Production Automation

(ME - 402 Production Automation)

Dr. Shaukat Ali Shah

DR. S.A.Shah

DR. S.A.Shah 1
MED, UET, Peshawar
 Industrial Automation - Machines
 Storage Systems
 Handling Systems
 Assembly Lines
 Assembly Cells
 Machines
 Actuators
 Sensors
 Production Lines
 Production Cells
 Machines
 Actuators
 Sensors

DR. S.A.Shah

Industrial Automation - Computing

 Computers
 Controllers
 Actuators
 Sensors
 Software

DR. S.A.Shah

DR. S.A.Shah 2
MED, UET, Peshawar
 Production System Defined

A collection of people, equipment, and procedures

organized to accomplish the manufacturing
operations of a company

Two categories:
 Facilities – the factory and equipment in the facility
and the way the facility is organized (plant layout)
 Manufacturing support systems – the procedures
used by a company to manage production and to
solve technical and logistics problems in ordering
materials, moving work through the factory, and
ensuring that products meet quality standards

DR. S.A.Shah

The Production System

DR. S.A.Shah

DR. S.A.Shah 3
MED, UET, Peshawar
 Facilities – Factory and Equipment

Factory, production machines and tooling, material

handling equipment, inspection equipment, and
computer systems that control the manufacturing
operations

DR. S.A.Shah

Manufacturing Support Systems

 Business functions - sales and marketing, order
entry, cost accounting, customer billing
 Product design - research and development, design
engineering, prototype shop
 Manufacturing planning - process planning,
production planning, MRP, capacity planning
 Manufacturing control
shop floor control,
inventory control, quality control

DR. S.A.Shah

DR. S.A.Shah 4
MED, UET, Peshawar
 Production System Facilities

Facilities include the factory, production machines and

tooling, material handling equipment, inspection
equipment, and computer systems that control the
manufacturing operations

 Plant layout – the way the equipment is physically

arranged in the factory
 Manufacturing systems – logical groupings of
equipment and workers in the factory
 Production line
 Stand-alone workstation and worker
DR. S.A.Shah

Manufacturing Systems
Three categories in terms of the human participation in the
processes performed by the manufacturing system:

1. Manual work system - a worker performing one or

more tasks without the aid of powered tools, but
sometimes using hand tools
2. Worker-machine system - a worker operating
powered equipment
3. Automated system - a process performed by a
machine without direct participation of a human

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MED, UET, Peshawar
 Categories of Manufacturing Systems

(a) Manual work system, (b) worker-machine system,

and (c) fully automated system

DR. S.A.Shah

Manufacturing Support Systems

Manufacturing support involves a sequence of activities that
consists of four functions:

1. Business functions - sales and marketing, order entry,

cost accounting, customer billing
2. Product design - research and development, design
engineering, prototype shop
3. Manufacturing planning - process planning, production
planning, MRP, capacity planning
4. Manufacturing control - shop floor control, inventory
control, quality control

DR. S.A.Shah

DR. S.A.Shah 6
MED, UET, Peshawar
 Sequence of Information-Processing
Activities in a Manufacturing Firm

DR. S.A.Shah

Automation in Production Systems

Two categories of automation in the production system:

1. Automation of manufacturing systems in the
factory
2. Computerization of the manufacturing support
systems
 The two categories overlap because manufacturing
support systems are connected to the factory
manufacturing systems
 Computer-Integrated Manufacturing (CIM)

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MED, UET, Peshawar
 Computer Integrated Manufacturing

DR. S.A.Shah

Automated Manufacturing Systems

Examples:
 Automated machine tools
 Transfer lines
 Automated assembly systems
 Industrial robots that perform processing or
assembly operations
 Automated material handling and storage systems to
integrate manufacturing operations
 Automatic inspection systems for quality control

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MED, UET, Peshawar
 Automated Manufacturing Systems

Three basic types:

1. Fixed automation
2. Programmable automation
3. Flexible automation

DR. S.A.Shah

Fixed Automation
A manufacturing system in which the sequence of
processing (or assembly) operations is fixed by the
equipment configuration

Typical features:
 Suited to high production quantities
 High initial investment for custom-engineered equipment
 High production rates
 Relatively inflexible in accommodating product variety

DR. S.A.Shah

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MED, UET, Peshawar
 Programmable Automation

A manufacturing system designed with the capability to

change the sequence of operations to accommodate
different product configurations

Typical features:
 High investment in general purpose equipment
 Lower production rates than fixed automation
 Flexibility to deal with variations and changes in
product configuration
 Most suitable for batch production
 Physical setup and part program must be changed
between jobs (batches)
DR. S.A.Shah

Flexible Automation
An extension of programmable automation in which the
system is capable of changing over from one job to the
next with no lost time between jobs

Typical features:
 High investment for custom-engineered system
 Continuous production of variable mixes of products
 Medium production rates
 Flexibility to deal with soft product variety

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MED, UET, Peshawar
 Product Variety and Production
Quantity for Three Automation Types

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Computerized Manufacturing
Support Systems
Objectives of automating the manufacturing support
systems:
 To reduce the manual and clerical effort in product
design, manufacturing planning and control, and the
business functions
 Integrates computer-aided design (CAD) and computer-
aided manufacturing (CAM) in CAD/CAM
 CIM includes CAD/CAM and the business functions of
the firm

DR. S.A.Shah

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MED, UET, Peshawar
 Reasons for Automating

1. Increase labor productivity

2. Reduce labor cost
3. Mitigate the effects of labor shortages
4. Reduce or remove routine manual and clerical tasks
5. Improve worker safety
6. Improve product quality
7. Reduce manufacturing lead time
8. Accomplish what cannot be done manually
9. Avoid the high cost of not automating

DR. S.A.Shah

Manual Labor in Production Systems

Is there a place for manual labor in the modern production

system?
 Answer: YES
 Two aspects:
1. Manual labor in factory operations
2. Labor in manufacturing support systems

DR. S.A.Shah

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MED, UET, Peshawar
 Manual Labor in
Factory Operations
The long term trend is toward greater use of automated
systems to substitute for manual labor
 When is manual labor justified?
 Some countries have very low labor rates and
automation cannot be justified
 Task is technologically too difficult to automate
 Short product life cycle
 Customized product requires human flexibility
 To cope with ups and downs in demand
 To reduce risk of new product failure

DR. S.A.Shah

Labor in Manufacturing
Support Systems
 Product designers who bring creativity to the design task
 Manufacturing engineers who
 Design the production equipment and tooling
 And plan the production methods and routings
 Equipment maintenance
 Programming and computer operation
 Engineering project work
 Plant management

DR. S.A.Shah

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MED, UET, Peshawar
 Manufacturing:
Technological Definition

Application of physical and chemical processes to alter

the geometry, properties, and/or appearance of a
given starting material to make parts or products

 Manufacturing also includes the joining of multiple

parts to make assembled products
 Accomplished by a combination of machinery, tools,
power, and manual labor.
 Almost always carried out as a sequence of
operations

DR. S.A.Shah

Manufacturing:
Technological Definition

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 Manufacturing:
Economic Definition

Transformation of materials into items of greater value by

means of one or more processing and/or assembly
operations
 Manufacturing adds value to the material
 Examples:
 Converting iron ore to steel adds value
 Transforming sand into glass adds value
 Refining petroleum into plastic adds value

