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278 CHAPTER 6, MAGNETIC FIELDS IN MATTER
6.4.2 Ferromagnetism
Ima linear medium the alignment of atomic dipoles is maintained by a magnetic field im-
posed from the outside. Ferromagnets—which are emphatically nor linear’ —requir
external fields to sustain the magnetization; the alignment is “frozen in.” Like param:
netism, ferromagnetism involves the magnetic dipoles associated with the spins of unpaired
electrons. The new feature, which makes ferromagnetism so different from paramagnetism
is the imeraction between nearby dipoles: In a ferromagnet, each dipole "likes" o point i
the same direction as its neighbors. The reason for this preference is essentially quantum
‘mechanical, and I shall not endeavor to explain it here: it is enough to know thatthe cor
relation is so strong *s to align virtually 100% of the unpaired electron spins. If you could
somehow magnify a piece of iron and “see” the individual dipoles as tiny arrows, it wouiy
look something like Fig. 6.25, with all the spins pointing the same way.
Butif thatis true, why isn’t every wrench and nail a powerful magnet? The answer is that
the alignment occurs in relatively small patches, called domains. Each domain contains
billions of dipoles, all ns are actually visible under a microscope
using suitable etching techniques—see Fig. 6.26), but the domains themselves are randomly
criented, The household wrench contains an enormous number of domains, and their
magnetic fields cancel, sothe wrench asa whole s not magnetized. (Actually, the orientation
‘of domains is not completely random; within rystal there may be some preferenti
alignment along the crystal axes. But there will be just as many domains pointing one way
as the othe, so there is stil no large-scale magnetization. Moreover, the crystals themselves,
are randomly oriented within any sizable chunk of metal.)
How, then, would you produce a permanent magnet, such as they sellin toy stores? If
you put a piece of iron into a strong magnetic field, the torque N = m x B tends to ali
he dipoles parallel to the field. Since they like to stay parallel to their neighbors, most of
the dipoles will resist this torque. However, at the boundary between two domains, the
In this Sense is misleading speak of the susceptibility oe permeability of «ferromagnet, The terms are
use for such materials but they refer othe proportionality facie between a diferent increase in Hand ne
resulting diferent change a (or B) moreover they arent conus bat fnetions of H. Ferromagnetic domains (Photo courtesy of R. W. DeBlois)
Figure 6.26
are competing neighbors, and the torque will throw its weighi on the side of the domain
most nearly parallel to the field; this domain will win over some converts, at the expense
of the less favorably oriented one. The net effect ofthe magnetic field, then, is to move the
domain boundaries. Domains parallel to the field grow, and the others shrink. If the field
is strong enough, one domain takes over entirely, and the iron is said to be “saturated.”
Icturs out that this process (the shifting of domain boundaries in response to an external
field) is not entirely reversible: When the field is switched off, there will be some return to
randomly oriented domains, but itis far from complete—there remains a preponderance of
domains in the original direction, The object is now a permanent magnet.
‘A simple way to accomplish this, in practice, is to wrap a coil of wire around the object
to be magnetized (Fig. 6.27). Run a current / through the coil; this provides the external
‘magnetic field (pointing to the left in the diagram). AAs you increase the current, the field
increases, the domain boundaries move, and the magnetization grows. Eventually, you
reach the saturation point, with all che dipoles aligned, and a further increase in current has
no effect on M (Fig, 6.28, point b).
‘Now suppose you reduce the current. Instead of retracing the path back to M = 0,
there is only a partial return to randomly oriented domains. M decreases, but even with the
current off there is some residual magnetization (point c), The wrench is now a permanent CHAPTER 6. MAGNETIC FIELDS IN MATTER
tmagnet. Ifyou want to climint the remaining magnetization, you'l have trun a curet
backwards trough the col (negutive/), Now the extemal fel points tothe righ and ax
you increase 7 (negatively), M drops down ozeo (pont d). Ifyou tun 1 sil higher, yo
toon each stration in the ter cretion all the dipoles mow pouting the ight (6) At
ths singe switching ofthe current wil eave th wrench wit a permancat iu gufization 0
the ight (point). To complet the sor, tum / on again nthe positive sense” M returns
tozeo (point g), and eventually tothe forward sauration point (0),
‘The pth we have traced out is called s hysteresis loop. Notice thatthe magnetization
of the wrench depends not only onthe applied ld (that on 1), but also on its previous
magnetic “history.”* For instance, at three different times in our experiment the current
twa 270 (a, ad), Yet he magoctization was diferent fr cach of them. Actually, is
Customary to daw hyseress loops as plots of B against #. rather than M against (Four
colli approximated by along solenoid, with n tus per unit lengih, then ff =n s0 2
and [are proportional. Meanwhile, B= jo(l+M), but in pracuce M is huge compared
to H,s0twall iments and purposes Bi proportional o M.) oe
he om
w
eee (Swureton)
Neen
(Saturation) Magnet)
Figure 6.28
Symologically the word tere as nothing to do with the word history—nor with the word ysteria t
eves from a Greek verb meaning “tag behind 6.4. LINEAR AND NONLINEAR MEDIA 281
To make the units consistent (teslas), I have plotted (40 H) horizontally (Fig. 6.29)
notice, however, thatthe vertical scale is 10° times greater than the horizontal one. Roughly
speaking, oH is the field our coil would have produced in the absence of any iron; B is
what we actually got, and compared to cH itis gigantic. A litte current goes a long way
when you have ferromagnetic materials around. That's why anyone who wants to make a
powerful electromagnet will wrap the coil around an iron core. It doesn't take much of an
external field to move the domain boundaries, and as soon as you've done that, you have
all the dipoles in the iron working with you.
