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Velocity Distribution of Single Phase Fluid Flow in Packed Beds PDF
Velocity Distribution of Single Phase Fluid Flow in Packed Beds PDF
Research Online
University of Wollongong Thesis Collection University of Wollongong Thesis Collections
1997
Recommended Citation
Subagyo, Velocity distribution of single phase fluid flow in packed beds, Doctor of Philosophy thesis, Department of Materials
Engineering, University of Wollongong, 1997. http://ro.uow.edu.au/theses/1537
Doctor of Philosophy
from
University of Wollongong
by
SUBAGYO
(Ir., U G M Yogyakarta)
n
DECLARATION
The work presented in this thesis is, to the best of m y knowledge and
other university.
in
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
IV
ABSTRACT
of rate processes and their mechanism taking place in the packed beds. A
The model can be applied for both compressible and incompressible fluid.
The validity of the model has been checked using previous experimental
data and results predicted by the mathematical model is good. The new
when the Reynolds number is higher than 500, the flow profile is mostly
systems are only successful for local porosity less than 0.5. In conditions
when the local porosity is higher than 0.5, especially in the vicinity of the
The restriction for the flat flow profile assumption for packed bed systems
was investigated by using the present model. It is clearly shown that the
deviation of flat profile condition not only depends on the D/DP ratio but
also depends on the Reynolds number. The deviation of flat flow profile
VI
CONTENTS
DECLARATION iii
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS iv
ABSTRACT v
CONTENTS vii
LIST OF SYMBOLS ix
1 INTRODUCTION 1
2 LITERATURE SURVEY 7
2.1 THE EXPERIMENTAL W O R K S 7
2.2 MATHEMATICAL MODELLING 33
2.2.1 The Phenomenological Approach 34
2.2.2 The Theoretical Approach 46
VII
4.2.3 The Compressible Fluid 140
4.2.4 Pressure Drop Correlation for Packed Beds 141
4.3 FLUID F L O W AT THE OUTLET O F THE BEDS 143
7 DISCUSSION 205
7.1 C O M P U T E D VELOCITY PROFILES 205
7.2 SIMILARITY CRITERIA OF PACKED BED SYSTEMS 220
8 CONCLUSIONS 226
REFERENCES 228
APPENDIX 241
ALGORITHMS OF VELOCITY PROFILE CALCULATION 241
VI
LIST OF SYMBOLS
A = area {L~
A = constant defined by equation (4-66)
IX
b = constant defined by equation (2-6) {-}
b = constant defined by equation (3-37) {-}
b{ = constant in equation (4-44) {ML" 4 }
bi = constant in equations (6-1) and (6-3) {-}
h = constant defined by equation (3-49) {-}
C = constant defined by equation (4-68) {-}
d = sample m e a n {-)
g = gravitational constant
Le = equivalent length
LM = Prandtl's mixing length
Liu = inlet length
1 = radial position in the bed that has porosity {L}
equal to 0.5
k = effective path length {L}
lw = loss work {ML2."2}
(2-53)
o¥c = digital computer number [-:
P = pressure {ML"Y2
X
SH = residual defined by equation (4-38) {Lf1
/? = reproducibility {-
Re equivalent radius {L
radial position (L
distance from wall in particle diameters {-
r radius of outer edge of central core {L
r constant defined by equation (3-38) {-
TH hydraulic radius {L
TM constant defined by equation (2-26) {-
rc starting point radial position of the core region {L
re equivalent radial position (L
rm radial position of m a x i m u m superficial velocity {L
S entropy {MLY2T'
S dimensionless axial position defined by {-
equation (4-60)
s constant in equation (2-21) {-
T temperature {T
U internal energy {ML 2 f 2
7i dimensionless radial velocity defined by {-
equation (4-54)
uM cross section average of superficial velocity {Lf'
u velocity {Lf1
uz local velocity {Lf1
Ub superficial velocity at the bulk region {Lf1
u, local velocity at t {Lf1
XIII
u = local superficial velocity at the edge of central {Lf }
core
ut = superficial velocity at the transition region {Lf'}
uw = superficial velocity at the wall region {Lf'}
umb = superficial velocity at bypass section {Lf'}
umc = superficial velocity at core section {Lt"1}
Umr = radial direction of superficial velocity {Lf1}
umz = axial direction of superficial velocity {Lf1}
um0 = superficial velocity at the centre of the bed {Lf'}
uzo(r) = velocity profile at the top (outlet) of the bed {Lf1}
UZLW = fully developed flow profile in the empty pipe {Lf1}
V = volume {L }
V = dimensionless axial velocity defined by {-}
equation (4-53)
Vj = initial specific volume of ith component {-}
-p = dimensionless velocity defined by equation (4- {-}
64)
-t i
V = specific volume {L M }
V. = total volume of solid in the ith cylindrical {L3}
concentric layer
Vy = volume of the solid in the ith cylindrical {V}
concentric layer due to a sphere with centre in
the jth cylindrical concentric layer
W = constant defined by equation (2-19) {-}
Xb = starting point of bulk region {L}
Xi = volume fraction of ith component {-}
Xt = starting point of transition region {L}
x = distance from wall in particle diameters {-}
Xl\
a = constant defined by equation (2-15)
ag = constant defined by equation (2-73)
ak = constant in equation (3-27)
d = constant in equation (4-71)
psj = quadratic coefficient of binary synergism
Ac!} = m a s s fraction of ilh component
e = local porosity
eb = average porosity at the bypass section
ec = average porosity at the core section
ep = constant defined by equation (2-10)
et = porosity at the transition region
e'0 = over cross section average porosity
e L0 = average porosity at the core region
XV
= effective viscosity {ML'Y'
= density {MU 3
p
o = surface tension {Mf2
x
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
Many engineering fluid flow problems fall into one of three broad
objects. Examples of fluid flow in channels are pumping oil in pipes, flow
fluid flow around submerged objects are the motion of air around an
and flow across tube banks in a heat exchanger. The fluid flow in packed
1
Introduction
from the fluid to the solid particles balances the opposing gravitational
force on the particles and the bed expands into a fluid-like phase, as it
does in a fluidized bed reactor. In still other applications, the fluid phase
heat and mass transfer equipment and in chemical reactors. The constant
microscopic view, eg. heat and mass transfer coefficient distribution over
One of the crucial factors in the study of packed bed systems is the
profile in the packed bed systems is required for further studies of rate
1
Introduction
and mass transfer with chemical reactions, as for example, in hot spot
It has been extensively studied and reported in several papers that the
and Bischoff, 1969; Choudhary et al., 1976ab; Lerou and Froment, 1977;
Ziolkowski and Szustek, 1989; Kufner and Hofmann, 1990]. Figure 1-1
calculation [Kufner and Hoffmann, 1990]. The results in Figure 1-1 only
account for the convective contribution arising from the variation in the
residence time over the radial cross section. Strictly, account should also
the velocity distribution, but this only tends to exacerbate the situation.
This problem has been widely studied; however, the results obtained have
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Introduction
not yet satisfactorily considered the models performance and the methods
its accuracy, its simplicity, and the type of information necessary for its
Figure 1-2 shows schematically the flow chart for mathematical model
beds.
5
Introduction
Physical
Phenomena
1
Development of
Mathematical Model
I
Results of
Calculations
I
Compare to
Experimental Data
No
Yes
Compare to
Existing Models
No
Yes
New/Improved Model
6
CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE SURVEY
In the 1950s, mass, heat and momentum transfer in packed bed systems
the crucial factors in the study of packed bed systems is the velocity
diameter. In this investigation, the flow was separated into several parts
7
Literature Sun'ex
by the inserting of thin rings, concentric with the tube wall, at the top of
the bed.
simultaneously using the soap bubble technique. In this technique, the air
flow rate is measured by allowing the flow to drive a soap bubble along a
tube and observing the time taken for the bubble to sweep out a
calibrated volume.
The essential result of Arthur ef al. [1950] is that the fluid flow is not
uniform across a packed bed. Although the results obtained from this
experiment did not give point velocities but integrated flow rates over
small cross-sectional areas of the bed, they indicated that the fluid
velocity reached a maximum at a short distance from the tube wall and a
bed has been shown in these results. Actual flow distribution above a
The authors [Arthur etal., 1950] also obtained similar results by using the
8
Literature Survey
Schuster, 1983].
Literature Survey
absorbed by, or reacts with the charcoal, is passed through the bed.
wide column.
The measured data are listed in Table 2-1. Referring to their experimental
results, Arthur et al. [1950] remarked that the main factor affecting flow
rate distribution is bed porosity. Higher flow rates of fluid at the region
near the tube wall are strong indications that this occurs because the
positions of the bed. Their measurements were made over a range of air
three sizes (3.175, 6.35, and 9.525 mm) of the equilateral particle
diameter and height of the cylindrical pellets. The results indicated that
io
Literature Survey
The authors believed that two important factors bring about a velocity
distribution of the kind obtained. These are skin friction at the tube wall
and variation in the void space in the bed with radial position. These
tube, a wall friction causes the velocity to decrease sharply near the wall.
In fact, for streamline flow in an empty tube, a wall friction causes the
friction would be dampened and become negligible near the centre of the
tube. Close to the wall, however, wall friction would again become
wall.
for all heights of the packing. This, together with the subsequent decrease
variation in bed porosity with radial position and the resultant losses of
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Literature Survey
velocity profiles. Data were obtained in 50.8, 76.2 and 101.6 mm pipe,
using 3.175, 6.350, 9.525 and 12.7 mm spherical and cylindrical pellets,
reproducibility of the data was tested without repacking of the bed; and
was rechecked after the pipe was emptied and repacked, the variability in
distribution data with repacking was 25%, although average deviation for
One of the main limitations of Schwartz and Smith [1953] study is related
assuming that the velocity distribution does not change. This distance
near the exit face of the bed and to eliminate non-axial components of
14
Literature Smre\
Table 2-2: Velocity distribution above the bed [Schwartz and Smith, 1953].
Table 2-3: Velocity distribution above the bed [Schwartz and Smith, 1953].
(Continued)
16
Literature Suirey
and the anemometer would minimise the errors and so all data were taken
at this position.
follows: The maximum or peak velocity ranges up to 100% higher than the
less than 20% for ratios of pipe diameter to pellet diameter of more than
approximately one particle diameter from the wall, regardless of pipe and
packing size. The deviation from flat profile became more pronounced as
test column was a vertical 101.6 mm diameter pipe, packed with 6.35 mm
17
Literature Survey
Their measurement result of the velocity distribution across the test bed is
total flow rate above an average superficial velocity of 0.122 m/s. Briefly,
the similar basic trend of having a maximum near the wall as those of
previous workers. The values of the ratio of (uz)max/uM were greater than
In order to overcome the problem of flow changes in the open tube where
velocity profile measurement was carried out at the exit of the bed, Cairns
and Prausnitz [1959] measured velocity profile at inside of the bed. They
of bed, using both fixed and fluidized beds with water as the fluid.
A salt tracer solution was injected into the water main stream over the
entire cross-section of the bed and the time interval necessary for
various radial and axial positions in the bed detected the change in the
injection rate.
18
Literature Sune\
19
Literature Swvey
Figure 2-4. ln each case a slight maximum was found at the centre of the
tube, but apart from this the profiles were found to be flat. It was not
the wall. The dotted extensions to the profiles shown are based on a mass
balance and indicate the type of behaviour that the authors expected at
velocity profile near the wall by employing a material balance due to the
value of local bed porosity is assumed constant over the cross section of
the bed.
Price [1968] used a 3.8 mm diameter pitot-static tube to measure the air
flow changes in the open tube at the outlet of the bed, Price [1968]
divided the exit flow area with a honeycomb of concentric splitters with
intersecting radial vanes placed between the exit face of the bed and the
the whole cross section of the bed, as many as 1,000 readings were taken
20
Literature Su/rev
10000
320
230
160
100 -- 80
SI
3
25
-o o*'
10-- 8
-t =8= =0-"
7.4
Figure 2-4: Velocity profiles for a randomly packed bed [Cairns and
Prausnitz, 1959].
21
Literature Sun-ey
packing method, sphere material and D/DP ratio. Tests also were made to
between tests.
uM, were independent of Reynolds number (1,470 < NRE < 4,350), beds
length (9 < L/D < 36), and spheres material over the range tested. Slight
systematic effects were observed near the walls due to packing method,
sphere properties, and vessel to sphere diameter ratio (12 < D/Dp < 48).
The maximum velocity was found to exist within one-half sphere diameter
distributions for a number of air velocities (0.04, 0.08, and 0.09 m/s) wer
IT
Literature Surrey
copper blast furnace. This model was packed with 6.35 mm and 12.7 mm
The essential result from Newell and Standish [1973] was that the fluid
circular beds. Their measurements also indicated that the fluid velocity
reached a maximum at less than one particle diameter from the wall as
number (100 - 400) in 101 and 152.5 mm diameter tube packed with 1 - 6
23
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Literature Survey
1.5
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s
3
-_
3
0.5 -
25
Literature Suivex
of the beds, the smoothed profile again showed the characteristic rise in
measurements were also made of the pressure distribution at the inlet and
at the exit of the column. It was also found that for the experimental
diameter fused quartz tube, randomly packed for a length of 145 mm with
cylinders cut from fused quartz rod. They used tetra-ethylene glycol, tetra-
Figure 2-8. The velocity profile has a peak near the wall, where the
26
Literature Suirey
3.00
2.50 --
2.00 -•
s
3
""Si
3
1.50-
1.00 --:
0.50 --
0.00
0.0 5.0 10.0 15.0 20.0 25.0
(R-r)/DP
27
Literature Surx'ev
DPe = 7.035 m m
D/Dpe = 10.7
L/Dpe = 20.6
0 1 2 3 4 5
(R-r)/Dp
T
Literature Surcey
The conclusion of Stephenson and Stewart [1986] that the bed porosity
measured the velocity distribution inside and at the exit of the bed by
giving good spatial resolution so that the flow distribution can be related
to the structure of the bed. However, this method is only good to take
measurements for small values of D/DP ratio because the need to provide
velocity profile was found to occur for all measurement points, namely in
the inside and at the exit of the beds as shown in Figure 2-9. The most
striking feature of Figure 2-9 is that the observed flow profiles at the exit
are different from those inside the bed. This is of some significance as it
can reject the assumption that velocity profile inside the bed is similar to
29
Literature Survey
6-
Exit of the bed. it A
4-
N
3
%x
2 - 1/ \
Atr ___-_^_mm^_____-_ \ *
3^r*"" ^^*-4r-_.