DR. S.A.Shah

Manufacturing:
Economic Definition

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 Classification of Industries

1. Primary industries – cultivate and exploit natural

resources
 Examples: agriculture, mining
2. Secondary industries – convert output of primary
industries into products
 Examples: manufacturing, power generation,
construction
3. Tertiary industries – service sector
 Examples: banking, education, government, legal
services, retail trade, transportation

DR. S.A.Shah

Manufacturing Industries

ISIC Code
 Food, beverages, tobacco 31
 Textiles, apparel, leather and fur products 32
 Wood and wood products, cork 33
 Paper, printing, publishing, bookbinding 34
 Chemicals, coal, petroleum, & their products 35
 Ceramics, glass, mineral products 36
 Basic metals, e.g., steel, aluminum 37
 Fabricated products, e.g., cars, machines, etc. 38
 Other products, e.g., jewelry, toys 39

DR. S.A.Shah

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MED, UET, Peshawar
 More Industry Classifications

 Process industries, e.g., chemicals, petroleum, basic

metals, foods and beverages, power generation
 Continuous production
 Batch production
 Discrete product (and part) industries, e.g., cars, aircraft,
appliances, machinery, and their component parts
 Continuous production
 Batch production

DR. S.A.Shah

Process Industries and

Discrete Manufacturing Industries

(a) Continuous production, process industries, (b) continuous production,

discrete manufacturing, (c) batch production, process industries, (d) batch
production, discrete manufacturing.

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MED, UET, Peshawar
 Manufacturing Operations

 There are certain basic activities that must be carried out

in a factory to convert raw materials into finished products
 For discrete products:
1. Processing and assembly operations
2. Material handling
3. Inspection and testing
4. Coordination and control

DR. S.A.Shah

DR. S.A.Shah

DR. S.A.Shah 18
MED, UET, Peshawar
 Processing Operations

 Shaping operations
1. Solidification processes
2. Particulate processing
3. Deformation processes
4. Material removal processes
5. Additive manufacturing (a.k.a. rapid prototyping)
 Property-enhancing operations (heat treatments)
 Surface processing operations
 Cleaning and surface treatments
 Coating and thin-film deposition

DR. S.A.Shah

Assembly Operations

 Joining processes
 Welding
 Brazing and soldering
 Adhesive bonding
 Mechanical assembly
 Threaded fasteners (e.g., bolts and nuts, screws)
 Rivets
 Interference fits (e.g., press fitting, shrink fits)
 Other

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 Other Factory Operations

 Material handling and storage

 Inspection and testing
 Coordination and control

DR. S.A.Shah

Material Handling and Storage

 Material transport
 Vehicles, e.g., forklift trucks, AGVs, monorails
 Conveyors
 Hoists and cranes
 Storage systems
 Automatic identification and data capture (AIDC)
 Bar codes
 RFID
 Other AIDC

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 Time Spent by a Part in a Typical
Metal Machining Batch Factory

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Inspection and Testing

Inspection – examination of the product and its

components to determine whether they conform to
design specifications
 Inspection for variables – measuring
 Inspection for attributes – gaging

Testing – observing the product (or part, material,

subassembly) during actual operation or under
conditions that might occur during operation

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MED, UET, Peshawar
 Coordination and Control

 Regulation of the individual processing and assembly

operations
 Process control
 Quality control

 Management of plant level activities

 Production planning and control
 Quality control

DR. S.A.Shah

Production Facilities and Layout

 Facilities organised in the most efficient way to serve the
particular mission of the plant and depends on:
 Types of products manufactured
 Production quantity
 Product variety

DR. S.A.Shah

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MED, UET, Peshawar
 Production Quantity (Q)
 Number of units of a given part or product produced
annually by the plant
 Three quantity ranges:
1. Low production – 1 to 100 units
2. Medium production – 100 to 10,000 units
3. High production – 10,000 to millions of units

DR. S.A.Shah

Product Variety (P)

Refers to the number of different product or part

designs or types produced in the plant
 Inverse relationship between production quantity and
product variety in factory operations
 Product variety is more complicated than a number
 Hard product variety – products differ greatly
 Few common components in an assembly
 Soft product variety – small differences between
products
 Many common components in an assembly

DR. S.A.Shah

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MED, UET, Peshawar
 Product Variety vs
Production Quantity
P

DR. S.A.Shah

Low Production Quantity

Job shop – makes low quantities of specialized and

customized products
 Includes production of components for these products
 Products are typically complex (e.g., specialized
machinery, prototypes, space capsules)
 Equipment is general purpose
 Plant layouts:
 Fixed position
 Process layout

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MED, UET, Peshawar
 Fixed-Position Layout

DR. S.A.Shah

Fixed-Position Layout

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 Process Layout

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Medium Production Quantities

1. Batch production – A batch of a given product is

produced, and then the facility is changed over to
produce another product
 Changeover takes time – setup time
 Typical layout – process layout
 Hard product variety
2. Cellular manufacturing – A mixture of products is made
without significant changeover time between products
 Typical layout – cellular layout
 Soft product variety

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MED, UET, Peshawar
 Cellular Layout

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High Production

1. Quantity production – Equipment is dedicated to the

manufacture of one product
 Standard machines tooled for high production (e.g.,
stamping presses, molding machines)
 Typical layout – process layout
2. Flow line production – Multiple workstations arranged in
sequence
 Product requires multiple processing or assembly
steps
 Product layout is most common

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MED, UET, Peshawar
 Product Layout

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Relationships between Plant Layout

and Type of Production Facility

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MED, UET, Peshawar
 Product/Production Relationships
P
 Total number of product units = Qf = Q j
 Qj = annual quantity of variety ‘j’ j 1

 P = variety of products from ‘1’ to ‘j’

Product variety
 Hard product variety = differences between
products
 Soft product variety = differences between models
of products
 Product and part complexity
 Product complexity np = number of parts in product
 Part complexity no = number of operations per part
DR. S.A.Shah

Factory Operations Model

Simplified:
 Total number of product units Qf = PQ
 Total number of parts produced npf = PQnp
 Total number of operations nof = PQnpno

where
P = Product variety
Q = Product quantity
np = Number of parts in product
no = Number of operations in product

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MED, UET, Peshawar
 Effect of Number of Parts
and Number of Operations

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Limitations and Capabilities of a

Manufacturing Plant

Manufacturing capability - the technical and physical

limitations of a manufacturing firm and each of its plants
 Three dimensions of manufacturing capability:
1. Technological processing capability - the available set
of manufacturing processes
2. Physical size and weight of product
3. Production capacity (plant capacity) - production
quantity that can be made in a given time

DR. S.A.Shah

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 Worked Problem
The ABC Company is planning a new product line and will build a
new plant to manufacture the parts for a new product line. The
product line will include 50 different models. Annual production of
each model is expected to be 1000 units. Each product will be
assembled of 400 components. All processing of parts will be
accomplished in one factory. There are an average of 6 processing
steps required to produce each component, and each processing
step takes 1.0 minute (includes an allowance for setup time and part
handling). All processing operations are performed at workstations,
each of which includes a production machine and a human worker. If
each workstation requires a floor space of 250 m2, and the factory
operates one shift (2000 hr/yr), determine (a) how many production
operations, (b) how much floor space, and (c) how many workers will
be required in the plant.

