in at least certain forms of criminal
criminologists might disentangle the relative contributions of the behavior, and a cooperative endeavor between criminologists
political economy, the societal environment, and biogenetic with a biosocial orientation and critical criminologists might
factors in the emergence of criminal behavior. Species-related disentangle the relative contributions of the political economy,
critical criminology calls for recognition that animals (or species the societal environment, and biogenetic factors in the
other than human) are victims of a broad range of crimes by emergence of criminal behavior. Species-related critical
social institutions and specific human beings. E. Summary It criminology calls for recognition that animals (or species other
should be apparent from the preceding discussion that critical than human) are victims of a broad range of crimes by social
criminology is an exceptionally diverse enterprise. It is also institutions and specific human beings. E. Summary It should be
characterized by some measurable internal criticism, for obvious from the preceding discussion that critical criminology is
example, from those who remain committed to the original an exceptionally diverse enterprise. It is also characterized by
utopian project of radical criminology and a fundamental some measurable internal criticism, for example, from those
transformation of society and from those who have adopted a who remain committed to the original utopian project of radical
more limited, practical approach of exposing limitations of criminology and a fundamental transformation of society and
mainstream criminological approaches to crime and criminal from those who have adopted a more limited, practical approach
justice and promoting piecemeal reforms. Such pluralism is of exposing limitations of mainstream criminological approaches
perhaps inevitable in critical criminology, and ideally the diverse to crime and criminal justice and promoting piecemeal reforms.
strands of this enterprise complement and reinforce Such pluralism is perhaps inevitable in critical criminology, and
ideally the diverse strands of this enterprise complement and
reinforce
26
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The Substantive Concerns of Critical Criminology Critical
criminologists have got attended to conventional varieties of The Substantive Concerns of Critical Criminology Critical
criminal activity—such as road crime and drug trafficking—but if criminologists have attended to conventional forms of criminal
they have done therefore, they have been specifically concerned activity—such as street crime and drug trafficking—but when
with demonstrating just how these conventional varieties of they have done so, they have been especially concerned with
criminality best understood in relationship to the attributes demonstrating how these conventional forms of criminality are
associated with a capitalist political economic climate. best understood in relation to the attributes of a capitalist
Accordingly, the approach associated with critical criminologists political economy. Accordingly, the approach of critical
to this kind of varieties of crime differs through that of criminologists to such forms of crime differs from that of
mainstream criminology, that is more likely in order to target mainstream criminology, which is more likely to focus on
individual attributes, logical calculations and routine routines, individual attributes, rational calculations and routine activities,
situational factors, as well as the a lot more immediate situational factors, and the more immediate environment. The
environment. The research associated with domestic violence study of domestic violence and rape, with a range of studies
and rape, with a range associated with studies exploring the exploring the cultural forces that both promote such violence
ethnic forces that both market such violence and who have and that have led to its past marginalization by the criminal
resulted in its past marginalization with the criminal justice justice system, has been a major preoccupation of feminist and
program, has become a major preoccupation associated with left-realist criminologists. The role of “masculinities” in such
feminist and left-realist criminologists. The role of “masculinities” crimes, as well as in various forms of street crime, has been
such crimes, as properly as in various varieties of street crime, explored as well. In recognition of the expanded involvement of
has already been explored as well. Within recognition from the females in conventional forms of crime—as one outcome of
expanded participation of females in regular varieties of various liberating forces within society—some critical
crime—as one result of various liberating makes within criminologists have addressed such matters as female gang
society—some critical criminologists have addressed such issues members and their involvement in gang violence, with special
as female gang people and their involvement within gang emphasis on disparities of power. Some critical criminologists
violence, with unique emphasis on disparities of power. Some have focused on newer forms of crime, such as hate crimes,
27
critical criminologists have focused on newer kinds of crime, which have a controversial status within the larger society. The
such because hate crimes, which possess a controversial status challenge here is to demonstrate why such crimes have
within the larger society. The challenge here is to demonstrate demonstrably harmful consequences that warrant recognition of
why such crimes possess demonstrably harmful consequences their
that warrant recognition of their

criminology/5/ 93%
why they should not become viewed as protected by the
traditional liberal commitment to freedom of speech. Ethnic, why they should not be viewed as protected by the traditional
racial, and sexual minority groups liberal commitment to freedom of speech. Ethnic, racial, and
sexual minority groups

criminology/5/ 85%
among the favored targets of such crime, and immigrant areas
remain especially vulnerable. critical criminologists have been among the favored targets of such crime, and immigrant
especially receptive to the declare that probably the most communities remain especially vulnerable. Critical criminologists
considerable kinds of crime are those committed by the have been especially receptive to the claim that the most
powerful, not the powerless. Accordingly, some crucial significant forms of crime are those committed by the powerful,
criminologists have taken up Sutherland’s call to attend to white- not the powerless. Accordingly, some critical criminologists have
collar crime, with special emphasis on the offences of large, taken up Sutherland’s call to attend to white-collar crime, with
powerful corporations. Within capitalist societies, corporations special emphasis on the crimes of large, powerful corporations.
operate in an environment of unequal distribution of market Within capitalist societies, corporations operate in an
power and relentless pressure to increase profit or growth, and environment of unequal distribution of market power and
they violate laws when the potential great things about doing so relentless pressure to increase profit or growth, and they violate
28
are regarded as outweighing the potential costs. State rules of laws when the potential benefits of doing so are regarded as
corporate activity outweighing the potential costs. State regulation of corporate
activity

