[Gurmop Arcxearigpo Gutobs Recbego ) TECTONICS, VOL. 8, NO. 4, PAGES 769-790, AUGUST 1989 ‘CORRELATIONS BETVEEN NAZCA/FARALLON PLATE KINEMATICS AND FOREARC BASIN EVOLUTION XIN ECUADOR Michael C. Daly Structural Studies Group, BP Exploration Conpany Linited, London Abstract. The Tertiary evolution of the forearc basins of Ecuador shovs a close correlation between the changing convergence rate of the Farallon, and later Nazca, oceanic plates and continental’ South America. The correlation occurs during the subduction of a relatively young slab and, in the Late Miocene, onset of the subduction of the Carnegie aseismic ridge. The Ecuador foreare basins lie on a basement of oceanic crust knovn as the Pinon terrane. The accretion of this terrance occurred in ‘the Paleocene as the leading edge of the Farallon plate, the Macuchi island arc, collided vith South America. In the Middle Eocene this forearc terrane vas the site of major pull-apart basin formation and turbiditic sedimentation, coincident vith a phase of very rapid convergence between chron 21 and chron 13 (48-37 Ma). This deformation vas bounded by the trench and a major dextral strike-slip fault zone ‘and resulted in the northvard translation of the forearc vith respect to continental South Anerica. During the Oligocene a phase of extension normal to the trend of the active margin occurred, coincident vith a phase of relatively’ slow convergence (chron 13 to chron 6, 37-20 Copyright 1989 by The American Geophysical Union. Paper nunber 897C00707 (0278-7407/89/89TC-00707510.00 Na). This extension was folloved in the Middle Miocene by inversion of most of the forearc basins, coincident vith a return to relatively fast convergence from chron 6 (20 Ma) to the present day. Subduction of the Carnegie aseismic ridge occurred during this period (cirea 8 Ma to present) and may have enhanced the coupressive event. Further, northvard translation of the foreare silver accompanied this later deformation. The relationships outlined for the forearc may be modeled in teras of a dynamic orogenic vedge which responds directly to changes in convergence rate at the subduction zone. The convergence rate appears to be an important control on the coupling betveen the dovngoing slab and overriding continental plate. INTRODUCTION The Link betveen plate tectonics and the evolution of active margins has attracted a large anount of attention Since the acceptance of the plate tectonic paradigm. Much of this vork has been Focused on the North American active margin, initially by paleogeographic reconstructions [Atvater and Molnar, 1973] and more recently by quantitative plate tectonic models, from vhich convergence velocities through tine have been calculated (Carlson, 1962; Engebretson et al. 1985]. In spite of the couplexity of the geological record and the relative simplicity of such plate models, apparently convincing correlations betveen770 geological events and plate tectonics have been documented (Beck, 1984; Engebretson et al., 1984]. The correlations and conclusions dravn by these and other authors have characteristically been of a general nature, linking plate motions with long-lived tectonic episodes, for example, the "Laranide." More precise correlations, for example to individual basin-forming events, have not been established. Sinilar plate tectonic studies of the South Pacific have resolved the relative motion between the Farallon and later Nazca (Farallon/Nazea) plate and South America (Pilger, 1984]. An important revision of the South Pacific [Stock and Molnar, 1982, 1987] and nev reconstruction paraneters for the Indian Ocean [Molnar et al. 1988] have resulted in a significantly more precise aodel for the Tertiary relative motion betveen the Farallon/Nazca and South America plates [Pardo-Casas and Molnar, 1987]. This quantitative model, presented as a set of Euler poles with uncertainties, allovs a test to be made of the correlations between active margin geology and plate tectonics. ‘This paper revievs the Tertiary plate interactions between the Farallon/Nazca oceanic plate and the Ecuador active margin. “It then discusses the forearc geology of Ecuador to see if any detailed relationship between plate sotion and continental tectonics can be discerned. The tectonic significance of the observed relationships is discussed and a mechanical model proposed. The time scale of Harland et al. [1982] is used throughout this Study. ‘TBRTIARY PLATE TECTONICS OF N¥ SOUTH AMERICA The Tertiary tectonics of NV South America have been dominated by subduction of the Farallon and later Nazea oceanic plates. Several independent parazeters influence the subduction regime and the resultant tectonics of an active margin. These paraneters have been revieved by Jarrard [1986], who deduced a nunber of empirical quantitative relations from a global study of present-day subduction zones. The independent paraneters possibly important in understanding the Tertiary geological evolution of the Beuador foreare are as follows: (1) the convergence velocity across the subduction zone (2) subduction rollback and the absolute motion of South Anerica (3) the ‘age and composition of the subducting oceanic slab and (4) the dip of the subducting slab. Daly: Plate Kinenatics and Foreare Basin Evolution The relative importance of these parameters in determining the strain fenvironnent of an active margin is not clearly understood, largely because of the Limited nunber of natural subduction zones. This section vill very briefly discuss each of these variables with respect to the Tertiary active margin of Beuador. Convergence Velocity Convergence velocity refers to the relative motion between the subducting plate (Farallon/Narzca) and the overriding Plate (South Averica). The convergence velocity vector (Vc) comprises a direction and rate, both of vhich vary in space and time. The convergence direction is rarely nortal to a trench. Oblique convergence ay be resolved into normal and tangential, components vith respect to the strike of the trench. The normal convergence rate controls the anount of material arriving ata trench. The tangential component reflects the potential for margin parallel displacenents, oblique convergence tending to favor strike-slip motions in the active margin region. ‘The convergence rate may