DR. S.A.Shah

Solution

This problem neglects the effect of assembly time:

(a) nof = PQnpno = 50(1000)(400)(6) = 120,000,000 operations in the
factory per year.
(c) Total operation time = (120 x 106 ops)(1min./(60 min./hr)) = 2,000,000
hr/yr.
At 2000 hours/yr per worker, w = = 1000 workers.
(b) Number of workstations n = w = 1000.

Total floor space = (1000 stations)(250 m2/station) = 250,000 m2

DR. S.A.Shah

DR. S.A.Shah 31
MED, UET, Peshawar
 Problem 2.4
 The XYZ Company is planning to introduce a new product line and will build
a new factory to produce the parts and assembly the final products for the
product line. The new product line will include 100 different models. Annual
production of each model is expected to be 1000 units. Each product will be
assembled of 600 components. All processing of parts and assembly of
products will be accomplished in one factory. There are an average of 10
processing steps required to produce each component, and each processing
step takes 30 sec. (includes an allowance for setup time and part handling).
Each final unit of product takes 3.0 hours to assemble. All processing
operations are performed at work cells that each includes a production
machine and a human worker. Products are assembled on single
workstations consisting of two workers each. If each work cell and each
workstation require 200 ft2, and the factory operates one shift (2000 hr/yr),
determine: (a) how many production operations, (b) how much floorspace,
and (c) how many workers will be required in the plant.
 If the company were to operate three shifts (6000 hr/yr) instead of one shift,
determine the answers to (a), (b), and (c).

DR. S.A.Shah

Solution
 Solution:
 (a) Qf = PQ = 100(1000) = 100,000 products/yr
 Number of final assembly operations = 100,000 assy.opns/yr
 Number of processing operations nof = PQnpno = 100(1000)(600)(10) =
600,000,000 proc.opns/yr
 (c) Total processing operation time = (600 x 106 ops)(0.5 min./(60 min./hr)) =
5,000,000 hr/yr.
 Total assembly operation time = (100 x 103 asby ops)(3 hr/product) = 300,000
hr/yr
 Total processing and assembly time = 5,300,000 hr/yr
5,300,000hr / yr
 At 2000 hours/yr per worker, w = 2000hr / wor ker = 2650 workers.
 (b) With 1 worker per workstation for processing operations, n = w = 2500 =
2500 workstations.
 With 2 workers per stations for assembly, n = w/2 = 150/2 = 75 workstations.
 Total floor space A = (2575 stations)(200 ft2/station) = 515,000 ft2
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DR. S.A.Shah 32
MED, UET, Peshawar
 Solution
 (a) Same total number of processing and assembly operations but
spread over three shifts.
 Number of final assembly operations = 100,000 assy.opns/yr
 Number of processing operations nof = PQnpno = 100(1000)(600)(10) =
600,000,000 proc.opns/yr
 (c) Same total number of workers required but spread over three
shifts.
 Total workers w = 2650 workers. Number of workers/shift = w/3 =
883.33  884 workers/shift.
 (b) Number of workers for processing operations = 2500/3 = 833
worker per shift (884 on one shift)
 Number of workers for assembly = 150/3 = 50 workers per shift.
 Number of workstations n = 833 + 50/2 = 858 (859 on one of the
shifts).
 Using the higher number, Total floor space A = (859 stations)(200
ft2/station) = 171,800 ft2

DR. S.A.Shah

Production Performance Metrics

 Cycle time Tc
 Production rate Rp
 Availability A
 Production capacity PC
 Utilization U
 Manufacturing lead time MLT
 Work-in-progress WIP

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 Operation Cycle Time

Typical cycle time for a production operation:

Tc = To + Th + Tth

where
Tc = cycle time
To = processing time for the operation
Th = handling time (e.g., loading and unloading the
production machine), and
Tth = tool handling time (e.g., time to change tools)

DR. S.A.Shah

Types of Discrete Production

(a) Job shop, Q = 1, (b) batch production, sequential, (c) batch production,
simultaneous, (d) quantity mass production, (e) flow line mass production

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 Production Rate

Batch production:
batch time Tb = Tsu + QTc
Average production time per work unit Tp = Tb/Q
Production rate Rp = 1/Tp
Job shop production:
For Q = 1, Tp = Tb = Tsu + Tc
For quantity high production:
Rp = Rc = 60/Tp since Tsu/Q  0
For flow line production
Tc = Tr + Max To and Rc = 60/Tc
DR. S.A.Shah

Availability

Availability = proportion uptime of the equipment

MTBF  MTTR
Availability: A
MTBF
Where
MTBF = mean time between failures, and
MTTR = mean time to repair

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 Availability

Key: MTBF = mean time between failures, MTTR = mean time to repair.

DR. S.A.Shah

Production Capacity
Defined as the maximum rate of output that a production
facility (or production line, or group of machines) is able
to produce under a given set of operating conditions
 When referring to a plant or factory, the term plant
capacity is used
 Assumed operating conditions refer to:
 Number of shifts per day
 Number of hours per shift
 Employment levels

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 Plant Capacity

Simplest case is quantity production in which there are:

 n production machines in the plant and they all
produce the same part or product
 Each machine produces as the same rate Rp
PC = n Hpc Rp
Where
PC = plant capacity for a defined period (e.g. a week)
Hpc = number of hours in the period being used to
measure plant capacity, hr/period

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How to Adjust Plant Capacity

 Over the short term:
 Increase or decrease number of workers w
 Increase or decrease shifts per week
 Increase or decrease hours per shift (e.g., overtime)
 Over the intermediate and long terms:
 Increase number of machines n
 Increase production rate Rp by methods improvements
and/or processing technology

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 Utilization
Defined as the proportion of time that a productive resource
(e.g., a production machine) is used relative to the time
available under the definition of plant capacity

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Manufacturing Lead Time

Defined as the total time required to process a given part

or product through the plant, including any time for
delays, material handling, queues before machines, etc.
MLT = no (Tsu + QTc + Tno)
where
MLT = manufacturing lead time
no = number of operations
Tsu = setup time
Q = batch quantity
Tc = cycle time per part, and
Tno = non-operation time
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 Work-In-Process

Defined as the quantity of parts or products currently

located in the factory that either are being processed
or are between processing operations

WIP = Rpph (MLT)

Where
WIP = work-in-process, pc
Rpph = hourly plant production rate, pc/hr
MLT = manufacturing lead time, hr

DR. S.A.Shah

Manufacturing Costs

 Two major categories of manufacturing costs:

1. Fixed costs - remain constant for any output level
2. Variable costs - vary in proportion to production
output level
 Adding fixed and variable costs
TC = FC + VC(Q)
where
TC = total costs
FC = fixed costs (e.g., building, equipment, taxes)
VC = variable costs (e.g., labor, materials, utilities)
Q = output level
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 Fixed and Variable Costs

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Manufacturing Costs

 Alternative classification of manufacturing costs:

1. Direct labor - wages and benefits paid to workers
2. Materials - costs of raw materials
3. Overhead - all of the other expenses associated with
running the manufacturing firm
 Factory overhead
 Corporate overhead