By
(HoH 10%)
Figure 6.29
(One final point concerning ferromagnetism: It all follows, remember, from t
the dipoles within a given domain line up parallel to one another. Random thermal motions
‘compete with this ordering, but as long as the temperature doesnt get too high, they cannot
‘budge the dipoles out of line. It's not surprising, though, that very high temperatures do
destroy the alignment. What is surprising is that this occurs at a precise temperature (770°
C. for iron). Below this temperature (called the Curie point), iron is ferromagnetic; above
itis paramagnetic, The Curie pointis rather like the boiling point or the freezing point in that
there is no gradual transition from ferro- to para-magnetic behavior, any more than there is
between water and ice. These abrupt changes in the properties of a substance, occurring at
sharply defined temperatures, are known in statistical mechanigs as phase transitions.
Problem 6.20 How would you go about demagnetizing a permanent magnet (such as the
\wrenc! e have been discussing, at point c inthe hysteresis loop)? That is, how could you
restore it to its original sate, with M =O at / = 0
Problem 6.21
{a Show thatthe energy of « magnetic dipole in a magnetic field I is given by uni-kielede
4.3.6 Hard and Soft Magnets www.t}.
Definitions
FF Lets quickly go over the tree questions frm the preceding sub-chapter
@ *. What kod of hystereses curve do| need forthe aplication | have in mind?
J Lets lok at two paradigmatic” applications: A transformer core and a magnetic memory.
@ The transformer cove is ferromagnetic in order to “transport” a large magnetic fx B produced by the primary colo
the secondary col. What | want is that the induced flux B follows the primary field H's closely as possible
@ In other words: There should be no hystereses loop -just a straight line, as shown below
‘The ideal curve, without any hystereses, does not exist. What you get is
4 Meantime something lke the curve shown for areal soft magnet - because thats
what we calla material with a kind of slender hystereses curve and thus
small values of coercivity and remanence
@ | we switch on a postive field H and then go back to zero again, a ite bt
seat mage cof magnetization islet. Fora rather small reverse field, the magnetic fux
reverses, too - the flux B follows Hrather closely, ifnot exactly
@ Hystereses losses are small, because the area enclosed in the
hystereses loop is smal.
@ But some losses remain, and the “transformer core” industry willbe very
happy ifyou can come up with a material thats just 1 % or 2% "softer
than what they have now.
© Beside losses. you have another problem: if you vary H sinusoidally, the
‘output will be a somewhat distorted sinus, because B does not follow H
linearly. This may be a problem when transforming signals.
‘A soft magnetic material will obviously not make a good permanent magnet, because its remaining magnetization (ts
remanence) afier switching off the magnetic field H is small
@ Buta permanent magnet is what we want for a magnetic storage material. Here we want to induce a large
permanent magnetization by some external field (produced by the "writing head” of our storage device) that stays.
intact for many years if needs be, Some more information about magnetic storage can be found in an extra module
@ It should be strong enough - even so itis contained in a tiny area of the magnetic material onthe tape or the storage
disc- to produce a measurable effect i the reading head moves over it. It should not be oo strong, however,
because that would make it too dificult to erase it if we want to overwrite it wth something else. In short, it should
look like this
@ We can define what we want in terms of coercivity and remance. Ideally,
the hystereses curve is very "square.
{At some minimum field, the magnetization is rather large and does not
change much anymore,
@ |" we reverse the field direction, not much happens for a while, but as soon
‘as we move above slightly above the coercivity value, the magnetization
switches direction completely
@ Ferromagnetic losses are unavoidable, we simply must ive with them
JF Prety much al possible aplication - consul the lstin the next section - either calls for soto fr hard magnets there
isnt much in between,
@ So we now must turn to the second and third question:
Tailoring Hystereses Curves
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