influence the structural environment of an active aargin in two vays. First, convergence rate may control the coupling betveen the dovngoing slab and overriding plate. This vould be expressed as a shear stress at the slab/upper plate contact; increasing convergence implying a greater horizontal compressive force and greater slab/upper plate coupling. Thus rapid convergence ‘equates vith strong coupling and a compressional active margin vhilst slov econvergence implies veak coupling and an extensional margin. Jarrard [1986] found a moderate correlation between convergence Fate and compressive arcs at modern subduction zones but concluded that this could not be the sole controlling parameter in active margin structural environment. Second, it has been Suggested that convergence rate is a direct control on the dip of a subducting slab [Luyendyk; 1970; Yokokura, 1981]. Assuming a constant rate of sinking, an increase in convergence rate may lead to a nore shallow dipping slab and may again Amprove slab/upper plate coupling, this time by increasing their contact area. ‘The convergence velocity model adopted here for the Ecuador active margin is based on the rotation paraneters of Pardo-Casas and Molnar [1987], computed about the circuit Farallon/Nazca-PacificDaly: Plate Kinenatics and Foreare Basin Evolution ™ Fig. 1. The position of South America vith respect to a fixed Nazca/Farallon plate, at 10 Ma intervals for the last 70 Ma. The variation in spacing highlights the changing convergence rate, vhile the flov line shows the convergence direction. Antaretica-Africa-South America. Figure 1 shows the calculated location of South America vith respect to a fixed Farallon/Nazea plate for 10 Ma intervals back to the Late Cretaceous (70 Ma). The Location of South Anerica, calculated by interpolation between the anomaly picks of Pardo-Casas and Molnar, is presented at these regular intervals in order to focus on the convergence rate of the systen. Two features of the diagram are important: first, the irregular spacing betveen the 10 Ma’ positions, reflecting the changing rate of convergence and second, the broadly constant convergence direction throughout the Tertiary. Figure 2a is a plot of the convergence rate, vith uncertainties, of the Farallon/Nazca plate to the South Anerican plate for a position on the equator at the Ecuador trench. The plot shovs a pulse of very high convergence rate of up to 204 + 80 an/yr betveen chron 21 and chron 13, (48-37 Ma, Middle to Late Bocene); a drastic deceleration to a lov convergence rate of 44 + 26 mm/yr betveen chron 13 and chron 7 (37-26 Ma, Oligocene-Barly Miocene); and a relatively high convergence rate of upto 125 + 33 mm/yr from chron 6 (20 Ma, Middle Mfocene) to the present day. Within the uncertainties shown the timing of the onset of the Miocene fast convergence is poorly constrained. The data indicate that the average convergence rate since chron 7 (26 Ma) vas faster than before. Hovever, because of the large uncertainties it is not possible to define the details of this acceleration, vhether it had begun by chron 7 or 6, or vhether it was constant or variable throughout the Late Tertiary. What is certain is that the rapid convergence vas vell established fron chron 6 to the present day. ‘The scales of the three major changes in Nazea/Parallon to South America convergence rate outlined are outside of the uncertainty limits presented (Pigureme Daly: oem wm AGE 0s} Pig. 2a, Plot shoving the convergence rate of the Nazca/Farallon plate to South Anerica throughout the Tertiary. Uncertainty limits are also shovn [after Pardo-Casas and Molnar, 1987]. 2a). These changes are believed to represent real variations in convergence rate. Figure 2b is a plot of convergence direction of the Nazca plate with respect to a fixed South Anerica. The plot shows the azimuth of Nazea/Parallon convergence fon the equator at the Ecuador trench, together with uncertainties on the azimuth. The uncertainties are yyanetrical because of the elliptical nature of the uncertainty Lisits of Pardo-Casas and Molnar [1987]. Also marked on the plot are the trend of the » convencence ‘omecron ©) gs Pig. 2b. Plate Kinematics and Foreare Basin Evolution present-day Ecuador trench and its perpendicular. The data indicate that Convergence has been oblique throughout the Tertiary, implying a large dextral strike-slip component. The large uncertainties on the convergence azimuth prevent any detailed interpretation on the variations recorded. One caveat on this analysis is that the orientation of the Ecuador trench is likely to have changed with time and thus the strike-slip component may change back through time. In fact, it is the present authors opinion that the trend of the Ecuador trench has rotated clockwise by a mininun of 20° since the Oligocene, Subduction Rollback and the Absolute jotion of South Aner! In modeling active margins it has been suggested that the variations in tectonic style are due to the relationship between the rollback of the subduction trench line and the motion of the overriding plate tovard or avay fron the trench line vithin an asthenospheric reference frane [Uyeds and Kanamori, 1979; Devey, 1980]. Where the overriding plate retreats from the trench line or vhere it advances more slowly than rollback (WuVt), the margin is compressive. With regard to the Ecuador active margin the rate of rollback cannot be calculated for the Tertiary period of interest. However, an esitmate of the PRESENT DAY TREND OF — “ECUADOR MARGIN’ Plot shoving the convergence direction of the Nazca/Farallon plate vith respect to South Anerica throughout the Tert: ry. Uncertainty limits are also shovn [after Pardo-Casas and Molnar, 1987).Daly: Plate Kinenatics and Foreare Basin Evolution 113 / Fig. 3. Diagram shoving the tectonic implications of the relative velocities of the subduction hinge rollback (Vt) and the overriding plate (Vu) in an astenospheric Teference frane. Vt, velocity of rollback; Vu, velocity of upper plate; V1, velocity of lover plate. direction of motion of the overriding plate, South America, can be gained by comparison vith an asthenospheric Teference frane. The reference frane employed here is the Atlantic hotspot reference frame of Morgan [1983], vhich is assumed to be fixed vith respect’ to the