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 Typical Manufacturing Costs (J Black)

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Overhead Rates

Factory overhead rate:

FOHC
FOHR =
DLC
Corporate overhead rate:

COHC
COHR =
DLC

Where
DLC = direct labor costs

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 Cost of Equipment Usage

Hourly cost of worker-machine system:

Co = CL(1 + FOHRL) + Cm(1 + FOHRm)

Where
Co = hourly rate, $/hr
CL = labor rate, $/hr
FOHRL = labor factory overhead rate
Cm = machine rate, $/hr
FOHRm = machine factory overhead rate

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Cost of a Manufactured Part

Defined as the sum of the production cost, material cost, and
tooling cost
Cost for each unit operation = CoiTpi + Cti
Where
Coi = cost rate to perform unit operation i
Tpi = production time for operation i
Cti = tooling cost for operation i
Total unit cost is the sum of the unit costs plus material cost
Cpc = Cm + (CoiTpi + Cti)
Where
Cpc = cost per piece
Cm = cost of starting material
DR. S.A.Shah

DR. S.A.Shah 42
MED, UET, Peshawar
 Manufacturing Lead Time

Raw Work in Finished

Materials Progress Goods
Machine
Group

Transport Stores Inspect

•Operating Times
•Non-operating Times

DR. S.A.Shah

Manufacturing Lead Time

30% 70%
Cutting Positioning, Loading

e.g.
Set-up Time

5% 95%
On Machine Moving and Waiting

Time
1.5% of total time - adds value

DR. S.A.Shah

DR. S.A.Shah 43
MED, UET, Peshawar
 Manufacturing Lead Time

n1 n2 n3

Time

Operation Time
Non-operation Time

To = Operation Time per Machine

Tno = Non-operation Time per Machine
nm = Number of Machines

MLT = nm ( To + Tno )

DR. S.A.Shah

Manufacturing Lead Time

n1 n2 n3

Pallet of six parts

Q = Number of parts

MLT = nm ( QTo + Tno )

DR. S.A.Shah

DR. S.A.Shah 44
MED, UET, Peshawar
 Manufacturing Lead Time

n1 n2 n3

Pallet of six parts

Tsu = Set-up Time

MLT = nm ( QTo + Tno + Tsu )

DR. S.A.Shah

Manufacturing Lead Time

Order #1

Order #2

Process Plan (Routing)

DR. S.A.Shah

DR. S.A.Shah 45
MED, UET, Peshawar
 Manufacturing Lead Time

In practice

Q, Tsu, To, Tno and nm will vary considerably

for different order quantities, process routing to find average or aggregate
values before carrying out analysis. e.g.:

nq

 Qi
i 1
Q 
nQ

DR. S.A.Shah

Operation Times

Operation time has three elements:

Tm = Actual Machining Time

Th = Work piece Handling Time
Tth = Tool Handling Time

To = Tm + Th + Tth

DR. S.A.Shah

DR. S.A.Shah 46
MED, UET, Peshawar
 Rate of Production

• Total Batch Time per Machine

Tsu + QTo

• Average Production Time per Part

Tp = Tsu + QTo
Q

• Rate of Production

Rp = 1/Tp

DR. S.A.Shah

Lead Times
nq

MLT (Tsui QToi Tnoi)

i1
MLT(Tsu QTo Tno)nm
Job Shop (Q -> 1)
MLT(Tsu To Tno )nm

Mass Production (Tsu + Tno -> 0)

MLT  n m QT o
MLT  n m ( TransferTime  Longest (T o ))

DR. S.A.Shah

DR. S.A.Shah 47
MED, UET, Peshawar
 Production Capacity

Production Capacity, Pc

Pc = WSwHRp

W = number of work centres

Sw = Number of shifts per week
H = Hours per shift
Rp = Rate of production (units per hour)

If process plan requires Nm machines:

Pc = WSwHRp / Nm

DR. S.A.Shah

Demand Rate

Weekly Demand Rate

Dw = WSwHRp / Nm

WSwH = DwNm/ Rp

Three ways of adjusting capacity

W (number of work centres)

Sw (number of shifts per week)
H (number of hours per shift i.e. overtime)

DR. S.A.Shah

DR. S.A.Shah 48
MED, UET, Peshawar
 Work In Progress

WIP : Amount of product currently located

in the factory that is either being processed
or is in between processing operations

Generally:

WIP = PC U (MLT) / Sw H

DR. S.A.Shah

WIP Ratio

WIP Ratio = WIP / Number of Machines Processing

PC U (MLT)
Sw H
WIP Ratio =
QTo
WU
Tsu + QTo

Ideal ratio: 1:1

DR. S.A.Shah

DR. S.A.Shah 49
MED, UET, Peshawar
 Worked Problem
The average part produced in a certain batch manufacturing plant must
be processed sequentially through six machines on average. Twenty
(20) new batches of parts are launched each week. Average
operation time = 6 min., average setup time = 5 hours, average batch
size = 25 parts, and average non-operation time per batch = 10
hr/machine. There are 18 machines in the plant working in parallel.
Each of the machines can be set up for any type of job processed in
the plant. The plant operates an average of 70 production hours per
week. Scrap rate is negligible. Determine (a) manufacturing lead time
for an average part, (b) plant capacity, (c) plant utilization. (d) How
would you expect the nonoperation time to be affected by the plant
utilization?

DR. S.A.Shah

Solution
(a) MLT = 6(5 + 25(0.1) + 10) = 105 hr
(b) Tp = (5 + 25 x 0.1)/25 = 0.30 hr/pc, Rp = 3.333 pc/hr.
PC = 70(18)(3.333)/6 = 700 pc/week
(c) Parts launched per week = 20 x 25 = 500 pc/week.
Utilization U = 500/700 = 0.7143 = 71.43%
(d) As utilization increases towards 100%, we would expect
the nonoperation time to increase. When the workload in
the shop grows, the shop becomes busier, but it usually
takes longer to get the jobs out. As utilization decreases,
we would expect the nonoperation time to decrease.

DR. S.A.Shah

DR. S.A.Shah 50
MED, UET, Peshawar
 Utilisation
 Utilisation, U = Output/Capacity

Q
 Utilization: U =
PC
where
Q = quantity actually produced
PC = plant capacity

DR. S.A.Shah

Availability

MTBF  MTTR
 Availability: A =
MTBF

where MTBF = mean time between failures, and

MTTR = mean time to repair

DR. S.A.Shah

DR. S.A.Shah 51
MED, UET, Peshawar
 Costs of Manufacturing Operations

Fixed costs - remain constant for any output level

Variable costs - vary in proportion to production output
level
Adding fixed and variable costs
TC = FC + VC(Q)
where
TC = total costs
FC = fixed costs (e.g., building, equipment, taxes)
VC = variable costs (e.g., labor, materials, utilities)
Q = output level

DR. S.A.Shah

Storage Buffers in Production Lines

A location in the sequence of workstations where parts

can be collected and temporarily stored before
proceeding to subsequent downstream stations
 Reasons for using storage buffers:
 To reduce effect of station breakdowns
 To provide a bank of parts to supply the line
 To provide a place to put the output of the line
 To allow curing time or other required delay
 To smooth cycle time variations
 To store parts between stages with different
production rates