:__r IV _-W
0- ^ T — ! — I I I I I — i — r — T — r — i — i — -1 1 1 1 r—i 1 1 1 r-i 1 1 1 1 1 1 P
34 28 20 11
the exit and inside of the packed bed (DP=16 mm, D=50
30
Literature Survey
typical velocity profile above the bed of their measurement result is shown
that, with an accuracy of ±3.2%, the shape of the local gas velocity radial
profile does not depend on flow rate while the average reproducibility of
these profiles after repacking the bed was 4.2%. The pellet diameter had
a more pronounced effect than the flow rate on the shape of velocity
profile that the smaller the pellet diameter, the flatter the profile.
that the fluid flow is not uniform across a packed bed. Although the
maximum value in velocity occurs near the wall of the container. This is
due to the opposing effects of wall friction and the variation in bed
dimensionless radius, r/R. This condition agrees with the behaviour of bed
31
Literature Surve
rev
uM
0.4 m/s
0.8 m/s
1.5
2
3.
0.5
Pipe diameter = 94 m m
Bed depth = 1050 m m
Spheres diameter = 8.7 m m
0 l i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i—1_
0 2
(R-r)/DP
32
Literature Survey
profile at the exit of the bed without flow separator is a developing flow
bed and a fully developed flow profile in an empty tube, and possesses a
were measured at the outlet of the bed can not directly be used to
represent the velocity profile at inside of the bed. Based on this condition,
the study of velocity distribution inside the beds by using the velocity
profile that was measured at the outlet of the bed without flow separator
33
Literature Survey
the flow field within the whole space bounded by the tube wall. They might
be applied for the space between granules [Mickley er al., 1965], but they
data, it is difficult to apply this type of model with any confidence to oth
approaches have been done in this area, a consensus has not been
On the basis of velocity distribution that was measured at the exit of the
velocity profile in packed beds. The model was developed by applying two
main assumptions: uniform pressure drop over all radial positions of the
bed and the variation of bed porosity due to the wall effects over cross
34
Literature Survey
employed the Prandtl's expression of shearing force [Bird et al., 1960] and
transfer is the difference in pressure drop between the center of the pipe
that at any radial position. This pressure defect per unit length of bed, P5,
P — 2
' um2(1-e)
-^--u
3 "m0
2(1-0
3
(2-1)
8
"DP e £
LO
friction between the fluid and solid particles and pipe wall and orifice
losses, as well as that due to turbulent shear in the fluid alone. Then, if
is assumed that the fraction of the total pressure drop due to turbulent
shear in the fluid is constant, the Leva's correlation can still be used to
was obtained by adjusting with their experimental data to give the value of
each time the velocity profile was determined. Considering the force
35
Literature SUITCX
balance over the bed to develop the correlation between the pressure
on the right hand side of equation (2-2) [Bird et al., 1960] and local
radius r, and mixing length LM (the radial distance that a small mass of
pressure drop correlation, and Prandti's shearing force [Bird et al., 1960].
The problem in using this equation is that the integration of the expressio
36
Literature Suirey
The bed porosity at central core is assumed constant and equal to e0. Also
in this region the mixing length, LM, will be assumed equal to DP/2. With
2 V21
( xx \
'u^
u. • + < u mO
i/
uM VUM ; VUM J
In
U mO
{-
= k' (2-3)
UM
Where:
(
D \K k 2 D p ApY (2-4)
3 KD*J 8u M
from equation (2-4), however, the errors involved in using this model is
developing the model, namely, LM = DP/2 [Schwartz and Smith, 1953], fluid
phase shear stress being a constant fraction of the pressure loss [Newell,
1971], the use of the poor analogy of mixing length by Prandtl [Bird ef al.
1960; Mickley etal., 1965], the failure to distinguish between uz and uM,for
37
Literature Suirey
Prandlt mixing length and Leva's pressure drop correlation, and the
In order to reduce the errors involved in using this model, Schwartz and
Smith [1953] offered the experimental value of k'. The problem in using
pressure defect of the Schwartz and Smith [1953] model, Price [Price,
profile in circular packed beds. By extending the Price result, Newell and
Standish [1973] employed the model for rectangular packed bed and non-
correlation [Bird et al., 1960] to replace the Prandtl correlation that was
38
Literature Surx-ey
x'=pbDpuM-^ (2-6)
[Price, 1968; Newell, 1971] developed a force balance on the fluid flow as
follows :
In equation (2-7), F is the force resisting motion per unit length of bed and
arises from the interactions between the solid packing and the fluid. Since
velocity varies with radius across the cylindrical section considered, the
total resistive force acting on the fluid within the cylinder is:
R
F = J27crcuM2dr (2-8)
0
In developing the force balance, Price [Price, 1968; Newell, 1971] failured
example, fluid flow in packed beds. The shear stress momentum part in
factor.
39
Literature SuiTev
Substituting equation (2-8) into equation (2-7), and assuming that the
rearranging gives:
For the central core, the true velocity, uz, is related to superficial velocity
in the empty tube at the exit from the bed, um, by the expression
L
U eU
m=77 Z
(2-10)
p
= £ uz
£p2d
AX 2 P ,0.,-n
6 = um (2-11)
y m V ;
c dz
By assuming (dum) «umd2um, which is reasonable when the value of
40
Literature Survey
ep dp
((> =
um„ -• I„(Br) (2-13)
m0
c dz
central core where the increased velocity provides the potential for
momentum transfer into the central core of the bed. These high velocities
arise primarily from the relatively high bed porosity fraction near the wal
[Newell, 1971].
ep2 dp
conditions into equation (2-13), and solving for — — - in terms of u m , f
r 2
o [l„(B.)-l]= '-- _^. * [(a2-l)l0(Br) + I 0 (Br)-a 2 ]
.U M J
(2-14)
m
Where
u. (2-15)
a =
u mO
41
Literature Survey
It should be noted that the use of equation (2-14) to predict the velocity
workers [Schwartz and Smith, 1953; Dorweiler and Fahien, 1959], Price
profiles for the particular packing structure under consideration and over
phenomenological category.
Although the Price model was originally derived from fundamental fluid
reason for this condition is because the urge for an analytical solution led
Newell and Standish [1973] tried to extend the Price model of fluid flow
diameter term based on the bed cross section to represent a packed bed
42
Literature Survey
( V ( V
[l0(B?J-l]= ^=2. [(a2-l>0(Bre)+I0(Bfe)-a2]
I 11
(2-16)
.UiM, V U
M;
between measured data and results predicted by this model was good for
model of the copper blast furnace. In the central region the measured
Based on the data at the exit of the beds that was measured by Schwartz
43
Literature Survey
u K + [(W + 2)/2](r/R)'
(2-17)
uM K +l
K = 1.5+0.0006 (2-18)
_D_ (2-19)
W = 1.14 -2
DT
The local superficial velocity at the centre of the bed can be predicted by
K _____ (2-20)
uM K+l
data at the exit of the beds that were measured by Schwartz and Smith
follows:
A0+A,rs+I+A2rs+2 (2-21)
um = 2E
Where
An A, (2-22)
E= —
2 + s+3 s + 2
1 l
M (2-23)
0
s+2 s+1
Literature Sur vev
r
M
A (2 24
'=i7T " »
r
M
A 2 = ^ - (2-25)
s+ 2
rM = l - 2 ^ (2-26)
[1953] data. Thus, using this model is not practical because of the
expression due to the porosity function near the wall. The equation for a
. \ I r-R
f
=1 r-R'e v Dp
(2-27)
U C
M 1- n DP
p
. J
where
4n.
a= (2-28)
4-n,
45
Literature Survey
D
calculation of fluid flow in packed beds with small value of — by using
-Up
data for a given system; however, the applicability may still vary
46
Literature Survey
Poveromo, 1975; Poveromo et. al, 1975; Choudhary etal., 1976a; 1976b;
Szekely and Propster, 1977; Szekely and Kajiwara, 1979] tried to explain
extending the Ergun [1952] pressure drop correlation into vector terms. A
good result in application of this model to the gas-solid reactor with larg
value of D/DP ratio was reported [Poveromo et ai, 1975; Szekely and
The components of the velocity vector also have to satisfy the equation of
V.um=0 (2-31)
47
Literature Survey
Upon finding the velocity field through the solution of equations (2-30) and
1974] from:
For incompressible fluid flow through a cylindrical bed with axial symmetry
(that is, d/d§ = 0 and um$ = 0), equations (2-30) and (2-31) may be
rewritten [Stanek and Szekely, 1974; Bird et al., 1960; Jenson and
du du 3ln(f,+f7um) 3ln(f,+f,um)
" UJT IJQ2 , \ I 2 m/ \ 1 2 my- - rx
L / 0 nri\
_ u
i r - ^ r + u
- — ^ — u
-« ~ 3r
•- —=° (2 33
- »
l3(rumr) ( 5u m z (2-34)
=0
r dr 3z
[Stanek and Szekely, 1974]. For special cases, the analytical solutions do
exist when dfjdz = df2/dz = 0, when the resistance does not vary in the
velocity vanish and the flow becomes parallel. On putting umr = 0 and
1
U =
» -_T; + 'O
Uf; 2J
+^ (2-35)
48
Literature 5i.rv_v
fluid.
R
uMR2=j2rumdr
o
R y
= }2r +
r ^ r -
dr (2-36)
0 2f2 + 2f 2 ;
The basis of this model is the Ergun [1952] macroscopic equation for
pressure drop of fluid flow in packed beds. Basically, the Ergun equation
was developed based on the approach of the packed bed being regarded
as a bundle of tangled tubes [Bird et al., 1960], and this approach yield
good results for bed porosity less than 0.5 [Bird et al., 1960; Cohen and
cited by Gauvin and Katta [1973], is the fact that it is not appropriate for
49
Literature Smrey
usually the bed porosity is greater than 0.5 [Goodling et al., 1983]. The
effect is accounted for many times over and leads to a significant error.
distribution of fluid flow in packed beds model based on the Ergun [1952]
equation. Martin [1978] divided the packed bed into a core section of
porosity, ec, and by-pass section of porosity, eb, where ec < eb. Assuming
radially constant velocities and the validity of the Ergun equation in each
Based on Benenati and Brosilow's [1962] bed porosity data, Martin [1978]
assumed that the by-pass section area is one particle diameter from the
wall of container. Since the two parts of the model packed bed offer
and
50
Literature Survey
2
^= l50(±^}^+lJ5lz3^^ (2-38)
Dr D.
The superficial velocities umc and u m b are defined as the volume flow rates
u N
1 + 0.0117u mc R :
' c 1-e. Y Y _
l-e V
u mb M
(2-39)
u. u N 1-eb )
1 + 0.0117-u mb
M
Re
l-e b
For further use of the model, equation (2-39), can be solved explicitly for
where
N,
A m =0.0117—Ss_ (2-41)
m -.
1-e.
f' Y
B. (2-42)
vfcc;
(2-43)
1-e.
51
Literature Survey
the first reason for the simplifications is not essentially required any
longer.
By using two zone area of fluid flow in packed beds as proposed by Martin
[1978], it may overcome the original limitation of Ergun equation for bed
porosity higher than 0.5 at the vicinity of the wall. However, this
1985; Cheng and Hsu, 1986; Cheng and Vortmeyer, 1988; Vortmeyer and
1947] into microscopic view. The model was applied in a study of mass
and heat transfer [Vortmeyer and Michael, 1985; Cheng and Vortmeyer,
52
Literature Survey
Vp = li'V2um-^um (2-44)
^ = -^u (2-45)
M v
dz K
53
Literature Surcey
^ = -f.UM-f2UM2 (2-46)
Where
(1_8o) H
f, = 1 5 0 - — r - — — (2-47)
p D
t
o ^P
(1_eo) P
f, = 1.75- ^ — (2-48)
e • D
I1 . __. 2
(2-49)
- U M = flUM+f2UM
K
Since the validity of the Brinkman equation is restricted to low flow rates,
the macroscopic view result of Darcy law and Ergun equation treatment
Vp = uV2um-f.um-f2um2 (2-50)
For incompressible fluid flow through a cylindrical bed with axial symmetry
(that is, 8 /3<|> = 0 and um$=0), no radial flow direction (that is umr=0), an
no pressure gradient over the cross-section of the bed, and then equation
54
Literature Survey
3p fav i9u
= -fiUm-f2um2+u. (2-51)
dz dr' + r dr
R-r
e = e' 1 + c'Exp 1-2 (2-52)
157
where c' has to be adjusted according to e'0.
= minimum (2-53)
55
Literature Su/rev
Qicai = 2 ^ X u m i A r i r i
i
= constant (2-54)
(2-52) with experimental data has shown that the predicted maximum
value is far higher than that measured [Vortmeyer and Schuster, 1983].
Similar result was also reported by Johnson and Kapner [1990], who
modification for the Darcy term with Ergun equation. A poor agreement
causes, which include the limitation of the Brinkman equation, the using of
1985]. The diffusion of momentum in the bed, via the effective viscosity u',
56
Literature Survey
al., 1993b] and it is the fact that the bed porosity of major packed beds is
generally lower than 0.5 except in the wall region [Vortmeyer and
Schuster, 1983].
The important effect of bed porosity on the velocity profile of fluid flow in
and Smith, 1953; Cairns and Prausnitz, 1959; Newell and Standish, 1973;
which they regarded as a porous medium divided into wall, transition and
bulk regions, as shown in Figure 2-11. The region extending from the wall
57
Literature Survey
Ap De2
= 2 55
^ W.t < - >
Where le is the length of the channel or alternatively, the effective path
length followed by the fluid, and De is the effective channel diameter. The
on the concept of hydraulic radius [Bird et al, 1960], where the effective
"-it (2-56)
be rewritten to give :
u =^^- (2-57)
m v
L uB(n)
where
58
Literature Suney
l^2
B(n) = K 0 l £ l (2-58)
calculations.
In order to account for the wall effect, Cohen and Metzner [1981]
employed a different kind of hydraulic radius for each region of the bed.
For wall region, they employed the hydraulic radius definition that was
Volume of voids
Volume of bed
H
~ Wetted surface area of spheres Wetted surface of wall
+
Volume of bed Volume of bed
and for transition and bulk regions, they employed the hydraulic radius
Volume of voids
Volume of bed (2-60)
H
" Wetted surface area of spheres
Volume of bed
59
Literature Survey
bulk
region
transition
region
bulk wall
region region
R/2
X=0 X, xh
60
Literature Survey
For the bulk region, the equation to predict the velocity of fluid w a s
Ap DPV (2-61)
ub =
36uL(l-e cb ) 2 B b (n)
The average superficial velocity, ut, in the transition region from xt to xb,
u t =^-£u m dA (2-62)
of the capillary model for um (equation (2-57)), together with the definition
_Ap_ 1 V £ t dA
u, •D, (2-63)
36uL A, Jv 1-e.