asthenosphere. Figure 4 shovs the motion of South America, at 10 Ma intervals since the Late Cretaceous (70 Ma), vith respect to the hotspot reference frame of Morgan [19a3]. Tt should be noted that, unlike reconstructions based on seafloor fabrics, hotspot-based reconstructions lack the resolution to record subtle changes in plate velocity. The diagram indicates that South America moved to the NV and UNV with respect to the hotspots. Assuming a typical rate of rollback (1-2 cn/yr), It seems likely that the overriding plate advanced sore rapidly than rollback and thus overrode the trench line. Taking the present-day orientation of the Ecuador trench, this vould imply a relatively steady state compressional are vith a ‘alight tendency to a sinistral strike-slip component. The Nature of the Subducting Slab ‘Two aspects of the subducting slab are important in determining the structural environment of active margins; the age of Fig. 4. The position of South Anerica with respect to the hotspot reference frame of Morgan [1983] at 10 Ma intervals for the last 70 M the oceanic slab being subducted and the presence and distribution of asperities on the subdueting slab. Wolnar and Atvater [1978] suggested that, as the density of a slab is proportional to its age, the older, Genser, and therefore more gravitationally unstable a slab, the easier it vould subduct. They identified crust older than 100 Ma as "easy" to subduct and crust younger than 50 Ma as "difficult" to subduct. England and Vortel [1980] Supported this reasoning, concluding that i€ the age of the lithosphere is too young, its negative buoyancy may be less than the forces resisting subduction. ‘Thus, subduction of a young slab may resuit in increased coupling between the overriding and subdueting plate, through fan increase of shear stress across the plate boundary. Thus, crudely stated, at active margins a young (<50-70 Ma), buoyant slab is likely to result in compressional tectonics, vhilst an old (070-100 Ma), dense slab is likely to result in extension. ‘The slab presently being subducted belov the Ecuadorian trench falls vithin the young slab category (Figure. 5) and™ Daly: Plate Kinenatics and Foreare Basin Evolution i a : k se z BE [WF J | HL ae z fo (ore setmate ton Para Sat, 197-NPecte) Fig. 5. Plot shoving the variation in age and bathymetry of the actively subducting slab along the Andean trench (10°N to 40°S). therefore predicts the observed compressional active margin [Suarez et al., 1983]. How the age structure of the subducted crust has changed in the past is difficult to model because of the uncertainties in the nature of the subducted plate. However, a model based fon the conjugate plate vest of the East Pacific rise suggests that the age of oceanic crust being subducted has been getting progressively younger throughout the Tertiary [Pilger, 1984]. The subduction of ocean crust vith asperities such as aseismic ridges and Seanounts may have a tectonic impact on active margins. Hovever, the nature of this impact in terns of deformation has yet to be precisely identified. With Tegard to Ecuador the aseismic Carnegie ridge is the obvious ocean floor feature that may have had an effect on the Tertiary tectonics. Pilger [1981, and 1984] modeled the subducted trend’ of the Carnegie ridge, interpreted as an aseismic ridge originating from the Galapagos, hotspot. Figure 6 shows the modeled hotspot track of Pilger [1984] vith the reconstructed positions of South Anerica back to 16 Ma. According to this model, Beuador vould have collided vith the Carnegie ridge at about 8 Ma. This may be expected to appear in the geological record as an uplift or compressional event. Slab Dip It has been suggested that slab dip has ‘a controlling effect on the structural ‘environment of active margins [Barazangi and Isacks, 1976]. Shallovly dipping slabs having greater contact area vith the upper plate may be nore efficient at transmitting stress, thus enabling greater coupling and favoring @ compressive active margin. This concept appears to be supported by modern day active margins. In the regionally conpressive Andes, siab dips are shallov vhile much steeper’ dips generally characterize active margins vith back are spreading. Jarrard [1986] concluded that shallov slab dip dovn to 100 km vas important in controlling active margin tectonics. Modeling slab dips for the Ecuador trench for the Tertiary is theoretically possible from the changing position and chemistry of the voleanic are. Hovever, as the present arc occupies a zone some 100 kn vide, a precise estinate of are location back through tine is difficult. Notwithstanding this, there has been a progressive y@itvard shift in the locus of arc magnatisn during the Tertiary [Baldock, 1982], which may imply a slab shalloving vith’ time. This vould predict an increasingly compressive margin. Summary This brief plate tectonic review has discussed four paraneters of plate tectonics that may be reflected in the geological evolution of the Ecuador active margin. Bach feature has a predictive aspect (e.g., fast Farallon/Mazca convergence, ‘strong coupling, compressional tectonics) that may be tested against the geological evolution of the foreare region.™ Daly: Plate Kinenatics and Foreare Basin Evolution i a : k se z BE [WF J | HL ae z fo (ore setmate ton Para Sat, 197-NPecte) Fig. 5. Plot shoving the variation in age and bathymetry of the actively subducting slab along the Andean trench (10°N to 40°S). therefore predicts the observed compressional active margin [Suarez et al., 1983]. How the age structure of the subducted crust has changed in the past is difficult to model because of the uncertainties in the nature of the subducted plate. However, a model based fon the conjugate plate vest of the East Pacific rise suggests that the age of oceanic crust being subducted has been getting progressively younger throughout the Tertiary [Pilger, 1984]. The subduction of ocean crust vith asperities such as aseismic ridges and Seanounts may have a tectonic impact on active margins. Hovever, the nature of this impact in terns of deformation has yet to be precisely identified. With Tegard to Ecuador the aseismic Carnegie ridge is the obvious ocean floor feature that may have had an effect on the Tertiary tectonics. Pilger [1981, and 1984] modeled