DR. S.A.Shah

DR. S.A.Shah 52
MED, UET, Peshawar
 Manual Assembly Line Defined
A production line consisting of a sequence of workstations
where assembly tasks are performed by human workers
as the product moves along the line

 Organized to produce a single product or a limited range

of products
 Each product consists of multiple components joined
together by various assembly work elements
 Total work content - the sum of all work elements
required to assemble one product unit on the line

DR. S.A.Shah

Manual Assembly Line

Configuration of a manual assembly line with n manually operated workstations

 The production rate of an assembly line is determined by its slowest

station
 Assembly workstation: A designated location along the work flow
path at which one or more work elements are performed by one or
more workers

DR. S.A.Shah

DR. S.A.Shah 53
MED, UET, Peshawar
 Typical Products
Made on Assembly Lines

Automobiles Personal computers

Cooking ranges Power tools
Dishwashers Refrigerators
Dryers Telephones
Furniture Toasters
Lamps Trucks
Luggage Video DVD players
Microwave ovens Washing machines

DR. S.A.Shah

Manual Assembly Line

 Products are assembled as they move along the line

 At each station a portion of the total work content is
performed on each unit

 Base parts are launched onto the beginning of the line at

regular intervals (cycle time)
 Workers add components to progressively build the
product

DR. S.A.Shah

DR. S.A.Shah 54
MED, UET, Peshawar
 Assembly Workstation

A designated location along the work flow path at which

one or more work elements are performed by one or
more workers
Typical operations performed at manual assembly stations
Adhesive application Electrical connections Snap fitting
Sealant application Component insertion Soldering
Arc welding Press fitting Stitching/stapling
Spot welding Riveting Threaded fasteners

DR. S.A.Shah

Line Pacing
 A manual assembly line operates at a certain cycle time -
On average, each worker must complete his/her assigned
task within this cycle time

 Pacing provides a discipline for the assembly line workers

that more or less guarantees a certain production rate

 Several levels of pacing:

1. Rigid pacing
2. Pacing with margin
3. No pacing
DR. S.A.Shah

DR. S.A.Shah 55
MED, UET, Peshawar
 Coping with Product Variety
 Single-model assembly line (SMAL)
 Every work unit is the same

 Batch-model assembly line (BMAL)

 Hard product variety
 Products must be made in batches

 Mixed-model assembly line (MMAL)

 Soft product variety
 Models can be assembled simultaneously without batching

DR. S.A.Shah

Coping with Product Variety

DR. S.A.Shah

DR. S.A.Shah 56
MED, UET, Peshawar
 Some Definitions

 Work flow
Each work unit should move steadily along the line

 Line pacing
Workers must complete their tasks within a certain
cycle time, which will be the pace of the whole line

DR. S.A.Shah

Manning Level

Two assembly operators

working on an engine
assembly line

Final inspection of a car

DR. S.A.Shah

DR. S.A.Shah 57
MED, UET, Peshawar
 Manning Level

 There may be more than one worker per station.

 Utility workers: are not assigned to specific workstations.

 They are responsible for

1. helping workers who fall behind,
2. relieving for workers for personal breaks,
3. maintenance and repair

DR. S.A.Shah

Manning level
w
Average manning level: M
n
Practically, average manning level: n
wu   wi
i 1
M
n
where
M = average manning level of the line,
wu= number of utility workers assigned to the system,
n = number of workstations,
wi = number of workers assigned specifically to station i for
i=1,…,n DR. S.A.Shah

DR. S.A.Shah 58
MED, UET, Peshawar
 Work Transport System

Manual method Mechanized Methods

DR. S.A.Shah

Work Transport Systems-Manual Methods

 Manual methods
 Work units are moved between stations by the workers (by hand)
without powered conveyor

Problems:
 Starving of stations
 The assembly operator has completed the assigned task on
the current work unit, but the next unit has not yet arrived at the
station

 Blocking of stations
 The operator has completed the assigned task on the current
work unit but cannot pass the unit to the downstream station
because that worker is not yet ready to receive it

DR. S.A.Shah

DR. S.A.Shah 59
MED, UET, Peshawar
 Work Transport Systems-Manual Methods

 To reduce starving
 use buffers

 To prevent blocking
 provide space between upstream and downstream stations

 But both solutions can result in higher WIP

 which is economically undesirable

DR. S.A.Shah

Assembly Line Balancing

The purpose of the assembly line balancing technique is:

1. To equalize the work load among the assemblers

2. To identify the bottleneck operation
3. To establish the speed of the assembly line
4. To determine the number of workstations
5. To determine the labor cost of assembly and pack out
6. To establish the percentage workload of each operator
7. To assist in plant layout
8. To reduce production cost

The assembly line balancing technique builds on:

The assembly chart
Time standards
Takt time (minutes/piece) (Plant rate, R value, Pieces/minutes)
DR. S.A.Shah

DR. S.A.Shah 60
MED, UET, Peshawar
 Analysis of Single Model Lines
 The assembly line must be designed to achieve a production rate
sufficient to satisfy the demand.

 Demand rate → production rate→ cycle time

 Annual demand Da must be reduced to an hourly production rate

Rp
Da
Rp 
Ow S w H sh
where
Da = annual demand
Rp = hourly production rate
Sw = number of shifts/week
Hsh = number of hours/shift
Ow = number of operation weeks DR. S.A.Shah

Analysis of Single Model Lines

 We convert production rate, Rp, to cycle time, Tc
 Some production time will be lost due to
 equipment failures
 power outages
 material unavailability
 quality problems
 labor problems
 Line efficiency (uptime proportion): only a certain proportion of the
shift time will be available.

Cycle time Ideal cycle time

60E 60
Tc  Rc 
Rp Tc
Production rate, Rp, is converted to the cycle time, Tc, accounting for line
efficiency, E.
Rc = Ideal cycle rate for the line (cycle/hr)
DR. S.A.Shah

DR. S.A.Shah 61
MED, UET, Peshawar
 Analysis of Single Model Lines
Rc < Rp [Ideal cycle rate must be less than required production rate]

Rp Tc Tp = average production cycle time

Line efficiency, Ec  
Rc Tp =Tp = 60/ Rp

WL WL = workload in a given time period

No of worker, w
AT AT = available time in the period

Workload to be Rp = production rate

accomplished WL  R pTwc
Twc = work content time

Available time AT  60 E *60 minute

Work content time (Twc): The total time of all work elements that
DR. S.A.Shah
must be performed to produce one unit of the work unit.

Analysis of Single Model Lines

The theoretical minimum number of stations that will be required to on

the line to produce one unit of the work unit, w*:

Twc
w* = Minimum Integer 
Tc
where
Twc = work content time, min;
Tc = cycle time, min/station

If we assume one worker per station then this gives the minimum
number of workers

DR. S.A.Shah

DR. S.A.Shah 62
MED, UET, Peshawar
 Theoretical Minimum Not Possible..

 Repositioning losses: Some time will be lost at each

station every cycle for repositioning the worker or the work
unit; thus, the workers will not have the entire Tc each cycle

 Line balancing problem (imperfect balancing): It is not

possible to divide the work content time evenly among
workers, and some workers will have an amount of work
that is less than Tc

DR. S.A.Shah

Repositioning Losses

 Repositioning losses occur on a production line because

some time is required each cycle to reposition the
worker, the work unit, or both

 On a continous transport line, time is required for the worker to

walk from the unit just completed to the the upstream unit
entering the station

 In conveyor systems, time is required to remove work units from

the conveyor and position it at the station for worker to perform
his task.