In the wall region, the usual definition of the hydraulic radius (equation (2-
60)) cannot be used since the presence of the wall is not considered
[Cohen and Metzner, 1981]. As the porosity tends to the value of unity
[Roblee etal., 1958 ; Benenati and Brosilow, 1962], the hydraulic radius
system) is restricted to bed porosities less than 0.5 [Bird et al., 1960]. In
61
Literature Survey
order to minimise the error from limitation of the capillary model, Cohen
and Metzner [1981] employed the average porosity to wall region rather
than the local porosity. The average porosity in the wall region, £0w, is
defined as:
The hydraulic radius for the wall region can be derived from equation (2-
59) to give:
(
' D X X
DP t t^0w
VD P (2-65)
r
H - D - r nD A
+ 6x (l-e 0w )
-x,
DP 'ID,
The average superficial velocity in the wall region can then be determined
by using equation (2-65) for hydraulic radius in equation (2-57), hence
Ap %2 r (2-66)
^* Wl _ -~-wx I \
uLB w (n)
The limitations of Cohen and Metzner's model [Cohen and Metzner, 1981]
are the presence of empirical constants (Bw(n), B,(n), and Bb(n)) and the
prediction results that are average superficial velocities at each region
rather than the local velocities. Because of the requirement of velocity
62
Literature Suivev
prediction also may not adequately fulfil the requirement, as for example,
The three region model of Cohen and Metzner [1981] was then adapted
by Nield [1983], who assumed that near the wall only fluid exists, whose
boundary condition proposed by Beaver and Joseph [1967]. For the core
region, Nield [1983] assumed that the fluid flow obeys Darcy's law.
assumption, the results are questionable. The assumption that near the
wall only the fluid exists is unrealistic for packed beds, because the
porosity never reaches unity for any random packed bed, except for r = R,
where the velocity is zero for no-slip condition. Additionally, the Nield
experimentally.
Similar to Cohen and Metzner [1981] and Nield [1983], McGreavy et al.
[1986] also divided the flow phenomena in packed beds into regions.
Their model was based on an assumption that the flow of fluid can be
63
Literature Suivey
divided into two zones, shown as the core and annulus in Figure 2-12. In
the core the velocity is assumed to be constant, umc, and governed by the
usual equations for flow through packed beds. The annular region
extends to approximately one to two particle diameters from the wall and
influenced by the boundary, which will cause the fluid velocity to approach
the annular region, and they derived from a momentum balance that:
Ap 1 d . . ,„ ,.
—f- + -—M =0 (2-67)
L r dr
The pressure drop is assumed constant over the cross section of the bed,
du
x = x_-\x- (2-68)
dr
gives:
64
Literature Survey
Bed Centre
maximum
u m = f(r)
umm = u"mc
65
Literature Survey
du.
2L i_-V dr r = C (2-69)
rm, then dum/dr = 0 at this point and this defines the constant C.
um= r2 R2 rm (2_70)
pHf( " )~ 4^
where
p
(2-71)
2L
r=rc the velocity is equal to umc, and this then enables a relationship for rm
to be obtained as follows:
V
MUU, 2T, R
rm =• +- + 1+ (2-72)
m 2B. 2B n B p (R + rc) ^
B p ln B p ln
y^JJ
In order to reduce the errors involved in using the constant value of xd,
follows:
66
Literature Survey
x
d = agum (2-73)
The main limitations are that this mathematical model has empirical
Basically, the shear stress is function of fluid properties and true velocity
model based on fluid kinetic energy dissipation that is not uniform over
the cross section of the bed. The kinetic energy dissipation is a result of
fluid friction against the interface and between fluid molecules. All of these
empirical parameter.
67
Literature Survey
R-r
T* — (2-74)
DP
Where the parameter r* was chosen so that the reduced distances from
the tube wall, r*are multiples of DP/4 and the reduced thickness, AT*, of
V.=2.iLr._.Ar. (2-76)
The shear force per unit area was assumed appropriate to modified
follows:
x = x1 + x'
v
rz rz rz
p, t /du^ (2-77)
v
Dp•(v + v\dr*
^ k jJ
68
Literature Survey
pressure variations due to the flow. The local bed porosity of an arbitrary
annular bed segment of a region near the wall and extending to r* < 5 of
The equation given by Ziolkowska and Ziolkowski [1993] for the radial
ur=±^(l-e)u (2-78)
tube wall and negative (-1) when ur is directed towards the symmetry axis
follows:
^il = 0 (2-79)
Sr*
and the equation of motion in the axial direction:
13/ r , _, lN dp
,{purruzz+e[x\
L rz z+T[ z])-£+PF^0
rzJ/ (2-80)
Dpdr ^ dz
69
Literature Survey
equation as the external force, and the friction (internal) force Fk was
Fk=f^uz2 (2-81)
k
DP
where
r* = 0, u = 0, p = p0
u
1 < K n, r = r- , uz - £ (2-84)
i = n. r*=0, uz =0
Ziolkowska and Ziolkowski [1993] for the region near the wall and the
central region, separately. This has been done because the bed porosity
fluctuates along the tube radius up to a distance of r* < 5 from the wall and
approaches a constant value within the bed core when r* > 5 [Roblee et al,
When r* > 5, the model solution for the bed core is based on the
assumption that the bed porosity within this region is uniform. The
Ziolkowski, 1993]:
ApE)
p (2-86)
pLf(l-e0i)
The model solution for the region near the wall of the bed, up to r* < 5 is
1
1 ve ve ] ApDpA£
Uz = •+ . . + 4 _ (2-87)
2 D P e oi
D £
v p 0i J pLfe0l
where
71
Literature Survey
f AeV
(2-89)
ri _ 7 . U M D p k £n;e
Oi'
V (2-90)
~4 f_^L
I Ar*
e0i(e2+e Oi'
e= (2-91)
2(1-e]
gradient of the bed porosity, the local bed porosity, the laminar
Reynolds number.
The value of the effective viscosity, unlike the molecular and turbulent
bed porosity gradient, and thus the effective viscosity coefficient may also
difficulty arises from the fact that the effective viscosity is an empirical
72
Literature Survey
Based on the measured data at the downstream of the tube for the tube-
to-particle diameter ratio in the range 10.8 < D/DP< 22.9, Ziolkowska and
ve
— = Az(Exp(r*Bz))(Cos(2.0557ir*) + 0.45) (2-92)
where
D 'D V
A z =3.419-0.148 + 0.011 ,D ; (2-93)
P
DD
D 6n DV
(2-94)
B z = -0.668 + 0.048 + 0.004VDP ;
D
^p
with their measured data shows the reported deviations in the range of
20- 30%. The errors probably are due to both the failures in developing
model is the empirical constant, effective viscosity. Thus, using this model
According to Bird etal. [1960], the frictional energy losses are included in
the Ergun pressure drop correlation [Ergun, 1952] rather than separately
73
Literature Suney
to account for energy losses of fluid flow because of friction which use
1960; Poirier and Geiger, 1994]. However, the value of the parameter Fk
make this equation consistent with the basic equation of motion [Bird et
without any reasonable reasons. The above factors may also introduce a
packed beds, as the work of Mickley et al. [1965]. Their has shown that
flow of fluid in the voids between particles [Merwe and Gauvin, 1971a;
Matsuoka and Takatsu, 1996] rather than the flow profile over cross
section of the bed. This explanation is supported by the very much higher
74
Literature Surx-ev
From the above brief discussion of the available models of the velocity
Reid and Sherwood [1966] has not been reached. This is due to the
75
CHAPTER THREE
The study of the packing behaviour of granular materials has been carried
out since many years ago over a very broad range of topics [German,
bed.
The importance of the character of the packed beds for the velocity
ai, 1951; Schwartz and Smith, 1953; Dorweiler and Fahien, 1959; Cairns
and Prausnitz, 1959; Newell and Standish, 1973; Szekely and Poveromo,
76
Characterisation of a Packed Bed
variables that have significant influence on fluid flow in a packed bed are
It is well known that the particle size, including the size distribution, is th
basic parameter of the packed beds system. For a smooth dense sphere,
size of particle [Fayed and Otten, 1984; Levenspiel, 1984]. For a non-
having the same volume as the particle [Brown et ai, 1950; Levenspiel,
1984]. Usually, for the packed bed which consists of a number of different
diameter [Brown et ai, 1950]. The mean size (diameter) of multiple sized
77
Characterisation of a Packed Bed
_£n,Dpi
D p (diameter) = (3-1)
Zni
DPm(area) = (3-2)
D _(volume) = (3-3)
and the harmonic m e a n diameter [Standish, 1979; Yu and Zulli, 1994] is:
n-i
n;
D p (harmonic) (3-4)
^ D
Although the consensus has not been reached on the best definition for
the mean size diameter, considering the study of fluid flow in packed
diameter D vs [Standish, 1979; Bird et ai, 1960; Poirier and Geiger, 1994].
D _!___&: (3-5)
In practice, the mixture data are often performed in mass fraction terms,
78
Characterisation of a Packed Bed
[Fayed and Often, 1984; Poirier and Geiger, 1984; Morkel and Dippenaar,
1992]:
3.2 T H E B E D P O R O S I T Y
void space in a powder mass. The porosity equals one minus the
that is, mean voidage, e'0, and local voidage, e. The mean voidage is the
fractional free volume in a packed bed. The local voidage is the fractional
free volume in a point at the bed; however, because the point voidage is
The nature of packed beds are random systems and cannot be exactly
duplicated [Schwartz and Smith, 1953; German, 1989], and hence, the
79
Characterisation of a Packed Bed
In principle, the value of the mean bed porosity depends on size consist
has significant influence on the mean bed porosity and is called the wall
Cumberland and Crawford, 1987; German, 1989]. For example, the value
maximum value at the tube to diameter ratio of about 1.62 and gradually
tends to a constant value for the tube to diameter ratio higher than 10
80
- oc
-Mr
CD
_
OO
CD
0 TO
o.
CM CO
>
5 cc
a 03
1.
3 LO O
CM O
•a
03
A
CO
03
q O
c\i CO
a
ro
o
o 'sz
0)
Q. JZ
Q a.
co
o
>
o "co
CO
o
o
Q.
c
q ro
03
0.
E
c
o
*-•
o o
LO 0)
M—
03
i_
03
03
E
ro
T31
CO
0)
03
13i_
33
+J
O)
0 3
LL
£
Characterisation of a Packed Bed
arranged [Blum and Wilhelm, 1965], or all particles of the same size and
shape have the same probability to occupy each unit volume of the
mixture [Debbas and Rumpf, 1966], there are two reproducible states of
when the particles are poured into container then shaking for about 2
about its axis and returned gradually to the vertical position [Cumberland
packing; poured random packing; loose random packing; and very loose
random packing. When the bed was vibrated or vigorously shaken down,
82
Characterisation of a Packed Bed
method to predict the packing character [Brown et ai, 1950; Lamb and
Wilhelm, 1965; Levenspiel, 1984; Yu and Standish, 1993b; Zou and Yu,
1996]. Considering the infinite packing for which voidage (the bulk mean
[Haughey and Beveridge, 1966], that has been experimentally found for a
particle size [Standish, 1990]. The measured data of the mean voidage of
Table 3-1.
83
Characterisation of a Packed Bed
84
Characterisation of a Packed Bed
size which was proposed by Meloy [Fayed and Otten, 1984], as cited by
volume equal to that of the particle, divided by the surface area of the
particle [Brown et ai, 1950; Levenspiel, 1984], and the maximum value of
A graphical correlation between the particle sphericity, x\r, and the bulk
etal. [Brown et ai, 1950; Levenspiel, 1984] as shown in Figure 3-2. Zou
the bulk mean voidage of cylinder particles and disk particles as follows:
ln e
( 'o)cyl!nder = ¥558ExP[5.89(l - ¥)]ln(0.40) (3-8)
85
Characterisation of a Packed Bed
1.0
\\\
0.8-
V\*M Loose packing
/
V \ *
\ \
x *
0.6 x *
x *
-- x *
>_ N
Dense packing
/ s
0 . 4--
-
Nomal packing
0.2 --
1 . . 1 1 . 1 1 L • • 1 • i i
0.0 —1—'—'—'—
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
Particle sphericity
86
Characterisation of a Packed Bed
ln e
( 'o)cylind.. = V674Exp[8.00(l - ¥)]ln(0.36) (3-10)
ln e
( 'oL = V°63Exp[0.64(l-¥)°45|ln(0.36) (3-11)
follows:
Where
I = W V cylinder (3-14)
For packed beds that consist of a mixture of particle sizes, the m e a n bulk
87
Characterisation of a Packed Bed
particles in which the number of size components is more than two, the
[Standish, 1990].
[Furnas, 1931; Ridgway and Tarbuck, 1968b; Standish and Borger, 1979;
For uniform mixtures of the binary spherical particles, the mean bulk
[Ridgway and Tarbuck, 1968b; Standish and Borger, 1979; Fayed and
88
Characterisation of a Packed Bed
coarse particles the voids among the coarse particles gradually fill up until
they are all filled and no more fine particles can fit in, and the voida
decreases. If more fines are still forced into the already filled space,
do that by forcing the coarse particles apart, and this increases the to
of solutions [Smith and Van Ness, 1975] to determine the mean bulk
mathematically as follows:
1
V
i = 1-e'
(3-16)
Oi
'V-V-X-V V V-X.-V2X2
+ 2$ v-v.x,
V, V, v,-i
(3-17)
^V-X,-V2X2^
+ =2
v,-i
89
Characterisation of a Packed Bed
0.1 H — ' — ' — ' — I — ' — ' — ' — | — ' — ' — ' — | — ' — ' — ' — I — ' — ' — ' —
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
% Volume of large particles
Figure 3-3: Voidage mixtures of binary system for spheres [Yu and
Standish, 1988].
90
Characterisation of a Packed Bed
the Westman equation [Yu and Standish, 1988; Yu et ai, 1993]. For
of large particle diameter (DP2) to small particle diameter (DPi) and this
of#
f rxx V-566
D^ Lrfrx,
For given initial mean bed porosities of the binary systems, it is evident
of its equivalent volume diameter, DPv, and sphericity, as given by [Yu and
Standish, 1993b]:
D Pe 3.6821 1.5040
(3-19)
D Pv 3.17811- V + l|T=—
91
Characterisation of a Packed Bed
particles, Xi, Yu and Standish [1988] introduced some arbitrary terms into
Where the coefficients p 12 and y12 are called the quadratic coefficient and
specific volume and size ratio of binary systems, being constant for given
initial specific volumes and size ratio [Yu and Standish, 1988].
Standish, 1988]:
Where
v... + v... - v. - v.
p..=-^ * ! L
(3-22)
H,J V
0.4032 '
V
iii-Viii-0.44Vi+0.44 V.