criminology/5/ 46%
making and administering laws and regulations through the
states’ require to foster capital deposition. Friedrich Engels—the making and administering laws and by the states’ need to foster
collaborator associated with Marx—put forth the state in the capital accumulation. Friedrich Engels—the collaborator of
19th millennium that the ownership course was guilty of Marx—put forth the claim in the 19th century that the ownership
homicide because it is completely aware that personnel within class was guilty of murder because it is fully aware that workers
factories and mines may die violent, premature fatalities due to in factories and mines will die violent, premature deaths due to
unsafe circumstances. Some critical criminologists these days unsafe conditions. Some critical criminologists today focus on
target the persistence associated with “safety crimes” in the the persistence of “safety crimes” in the workplace and the
particular workplace and the continuous relative neglect of ongoing relative neglect
of

criminology/5/ 75%
of crimes by most criminologists. Others have addressed
environment crimes carried out within the interest of increasing of
profit, and it
such crimes by most criminologists. Others have addressed
environmental crimes carried out in the interest of maximizing
profit, and it
29

criminology/5/ 54%
crimes will intensify within the future. The creation and
distribution of many harmful products, from faulty crimes will intensify in the future. The production and
transportation vehicles to dangerous pharmaceuticals to distribution of a wide range of harmful products, from defective
genetically revised foods, are ongoing issues appealing in this transportation vehicles to unsafe pharmaceuticals to genetically
modified foods, are ongoing matters of interest in this
30
Instances from: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strain_theory_(sociology)
9 60% 9: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strain_theory_(sociology) 60%
When two conflicting social values or beliefs are competing in an When two conflicting social values or beliefs are competing in an
individual’s everyday life, the person encounters value strain. individual’s daily life, the person experiences value strain. The
The 2 conflicting social facts are usually competing personal two conflicting social facts are competing personal beliefs
beliefs internalized in the person’s worth system. A cult associate internalized in the person’s value system. A cult member may
may experience strain when the mainstream culture as well as experience strain if the mainstream culture and the cult religion
the cult religion are each considered important in the particular are both considered important in the cult member’s daily life.
cult member’s daily lifestyle. Other examples include the 2nd Other examples include the second generation of immigrants in
generation of immigrants in the usa who have to follow by the the United States who have to abide by the ethnic culture rules
ethnic lifestyle rules enforced in the particular family while enforced in the family while simultaneously adapting to the
simultaneously changing to the American lifestyle with peers American culture with peers and school. In China, rural young
and college. In China, rural women appreciate gender women appreciate gender egalitarianism advocated by the
egalitarianism recommended by the communist communist
in cultural sexual elegance as traditionally cultivated simply by in cultural sexual discrimination as traditionally cultivated by
Confucianism. Another example that will might be present in Confucianism. Another example that might be found in
establishing countries is the gear values of traditional developing countries is the differential values of traditional
collectivism and modern individualism. Once the two conflicting collectivism and modern individualism. When the two conflicting
values are usually taken as equally essential within a person’s values are taken as equally important in a person’s daily life, the
daily lifestyle, the person experiences excellent strain. When one person experiences great strain. When one value is more
worth is more important important
31
perspective of goals regarding status, expectations and course perspective of goals for status, expectations and class rather
rather than focusing upon money( as Merton's concept does). than focusing on money (as Merton's theory does). Examples of
Examples of Common Strain Theory are individuals who use General Strain Theory are people who use illegal drugs to make
illegal medications to make themselves feel themselves feel
32
Instances from: https://ipfs.io/ipfs/QmXoypizjW3WknFiJnKLwHCnL72vedxjQkDDP1mXWo6uco/wiki/Strain_theory_(sociology).html
8 100% 8: https://ipfs.io/ipfs/
QmXoypizjW3WknFiJnKLwHCnL72vedxjQkDDP1mXWo6uco/wiki/
Strain theory is a Strain_theory_(sociology).html 100%
sociology and criminology theory developed in 1957 by Robert K. Strain theory is a sociology and criminology theory developed in
Merton. The theory states that society puts pressure on 1957 by Robert K. Merton. The theory states that society puts
individuals to achieve pressure on individuals to achieve a socially accepted goals (such
as the American dream) though they lack the means, this leads
a
to strain which may lead the individuals to commit crimes.
socially accepted goals (such as the American dream) Examples being selling drugs or becoming involved in
prostitution to gain financial security.[1]
though they lack the means, this leads to strain which may lead
the individuals to commit crimes.
Examples being selling drugs or becoming involved in