DR. S.A.Shah

DR. S.A.Shah 63
MED, UET, Peshawar
 Repositioning Losses

 Repositioning time = time available each cycle for

the worker to position = Tr

 Service time = time available each cycle for the

worker to work on the product = Ts

 Service time, Ts = Max{Tsi} ≤Tc – Tr

where Tsi= service time for station i, i=1,2,..,n

Ts Tc  Tr
 Repositioning efficiency Er = 
Tc Tc
DR. S.A.Shah

Components of Cycle Time Tc

 Components of cycle time at several workstations on a manual

assembly line
 At the bottleneck station, there is no idle time

DR. S.A.Shah

DR. S.A.Shah 64
MED, UET, Peshawar
 Line Balancing Problem

 Given:
 Total work content consists of many distinct work
elements
 The sequence in which the elements can be performed
is restricted
 The line must operate at a specified cycle time
 Problem:
 To assign the individual work elements to workstations
so that all workers have an equal amount of work to
perform

DR. S.A.Shah

Assumptions About Work Element Times

1. Element times are constant values

 But in fact they are variable

2. Work element times are additive

 The time to perform two/more work elements in sequence is

the sum of the individual element times

 Additivity assumption can be violated (due to motion

economies)

DR. S.A.Shah

DR. S.A.Shah 65
MED, UET, Peshawar
 Work Element Times

 Total work content time Twc

ne
Twc =
Tek
k 1

where Tek = work element time for element k

 Work elements are assigned to station i that add up to the

service time for that station
Tsi = Tek
ki
 The station service times must add up to the total work content
time
n
Twc = Tsi
i 1 DR. S.A.Shah

Constraints of Line Balancing Problem

 Different work elements require different times.

 When elements are grouped into logical tasks and assigned to

workers, the station service times, Tsi, are likely not to be equal.

 Simply because of the variation among work element times, some

workers will be assigned more work.

 Thus, variations among work elements make it difficult to obtain equal

service times for all stations.

DR. S.A.Shah

DR. S.A.Shah 66
MED, UET, Peshawar
 Precedence Constraints

 Restrictions on the order in which work elements can be

performed

Precedence
diagram

DR. S.A.Shah

Line Balancing Summary

 Objective of line balancing is to distribute the total work load on the
assembly line as evenly as possible among the workers, so that all
workers have an equal amount of work

 When the workstation times are unequal, the slowest station

determines the overall production rate of the line

 Work elements are assigned to the stations, such that assembly cost
is minimized:
 Labor Cost
 Idle Time Cost
 Idle Time Minimization (Focus)
 Production Constraints (Limits)

DR. S.A.Shah

DR. S.A.Shah 67
MED, UET, Peshawar
 Concepts in Line Balancing

 Separation of the Total work content into minimal rational

work element

 Precedence constraints, which must be satisfied by these

constraints

Based on these concepts performance measures for the line

balancing solutions are defined

DR. S.A.Shah

Terminology used in Line Balancing

 Minimal Rational Work Element:
 Smallest feasible division of work
 Smallest element into which a job can be usefully divided
 Can not be subdivided further
 Examples:
 Drilling a hole
 Fastening 2 components with Nut/Bolt

 Total Work Content:

 Sum of all the work to be done on the line

 Work Content Time (Twc): ne

 Sum of the work element times Twc = Tek
k 1
DR. S.A.Shah

DR. S.A.Shah 68
MED, UET, Peshawar
 Terminology used in Line Balancing

 Workstation Process Time (Tsi):

 Sum of the work elements done at station i Tsi = 
ki
Tek

 Cycle Time (Tc):

 Largest workstation time
 Time interval between parts coming off the line
 Time to produce one product
 Ts should always be less then Tc

DR. S.A.Shah

Terminology used in Line Balancing

 Precedence Requirements:
 Assembly operations must be performed in some proper sequence
 Some operations might not be done before some operations
 Examples:
 Creating a threaded hole
 The hole must be drilled before it can be taped

 Precedence Constraints:
 The restrictions of the sequence in which the job must be
accomplished

DR. S.A.Shah

DR. S.A.Shah 69
MED, UET, Peshawar
 Terminology used in Line Balancing

 Precedence Diagram
 A network showing order of tasks and restrictions on their
performance
 Graphical representation of the sequence of work elements as
defined by the precedence constraints
 Shows the sequence in which the work elements must be
performed
 Nodes: Represents the work element
 Arrows: Indicates the order in which the elements must
be performed

DR. S.A.Shah

Example of Line Balancing Problem

DR. S.A.Shah

DR. S.A.Shah 70
MED, UET, Peshawar
 Example of Line Balancing Problem

DR. S.A.Shah

Example: A problem for line balancing

A small electrical appliance is to be produced on a single model assembly

line. The work content of assembling the product has been reduced to the
work elements listed in table below along with other information. The line
is to be balanced for an annual demand of 100,000 units per year. The
line will be operated 50 weeks/yr, 5 shifts/wk, and 7.5 hrs/shift. Manning
level will be one worker per station. Previous experience suggests that the
uptime efficiency for the line will be 96%, and repositioning time lost per
cycle will be 0.08 min. Determine (a) total work content time Twc, (b)
required hourly production rate Rp to achieve the annual demand, (c)
Cycle time, and (e) service time Ts to which the line must be balanced.

DR. S.A.Shah

DR. S.A.Shah 71
MED, UET, Peshawar
 Example: A problem for line balancing

 Given: The previous precedence diagram and the standard times.

Annual demand=100,000 units/year. The line will operate 50 wk/yr,
5 shifts/wk, 7.5 hr/shift. Uptime efficiency=96%. Repositioning time
lost=0.08 min.

 Determine
(a) total work content time,
(b) required hourly production rate to achieve the annual demand,
(c) cycle time,
(d) theoretical minimum number of workers required on the line,
(e) service time to which the line must be balanced.
DR. S.A.Shah

Example: Solution

(a) The total work content time is the sum of the work
element times given in the table ne

Twc=4.0 min Twc   Tek

k 1
(b) The hourly production rate
100,000 Da
Rp   53.33 units/hr Rp 
50(5)(7.5) 50 S w H sh
(c) The corresponding cycle time with an uptime
efficiency of 96%
60(0.96) 60E
Tc   1.08 min Tc 
53.33 Rp

(d) The minimum number of workers:

T
w* = (Minimum Integer  4.0 /1.08=3.7)=4 workers w*  wc
(e) The available service time Tc
Ts=1.08-0.08=1.00 min Ts  Tc  Tr
DR. S.A.Shah

DR. S.A.Shah 72
MED, UET, Peshawar
 Measures of Balance Efficiency

 It is almost imposible to obtain a perfect line balance

 Line balance efficiency, Eb:

Twc
Eb = Perfect line: Eb = 1
wTs

 Balance delay, d:
wTs  Twc
d= Perfect line: d = 0
wTs

 Note that Eb + d = 1 (they are complement of each other)