! L
v, = — - (3-23)
r,J
0.177408
92
Characterisation of a Packed Bed
Vy and Vyj are the specific volumes corresponding to the two points:
X; = 0.72, Xj = 0.28, and X| = 0.28, Xj = 0.72 (i < j), respectively, which can
predict the mean bulk porosity for which the applicability is strictly
the successful model that was developed on the basis of the solution
particles [Yu and Standish, 1993a]. That is, the particle mixture is usually
in this area, it has been shown that the application of models which were
93
Characterisation of a Packed Bed
Tanaka, 1981] are satisfactory to predict the bulk mean porosity of the
particles [Yu and Standish, 1991; 1993ac; Ouchiyama and Tanaka, 1989],
From the above brief discussion of the bulk mean porosity of multi-sized
packed bed, it has been shown that the general assumption for model
conditions that the particles mixtures are not homogeneous, i.e., there is
the statement of Blum and Wilhelm [1965] that the experiment is the key
The wall of container used to hold a random packing material will induce a
local area of order at the region near the wall [Blum and Wilhelm, 1965;
German, 1989]. The effect is more pronounced for flat, smooth containers
94
Characterisation of a Packed Bed
particle layers near the wall and, it has been shown experimentally,
almost independent of the bulk region [Roblee et ai, 1958; Benenati and
Brosilow, 1965; Thadani and Peebles, 1966; Kondelik et ai, 1968; Scott
through a packed bed can only be obtained from a knowledge of the local
bed porosity distribution was carried out by Roblee et al. [1958]. They
was then filled slowly with hot wax, and then allowed to solidify. After the
wax had solidified, the bed was sawed into circular slabs, which were in
turn sawed into concentric rings. Analysis for bed porosity was made by
first removing the wax from the packing material by dissolving the wax in
boiling benzene, then distilling the benzene to recover the wax. The void
95
Characterisation of a Packed Bed
spheres was investigated by Scott [1962]. He used about 4,000 steel balls
with 3.175 mm diameter that were poured into a 45 mm diameter and 150
mm long cylinder column. The study was continued [Scott and Kovacs,
columns. They used epoxy resin as filling material, which was introduced
into the bed from the bottom and allowed to flow upwards through the bed.
The function of this method is to avoid the air from being trapped inside
the filling agent, so the more accurate result of bed porosity may be
achieved. After curing the resin, the bed was machined and the layer of
was determined for each layer by means of the simple material balance
based on the mean density. The packing used consisted of uniform sized
lead spheres and measurements were made for D/DP ratios varying from
2.6 to infinity.
96
Characterisation of a Packed Bed
rays or y-rays in the sphere material and the matrix material was
column. The cylinder vessel was charged with 9.525 mm diameter red
Plexiglas spheres which was then filled slowly with epoxy resin mixed with
araldite catalyst, and then allowed to cure. After curing the resin, the bed
was sawed into slices two particles diameter thick of circular slabs.
scanning unit.
5.96 and 7.99) and with the height of each of the different cylindrical
7.84). The study was continued [Mueller, 1993] to investigate the angular
97
Characterisation of a Packed Bed
for the investigation of the angular distribution bed porosity were similar to
The minimum local bed porosity in the near wall region of a cylindrical
cylindrical particles into a container and then filling all the interstices with
Dental, Prague). Upon curing the resin, the bed was cut into cylindrical
impure organic liquid and on the refractive index matching of the packed
vessel. The vessel was charged with glass spheres which was then filled
with a liquid having same refractory index as the glass spheres to allow
a light beam to cross the bed without scattering. With ethyl salicylate
are therefore selected by taking advantage of this property and then the
98
Characterisation of a Packed Bed
They used polystyrene spheres as particles and an epoxy resin was used
to fill the void matrix. The packing material was poured into a plastic pipe
the top to prevent flotation of the particles in the denser liquid and then
filled with liquid epoxy together with hardener, from the top. After curing
the resin, the bed was cut from the outer periphery over the entire length
of the sample. The local bed porosity was determined for each layer by
means of the simple materials balance based on the mean density. The
measurements were made for D/DP ratios varying from 7 to 17 for uniform
In a more recent study Stephenson and Stewart [1986] studied the bed
technique. Analysis for bed porosity was made by manually marking of the
photo that was observed using a television camera. The markings were
99
Characterisation of a Packed Bed
porosity distribution in packed beds it has been shown that the local
sections, especially in the region close to the walls [Roblee et al, 1958;
Benenati and Brosilow, 1962; Scott, 1962; Thadani and Peebles, 1966;
Kondelik et ai, 1968; Scott and Kovacs, 1973; Goodling et al, 1983;
the shape and size distribution of particles [Roblee et al, 1958; Scott,
1962; Scott and Kovacs, 1973; Goodling et ai, 1983] but almost
1962]. For spherical particles, the local bed porosity with ratio of the
reaching a minimum at one particle radius from the wall, and a maximum
at one particle diameter. The porosity continues cycling until four to five
particle diameters from the wall before the constant value is reached
[Roblee etal., 1958; Benenati and Brosilow, 1962; Scott, 1962; Thadani
100
a
o
c d
•2
a
tj
2
a
q CO
oo a.
a
-«->
_.
re
<N
_.
a
_^
ON re
vo
•xO o
os
,—1 _.
£ a
-C
o s/s cn a. Q.
_3
c_
<U 00
00 OS CO
u. n
I-I
J-t r-H q Q
SO __T, i_
CQ a)
"c. CN o
H—
.3 a, 75
a T3
M—<
a.
Os •t c
M-J
OJ a E o
r-l
C o 3
a. c c.
T3 -Q
<u <u
d)
C- O 0) 'v.
o .r, a 3
3
tr. CQ E- a o (fl
c T3
CQ >
q to
*5 CO
o
--
o
a
ro
TJ
ro
OC
•sf
•
o CO
cs QJ
5-
3
a>
in
ir-
es
Characterisation of a Packed Bed
The radial variations of the voidage are due to the confining effect of the
wall of the bed. In a randomly packed bed, the layer of spheres nearest to
the wall tends to be highly ordered, in which most of the spheres make a
point contact with the wall of the container with the result of the unity
value of voidage [Goodling et ai, 1983]. The next layer builds up on the
surface of the first, in a less ordered fashion. The subsequent layers are
regions far removed from the wall. In condition the particles are
also affects the particle arrangement. It explains why the measured data
for the wall distance greater than one particle diameter is dependent on
The similar results also were reported for uniform size of cylindrical
Stewart, 1986]. The bed porosity has a value of unity at the wall, and then
reaching a minimum at 0.5 - 0.7 particle diameter from the wall [Kondelik
et ai, 1966], and a maximum at about one particle diameter. The porosity
continues cycling until four to five particle diameters from the wall before
the constant value is reached [Roblee et ai, 1958] as shown in Figure 3-5.
102
Characterisation of a Packed Bed
1.25
0.25 -
0.00 + J I I I I I I I L.
' ' I
0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0
Distance from wall in particle diameters
103
Characterisation of a Packed Bed
For highly irregular shapes such as Berl saddles and Raschig rings,
results indicate that the bed porosity decreases regularly from unity at the
wall to the constant porosity at about one particle radius from the
container wall [Roblee et ai, 1966], as shown in Figure 3-6. The constant
bed porosity almost over all of the cross section of the bed could be
pattern.
measurements indicate that the bed porosity oscillation over the cross
section of the bed is function of the number of sphere sizes that were
mixed as shown in Figure 3-7. Based on Scott and Kovacs [1973] and
Goodling et al. [1983] data, obtained on equal number and equal volume
from the wall and for three sizes the effect of the wall is observed only
shape particle together with the increasing of the number of particle sizes.
104
Characterisation of a Packed Bed
2.0
Raschig rings
1.5
Berl saddles
1.0
CO
0.5-•
0.0 -I I I I I I I I I L. _i • • i i i i i i i i_
-H- +
0.0 2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0
Distance from wall in particle diameters
Figure 3-6: Radial variation of bed porosity for Raschig rings and
105
Characterisation of a Packed Bed
1.0
Binary-mixture
0.8
0.6
Oo
0.4
o ^ A / *_
0.2 4
0.0
0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0
(R-r)/Dp (R-r)/Dp
Dpi = 6.35 mm Dpi - 4.76 mm
Dp2 = 7.94 mm Dp2 = 7.94 mm
Dvs = 7.06 mm Dvs = 5.95 mm
D = 52.6 mm D = 52.6 mm
1.0 1.0
Ternary-mixture Quaternary-mixture
0.8 0.8
0.6 0.6-
Qo
0.4 0 0.4 °>Do r°r ° Ci-p <
Oo 0 9> o
0.2 0.2
0.0 4 0.0
0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0
(R-r)/Dp (R-r)/Dp
Dpi = 4.76 mm Dpi = 3.18 mm
Dp2 = 6.35 mm Dp2 = 4.36 mm
Dp3 = 7.94 mm Dp3 = 6.35 mm
Dvs = 6.08 mm Dp4 = 7.94 mm
D = 52.6 mm Dvs = 4.86 mm
D = 52.6 mm
106
Characterisation of a Packed Bed
From the foregoing brief summary of the experimental work on radial bed
the wall effect, in that the presence of the wall allows to order the
Wilhelm, 1965; German, 1989; Mueller, 1992]. The first layer of particles
in contact with the wall tends to be well ordered with most of the particles
touching it. Subsequent layers are less and less ordered as one moves
away from the container wall. Particles in layers far removed from the wall
approach for the vicinity of wall area, and stochastic approach, for the
system.
especially in the vicinity of the wall area, an extensive study has been
Kondelik etal., 1968; Ridgway and Tarbuck, 1968a; Pillai, 1977; Gotoh, et
ai, 1978; Martin, 1978; Cohen and Metzner, 1981; Vortmeyer and
Johnson and Kapner, 1990; Kufner and Hofmann, 1990; Mueller, 1991;
107
Characterisation of a Packed Bed
bed porosity of the packed bed systems. Some representative models are
which were fitted based upon a particular set of experimental data, and
[1983]. They employed the exponential function to fit their measured data
of a packed bed consisting of glass spheres with small deviation from the
spherical structure, which in this case only shows one oscillation in order
l £
c'= '° (3-24)
2.71828e',o
108
Characterisation of a Packed Bed
exponential function and cosinus function to fit the Benenati and Brosilow
[1962] measured data of spherical particles bed. Martin [1978] divided the
cross section of the bed into two zones and introduced a new wall
R-r
Z'=2 -1 (3-25)
Dt
for 0 < Z :
f \
e = e'o+(emin -e'„)Exp ( Z'^Cos 7. (3-27)
4
r J . k
J
where the value of ock is equal to J— for the ratio of D/D p equal to °o
[Martin, 1978].
109
Characterisation of a Packed Bed
bed into three regions, and the correlation for each region is as follows:
R-r
For — — < 0.25:
DD
2^
1-e R-r 7 R-r
= 4.5 (3-28)
1-e' D, v DP ,
R-r
For 0.25 < — — <8.0:
DD
R-r
For 8.0 <
DD
6 = 6' (3-30)
Johnson and Kapner [1990] for spherical particles and Kufner and
/ 0.434 N -\U}\
R-r R-r
(3-31)
e = 0.38 + 0.62Exp -1.70 Cos 6.67
DD Dp _
V
no
Characterisation of a Packed Bed
A f R - r ^ ( R-01
1+ ' 1--V, Exp 1-
v2.71828e'oy Cos 27,
V DPe ,
I DPe )
become strictly restricted to systems that have the same value of the
aspect ratio as the original data for fitting the correlation [Mueller, 1991;
ratio parameter. Based upon the experimental data from Roblee et al.
[1992], he has described the following correlation for predicting the radial
variation of voidage:
Where
3.15
a = 7.45 - — — , for 2.02 < D/D P < 13.0 (3-34)
111
Characterisation of a Packed Bed
0.725
Y= for0
/D ' ^r/DP (3-37)
0.220
8b=0365+ (3 38)
D/D7 "
A critical study of local bed porosity variation of spheres was carried out
112
Characterisation of a Packed Bed
rectangular column [Perry and Green, 1984], this model is not useful
is cut by planes parallel to the wall, it can be divided into two types of
113
Characterisation of a Packed Bed
By employing the analytical geometry technique, the local bed porosity for
( ^ V
K X-..3PDP Dp-x + J-pDp
.3 J
=1-X- ^ ' - (3-39)
2
4 -P
for the second layer and so on. Accordingly, as the value of porosity is
between zero and unity, the bracketed terms must be positive or zero; if
bed, Ridgway and Tarbuck [1968a] introduced two correction factors that
allow for the voidage increase within a layer over that for a close-packed
114
Characterisation of a Packed Bed
Tarbuck, 1968a].
115
Characterisation of a Packed Bed
and Tarbuck [1968a] relation for the random packed bed becomes:
Fill
(2 '
X_ PDp
p l
V3
D p - x + ^-pDpF2 (3-40)
1-1 —
^
9 F\
F = -^(0.62 + 0.18e-0J6p) (3-41)
F2=0.991p (3-42)
[1962] was reported by Ridgway and Tarbuck [1968a]. The root mean
and the standard deviation of the experimental results was 0.01. It may be
11.5
Characterisation of a Packed Bed
of five particle diameters from the wall. However, this model still requires
that m = DP/2Ar, as a suitable integer, and for realistic aspect ratios, the
Consider the ith cylindrical concentric layer, the volume of spheres whose
v , = — Jv(r)dr (3-43)
A I
(i-l)Ar
layer, the total volume of solids in the ith cylindrical concentric layer is
V1=^NJviJ (3-44)
JI
117
Characterisation of a Packed Bed
The voidage in the ith cylindrical concentric layer is then [Govindarao and
Froment 1986]
6i = 1 - (3-45)
TcAr'Lgj
where
g- = 2am-2i + l (3-46)
By solving equation (3-43) for different spherical slices and caps and then
substituting the results into equation (3-45) and defining x\, as the numbe
( 1 "\ i+m-I
_h_
e ; =_.-• n : j m —— + 3Xnjb, i < 2m (3-47)
Si V 4; j=m+l
and
\ i+m-l
6; = 1 — ( n i - ™ + n i + J m - - +3Xi-.b i > 2m (3-48)
Si j=m+l
where
, N T Ar
h= —!— (3-50)
3L
118
Characterisation of a Packed Bed
[Govindarao and Froment, 1986]. Based upon the experimental data from
correlations for predicting the two number fractions in terms of the aspect
ratio:
3 08
" (3-52) "m+l
a
2.60
niffl — (3-53)
a
Based upon the comparison of the local bed porosity, predicted by using
3.3 PERMEABILITY
shape, bed voidage and geometric factor [Standish, 1979]. For packed
119
Characterisation of a Packed Bed
spread and size range of a particle size distribution [Yu and Zulli, 1994].