prostitution to gain financial security

Strain might either be: Strain_theory_(sociology).html 89%
Structural: this particular describes the processes at the societal Strain may either be: • Structural: this refers to the processes at
level which filter down and affect how the individual perceives the societal level which filter down and affect how the individual
his or her needs, i. e. if particular social structures are inherently perceives his or her needs, i.e. if particular social structures are
inadequate or there is inadequate regulation, this may change inherently inadequate or there is inadequate regulation, this
the individual's perceptions as to means and opportunities; may change the individual's perceptions as to means and
33
Individual: this refers to the frictions and pains experienced by opportunities; or • Individual: this refers to the frictions and
an individual as he or she looks for ways to satisfy his or her pains experienced by an individual as he or she looks for ways to
needs, i. e. if the goals of a society become significant to an satisfy his or her needs, i.e. if the goals of a society become
individual, actually achieving them may become more important significant to an individual, actually achieving them may become
than the means adopted. more important than the means adopted. Derived theories
General strain theory Main article: General strain theory General
General strain theory (GST) is a sociology and criminology theory strain theory (GST) is a sociology and criminology theory
developed in developed in the 1992 by Robert Agnew. The core idea of
general strain theory is that people who experience strain or
the 1992 by Robert Agnew.
stress become distressed or upset which may lead them to
The core idea of general strain theory is that people who commit crime in order to cope. One of the key principle of this
experience strain or stress become distressed or upset which theory is emotion as the motivator for crime. The theory was
may lead them to commit crime in order to cope. One of the key developed to conceptualize the full range of sources in society
principle of this theory is emotion as the motivator for crime. where strain possibly comes from, which Merton's
The theory had been developed to conceptualize the entire

range of sources within society where strain perhaps originates
from, which Merton's

as -Loss of optimistic stimuli (death of loved ones or friend) - Strain_theory_(sociology).html 57%
Presentation associated with negative stimuli (physical plus
verbal assaults) -The as:[5] • Loss of positive stimuli (death of family or friend) •
Presentation of negative stimuli (physical and verbal assaults) •
The
34

Urkund Report - A1958IVCriminology - Docx (D54881448) - 2

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URKUND

Urkund Analysis Result

Sources included in the report:

Instances where selected sources appear:

Critical criminology is the

theoretical perspective in criminology which focuses on demanding

is an umbrella expression for a variety of criminological theories plus perspectives that

its manage. Mainstream criminology is occasionally referred

to by essential criminologists as establishment, management, managerial, correctional, or

Definition of Critical Criminology: Criminology, critical Also termed revolutionary criminology,

in connection with future prospects of critical criminology Origins of Critical Criminology

referred to as classical criminology. In the beginning of the 19the century, modern

socially accepted goals (such as the American dream)

in cultural sexual elegance as traditionally cultivated simply by Confucianism. Another

compared to other, there is after that little if any strain.

Strain might either be:

General strain theory (GST) is a sociology and criminology theory developed in

the 1992 by Robert Agnew.

lack of ability to reach a preferred goal.

critical criminology are identified.

in order to inform and engage the public massively resistant in order

to such engagement and mainly distracted by a powerful culture of entertainment. B.

own special character and the reason

will be substantially inhibited by the disproportionate influence of companies for

Hit and source - focused comparison, Side by Side:

Left side: As student entered the text in the submitted document.

Instances from: http://criminal-justice.iresearchnet.com/criminology/critical-criminology/

The unequal distribution regarding power or of fabric resources

Instances from: https://wikimili.com/en/Wade_Clark_Mackey

1 53% 1: https://wikimili.com/en/Wade_Clark_Mackey 53%

view of examining the genesis of crime and characteristics of

Instances from: https://www.detectiveedu.org/what-is-criminology/

6 50% 6: https://www.detectiveedu.org/what-is-criminology/ 50%

7 92% 7: https://www.detectiveedu.org/what-is-criminology/ 92%

Instances from: https://criminal-justice.iresearchnet.com/criminology/critical-criminology/4/

14 66% 14: https://criminal-justice.iresearchnet.com/criminology/critical-

15 92% 15: https://criminal-justice.iresearchnet.com/criminology/critical-

Instances from: https://criminal-justice.iresearchnet.com/criminology/critical-criminology/5/

16 60% 16: https://criminal-justice.iresearchnet.com/criminology/critical-

17 93% 17: https://criminal-justice.iresearchnet.com/criminology/critical-

18 85% 18: https://criminal-justice.iresearchnet.com/criminology/critical-

19 46% 19: https://criminal-justice.iresearchnet.com/criminology/critical-

20 75% 20: https://criminal-justice.iresearchnet.com/criminology/critical-

21 54% 21: https://criminal-justice.iresearchnet.com/criminology/critical-

Instances from: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strain_theory_(sociology)

9 60% 9: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strain_theory_(sociology) 60%

10 53% 10: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strain_theory_(sociology) 53%

12 68% 12: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strain_theory_(sociology) 68%

Instances from: https://ipfs.io/ipfs/QmXoypizjW3WknFiJnKLwHCnL72vedxjQkDDP1mXWo6uco/wiki/Strain_theory_(sociology).html

Examples being selling drugs or becoming involved in

11 89% 11: https://ipfs.io/ipfs/

The theory had been developed to conceptualize the entire

13 57% 13: https://ipfs.io/ipfs/

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