the subducted trend’ of the Carnegie ridge, interpreted as an aseismic ridge originating from the Galapagos, hotspot. Figure 6 shows the modeled hotspot track of Pilger [1984] vith the reconstructed positions of South Anerica back to 16 Ma. According to this model, Beuador vould have collided vith the Carnegie ridge at about 8 Ma. This may be expected to appear in the geological record as an uplift or compressional event. Slab Dip It has been suggested that slab dip has ‘a controlling effect on the structural ‘environment of active margins [Barazangi and Isacks, 1976]. Shallovly dipping slabs having greater contact area vith the upper plate may be nore efficient at transmitting stress, thus enabling greater coupling and favoring @ compressive active margin. This concept appears to be supported by modern day active margins. In the regionally conpressive Andes, siab dips are shallov vhile much steeper’ dips generally characterize active margins vith back are spreading. Jarrard [1986] concluded that shallov slab dip dovn to 100 km vas important in controlling active margin tectonics. Modeling slab dips for the Ecuador trench for the Tertiary is theoretically possible from the changing position and chemistry of the voleanic are. Hovever, as the present arc occupies a zone some 100 kn vide, a precise estinate of are location back through tine is difficult. Notwithstanding this, there has been a progressive y@itvard shift in the locus of arc magnatisn during the Tertiary [Baldock, 1982], which may imply a slab shalloving vith’ time. This vould predict an increasingly compressive margin. Summary This brief plate tectonic review has discussed four paraneters of plate tectonics that may be reflected in the geological evolution of the Ecuador active margin. Bach feature has a predictive aspect (e.g., fast Farallon/Mazca convergence, ‘strong coupling, compressional tectonics) that may be tested against the geological evolution of the foreare region.Daly: Plate Kinenatics and Forearc Basin Bvolution 115 tain tree Diagram shoving the predicted track of the Camegie ridge [after Fig. 6. G ‘Galapagos roteoot Pilger, 1984] on the subducted Nazea/Farallon plate, together vith the predicted position of South Anerica for the last 16'Ma.. The model implies that the Carnegie ridge collided vith the Ecuador trench at about 8 Ka. 1, The convergence direction at the Ecuador trench has been approximately WSU-ENE throughout the Tertiary. This Amplies a significant component of dextral strike-slip displacement parallel to the trench, moving material northvard vith respect to continental South America. ‘The convergence rate across the Ecuador trench shovs tvo relatively rapid phases separated by a relatively slow period. ‘These convergence rate changes nay reflect changes in coupling betveen the slab and the upper plate and consequent changes between compressional and extensional active margin tectonics. 2. South America moves to the NW and WWW vith respect to the hotspot reference frame. If the rate of this motion has been greater than trench rollback in Beuador, a continuously compressive margin with a Slight component of sinistral strike slip is implied. 3. During the Tertiary, South America has subducted young oceani¢ crust. This would facilitate strong coupling betveen the slab and upper plate and predict a constantly compressive environsent. The active margin in the region of the Beuador forearc may have collided vith the Carnegie aseismic ridge as much as 8 m.y. ago. This may be reflected as an ongoing period of uplift or compressive tectonics. 4. Although difficult to model, there is a suggestion that slab dip at the16 Daly: Fig. 7. America [after Baldock, 1982] Ecuador active margin has decreased during the Tertiary. This may inply an increasingly compressive active margin. ‘THE POREARC GEOLOGY OP ECUADOR Regional Setting ‘The Ecuador active margin [Lonsdale 1978] consists of four tectonic zones fron vest to east: the Pinon terrane comprising Plate Kinematics ard Foreare Basin Evolution Tectonic setting of the Ecuador forearc and Pinon terrane in NV South the coastal cordillera, a low-lying foreare region, and most of the fold thrust belt of the Western Cordillera; Chaucha-Anaime Terrane; the andesites and fold and thurst belt of the Bastern Cordillera; and the foothill uplifts and foreland basin of the sub-Andes (Figure 7). ‘The Pinon terrane is bordered to the vest by a zone of ophiolitic melange here termed the Cauca-Pallatanga suture (Pigure 7). The Chaucha terrane lies between thisDaly: Fig. 8. referred to in the text. Blena. suture and the Peltetec-Romeral suture [Aspden et al., 1987]. The Eastern Cordillera, foothill uplifts, and foreland basin lie to the east of the Peltetec-Roneral suture (Figure 7). The forearc region of the Pinon terrane comprises a series of Tertiary sedimentary basing (Figure 8) overlying a basement of oceanic crust and associated sediments [Peininger and Seguin, 1983; Feininger, 1987]. The foreare basement is exposed in a series of hill ranges vithin the foreare (Figure 8) and as thrust sheets within the Western Cordillera [Juteau et al., 1977]. The oceanie character of the Pinon basement is suggested by lithologies ranging from pillov basalts to haraburgites and geochemical studies [Lebras et al., 1985; Millvard et al., 1984] that shov oceanic affinities. Also in support of this are the arc-related voleanics to the eastern edge of the Pinon [fenderson, 1979] and the abundant Plate Kinenatics and Foreare Basin Evolution ™m [Zou [Fa] ns toe [Jote-ncene Fes FE pron care Geological sketch map of the Ecuador foreare basins and localities 1, San Mate 2, Chongon Colonche hills; 3, Santa radiolarites in the overlying Cayo and Yungilla formations (Baldock, 1982]. The youngest sediment vithin the Cayo Formation is Danian in age [Feininger and Bristov, 1980], vhich is taken as a axinum age for the accretion of the Pinon terrane. The accretion resulted in a period of thrust tectonics, seen today in the Western Cordillera; an’ oceanvard migration of the subduction zone; and a major unconformity at the top of the Cayo [Baldock, 1982]. Foreare Chronostratigraphy ‘The oldest foraminifera of the Cayo sediments are Senonian [Bristow and Hofstetter, 1977], which gives a minimux age for the underlying Pinon basalts. Radiometric