The permeability of the bed K is defined by Darcy's law [Bird et ai, 1960;
Fayed and Otten, 1984; Wilkinson, 1985; Kececioglu and Jiang, 1994]
packed bed systems [Bo et ai, 1965; Standish and Leyshon, 1981;
1991; Yu and Zulli, 1994; Kececioglu and Jiang, 1994]. The following
experimental data [Bird et ai, 1960; Kececioglu and Jiang, 1994; Poirier
where av is the surface area per unit volume of particles, and K' is an
[Ergun, 1952].
6
a v =D—P (3-56)
Substituting equation (3-56) into equation (3-55) and then inserting of the
value of the constant K" equal to 4.17 into the result, then gives
2.3
D/E
K= (3 57)
I_x7-_F "
The constant K" equal to 4.17 is not universally selected, s o m e believe the
Geiger, 1994].
fluid flowing in a packed bed [Kececioglu and Jiang, 1994], the energy
losses of fluid flow is due to inertia energy losses and kinetic energy
losses and the inertia energy losses are expressed by bed permeability
121
Characterisation of a Packed Bed
Dp£3
I=
mTi) 0-58)
give the characteristics of the bed for viscous and inertial flow in the
condition is rather unusual and rarely met with in practice, where the
geometric factor is hardly ever unity due to the use of packings having a
[22
Characterisation of a Packed Bed
complexity of the system involved, namely coke and sinter of different size
distributions and absolute sizes (sinter: 5-20 mm and coke: 25-70 mm),
It is of interest to observe that in this regard, Yu and Zulli [1994] noted the
factor, viz \|/=1.0 f°r tne uniformly mixed bed and \j/<1.0 for the
quantitative and useful information for the process control then the radial
123
Characterisation of a Packed Bed
further.
124
CHAPTER FOUR
DEVELOPMENT OF A MATHEMATICAL
MODEL FOR VELOCITY PROFILE OF FLUID
FLOWING IN PACKED BEDS
Generally, there have been two main theoretical approaches for studying
flow conditions in packed bed systems. In the first approach the packed
developed by applying the previous results for single straight tubes to the
the first approach has been successful for bed porosities less than 0.5
to evaluate the velocity distribution of single phase fluid flow in the packed
bed, the fluid flow phenomena is treated by using the above first
is restricted to the bed voidage less than 0.5 [Bird et ai, 1960; Cohen and
Metzner, 1981; Foscolo etal., 1983] and the variation of the voidage over
the cross section of the bed as stated in the previous chapter, it has
125
Development of a Mathematical Model for Velocity Profile of Fluid Flowing in Packed Beds
system for the local voidage greater than 0.5, and as a discontinuous
by an energy balance. Energy is carried with the flowing fluid and also is
transferred from the fluid to the surrounding, or vice versa [Brown et ai,
1950]. The energy carried with the fluid includes the internal energy, U,
and the energy carried by the fluid because of its condition of flow or
126
Development of a Mathematical Model for Velocity Profile of Fluid Flowing in Packed Beds
Zi
Point 2-
Fluid Inlet
Assuming the direction of fluid flow is only in the z-direction, then equation
(4-1) gives:
AU + -muz2+A(mgz)+A(pV)=q (4-2)
etal., 1950].
The increase of the internal energy due to heat effects, TdS, as cited by
•M
Brown et al. [1950], is equal to the sum of the heat absorbed from the
surroundings and all other energy dissipated into heat effects within the
128
Development of a Mathematical Model for Velocity Profile of Fluid Flowing in Packed Beds
process,
where the lost work (Iw) is energy that could have done work but was
r2 fl }
J Vdp + A - m u z 2 +A(mgz) + etc.= -(lw) (4-7)
state 2, except for unsteady state condition and the presence of shaft
work.
surface effects, etc., equation (4-7) may be written, for a unit mass of
material as:
f - d p + ^ - A u z 2 + A Z = -F h (4-8)
g 2g
Where:
F h = ^ (4-9)
mg
129
Development of a Mathematical Model for Velocity Profile of Fluid Flowing in Packed Beds
The energy per unit mass lost as frictional conversion into heat, Fh, m a y
Fh=^^ (4-10)
2gd p
Equation (4-11) is applicable for straight pipes with constant diameter and
concept of equivalent length, Le, for describing fluid flow through non-
0.5, it can be assumed that the flow phenomena is similar to fluid flow
inside a bundle of tangled tubes [Bird et ai, 1960; Cohen and Metzner,
1981] with radius re. By using a definition of hydraulic radius, rH, [Bird et
130
Development of a Mathematical Model for Velocity Profde of Fluid Flowing in Packed Beds
ai, 1960; Foust, etal., 1960; Poirier and Geiger, 1994] then the quant
re = 2rH
_d^ (4-12)
2
By neglecting the wall effect, the hydraulic radius for a bed composed of
EDD
r_
H = (4-14)
"6(l-e)
Mehta and Hawley [1969] have attempted to account for the wall effect by
modifying the expression for the hydraulic radius. Their modification takes
the form:
ED,
rHu = ... \.. (4-15)
6(1-e)M
where
4D
M = 1 + (4
f l & '16)
131
Development of a Mathematical Model for Velocity Profile of Fluid Flowing in Packed Beds
proposed to apply over the entire cross-section of the column, Cohen and
Metzner [1981] suggested to apply this approach only at the wall region,
because the effect of the wall should be confined to the wall region
without affecting the nature of the hydraulic radius in the bulk of porous
bed.
screened, and then the particle diameter, DPs, may be taken as the
sphericity concept into equation (4-14), and then the hydraulic radius may
r =^^ (4-17)
H {
6(1-e) '
Considering the fluid flow in packed beds, the value of equivalent length,
Le=r;Az (4-18)
[Cohen and Metzner, 1981] which relates the interstitial velocity with bed
voidage:
132
Development of a Mathematical Model for Velocity Profde of Fluid Flowing in Packed Beds
uM
uz=-fL (4-19)
By assuming the value of the correction factor, l%, is constant over the
cross section of the bed with local voidage less than 0.5 and replacing L
in equation (4-11) with Le, then substituting equation (4-12) into equation
(4-11) gives:
4 = 1.75+150^ (4-21)
Where
NRe="^L^ (4-22)
H
voidage less than 0.5, and considering the voidage higher than 0.5
usually occurs only at the wall region of the random packed beds,
equation (4-14) or equation (4-17) is taken into account for calculating the
hydraulic radius.
133
Development of a Mathematical Model for Velocity Profile of Fluid Flowing in Packed Beds
As discussed earlier, the local bed porosity has a limiting value of one at
the wall for the particles which have possibility to make point contact with
minimum value at a distance about a half particle diameter from the wall.
restricted to the bed voidage less than 0.5, then for the wall region the
Consider the fluid flowing through a packed bed at the wall region, no-slip
and .is a radial position in the bed which has voidage equal to 0.5.
Employing the momentum balance [Bird et ai, 1960; Poirier and Geiger,
1994] in the wall region with the local voidage higher than 0.5, assuming
the flow of fluid only driven by the difference of momentum and that the
3u, z
re =0 (4-23)
3r 3r
1. at r = £, 6 = 0,5 uz = u, (4-24)
2. at r = R, e = 1.0 uz = 0 (4-25)
134
Development of a Mathematical Model for Velocity Profde of Fluid Flowing in Packed Beds
For a volume element (Figure 4-2), the material balance of the fluid flow is
gives;
a(puz)
=0 (4-28)
3z
Or
dU, d
P rx
z
+ UM,-^ = 0
(4-29)
az az
a
Considering that for the incompressible fluids, the value of —P is equal to
9UM
=0 (4-30)
3z
135
Development of a Mathematical Model for Velocity Profile of Fluid Flowing in Packed Bed.
FLUID O U T L E T
_.Ar „
Z=L
r
R **—•
Z=Z+AZ
Z=Z
z=o
FLUID INLET
1 9p f&u2
~^T+ _ +1 = 0 4-31)
Pg dz 8grH
Substituting equations (4-14), (4-19), (4-21) and (4-22) into equation (4-
31) and then the result solved for positive value of uz is;
Uz = -^+A-2-4^ (4_32)
2A,,
Where
(1-e) pt
...=1.3125- £ -f*-
Dp (4-33)
(1-E) 2
x2 — 1
1 11Z.0
0. r,
^
(4-34)
£ Dp 2
dp
^ =-^-+pg (4-35)
dz
independent of the axial position, equation (4-23) with the two boundary
(r-R)
8= 1
"2T7-R)' for£<r<R (4-36)
137
Development of a Mathematical Model for Velocity Profile of Fluid Flowing in Packed Beds
polynomial is chosen:
method [Burnett, 1987] to optimise the best value of k0, k: and k3, a
/.0=-Rf>.+_-2R) (4-39)
5.+R
*,= ,, ^ 2u , (4-40)
3(.-R)
138
Development of a Mathematical Model for Velocity Profde of Fluid Flowing in Packed Beds
The value of the correction factor, \%, may be evaluated by using the
7.R2puM
m= P1- (4-42)
4
and
R
(4-42)) and the microscopic result (equation (4-43)) of the mass rate, the
sphericity concept.
139
Development of a Mathematical Model for Velocity Profile of Fluid Flowing in Packed Beds
r V
constant and is a function of the pressure, the term — d p in equation (4-
J
g
19) can not be directly solved. The solution of this term requires a
This difficulty is complicated by the fact that the fluid velocity, uz, besides
being a function of bed radius, also depends upon the axial position in the
On the other hand, based upon the measured data that were obtained at
both the inside of the bed [Stephenson and Stewart, 1986] and the outlet
of the bed [Price, 1968; Newell and Standish, 1973; Szekely and
bed character rather than that of the superficial velocity or the flow rate of
the fluid. This condition makes the assumption that a constant value of the
the algebra considerably for the solution of the equations (4-20) and (4-
23).
140
Development of a Mathematical Model for Velocity Profile of Fluid Flowing in Packed Beds
The bed with large value of L/D is divided into finite number, N, of short
beds and the assumption of small pressure drop would be valid for every
A very large number of relations have been proposed for estimating the
Brown, et ai [1950]; Bird et al. [1960]; Foust et al. [1960]; Perry and
Green [1984]; Agarwal and O'Neill [1988]; Leva [1992]; Poirier and Geiger
[1994] and Kececioglu and Jiang [1994], but only a notable few will be
described here. The principal reasons for not discussing the others were
equation for predicting the velocity distribution, the other correlations can
also be applied with regard to the availability of data and the validity of
correlations, if required.
The most widely used mathematical correlation for single phase fluid flow
I4l
Development of a Mathematical Model for Velocity Profile of Fluid Flowing in Packed Beds
-^^afuM+bfuM2 (4-44)
dz
In 1952, Ergun [1952] examined this general expression for gas flow
through crushed porous solids, based on its dependence upon the flow
__-.15Q.k£^__f.M.751-E,'°PU"i (4-45)
L e'0J D p 2 e'0! Dp
142
Development of a Mathematical Model for Velocity Profile of Fluid Flowing in Packed Beds
1 2
^ = 150%^i^
2 + 1.75 "^^ , (4-46)
L e'0> Dv/ E V DVSV
to the bed porosity of less than 0.5 [Bird et ai, 1960], and it is not
packed bed, they were limited to special situations. The optical technique
the velocity profile [McGreavy et ai, 1986] is only good for small values of
D/Dp ratio. The use of velocity sensing probes inside the bed could disturb
the packing arrangement and because the fluid velocity between the
the mean axial velocity. The measurement of velocity profile by noting the
time taken for a step change in the electrical conductivity of the fluid to
travel between two fixed points in the bed [Cairns and Prausnitz, 1959] is
143
Development of a Mathematical Model for Velocity Profile of Fluid Flowing in Packed Beds
exist.
representative of the flow profile inside the bed because of the changing
and Smith, 1953; Newell and Standish, 1973; Cohen and Metzner, 1981;
Tsotsas and Schluder, 1987, 1990; Stanek and Szekely, 1974; Szekely
the velocity profiles at the inside and the exit of the packed beds is clearly
shown. Use of the flow divider [Arthur et al. 1949; Price 1968; Newell
packed beds is shown in Figure 4-3. Clearly, the model of the velocity
allow comparison with the data that were obtained at the outlet of beds.
A velocity profile at the outlet of the bed is a transition profile between the
inside bed profile and the fully developed flow of the fluid in an empty
144
Development of a Mathematical Model for Velocity Profile of Fluid Flowing in Packed Beds
T T T TTTTTTTTT T T
EXIT OF BED FLOW
PACKED
BED
INSIDE BED FLOW
TTfTTTTTTTTTTTTTTT
FLUID INLET
145
Development of a Mathematical Model for Velocity Profile of Fluid Flowing in Packed Beds
f duz du z ^ 2
9p <___ a2„
u >
(4-47)
U +UZ + pg + H +• dz2
.'"37 "CJ7 ^3z Vf dr v dr
2
-„ A
f dur d I a a u (4-48)
u.1 dr U, = n (m +
dz L3r7a7 ^ "a?
1 d dUr
M+ =0 (4-49)
rd~r Tz
146
Development of a Mathematical Model for Velocity Profile of Fluid Flowing in Packed Beds
The value of uzo(r) is the velocity distribution at the top of the bed, that
can be calculated from the velocity distribution inside the bed model
the local bed voidage. The value of uZL(r) is the fully developed flow
distribution. The equations of motion for developed flow have been solved
radius, which is different for flow conditions at the exit of the bed. There is
dimensionless
In order to simplify the problem at hand, the following
u
z
(4-53)
<p = -^-
U
r
(4-54)
n= —
(4-55)
z
(4-56)
147
Development of a Mathematical Model for Velocity Profile of Fluid Flowing in Packed
R ap
v=U (4-57)
M
2
P az + p g
become:
dry dv 2 1a f dfU
_*^ a2^
N R e ^ a c i C ac + ds2 (4-58)
ac as
1. at 5 = 0 V =% and «= 0 (4-61)
2. at 5 = oo f = # and « = 0 (4-62)
148
Development of a Mathematical Model for Velocity Profile of Fluid Flowing in Packed Beds
After the fluid is far downstream from the outlet of the bed, one expects,
intuitively, that the flow profile will not undergo any further change of s
<p = =- (4-64
%-Vw.
negligible. Hence, the flow equation may be reduced to give the following
d
^-(A+E^)^-C = 0 (4-65)
ds ' ds
where
N If
A = ili*Lf__. (4_66)
B = N^V*0 (4.67)
N 7>
C = , *" x (4-68)
1. at s = 0 if = \ (4-69)
2. at s = °o i/ = o (4-70)
149
Development of a Mathematical Model for Velocity Profile of Fluid Flowing in Packed Beds
value type equation [Burden and Faires, 1993] and may be solved by
equation (4-65) itself is only approximate [Chow, 1979]. For the problem
exponential equation;
it = €*s (4-71)
is carried out by choosing a point s in the domain and then forcing the
velocity field for the system under consideration. However, there arises a
150
Development of a Mathematical Model for Velocity Profile of Fluid Flowing in Packed Beds
Atkinson ef ai [1969] and Bowlus and Brighton [1968]. The values of the
Reynolds number for the entry length data range from 1.0 to 3.88 x 105.