DR. S.A.Shah

Overall Efficiency

 Factors that reduce the productivity of a manual

line

 Line efficiency (Availability), E,

 Repositioning efficiency (repositioning), Er,

 Balance efficiency (balancing), Eb,

60 E Twc Ts Tc  Tr
Tc  Eb  Er  
Rp wTs Tc Tc

 E  Er  Eb
Overall Labor efficiency on the assembly line =

DR. S.A.Shah

DR. S.A.Shah 73
MED, UET, Peshawar
 Line Balancing Algorithms

 Largest Candidate Rule

 Assignment of work elements to stations based on
amount of time each work element requires
 Kilbridge and Wester Method
 Assignment of work elements to stations based on
position in the precedence diagram
 Elements at front of diagram are assigned first
 Ranked Positional Weights
 Combines the two preceding approaches by calculating
an RPW for each element
DR. S.A.Shah

Largest Candidate Rule

1. List all work elements in descending order based on their Tek values;
then,

2. Start at the top of the list and selecting the first element that satisfies
precedence requirements and does not cause the total sum of Tek to
exceed the allowable Ts value

3. When an element is assigned, start back at the top of the list and repeat
selection process

4. When no more elements can be assigned to the current station, proceed

to next station

5. Repeat steps 1 and 2 until all elements have been assigned to as many
DR. S.A.Shah
stations as needed

DR. S.A.Shah 74
MED, UET, Peshawar
 Solution for Largest Candidate Rule

DR. S.A.Shah

Solution for Largest Candidate Rule

DR. S.A.Shah

DR. S.A.Shah 75
MED, UET, Peshawar
 Largest Candidate Rule

Work elements assigned to stations by LCR

DR. S.A.Shah

Solution for Largest Candidate Rule

Solution to line
balancing example:
(a) Assignment of work
elements

(a) Physical sequence

of stations with
assigned work
elements

DR. S.A.Shah

DR. S.A.Shah 76
MED, UET, Peshawar
 Example:
Balance Efficiency
Twc 4.0
Eb    0.80
wTs 5(1.0)

DR. S.A.Shah

Kilbridge and Wester Method

 Elements are selected for the workstation assignment based on their
position in the precedence diagram

 First, the work elements are arranged into columns in the precedence
diagram
 Organize the elements into a list according to their columns, with
the elements in the first column listed first
 If an element can be located in more then one column, then list all
the columns for that element (In this case element 5 & 8)
 Column wise list should be in order of Tek values
 When the list is completed, proceed with same steps 1, 2, and 3 as
in the largest candidate rule
DR. S.A.Shah

DR. S.A.Shah 77
MED, UET, Peshawar
 Kilbridge and Wester Method
Figure 15.7 Work elements in example problem arranged into columns for the Kilbridge and Wester method.

DR. S.A.Shah

Kilbridge and Wester Method

DR. S.A.Shah

DR. S.A.Shah 78
MED, UET, Peshawar
 Kilbridge and Wester Method

DR. S.A.Shah

Analysis of single model assembly lines

Kilbridge and Wester Method

DR. S.A.Shah

DR. S.A.Shah 79
MED, UET, Peshawar
 Ranked Positional Weights Method

 A ranked position weight (RPW) is calculated for each work element

 RPW for element k is calculated by summing the Te values for all of

the elements that follow element k in the diagram plus Tek itself

 Work elements are then organized into a list according to their RPW
values, starting with the element that has the highest RPW value

 Proceed with same steps 1, 2, and 3 as in the largest candidate rule

 Example:
 RPW 11 = 0.5+0.12 = 0.62
 RPW 08 = 0.6+0.27+0.38+0.5+0.12 = 1.87
DR. S.A.Shah

Ranked Positional Weights (RPW)

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 Ranked Positional Weights (RPW)

DR. S.A.Shah

Analysis of single model assembly lines

Ranked positional weights

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 Analysis of single model assembly lines

Ranked positional
Largest Candidate Kilbridge and Wester
weights
Rule method

DR. S.A.Shah

Summary
1. Determine Maximum Output
OT (Operating per day)
CT (Cycle time)
D (Desired time)

Cycle Time= OT/D

Output capacity= OT/CT

2. Steps Involved in Assembly Line Balancing

1. Draw the precedence diagram
2. Determine the required cycle time (c)
3. C=(Production time/day) /Output per day (in units)
4. Determine the theoretical no of work stations (Nt = Sum of the task times/cycle time)
5. Select a rule which tasks are to be assigned to work stations and a secondary rule to
break the ties.
6. Efficiency = Sum of the tasks times/[ actual no of workstations x Cycle time ]
7. Balance delay =1-Efficiency

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 Chapter Computer Numerical Control

Development of Machine Tools:

1. Conventional Machines
2. Numerical Control (NC)
3. Computer Numerical Control (CNC)
4. Direct Numerical Control (DNC)
5. Distributed Numerical Control (DNC)

DR. S.A.Shah

Development of Machine Tools

 NC System
 One of the most fundamental concept in the area of Advanced
Manufacturing Technologies
 In conventional machines, quality of the product is directly related
to and limited to the skills of the operator
 NC control was developed to overcome the limitations of human
operators (parts are produced more accurately, uniformly and
faster)
 Concept of NC was developed in 1950’s in MIT
 Initially were able to make straight cuts effectively
 Curved paths were problem as the machine tool had to be
programmed to under take a series of horizontal and vertical steps
to produce a curve DR. S.A.Shah

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 Development of Machine Tools
 NC System (continued…)
 The shorter the straight line, the smoother is the curve
 Each line segment in the step had to be calculated
 This problem led to the development of APT language

 APT
 A special programming Language for NC that uses statements to:
1. Define the part geometry
2. Describe the cutting tool configuration
3. Specify the necessary motions
 Instructional programs had to be written on punch paper, later
replaced by magnetic plastic tapes
DR. S.A.Shah

Numerical Control (NC) Defined

Form of programmable automation in which the mechanical
actions of a machine tool or other equipment are
controlled by a program containing coded alphanumeric
data
 The alphanumeric data represent relative positions
between a workhead (e.g., cutting tool) and a work part
 When the current job is completed, a new program can
be entered for the next job

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 Basic Components of an NC System

1. Program of instructions
 Called a part program in machining
2. Machine control unit
 Controls the process
3. Processing equipment
 Performs the process

DR. S.A.Shah

Basic Components of an NC System

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 Development of Machine Tools
 NC System
 Programs had to be stored on punch cards
 Paper tapes were easy to damage and difficult to edit or correct
 This lead to the development of DNC System (Direct)
 DNC System (Direct Numerical Control)
 Developed after development of computers
 Host computer controls several machines
 Programs were to be stored on the Host computer and through
data transmitted cables, these programs had to be sent to the
computers
 Problem: If the host computer goes down, all machines had to
stop OR if some damage to the data cable
 This problem lead to the development of CNC systems
DR. S.A.Shah

Development of Machine Tools

 CNC System
 Each machine has its own computer
 Problem: What if same program has to be loaded to different
machines
 Each machine has to be individually programmed
 Data Management Problem (Time Management)
 This lead to the development of DNC (Distributed NC)

 Distributed Numerical Control System

 The host computer is linked to various CNC Machines

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 Categories of CNC Machines
1. Cleaning and finishing machines
 Performs operations like, coating, washing, lapping, buffing,
grinding etc.