data suggest an age of at Least Aptian for the Pinon (Goosens and Rose, 1973]. The Cayo and the laterally equivalent Yunguilla formation have an78 Daly: upper age limit of Danian [Bristow and Hofstetter, 1977]. The Danian to early Middle Eocene ic a regional hiatus in the foreare basins (Pigure 9), presumably associated vith the Pinon’ collision. The next sedimentary event is the deposition during the early Middle Eocene (circa 50-46 Ma) of a calcareous flysch sequence [Baldock, 1982] known as the San Eduardo formation. This is overlain vith a slight unconforaity by a late Middle Eocene to Late Zocene (46-38 Ma) siliceous clastic flysch of locally chaotic character. In the Nanabi basin (Figure 8) the clastic flysch is knovn as. the San Mateo formation and comprises nainly shallow water, congloneratic to fine grained turbiditie sandstones vith a laterally equivalent finer-grained facies knovn ac the Cerro formation (Figure 9). Locally, ‘small-scale broken formations occur vithin the San Mateo formation. Provenance data from the turbidites indicates a sedimentary source to the east to SE. In the Progreso Basin to the south (Pigure 8), similar turbiditic sedinentation occurred (Figure 9) but with ‘a more chaotic aspect. Here the Late Eocene sedimentation revorked Paleocene sediments apparently previously deposited to the east. Baldock [1982] described three sedinentary units from the Santa Blena Peninsula as olistostrones, all vith natrix fossil evidence indicating a Middle to Late Bocene (50-38 Ma) depositional age. In the center of the Progreso basin, cross sections presented by Benitex [1986] indicate that a thick Middle to Late Bocene section vas deposited. ‘This period of Middle to Late Eocene deposition vas characterized by sonevhat chaotic sedimentation throughout most of the presently exposed forearc. The sedimentary sequences thicken to the north and south tovard the major fault structures [Benitex, 1986], denonstrating the synsediaentary nature of the basin formation (Figures 10 and 11a). Although sedimentary thicknesses are poorly known, sone 2-3 kn of Hocene section vas deposited in the Manabi and Progreso basins during a period of apparently rapid basin formation. The Late Eocene vas folloved by a period of nondeposition during the Barly Oligocene [Baldock, 1982] and then unconfornably overiain by the Late Oligocene to Middle Miocene (33-15 Ma) Tosagua formation (Figure 9). The Tosagua comprises a lover, congloneratic sandstone sequence of proxinal turbidites. The turbidites pass up into chocolate-colored shales and finally white-veathering Plate Kinenatics and Foreare Basin Evolution diatomaceous shales. The Tosagua formation reaches some 4 kn in thickness in the Progreso basin and 2 km in the Manabi. Although confined vithin the same basin outlines as the Eocene section, the Tosagua appears to thicken tovard eastvard dipping faults, in contrast to the north and south thickening of the Eocene section. The Tosagua formation is overlain in the Manabi basin by the Daule group (Figure 9), comprising three formations of Middle Miocene to Pliocene age (15-2 Ma) calcareous sandstones and shales. The Daule Group of the Manabi basin appear to be separated from the coeval sedinents of the Progreso basin by the energence during the Middle Miocene of the Chongon Colonche Fidge (Baldock, 1982]. In the Progreso basin sone 2.5'kn of Progreso foreation sands and shale vere deposited during the sane time interval. Thus during the Middle Miocene to Pliocene, concomitant uplift and subsidence vere occurring in the forearc, vith the main depocenters separated by actively uplifting ridges. ‘The Pliocene record from the forearc is poorly developed onshore, although thick Pliocene sequences occur offshore in the Esperanza and Jambeli basins (Figure 10). The main point of note is that the Plio-Pleistocene coarse clastic Balzar formation defines a marked onlapping unconforsity on the uplifted ranges of the Chongon Colonche hills, putting an upper age limit on the uplift. ‘The chronostratigraphic developaent of the foreare basins highlights a markedly pulsatory evolution vith alternating phases of deposition and nondeposition. The age control provided by the vork of Bristow and Hofstetter [1977] constrains these phases in terms of their absolute timing. Foreare Structure The structural setting of the Ecuador forearc in terms of the Andean margin is outlined in Figure 12. Six distinet structural events contribute to the evolution of the forearc. The tying of these events to their sedimentary response, given the good control on the biostratigraphy, allovs the events to be constrained in tine as vell as space. This structural evolution will be discussed in chronological sequence belov. 1. An Barly Paleocene to pre-Middle Eocene deformation of the Pinon resulted in the large-scale erosion of the Cayo formation and an angular unconformity vith the overlying San Eduardo limestone and19 ——= -780 Daly: Plate Kinematies and Foreare Basin Evolution Fig. 10, Structural sketch map of the Ecuador forearc region. A and B mark the location of the sections shovn in Figure 11. San Mateo formation (Figure 9), This deformation is attributed to the accretion of the Pinon terrane during the Paleocene-Lover Eocene. 2. During the Middle to Late Eocene the Pinon and Cayo basement of the Porearc vas extensively faulted and the major structural pattern of today established (Pigure 10). This pattern comprises a Series of major WNU-ESE trending faults: the Esmeraldas, the Bahia de Caraquez, the Chongon Colonche, and the Santa Cruz faults (Figures 10 and 11). Although largely extensional structures, each of these faults has a small component of left-lateral strike-slip novenent {Benitex, 1986], seen today as offsets of basement’ structures. The fornation of these faults coincides vith the period of Bocene flysch deposition. The VA¥-ENE faults, in particular the Boneraldas, Chongon Colonchi, and Santa Cruz, controlled the deposition of the Eocene flysch. ‘The current directions within the flysch indicate it floved approximately parallel to the trends ofsawoeus esrena ek PLAS PROGRESO _cHONGON COLONCHE Eas Zi Cole jor forearc A. (b) Schenatic cross section act‘SCHEMATIC CROSS SECTION THROUGH THE ECUADOR ANDES. —- Cle Oe ‘ross section through terms of