-for NRe<2100
d = 2.41NRe-°'5 (4-73)
-for NRe>2100
d = 0.05 (4-74)
entry region requires the knowledge of the fully developed velocity profile,
the pressure losses in an empty pipe and the entry length. Fortunately,
151
Development of a Mathematical Model for Velocity Profile of Fluid Flowing in Packed Beds
data that were measured at the exit of the bed may be used to evaluate
long tube of radius R, so the end effects are negligible. For the value of
the Reynolds number less than 2100, the equation for velocity profile is as
^=2(l-C2) (4-75)
For Reynolds number greater than 2100 the velocity profile may be
The pressure gradient in the developing flow region is higher than in the
fully developed flow region due to the increasing friction and kinetic
drop in equation (4-68) may not be calculated by using the pressure drop
Foust etal. [1960], and Perry and Green [1984]. Considering the smooth
1986]:
152
Development of a Mathematical Model for Velocity Profile of Fluid Flowing in Packe
2(-Ap) . L-M,
-pu..
— T ^ f k - MD^ + G- (4-77)
'M
where:
64
fk = — , [Schmidt and Zeldin, 1969] (4-78)
IN'r Re
0.3164
f
k= 0.25 . [Bird et ai,1960] (4-80)
•^Re
The entry length, which is defined as the distance along the axis of the
flow where the centre-line velocity reaches 99% of its fully developed
value [Chen, 1973], depends on the inlet profile and on the Reynolds
number [Foust et ai, 1960; Berman and Santos, 1969; Brady, 1984],
Numerous studies have been conducted for correlating the entry length to
Lemmon, 1965; Vrentas et ai, 1966; Bowlus and Brighton, 1968; Atkinson
et ai, 1969; Chen, 1973]. Based upon the survey of their results, it can be
shown that the following equation is satisfactory to predict the entry length
153
Development of a Mathematical Model for Velocity Profile of Fluid Flowing in Packed Beds
- For 104 < NRe < 107 [Bowlus and Brighton, 1968]
(4-83)
computed velocity profiles and the predicted entry length, together with
data from several previous solutions and experimental studies, are plotted
data are inadequate for a very rigorous test of the present mathematical
entry length data indicates that a close approximation to reality for the
that the present model of velocity profile under developing flow condition
can be used to fulfill the need of correction factor for study of flow profile
of the bed.
154
Development of a Mathematical Model for Velocity Profile of Fluid Flowing in Packed Beds
1.5 -- 1.5 -
.1 8 8 Q 6 A A A
l . O . l Q Q D Q Q Q - I Q O i
I.0-- o „ o 8 |
if if f
0.5
s = o.oo 0.5 -
S = 0.49
0.0 I ' ' ' ' I ' ' ' ' I ' ' ' ' I ' ' ' ' I ' ' ' ' 0.0 - 1 ' ' ' i ' ' ' ' i ' ' ' ' i ' ' ' ' i ' ' '
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 o.;
C c
1.5
" 2 8 _ _ G £ A A
A
1.0- ° o
if o
0.5 -
S =0.71
O Predicted A Data
0.0 I ' ' ' ' I ' ' ' ' I ' ' ' 'ft
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
c
1.5 -•
8 g fi A A A A A
° O A
1.0 O
if O
0.5
S = 0.92
0.0 -------- 1
' ' l ' ' ' ' l ' ' ' ' I ' ' ' '6
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
c
Figure 4-4: Comparison of the developing flow profile, at NRe = 47,
calculated by equation (4-71) with Berman and Santos
[1969] measurements.
155
-J
_
_
(J
o
a
a.
o
o
o
00 o
XO xo
Ox
xO o
Ox Ox Ox
o
o
is _ o
o
cc
c o
r. T3
tL o
c
C
C3 Ir
cd
1
<f3 o CO
_J
„
5)
Z
=:
c.
F c- o c
-C
u
_
CC -J
_
O o
o g
o "+-I
o ss.
<D
o i_
!_
o o
o
u
o _c
o c
+-I
cn cCD
o cu
o o
c
o o
o (fl
"SZ
CO
a
o E
o o
o
LO
I
a>
.. O !_.
3
D)
O
Q
o
CHAPTER FIVE
EXPERIMENTAL TECHNIQUE
In order to provide the data for validating the model of velocity profile of
allow the best possible observation of fluid flow profile in the random
packed beds of the spherical particles in which the particles are uni-sized
and multi-sized.
The packed column that was used for the measurement of the velocity
distribution of the fluid flow in packed beds was made of clear perspex to
allow easy viewing of the packing material. The column dimensions were
The cylindrical column was provided with an inlet pipe made from brass
157
Experimental Techniques
the fluid inlet was in the center at the bottom of the column.
In the experiment, compressed air as the fluid was supplied from a bottle
(G size) of industrial grade compressed air. Air was chosen because of its
[Bird etal., 1960; Reid et ai, 1977; Perry and Green, 1984], its Newtonian
fluid behaviour and its low cost. The inlet line of the fluid was completed
27.58x106 kgm'V2 and 0 - 9.65x105 kgm"1s"2 of the gas bottle and outlet
FR 4500 rotameter (2.4-16.8 m3/hr). The accuracy of this type flow meter,
column to provide a packed bed system. Two different beds were used in
the column; namely the test bed and the inlet flow straightening bed, with
158
Data Processing Unit
1 1 Wire Mesh
Rotameter
AIR
Three sizes (15.69 + 0.19, 23.71 ± 0.59 and 34.33 ± 0.41 m m ) of spherical
glass particles were used as the test bed and a mixture of sizes (4.0 - 7.0
mm) of spherical glass particles was used as the flow straightening bed.
The densities of spherical particles which used as the test bed were 2670,
2550, 2622 and 2453 kg/m3 for particles diameter of 6.04 ± 0.05, 15.69 ±
The height of the flow straightening bed was 210 mm in order to achieve
the H/D ratio greater than 1.0. The ratio of H/D greater than 1.0 was also
used for the test beds. This value is a minimum value to ensure a parallel
flow of the fluid inside the bed as stated by Poveromo and Szekely [1975].
The measurement of the air flow velocity was carried out by using glass
smaller than the bed particles to minimise flow disturbance. The accuracy
of this type of flow meter, as given by Bolton [1996], is ±1.0 %. These are
the cooling effect on the thermistor, by the media flowing round it, to be
160
Experimental Techniques
changes from thermistors to digital numbers, and also to generate the heat
In order to provide a correction factor for the rotameter reading, the total
equivalent length, Le, of line between the pressure indicator and the
(equation (4-11)) and measured data of the inlet pressure and the gas flow
rate. The value of the total equivalent length is needed to determine the
balance correlation, the gas flow rate at inside and at down stream of the
mixture of sizes (4.0 - 7.0 mm) of spherical glass particles with 210 mm
height was used as the flow distributor. The thermistors were calibrated by
161
Experimental Techniques
placing them at 1750 m m above the flow distributor. Similar to the hot-wire
thermistor is not linear [Bolton, 1996]. Hence, the similar type equation to
the hot-wire and hot-film anemometer for air flow measurement, as given
velocity and the digital computer data. Considering that the fluid properties
of air for calibrating the thermistor are similar to the air for experiment, th
The mean bed voidage was determined by weighing the column before
and after packing was added. From density measurements of the packing
and a knowledge of the total volume occupied by the packing plus voids,
162
Experimental Techniques
W h e n the air flowing in the packed bed had reached a steady state
velocity measurement was started with a sampling rate 1 s"1. For each
position of thermistors, data logging was carried out with sampling time 60
The following parameters were investigated: fluid flow rate, D/DP ratio, and
particle size distribution. Test programs were also made to investigate the
changes of fluid distribution at the outlet of the bed. In addition, tests were
the bed between tests for the same value of the mean bed voidage.
measurement was chosen to avoid the errors from the high turbulence
intensities of flow [Mickley et ai, 1965] and the axial component of flow
[Schwartz and Smith, 1953] at the exit of the bed. At a distance of 300 mm
above the bed, any gross changes in the flow distribution would be
expected. Although the flow distribution was changing from the inside of
inside the bed still can be done because the model includes developing
measurements for the thermistors positions of 250, 350, 400 and 450 mm
163
Experimental Techniques
above the bed also were carried out in order to provide data for validating
The study of the effects of the fluid flow rate and the D/Dp ratio on the
velocity profile was carried out by variation of air flow rate and particle
diameters. The air flow rate varied from 4.02 to 19.62 m3/hr where the uni-
sized particle diameters were 15.69 ±0.19 mm. The measurements of the
velocity profile for the uni-sized particles diameters of 23.71 ± 0.59 and
34.33 ± 0.41 mm also were performed to provide the validating data for
different value of the D/DP ratio. Binary sizes (23.71 ± 0.59 and 34.33 ±
0.41 mm, and 15.69 + 0.19 and 34.33 + 0.41 mm) and ternary sizes (6.04
± 0.05, 23.71 ± 0.59 and 34.33 ± 0.41 mm) mixtures of particles were also
Ideal gas behaviour assumption for air was applied for the data analysis.
Since packed beds are random systems and cannot be exactly duplicated
164
Experimental Techniques
key factor to verify the validity of the experiment. The reproducibility of the
R = - ^ — - — x 100% (5-2)
l
n.d
As stated earlier, the objective of the experiment is to provide the data for
packed bed. The error probability of a good model is minimum [Reid et al,
minimisation of errors by adjusting the form of the equation and the values
X/?2=Ife-^)2 (5-3)
i i=l
f
d,-c*
R =
H i=i
nd-l
-xl00% (5-4)
165
CHAPTER SIX
with measured data, is needed to check the validity and the consistency of
validating the mathematical model has been fulfilled by the measured data
bed.
166
Experimental Results and Mathematical Model Verification
6.1 E X P E R I M E N T A L R E S U L T S
Based on the data of the inlet pressure and the rotameter reading
relations, the total equivalent length, Le of the line between the pressure
indicator and the rotameter was determined. It was carried out by using
the mechanical energy balance (equation (4-11)), for which the average
value of Le was 5.152 m. Hence, the actual pressure of the fluid inside the
the material balance correlation, the gas flow rate at inside and at down
L/D ratio of 12.14. From the measured average velocity, obtained from the
rotameter reading and the cross-section of the pipe, the calibration of the
For each position of the thermistor, digital computer number {cAQ is taken
167
Experimental Results and Mathematical Model Verification
168
Experimental Results and Mathematical Model Verification
2.8
2.7 -
:
2.6
cVc 2.5 -
2.4 -
2.3 -
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time, s
Five tests were made using three identical packed beds (34.33 ± 0.41 mm
and 0.1246 m/s superficial velocity). Measurements were carried out for
two of the packed beds twice and a measurement for the last packed bed,
once.
was obtained. The absolute deviation from the mean of the five
very good for this type of experiment due to the nature of packed beds,
and Smith, 1953; Blum and Wilhelm, 1965; Fayed and Otten, 1984].
Reynolds number, the ratio D/DP, the particle size distribution and the
objective of this work was to provide the data to validate the mathematical
bed. For the case of an incompressible fluid, the model will be validated by
170
r-
8
no. 3
no. 2
ooa o
i
d
—M
c
-a -O "O c
- O ii
X)
-a T3 T3
s r-M r-. ---
_ o
•s O O <KX c,
ed
C-M
c_
OH
OI
MI II II
_
-J
K < oo-
-
a:
<© o << cc
+-*
s CO
c •_3
r
o 03 O 0)
-C
o
<D >
<o o
o
Q .3
i "O
<w ooo p_
o
i-
Q.
0)
oo _.
oo o < C "cc
1?
SO
r- co
Mr o
Tf — CO
<N co ^. Tt
0303 O "EL
' Tt Tt ON h-
O o CO — CO CO
d depth =
II II
O Gd<K> CD
J_
3
0 TT
LL.
o Br 1)
o o<] o
3 OJ QQm
<&0 oo
O «2> <
o
- r — d
Ox r- r- ro
d d d
d
_*
Experimental Results and Mathematical Model Verification
measured at 300 mm above the bed with superficial velocity 0.1246 m/s.
The bed particles in Figure 6-4 have diameters 15.69 mm, 23.71 mm and
Figure 6-5 exhibits the velocity profile measured at 300 mm above the bed
Figures 6-5a and 6-5b show the results for an equal volume binary-
mixture, whereas Figure 6-5c represents the result for an equal volume
34.33 mm and 15.69 mm. These give the following values: volume-surface
mean diameter, Dvs, of 21.42 mm, DP1/DP2 ratio of 2.2 and D/Dvs ratio of
6.7. The bed particles in Figure 6-5b comprise the diameters of 34.33 mm
and 23.71 mm, which correspond to Dvs of 28.15 mm, DPi/DP2 ratio of 1.4
and D/Dvs ratio of 5.1, while in Figure 6-5c, the bed particles comprise
diameters of 34.33 mm, 23.71 mm and 6.04 mm. These correspond to Dvs
The data in Figures 6-4 and 6-5 will be used to compare experiment with
172
Experimental Results and Mathematical Model Verification
.