2. Inspection and quality control

3. Pressing and forming machines
4. Material removal machines
 Strongly associated with CNC Mills, Drills, Lathes, Saws, Grinders
etc.

DR. S.A.Shah

NC Coordinate Systems

(a) For flat and block-like parts and (b) for rotational parts

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 The Right Hand Rule of Coordinates

 Translations:
 The thumb represents the X-axis
 The forefinger represents the Y-axis
 The middle finger represents the Z-axis

 Rotations:
 The thumb represent the X, Y, or Z axis direction
 The curl of the fingers represent the clockwise, or positive, rotation
about each axis

DR. S.A.Shah

Motion Control Systems

1. Point-to-Point systems
 Also called positioning systems
 System moves to a location and performs an operation at that
location (e.g., drilling)
 Also applicable in robotics

2. Continuous path systems

 Also called contouring systems in machining
 System performs an operation during movement (e.g., milling
and turning)

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 Point-To-Point Control

NC drilling of
three holes
in flat plate

DR. S.A.Shah

Continuous Path Control

NC profile milling
of part outline

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 Interpolation Methods
1. Linear interpolation
 Straight line between two points in space
2. Circular interpolation
 Circular arc defined by starting point, end point, center
or radius, and direction
3. Helical interpolation
 Circular plus linear motion
4. Parabolic and cubic interpolation
 Free form curves using higher order equations

DR. S.A.Shah

Interpolation Methods
1. Linear interpolation

2. Circular interpolation

3. Helical interpolation

4. Parabolic and cubic interpolation

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 Absolute and Incremental Positioning

1. Absolute positioning
 Locations defined relative to origin of axis system

1. Incremental positioning
 Locations defined relative to previous position
 Example: drilling

DR. S.A.Shah

Absolute vs. Incremental Positioning

The work head is presently at

point (20, 20) and is to be
moved to point (40, 50)

 In absolute positioning, the move

is specified by x = 40, y = 50

 In incremental positioning, the

move is specified by x = 20, y = 30

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 DNC

1. Direct numerical control (DNC) – control of multiple

machine tools by a single (mainframe) computer
through direct connection and in real time
 1960s technology

1. Distributed numerical control (DNC) – network

consisting of central computer connected to machine
tool MCUs, which are CNC
 Present technology
 Two way communication

DR. S.A.Shah

General Configuration of a Direct Numerical

Control System

Connection to MCU is behind the tape reader (BTR). In distributed NC, entire
programs are downloaded to each MCU, which is CNC rather than
conventional NC

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 Distributed Numerical Control Configurations

DR. S.A.Shah

Applications of NC

 Machine tool applications:

 Milling, drilling, turning, boring, grinding
 Machining centers, turning centers, mill-turn centers
 Other metalworking processes:
 Punch presses for hole punching and sheet metal bending
 Tube bending
 Thermal cutting machines
 Wire EDM
 Welding

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 Common NC Machining Operations

a. Turning
b. Drilling
c. Milling
d. Grinding

Turning

DR. S.A.Shah

CNC Four-Axis
Horizontal Milling Machine

(a) With safety panels installed and (b) safety panels removed to
show typical axes configuration

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 NC Application Characteristics
(Machining)

Where NC is most appropriate:

1. Batch production
2. Repeat orders
3. Complex part geometries
4. Much metal needs to be removed from the starting
work part
5. Many separate machining operations on the part
6. Part is expensive

DR. S.A.Shah

Other Applications of NC

 Rapid prototyping and additive manufacturing

 Water jet cutting and abrasive water jet cutting
 Component placement machines in electronics assembly
 Coordinate measuring machines
 Wood routers and granite cutters
 Tape laying machines for polymer composites
 Filament winding machines for polymer composites

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 Advantages of NC
 Nonproductive time is reduced
 Greater accuracy and repeatability
 Lower scrap rates
 Inspection requirements are reduced
 More complex part geometries are possible
 Engineering changes are easier to make
 Simpler fixtures
 Shorter lead times
 Reduce parts inventory and less floor space
 Operator skill-level requirements are reduced
DR. S.A.Shah

Disadvantages of NC

 Higher investment cost

 CNC machines are more expensive
 Higher maintenance effort
 CNC machines are more technologically sophisticated
 Part programming issues
 Need for skilled programmers
 Time investment for each new part
 Repeat orders are easy because part program is
already available

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 Analysis of Positioning NC Systems

 Two types of NC positioning systems:

1. Open-loop - no feedback to verify that the actual
position achieved is the desired position
2. Closed-loop - uses feedback measurements to
confirm that the final position is the specified position

DR. S.A.Shah

Motion Control Systems

(a) Open loop

(b) Closed loop

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 Optical Encoder

 Device for measuring rotational position and speed: (a) apparatus and
(b) series of pulses to measure rotation
 Common feedback sensor for closed-loop NC control

DR. S.A.Shah

Creating Instructions for NC

 Word - sequence of characters (e.g., y-axis position)

 Block - collection of words to form one complete
instruction
 Part program - sequence of instructions (blocks)

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 Block Format
Organization of words within a block in NC part program
 Word address format - used on all modern CNC
controllers
 Uses a letter prefix to identify each type of word
 Spaces to separate words within the block
 Allows any order of words in a block
 Words can be omitted if their values do not
change from the previous block

DR. S.A.Shah

Types of Words

N - sequence number prefix

G - preparatory words
 Example: G00 = Rapid traverse move
X, Y, Z - prefixes for x, y, and z-axes
F - feed rate prefix
S - spindle speed
T - tool selection
M - miscellaneous command
 Example: M07 = turn cutting fluid on
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 Example: Word Address Format
N001 G00 X70 Y30 M03
N002 Y60

DR. S.A.Shah

CNC Codes

 G-codes: are preparatory functions, which involve actual

tool moves. These include:
1. Rapid moves
2. Feed moves
3. Radial feed moves
4. Dwells
5. Roughing
6. Profiling cycles

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 CNC Codes

 M-codes: are miscellaneous functions, which include

actions necessary for machining but not those that are
actual tool movement. These include:
1. Spindle on/off
2. Tool changes
3. Coolant on/off
4. Programs stops

DR. S.A.Shah

CNC Codes
 Letter Addresses: are variables used in G and M-codes to make
words. Most G-codes contain a variable, defined by the programmer,
for each specific function
 N Block number
 G Preparatory function
 X X axis coordinate
 Y Y axis coordinate
 Z Z axis coordinate
 I X axis location of arc center
 J Y axis location of arc center
 K Z axis location of arc center
 S Sets the spindle speed
 F Assigns a feed rate
 T Specifies tool to be used
 M Miscellaneous function
 U Incremental coordinate for X axis
 V Incremental coordinate DR.
forS.A.Shah
Y axis
 W Incremental coordinate for Z axis

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 Common Word Prefixes Used in Word
Address Format

DR. S.A.Shah

Common Word Prefixes Used in

Word Address Format

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 Common G-words (Preparatory Word)

DR. S.A.Shah

Common G-words (Preparatory

Word)

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 Common M-words Used in Word
Address Format

DR. S.A.Shah

Sequence of Steps in CNC Part

Programming Using Mastercam

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