Andean tDaly: Plate Kinematics and Forearc Basin Evolution 783 these basin-forming faults (F. Ramirez, personal communication, 1987). It is also evident that the Eocene section thickens into these faults, enphasising their synsedinentary nature (Figure 11a). The UN¥-ESE faults developed betveen two larger structures, the Farallon/Nazca trench and the Cauca-Pallatanga suture (Figure 10). The interpretation presented is that the WWW-ESE trending forearc faults represent secondary features of a nore regional, dextral strike-slip system developed betveen the trench and the Cauca-Pallatanga suture. Figure 13 outlines this interpretation and suggests that the present UNV trending faults and fault bounded blocks have rotated clockwise during basin formation. This Period culminated in a minor phase of Inversion (contractional reactivation of a preexisting extensional fault or fault system) in these Middle to Late Eocene basins (Figure 9). ‘This Middle-Late Eocene basin-forning ‘event and associated flysch sedinentation, overlaps in tine vith the chron 21 to Major fauits initiate (J rpetwreon trench ‘and Pinion suture ‘oF Babanoyas fault zone Faults and fault blocks Y rotate within the bounding shear zones Pig. 13. Diagram shoving the fault block rotation interpretation of the Ecuador foreare. The forearc basins develop between the faults that define the rotating blocks. Note that the vestern margin of the fault blocks is alvays the Ecuador trench vhile the eastern margin appears to change with tine, initially being approximately the Cauca-Pallatanga suture and then later the more westerly Babahoyas fault. chron 13, (Middle to Late Bocene) period of rapid’ convergence at the Ecuador trench. The obliquity of the convergence implies a dextral strike-slip component parallel to the active margin. 3, The third deformation recorded in the forearc is a phase of east-vest extension, prior to and during the Late Oligocene to Middle Miocene deposition of the Tosagua foraation. ‘The extension is seen on a series of north-south to NNE-SSV trending faults that cut the Eocene section throughout the forearc. Th Tosagua formation appears to thicken into these faults, particularly in the case of the Portoviejo fault (Figure 1b), indicating their synsedinentary origins. During or insediately prior to this extension a regional break in sedimentation occurred in the forearc. ‘This hiatus may, in part, be due to the end Eocene inversion event, resulting in local structural disordances betveen Eocene and Oligocene sections. Hovever, the regional nature of the unconformity Suggests that a more profound control vas also in operation. Baldock [1982] notes that this break appears to be represented as an Andean-vide unconforaity. The Oligocene-Early Miocene extension normal to the trench coincides vith the chron 13 rapid decrease in convergence velocity and the suceeding chron 13 to chron 7 (Oligocene to Barly Miocene) period of slov convergence. ‘4. The fourth phase of deformation in the foreare commences in the Middle Miocene vith the onset of widespread inversion of the forearc basins. The beginning of this event is marked by the separation of the Manabi and Progreso basins by the energence of the Chongon Colonche ridge and the subsequent restriction of the Midéle Miocene Daule Group sediments to the north of the ridge [Baldock, 1982]. The inversion episode culminated in the Late Miocene-Pilocene with the fornation ‘of the Chongon Colonche hill range, a major south-facing monoclinal structure affecting all Miocene lithologies (Figure lla). Avsnaller scale but similar monoclinal fold can be sapped along the forearc coast east of Playas to the south of the Progreso basin (Figures 10 and 1a). In the subsurface of the Progreso basin, Benitez [1986] shovs major inversion postdating the deposition of the Progreso formation, also implying a Late Miocene to Pliocene age for the inversion. ‘4n upper limit on the inversion episode is, defined by the Plio-Pleistocene Balzar formation that lies horizontally on folded734 Daly: Strata in the Manabi basin north of the Chongon Colonche hills. Contemporaneous with the basin inversion, basin forration continued in the east of the forearc, localized along a complex dextral strike-slip fault systex approximating to the Babahoyas fault (Figure 10). The strike-slip displacenents generated the offshore Jannbeli pull-apart basin, vith a thick Section of Plio-Pleistocene sediments, and locally resulted in inversion as the strike-slip system developed. This Middle Miocene-Pliocene foreare inversion correlates vith the chron 6 to present-day increased convergence rate. Vithin the same time vindow the Carnegie ridge is predicted to have collided vith the Ecuador trench (8 Ma). Similarly, the buoyant crust of the Galapagos ridge began to be subducted at the Ecuador trench. Neither of these latter tvo features are thought to have been operating as far back as the Middle Miocene vhen the first effects of the inversion are seen in the stratigraphic record. 5. The latest and on-going structuring event in the forearc is the vertical uplift that has brought the terrane above sea level today. The coastal regions of the forearc are underlain by Pleistocene marine sedinents of the Tablazo formation, a series of bioclastic sands. The uplift of these sediments, as marine terraces, to an altitude of up to 225 m is clearly a ‘The cause of this uplift is uncertain, hovever, it is not obviously fault controlled as is the Mio-Pliocene basin inversion. The uplift may be a result of the subduction of the buoyant Carnegie ridge or alternatively sone form of subduction zone underplating. The tectonostratigraphic evolution of the forearc terrane as discussed above is summarized as a series of reconstructions in Figure 14. “The episodic evolution of the forearc is highlighted in this Sequence fron Pinon accretion to the present day DISCUSSION Plate Tectonics and Ecuador Foreare Coology arrccssignisaaeaaneeTe Of the five structural events discussed above all but the very latest uplift may be uniquely tied to a plate tectonic event at the Ecuador trench. 