•
0
1.5
• 0 0
0 o
if 1 -:o 0 o o 0 o 0 o
p 0
0.5 -• oo D = 144.14 m m u M =0.1246 m/s
- Dp = 15.69 m m e'o = 0.43
Bed depth = 322.5 m m
• j -1—1—'— 1 1
' — l — ' ' — ' — ' — l — ' — L
- 1 1 1 s 1
1.5 0
-
o o o
O °
if i -
~: o o o o o o
-
o
0.5 --•• o D = 144.14 m m u M = 0.1246 m/s
- DP = 23.71 m m e'0 = 0.425
" , , .— 1 — L - Bed depth = 350 m m i—,—;—,—,—,—,—-]
—'—'—1—L- 1
• 1
— I — • — -I 1 1 1 1 L _
1.5 - o o
o o
if o o
1.0
o o o
0.5 -•
°°o ° D
Dp
= 144.14 m m
= 34.33 m m
u M = 0.1246 m/s
e'o = 0.437
Bed depth = 390 m m
0.0
0 a5 1 15 2
(R-r)/Dp
Figure 6-4: Velocity profile data at 300 mm above a bed of mono-
173
Experimental Results and Mathematical Model Verification
z.u -
: a) Binary-mixture
1.5- :
0
0
if o o
1.0-
0
o o 0
0 ° o
0
0.5- 0 D = 144.14 m m u M = 0.1246 m/s
- Dvs = 21.42 m m e'0 = 0.383
- 1
Bed depth = 405 m m
0.0- ' 1 ' ' ' ' 1 '' ' ' 1 ' ' '1 I ' ' ' ' l — ' — • — ' — • — f — ' — ' — • -
1.5
l
0 o
l
l
o o
-T'l
if
1.0 - o o o o
0.5 -
oo o
D =144.14 m m u M =0.1246 m/s
- Dvs =28.15 m m e'0 =0.428
Bed depth = 350 m m
, , , , , , , L _ _.—,—,—,—,—|—
0.0 _—,—,—,—,—,—,—,—,—,—__
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5
(R-r)/Dp
2.0
c) Ternary-mixture
1.5 O
O
if
1.0
OO ° o 0
° 0 0 O O
OO o
0.5 oo D =144.14 m m u M =0.1246 m/s
Dvs = 12.42 m m e'0 = 0.306
Bed depth = 370 m m
0.0
0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0
(R-r)/Dp
Figure 6-5: Velocity profile data at 300 mm above a bed of
174
Experimental Results and Mathematical Model Verification
The measured data of the effects of the air flow rate and the distance
above the bed on the velocity distribution at the downstream of the bed
are presented in Figures 6-6 and 6-7, respectively. These effects will be
and compressible fluid flowing in a packed bed, and then continuing with
carried out by employing the measurement data taken from the literature
and from the present experimental work. The purpose of this procedure is
to test the present model, especially for the consistency of the model for
175
Experimental Results and Mathematical Model Verification
2.0
o--C=0.5
1.5-
#1.0--
•o
o-
•o.
•o-
0.0 + + -1 I I I 1 1-
Figure 6-6: The effect of air flow rate upon the velocity profile at 300
176
Experimental Results and Mathematical Model Verification
2.0
o- - • £=0.5
1.5-
#1.0-- -o.
0.0
5 7
S
a b o v e the bed.
177
Experimental Results and Mathematical Model Verification
For beds packed with uniform and non-uniform size of spherical particles,
the model can be validated by the present experimental data. For beds
Stewart [1986].
particles, the model has been validated by using the data of Stephenson
and Stewart [1986]. Their velocity and porosity distribution data were
from 5 to 280 in the beds with D/Dp = 10.7 and velocity was measured
inside the beds. Table 6-1 shows the important parameters for
Stephenson and Stewart [1986] data, which were used for calculation by
cylindrical particles bed, the natural cubic spline method [Burden and
Faires, 1993] was used to fit a correlation for the measured data (Figure
3-5) of Stephenson and Stewart [1986]. Although the use of the natural
178
Experimental Results and Mathematical Model Verification
e = -.i+fei(r*-r*i)-r-ci(r*-r*)2+c?i(r;t:-r*i)2 (6-1)
where
Table 6-2 contains a tabulation of the constants (a-,, h, cu d, and r*,) for the
data inside the bed and those predicted by the present mathematical
maximum) and the sum of square errors of 1.44 for the total number of the
The deviation between the predicted and the measured data may be due
and Stewart [1986], in which they assumed that the velocity profile,
179
Experimental Results and Mathematical Model Verification
[1986] data.
Parameters Value
Cylindrical column
- Diameter, m m 75.5
- Bed height, m m 145.0
Cylindrical particle
- Diameter, m m 7.011
- Length, m m 7.085
- Volume-surface mean diameter, m m 7.035
Mean bed voidage 0.354
Fluids:
- Tetra ethylene glycol
- density, kg/m3 1,125
- viscosity, g/cm s 0.474
- superficial velocity, cm/s 3.1 and 12.4
- Tetra hydropyran-2-methanol
- density, kg/m3 1,027
180
Experimental Results and Mathematical Model Verification
i - i a\ bi Ci d\
0 0.00 1.00 -4.89 0.00 1.47
1 0.13 0.35 -0.21 0.59 -0.85
2 0.27 0.33 -0.06 0.25 -0.08
3 0.54 0.33 0.02 0.19 0.05
4 0.80 0.35 -0.10 0.23 -0.02
5 1.07 0.34 -0.06 0.21 -0.01
6 1.34 0.34 0.05 0.21 0.04
7 1.60 0.37 -0.10 0.24 -0.02
8 1.87 0.36 -0.10 0.22 -0.00
9 2.14 0.35 -0.10 0.22 -0.02
10 2.41 0.34 0.06 0.20 0.04
11 2.68 0.37 -0.06 0.24 0.00
12 2.94 0.37 -0.21 0.24 -0.05
13 3.21 0.33 -0.05 0.20 0.00
14 3.48 0.33 0.06 0.20 0.03
15 3.74 0.36 -0.06 0.23 0.01
16 4.01 0.36 -0.21 0.23 -0.07
17 4.28 0.32 0.17 0.18 0.07
18 4.55 0.38 -0.11 0.23 0.08
19 4.82 0.37 -0.12 0.30 0.51
20 4.95 0.36 -0.21 0.50 -0.33
21 5.08 0.34 -0.06 0.37 0.42
22 5.22 0.34 0.03 0.54 -1.35
23 5.35 0.35 0.00 0.00 0.00
Experimental Results and Mathematical Model Verification
2.5
2.5
N R e = 20
NRe = 5
2.0- 2.0
31.5 -: 1.5 -:
1.0 1.0 -;
0 1 2 3 4 5 1
fe-i)ibp
(R-r)/Dp
0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5
(R-r)/Dp (R-r)/Dp
2.5 2.5
N R P = 145 N R e = 280
2.0-; 2.0 -
21.5
3
1.0
0.5
L
0.0 i ' ' ' i ' I ' '' I ' '' I 0.0 i ' '' i
0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5
(R-r)/Dp (R-r)/Dp
Figure 6-8: Comparison of velocity profile calculated by the
measurements.
182
Experimental Results and Mathematical Model Verification
For the compressible fluid, the model of the flow profile at inside and the
developed flow profile at the downstream of the bed has been validated
flow profiles were taken from measurement at the downstream of the bed.
In accounting for the distribution of voidage over the cross section of the
33) to (3-37)), was used. This correlation was chosen because it is simple
and valid over a wide range of D/DP ratio as given in the papers by
Mueller [1990; 1992]. However, considering that the value of the bulk
porosity, eb, for a random packed bed is highly dependent on the method
[Mueller, 1991].
Figure 6-9 is a plot of the developed flow profile downstream of the bed
versus the position from the top of the bed. The solid curves represent the
183
Experimental Results and Mathematical Model Verification
values.
Figure 6-10 shows the effect of the flow rate variation on the velocity
profile of the fluid at 300 mm above the bed. The agreement between
Figure 6-11 shows the effect of the bed particle diameter variation on the
velocity profile of the fluid at 300 mm above the bed. The agreement
quite good.
similar tendency for all bed particle diameters used. The velocity has a
zero value at the column wall, reaching the first peak value at about 0.2
particle diameter from the wall, and has a minimum at 0.5 particle
184
Experimental Results and Mathematical Model Verification
2.0
O
1.5-
O O
C = 0.0
O
#1.0 --
£ = 0.5
0.0 -J I l_ -J • •
0 8
185
Experimental Results and Mathematical Model Verification
3.0
C o l u m n diameter = 144.14 m m
Spheres diameter = 15.69 m m
B e d depth = 322.5 m m
Average bed voidage = 0.43
2.0 --
if
o ^o
V
1.0 --
\
£ = 0.5
0.0 I I • I • • t I • • I I I •
+ • J
— \ -
for the effect of air flow rate upon the velocity profile at
186
Experimental Results and Mathematical Model Verification
patterns. This is because the flow conditions at 300 mm above the bed
6-12. The agreement between the experimental data with those predicted
by the model is good, with average and maximum deviation of 17% and
39%, respectively, and the sum of square errors of 1.750 for the total
difference between the maximum value of the calculation error and the
fitted from other packed bed systems to account for the radial voidage
are a random system, which almost certainly can not be duplicated, even
187
Experimental Results and Mathematical Model Verification
2.0
Predicted
o O Measured
1.5 - •
O
O \^^/^~b
if 1.0 -
/ °\70 rV 0 0 ' 0
if 1.0 --
144.14 m m
0.5 --
23.71 m m
0.1246 m/s
_J I I L_
0.0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
(R-r)/Dp
_. - -
- Predicted
O Measured
1.5 - / O \
0
/
<p 1.0-
188
Experimental Results and Mathematical Model Verification
£..\J -
0 /
•
o /
1.5 - o o/
AA &Jf" X A +
•
TJ ^ > + A
&
1 1.0- AA
__ o
Q.
o
As
0.5 -
/ °
0.0- _L_, 1 , , 1 _. 1
•
—'—1—L— 1 — 1 — 1 — 1 — 1 — 1 — 1 — 1 —
spherical particles.
189
Experimental Results and Mathematical Model Verification
In order to test the validity of the mathematical model for beds of multi-
used to account for the variation of local bed porosity over a cross section
multi-sized particle beds, the natural cubic spline method [Tao, 1987a;
Burden and Faires, 1993] w a s used to fit a correlation for measured data
of particles sizes and the relative motion between particles when pouring
1990; Yu and Zulli, 1994]. Additionally, the value of local bed voidage is
1965; Fayed and Otten, 1984; Cumberland and Crawford, 1987]. Hence,
the data of the radial voidage distribution should be chosen from the bed
1 Binary-mixture A
- mixture basis equal volume equal volume
- Dpi, m m 15.69 4.76
- Dp2, m m 34.33 7.94
2 Binary-mixture B
- mixture basis equal volume equal volume
3 Ternary-mixture
- mixture basis equal volume equal volume
191
Experimental Results and Mathematical Model Verification
As discussed in Chapter three, for studying fluid flow in a packed bed, the
The values of the constants (a,, b\, c„ d\ and r*j) for binary-size mixtures
For the total number of the data points of 43, the deviation between
192
Experimental Results and Mathematical Model Verification
binary-mixture of particles.
1 Binary-mixture A
i r*i a\ bi C\ ffj
2 Binary-mixture B
i r*i fli b\ C\ d\
0 0.000 1.000 -1.025 0.000 10.346
1 0.078 0.925 -2.371 2.420 -3.880
2 0.166 0.733 -2.567 1.399 -2.863
3 0.244 0.540 -1.055 0.729 -0.332
4 0.400 0.392 -2.269 0.574 2.124
5 0.448 0.283 -0.697 0.885 -2.096
6 0.526 0.233 0.160 0.394 -0.058
7 0.614 0.250 0.506 0.379 0.384
8 0.731 0.315 1.386 0.514 1.650
9 0.809 0.427 1.035 0.900 0.416
10 0.897 0.525 0.654 1.010 1.792
11 0.975 0.583 -1.132 1.429 -2.897
12 1.053 0.502 -0.241 0.751 -0.252
13 1.180 0.483 -1.066 0.655 -0.202
14 1.297 0.367 -0.815 0.584 -0.011
15 1.384 0.300 0.143 0.582 0.579
16 1.462 0.315 0.050 0.717 -0.548
17 1.540 0.323 0.637 0.589 0.874
18 1.628 0.384 0.745 0.819 -0.166
19 1.706 0.447 -0.063 0.780 -0.731
20 1.833 0.450 0.207 0.502 1.159
21 1.950 0.483 -0.648 0.909 -0.056
22 2.028 0.438 -0.429 0.896 -0.363
23 2.115 0.407 -0.473 0.800 0.039
24 2.193 0.375 -0.165 0.810 -0.169
25 2.271 0.367 -0.654 0.770 -0.818
26 2.359 0.315 0.078 0.555 1.116
27 2.437 0.325 0.808 0.816 -1.992
28 2.515 0.392 0.014 0.350 -0.224
29 2.846 0.427 -0.226 0.127 0.012
30 3.412 0.342 0.068 0.148 -0.028
31 3.656 0.367 -0.090 0.128 -0.007
32 4.387 0.367 -0.036 0.112 -0.077
33 4.874 0.367
Experimental Results and Mathematical Model Verification
ternary-mixture of particles.
i r*i a\ bi C\ d\
0 0.000 1.000 -1.009 0.000 10.589
1 0.070 0.933 -1.591 2.224 -4.140
2 0.190 0.767 -1.777 0.733 -0.361
3 0.350 0.500 -1.341 0.560 0.519
4 0.460 0.360 -1.146 0.731 -1.084
5 0.530 0.283 -0.104 0.503 -0.460
6 0.650 0.277 0.918 0.338 0.664
7 0.760 0.383 0.692 0.557 0.531
8 0.880 0.475 -0.149 0.748 -0.499
9 0.990 0.467 -0.328 0.583 0.194
10 1.130 0.433 -0.422 0.665 -0.586
11 1.220 0.400 -0.136 0.506 0.313
12 1.370 0.392 0.059 0.647 -1.742
13 1.450 0.400 -0.104 0.229 -0.073
14 2.000 0.400 -0.118 0.108 -0.010
15 2.500 0.367 -0.060 0.093 -0.019
16 3.500 0.380 -0.073 0.034 0.022
17 4.700 0.380 -0.023 0.113 -0.125
18 5.000 0.380
195
Experimental Results and Mathematical Model Verification
3.0
— Predicted Binary-mixture:
Dvs =21.46 m m
O Measured
D =144.14 m m
2.0 UM =0.1246 m/s
if Dpi:DP2 = 1.0:2.2
1.0
0.0 • M -
0.0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5
(R-r)/Dp
3.0
— Predicted Ternary-mixture:
Dvs = 12.43 m m
O Measured D = 144.14 m m
2.0 -
uM =0.1246 m/s
DPi:Dp2:Dp3 =1.0:3.9:5.7
O O
-CTQ
O
0.0 I ' ' ' ' l ' ' ' ' l ' ' ' ' I ' ' 'i i'' I' ''i ' '' ''' i'• I ' ' ' ' I '
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5
(R-r)/Dp
Figure 6-13: Comparison of velocity distribution predicted by the
[96
Experimental Results and Mathematical Model Verification
It should also be noted that unlike for mono-sized particles for which the
model predicts a smooth result (eg. Figure 6-11) for the case of binary
Figure 6-13.
in Packed beds
voids in the bed. Employing the proposed model of a single phase fluid
flow in the packed beds only requires the physical properties of the fluid
and those of the packed bed to be known, and does not require new
experimental variables.
The validity of the model has been checked by using previous and new
because of the nature of packed beds, which are random systems and
197
Experimental Results and Mathematical Model Verification
apply this type of models with any confidence to other systems and
comparison of the present model only with the previous models that were
ai, 1975] and Vortmeyer and Schuster's model [Vortmeyer and Schuster,
1983] will be used to make comparison here. The principal reasons for not
using the other models for comparison were poor agreement between
applicability.
198
Experimental Results and Mathematical Model Verification
All of these three models (Stanek and Szekely [1974], Vortmeyer and
Schuster [1983] and the present model) have almost similar condition of
model's simplicity and not require any new empirical constants. Hence, it
prediction for velocity profile inside a packed bed, the measured data of
comparison.
The basis of Stanek and Szekely's [1974] model is the Ergun [1952]
of Benenati and Brosilow [1962], Figure 3-4, to account for the porosity
oscillation at the grid point adjacent to the wall [Szekely and Poveromo,
Stephenson and Stewart [1986], Figure 3-5, are quite different from those
distribution.
199
Experimental Results and Mathematical Model Verification
The principal reason for this large deviation is probably the effect of the
bed voidage in the vicinity of the wall which has a value higher than 0.5.
appropriate [Bird et ai, 1960; Cohen and Metzner, 1983]. Another error
Gauvin and Katta [1973], which is not appropriate for systems containing
for pressure drop of fluid flow in packed beds, in which the pressure drop
6.0—| 6.0
NRe = 5 N R e = 20
4.0- 4.0-
Measured
Predicted
I E
3
2.0- 2.0-
•• ' L I.
0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1
(R-r)/Dp fc-rvbp
6.0 6.0
N R e = 37 N R e = 75
4.0 4.0-
E E
3 3
2.0 4 2.0-
i.- *• • ... J t. . _ ..
0.0 i ' ' 'i '' 'i ''' i ' ' ' i 0.0 i ' ' ' i -1 \ 1^—1 L_
0 12 3 4 5 0 2 3 4 5
(R-rVDp (R-r)/Dp
6.0 f 6.0 i
N R e = 145
4.0
£
3
2.0-
1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4
(R-r)/Dp (R-rVDp
Figure 6-14: Comparison of velocity profile predicted by Stanek and
201
Experimental Results and Mathematical Model Verification
This model has better validity than Stanek and Szekely's [1974] model for
16% on average and 94% maximum, with the sum of square errors being
59.9 for 120 data points. The deviation may be due to the exponential
Szekely's model [1974] and Vortmeyer and Schuster's model [1983] with
the present model, which were tested by using the Stephenson and
Stewart [1986] data. It is clearly seen that the present model has better
bed systems.
202
Experimental Results and Mathematical Model Verification
3.0 3.0
NRe = 5 N R e = 20
Measured
2.0 2.0-
Predicted
1.0 - - , m ,
1.0 •• - . >• •
2.0
E E
3
1.0- --V __-..'
*• 1
_.
: .... 3
1.0 - ^ :• -
I _•- -'
i
_.
i . . , _ . . .
0.0 -H-1-1 1 ' ''1 ' ' '" i11 ' 0.0 - ' ' ' 1 ' ' ' i ' ' ' i ' ' ' i ' ' i i '1
0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5
(R-r)/Dp (R-rVDp
3.0
N Re = 280
2.0
E
T -. r -
3
1.0-
0.0 I I ' |
I II I I ' | I ' I | ' ' ' | ' ' ' |
0 1 2 3 4 5 0 12 3 4 5
(R-rVDp (R-r)/Dp
Figure 6-15: Comparison of velocity profile predicted by Vortmeyer
203
Experimental Results and Mathematical Model Verification
v50U 1
300 1
250 1
200
150 I
100 I
P
50-
i
r\ _
U
AE, %
I
ME, % SSE
• Stanek and Szekely, 1974 I Vortmeyer and Schuster, 1983
B Present work
of squares error).
204
CHAPTER SEVEN
DISCUSSION
packed beds and developing flow profile in the downstream of the bed has
been proposed. The model was tested against the experimental data
accuracy and simplicity, and the model does not require new empirical
cylindrical packed bed of spherical particles. It can be seen that the predicted
flow profile inside of the bed is a non-single peak, or oscillating profile. The
[1986] in Figure 2-9 and is qualitatively similar to the actual flow distributio
Figure 2-1. Moreover, the first maximum value is at about 0.2 particle
diameters, and this is consistent with the data of McGreavy et al. [1986] and
205
Discussion
Ziolkowska and Ziolkowski [1993], and is also consistent with the predicted
Since the particles are mono-sized, then according to equation (3-57) the bed
profile, as shown by Figure 7-2. However, it also can be seen that, for
porosity above 0.5, the bed permeability has practically no effect on velocity
compares with its effect for porosity below 0.5. This is not surprising, because
equation (3-57) has been developed based upon an assumption that the
voids in the bed are not connected which each other, or as a discontinuous
system. This is almost true for small voidage beds in which the fluid in a void
is not interacting with the fluid inside the neighbouring voids. Hence, for the
beds with high voidage in which the interaction of the fluid between
macroscopic study of Foscolo et al. [1983]. In their study, for fluidised beds
system in which the bed voidage is higher than 0.5, the continuous approach
is more appropriate than the discontinuous approach. The kink in the velocity
curve at about K = 0.4, which is related to porosity about 0.5, represents the
voids.
206
r-
r.
(ft
0)
o
r
CO
a
CQ
O
'£-
CD
-C
a
to
•o
0)
N
'w
6T3O
c
JO
a CO
o
0)
9 TJ
E
CO
c
<D
a ^i,
> O
u o
o
o
CD II
0)
>
TJ cc
CO Z
•a
MM
3 c
a ca
E0 o
CM
u
CO II
o CJ.
n a
I- Q
..
r-
Wn^n N
CU
i_
3
O.
LL
Discussion
-T 2.5
K, mm
Figure 7-2: The effect of the bed permeability upon the fluid velocity
208
Discussion
effect of NRe upon the velocity distribution by using the present model. The
value is less than 500. This confirms the findings of Vortmeyer and
between the flow profile with D/DP ratio and the Reynolds number is more
is not exponential but follows an oscillation pattern. From Figures 7-3 and
7-4, it is also clearly shown that the flow profile is independent of the
Reynolds number greater than 500. The independency of the flow profile
since this author measured the flow profiles only between NRe= 1470 and
4350.
209
Discussion
3.5
-3
2.5
2
•©-e-eee-o
1.5
*-* A A AM A 1
^-•-•<->-^ 0.5
_i i I I I I
0
10 100 1000 10000
NRe
Figure 7-3: The effect of Reynolds number on the flow velocity for
D/Dp = 12.0.
210
Discussion
3.5
- e — D/Dp = 3
-a— D/Dp = 6
ZJ
1.
_:
"A -A
1.0 _i i I I I M
10 100 1000
N Re
Figure 7-4: The effect of Reynolds number on the flow velocity at 1.10
2ll
Discussion
particles were made using the present model to investigate the effect of
the LVD ratio on the flow profile. Both compressible and incompressible
fluids were used as a fluid for this investigation. As shown in Figure 7-5,
the bed, the flow profiles is independent of the L/D ratio. This result agrees
with the finding of Price [1968], even though he measured the flow profile
axial direction can be applied for mono-sized packed bed system. For an
L/D ratio. To explain why the flow profile for a compressible fluid is also
variation of bed properties in the axial direction and the fluid viscosity is
the increasing of the fluid density is linear with the increasing of the
pressure. On the other hand, based upon mass balance equation, the
212
Discussion
10 20 30 40 50 60
L/D
Reynolds number:
--•<>-• 10 ---O-- 100 ---A-- 1000
Figure 7-5: The effect of the L/D ratio upon the flow velocity at 1.0
spherical particles.
213
Discussion
result the flow profile is also independent of L/D ratio for a compressible
fluid.
The effect of temperature on the fluid flow distribution also has been
studied by using the present mathematical model. Figure 7-6 exhibits this
spherical particles with D/DP ratio of 12.0. It is obvious from Figure 7-6 that
number.
variation.
Usually, in the study of mass and heat transfer in packed bed systems, it is
assumed that the effect of the column diameter can be neglected. It can
214
Discussion
E
3
Temperature, K
Reynolds number:
_g_ 1 _*_ 10 -&- ioo -e-1000
Figure 7-6: The effect of the temperature on the flow profile at 1.10
spherical particles.
215
Discussion
voidage and physical properties of the fluid, are usually used to predict the
mass and heat transfer coefficients [Perry and Green, 1984]. It may be
appropriate for packed bed systems with very big value of the D/DP ratio,
but probably is poor for systems having small D/DP ratio. For packed bed
systems with a small value of D/DP ratio, the velocity profile is far from the
However, it is also a fact that the flat profile velocity assumption has been
very helpful, and much reducing the calculation time for analysing and
The present model is further used to investigate the effect of the D/DP ratio
deviation from flat profile flow condition as a function of the D/DP ratio for
increase in the D/DP ratio and the Reynolds number. Moreover, for a
Reynolds number above 500, the deviation from the flat profile condition is
independent of the Reynolds number. It agrees with Figures 7-3 and 7-4 in
216
Discussion
100
Reynolds number
—B—1
—•—10
80-
60-
c
g
_
0)
a
40-
20-
_l J^ L.
0 - 1 —I- -I-
0 20 40 60 80 100
D/Dp
Figure 7-7: The effect of D/D P ratio on the deviation from the flat
profile condition.
217
Discussion
columns is about 15% [Peter and Timmerhaus, 1968], then for D/DP ratios
above 75, it is reasonable to apply the flat profile flow assumption. The
statement of Cairns and Prausnitz [1959] that the flat profile assumption
can be applied for systems with D/DP ratio above 10 is discounted here
since the deviation is far higher than 15%, and even for a Reynolds
number above 500 it is about 25%. However, when the condition of the
packed bed system is sensitive to the flow profile, for example hot spot
avoided.
Figure 7-8 illustrates the effect of particle diameter on flow profile inside
packed beds. It is clearly shown that the variation of flow profile is more
evident as an effect of the D/DP ratio rather than of particle diameter. The
effect of the D/DP ratio rather than of DP. The significant effect of D/DP ratio
rather than of DP itself on the radial porosity in packed beds, as has been
218
Discussion
2.5
-©••• (R-r)/Dp=0.2;D/Dp=10
- D - (R-r)/Dp=1.0;D/Dp=10
2.4 - - © — (R-r)/Dp=0.2;D=160 m m
-_$_ — (R-r)/Dp=1.0;D=160 m m
2.3
2.2 -
5
.3
-£2.1
2.0 --
1.9 -
1.8 -
-a
1.7 -I ' H
3.0 5.0 7.0 9.0 11.0 13.0 15.0 17.0
Dp, m m
219
Discussion
The present model of fluid flow distribution, both inside and downstream of
model, it is clearly shown that the Reynolds number and the bed
220
Discussion
system.
neglected, then the Reynolds number, P"M p , and the Froude number,
D2
pg p
liquid, the Bond number, , also should be considered [Hoftyzer,
o
1957]. However, as also reported by Hoftyzer [1957], the performance of a
model based on the above similarity to predict the prototype (actual size)
221
Discussion
For fluid flow in packed beds, the characteristic of the bed can be
Section 3.3, is influenced by the particle size and the particle size
distribution (the spread and the size range), as discussed by Yu and Zulli
[1994]. Therefore, the similarity of particle size and the particle size
Considering that for the physical model with geometrical size smaller than
similar D/DP ratio together with the particle size distribution (the spread
mixtures [Yu and Standish, 1993a]. Accordingly, packed bed models are
bed character and the Reynolds number. The Reynolds number has been
110
Discussion
the bed character for similarity criteria and its possibility in developing of a
distorted model.
The similarity requirement of the D/DP ratio is still more difficult to satisfy
even for mono-sized particle beds since the pressure drop becomes very
high for small values of particle diameter. For these reasons, it has
condition can represent the variation of flow profile. Hence, the minimum
D/DP ratio of the model is defined by the value of the D/DP ratio in which
the difference of the deviation from the flat flow profile condition with
prototype is equal to 10%. Figure 7-9 illustrates the effect of D/DP ratio and
a L/D ratio higher than 1.0 is required to achieve a parallel flow distribution
effects (at inlet and outlet), it seems reasonable to maintain the L/D ratio of
223
Discussion
70
Reynolds number:
60
••--•IO
--—100
•-.--•500
-1000
50-
40--
o
A
Ow
Q
Q 30-
20-
10
_i i i
(D/Dp)prototype
224
Discussion
bed systems.
225
CHAPTER EI-3HT
CONCLUSIONS
packed beds for single-phase fluid has been developed. The model is based
measured values. The new model compares favorably with previous models
in terms of accuracy and simplicity, and does not require new empirical
constants.
number and the particle diameter on fluid flow distribution in packed beds is
that the Reynolds number has a significant effect on flow distribution only fo
NRe less than 500, and when the Reynolds number is higher than 500, the
226
Conclusions
has also demonstrated that it is the D/D P ratio that has a significant effect on
the flow profile rather than the particle diameter, as hitherto believed.
The results have also shown that models based on discontinuous systems
are only successful for local porosity of less than 0.5. When the local porosity
is higher than 0.5, especially at the vicinity of the wall, a model based on the
The results of the present model regarding the flat flow profile assumption for
packed bed systems have clearly shown that the deviation from the flat profile
condition does not only depend on the D/DP ratio, but is also depends on the
Reynolds number. This conclusion was also used to suggest some rules of
how a distorted physical model may be generated in term of D/DP ratio and
L/D ratio.
Finally, one practical conclusion that suggests itself is that the present
mathematical model of fluid flow distribution, together with energy and mass
in general.
227
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240
APPENDIX
241
INPUT
bed properties
fluid properties
superficial velocity
COMPUTE GUESS
pressure drop
COMPUTE
radial porosity distribution
O
COMPUTE
radial velocity profile
CHECK
total mass-flow rate
UPDATE
present model.
242
INPUT
bed properties
fluid properties
superficial velocity
GUESS
uz at r = 0
COMPUTE
radial porosity distribution
O
COMPUTE
radial velocity profile
CHECK
total mass-flow rate
UPDATE
uz at r = 0
243
INPUT
bed properties
fluid properties
superficial velocity
COMPUTE GUESS
pressure drop Ks
COMPUTE
radial porosity distribution
o
COMPUTE
radial velocity profile
CHECK
total mass-flow rate
UPDATE
No
OUTPUT
uz=/(r)