1. Formation of the Barly Eocene unconformity between the oceanic basement and Middle to Late Eocene formations 18 Plate Kinematics and Foreare Basin Evolution related to the accretion of the Pinon terrane to South Anerica. The uplift recorded by the base Eocene unconformity is thought to be a result of the initiation of a nev subduction zone. The fold and thrust tectonics of the Western Cordillera appear to reflect the collision of the Pinon and suturing of the old subduction zone along the Cauca-Pallatanga suture. 2. “The Middle to Late Eocene basin-forming event and flysch sedimentation in the Ecuador foreare vas coincident vith the chron 21-chron 13 (48-37 Ma) phase of rapid convergence (Pigures 2a and 9). ‘The Farallon/Nazca to South America convergence vas oblique, resulting in a large component of dextral strike-slip, motion parallel to the trench (Figure 2b). ‘This resulted in the northvard motion of the foreare terrane vith respect to South America and the associated forearc basin formation. The greatest north-south ‘extension occurred at the terranes’ trailing edge, generating the Esperanza basin. 3.” The Oligocene-Barly Miocer feast-vest, trench normal extension in the forearc vas coincident vith the rapid dectease in convergence rate at chron 13 (37 Ma) and subsequent period of slov convergence up to chron 7 or 6 (26 or 20 Ma). The extension is interpreted as a [renchvard collapse of the forearc vedge during this period of slov convergence. 4. The initiation of the Middle Miocene basin inversion coincides vith a pulse of relatively rapid convergence since chron 6 (20 Ma) or possibly chron 7 (26 Ma). ‘The inversion phase culminated in the Late Miocene-Pliocene (10-2 Ma). ‘The culmination of the inversion may be solely a result of the rapid convergence or may have been enhanced by the Subduction of the buoyant oceanic crust of the Carnegie aseismic ridge. Fron this sunmary it seems compelling that the episodic tectonic development of the Bcuador forearc basins, seen both in their structure and stratigraphy, has been controlled by the changing Faralion/Nazea to South America convergence rate. Figure 9 shovs this correlation by juxtaposing the graph of convergence rate vith the chronostratigraphy. This relationship Suggests that changes in relative convergence rate, rather than the other variables discussed, have been most critical in dictating the tectonics of the Beuador forearc. ‘Also in support of the convergence rate interpretation is the apparently regionalDaly: Plate Kinematics and Foreare Basin Evolution 60 Ma. Mid Paleocene ‘45 Ma, Mid Eocene ‘le ih Gah Ar Me al Pl enc a ae Poem. ert ete oa Se emai uesPanige nae CF5) rng rs Pages ee et ct Bn en {Sis cone 9 oun pb Sain (Serle ny sep met ot eam rie of ssn oe ‘ich cnc tg (et fone pe emp et mse ‘tyson eee | ty ce wy EE cote ‘Wate ants gy ony ‘Sa Sr ee do myc ed Me From Mee sepa meso ay mt sci, ‘tone boar eon Chen tac ‘Sint Saf ye el a = (og enacts om Oh ner Fig. 14. Reconstruction sequence shoving the tectonic evolution of the Ecuador forearc basins. 785786 Daly: nature of tectonic events associated with the tvo phases of rapid convergence. Steinman [1929] recognized three phases of tectonic activity in the Peruvian Andess tvo of these, the Eocene Incaic and Hio-Pliocene Quechua, correspond to the rapid convergence phases discussed here. Subsequent vorkers have generally supported and elaborated the episodic and regional nature of these periods of tectonic activity (Baldock, 1982; Megara, 1984; Noble et al-, 1979].’ Such a regional aspect to deformation argues against the importance of subducting localized tracts of buoyant crust from aseionic ridges or changes in slab age across fracture zones. ‘Although it is difficult to test the rollback/overriding plate relationship back through time, the analysis presented here argues against this being an important control. South Americas’ sotion vith respect to the hotspot reference frame implies a constant are environment vith a saall sinistral strike-slip component. Clearly, this does not agree with the geological evolution of the Ecuador foreare. Similarly difficult to constrain is the age structure of the ‘subducted Parallon/Nazca plate, although the suggestion is that the age of the subducting plate gets progressively younger through the Tertiary. This also ‘cannot explain the complex sequence of geological events discussed. Subduction Of the buoyant oceanic crust of the Carnegie ridge (Pilger, 1984] at cirea 8 Na may have enhanced the Late Miocene foreare inversion. Hovever, the basic compressive phase was established during the Middle Miocene, significantly earlier than the modeled age for the Carnegie ridge collision. Similarly, the very young oceanic crust nov being subducted at the Ecuador trench appears to have arrived too late to be solely responsible for the inversion. Hovever, it also may have enhanced the process. In conclusion, it appears that the changing convergence rate and fairly constant convergence direction have been the major control on the Tertiary structural and stratigraphic evolution of the Beuador foreace basins. This control has been exercised during @ period of young slab (<50 Ma) subduction at a relatively shallov angle. It may be that for the convergence rate to generate the detailed relationships outlined above a background of shallowly subducting, young oceanic crust is a necessary prerequisite. Plate Kinematics and Foreare Basin Evolution Convergence Rate and the Orogenic edge Convergence may control active margin tectonics by means of a direct coupling betveen the slab and upper plate. Ruff and Kanazori [1980] concluded. that structural environaent at active margins is controlled by both convergence rate and slab age, vhich together control slab/upper plate coupling. Jarrard [1986] agreed vith this but added the parameter of shallov slab dip. The basis of his model is that convergence rate and slab age determine the shear stress at the plate boundary vhile slab dip is a measure of the contact area over vhich this stress acts. The geological observations outlined above indicate that variations in convergence rate may be the most critical of these paraneters. It has been suggested that orogenic belts are analogous to a wedge shape of Coulonb-type rheology [Chapple, 1978; Davis et al., 1983; Dahlen, 1984). Hovever, it is Likely that’ thick orogenic vedges at depth exhibit a more ductile theology (Platt, 1986]. If, as suggested above, coupling at the subduction zone is directly related to convergence rate, then changes in convergence rate vill be reflected in changes in shear stress at the base of an orogenic wedge. The geologic consequences of such changes vill depend on the rheology of the vedge. ‘A crude test may be made of the applicability of the vedge model to the evolution of the Ecuador foreare basins. ‘Taking the subduction zone as the basal decollenent of the wedge and the high Andes as a backstop, and making the assumptions that slab dip and the physical properties of the vedge renain constant through tine, it follovs that, for a vedge of ductile, rate dependant theology (e-g- Nevtonian), the surface slope of the vedge vill be ditectly proportional to the basal shear stress, vhich in turn is a function of convergence rate (Figure 15a). decrease in convergence rate would result in internal deformation to reduce the taper. Geologically, this vould be expressed as a collapse of the forearc vedge by extension nornal to the trench (Pigure 15b). A subsequence increase in the convergence rate vould result in internal deformation to steepen the taper. Geologically, this vould be expressed as a compressive event thickening the foreare vedge (Figure 15c). In both cases the defornation vould be likely to be concentrated on existing fault structures.Daly: Plate Kinematics and Poreare Basin Evolution 787 er pe=F ana Fig. 15. (a). The orogenic vedge and its sain paraneters: «, the surface slope; the basal slope; t , the coefficient of basal friction; R and F are functions of the physical properties of the vedge and the coefficients of basal and internal friction [after Davis et al. 1983]. Ve is convergence velocity. (b) A decrease in covergence rate results in a decrease in coupling and a reduction in taper angle by extensional faulting le: (c) An increase in convergence rate results in basin formation. Hing to in coupling and an increase in taper angle by contractional faulting and basin inversion. Increased convergence also favors strike-slip motion in the forearc region. These tvo cause and effect predictions fit the observed responses of geology to convergence rate in the basin evolution of the Ecuador forearc. During the Oligocene a marked decrease in convergence rate coincided vith a period of extensional tectonics normal to the trend of the trench. Interpreted as reducing coupling, the decreased covergence lovered the basal shear stress of the vedge. The vedge responded by extension and subsequent collapse of the foreare (Pigure 15b). This vas folloved in the Mio-Pliocene by an increased convergence rate and contractional tectonics. Interpreted as an increase in coupling, this increased the basal shear stress and caused the taper to steepen by contractional tectonics (Figure 15e). ‘The response to the rapid convergence phase during the Eocene does not obviously fit the wedge model. Hovever, the increased coupling implied by’ the phase of rapid convergence vas the primary control fon the strike-slip faulting and early basin developnent. Throughout the Tertiary, convergence has been oblique, yet only during the phases of rapid788 Daly: convergence have pull-apart basins and northvard foreare terrane displacement been evident. This tends to suggest that strong coupling is a prerequisite for significant active margin strike-slip faulting. ‘A possible factor in the differing Fesponses to rapid convergence was the initial lack of major faults vithin the forearc oceanic crust during the Eocene. Only vhen the oceanic basenent vas sufficiently faulted vas the foreare terrane veak enough to respond as a vedge to the convergence rate changes. concLusros The folloving points summarize the main conclusions: 1. ‘There is a close correlation between the changes in convergence rate between the Farallon/Nazea and South ‘American plates and the tectonostratigraphic evolution of the foreare basins of Ecuador during the Tertiary. This correlation exists against a background of the subduction of a shallovly dipping, young slab. 2. The Tertiary convergence direction vas consistantly oblique at the Ecuador trench and resulted ina significant component of dextral strike-slip displacenent in the evolution of the foreare basins. These strike-slip displacenents vere of most importance during periods of rapid convergence. 3.” Foreare basin formation in Ecuador vas initiated during the Middle and Late Eocene phase of rapid convergence. This period vas accompanied by north-south extension and northvard translation of the forearc terrane. The Eocene vas succeeded by a hiatus and then Oligo-Miocene east-vest extension nornal to the trench during a phase of slov convergence. Regional inversion of the forearc occurred during the Mio-Pliocene phase of rapid convergence. The Chongon Colonche-Fortoviejo hill ranges developed during this period. Mio-Pliocene basin formation continued along the Babahoyas dextral strike-slip fault systen. 4. The Barly Oligocene hiatus in sedimentation and the Quaternary uplift of the forearc renain unexplained. However, the former may be in part eustatic and the latter may be a result of underplating at the present subduction zone. 5. Subduction of the Carnegie ridge cannot be uniquely tied to a deforsational episode. Hovever, it may have enhanced the Late Miocene inversion. The relationship between subduction Plate Kinematics and Foreare Basin Evolution ‘hinge rollback and motion of the overriding plate does not appear to have been important in the evolution of the Ecuador. forearc basins. 7. the geological response of the forearc to changes in convergence rate are interpreted in terms of changes in coupling betveen the subducting slab and upper plate. 8. “The response of the foreare to the changing plate convergence rate may be considered in terms of a dynamic orogenic wedge, vith convergence rate directly controlling basal shear stress and the vedge taper. 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Geoph 10,403-16, Uyeda, S., and fl. Kanamori, Backare opening’ and. the node of subduction, ss Res.y 84, 1069-1061, 1979, Yokokura, T., On subduction dip angles, ‘Tectonophysics, 77, 63-77, 1981. 88; “WG. Daly, Structural studies Group, BP Exploration Company Limited, Britannic House, Noor Lane, London BC2Y 9BU (Received Septenber 20, 1988; revised March 7, 1989, accepted April 4, 1989,)