Q.

Explain waste utilization and value addition in reference with industrial wastes and
natural products etc. used in AMPRI, Bhopal (fly ash, red mud, marble dust and
natural fibre).
A.
Waste-
Waste (or wastes) is unwanted or unusable materials. Waste is any substance which is discarded
after primary use or is worthless, defective and of no use.
European Union under the Waste Framework Directive defines waste as "an object the
holder discards, intends to discard or is required to discard”.
As per Basel Convention- “Wastes are substance or objects, which are disposed off or are
intended to be disposed off or are required to be disposed of by the provisions of national law".
i.e. Waste is a material which is no more useful or required after completion of a process.
According to United Nations Statistics Division, Glossary of Environment Statistics,"Wastes are
materials that are not prime products (that is products produced for the market) for which the
initial user has no further use in terms of his/her own purposes of production, transformation or
consumption, and of which he/she wants to dispose”.
Wastes may be generated during the extraction of raw materials, the processing of raw materials
into intermediate and final products, the consumption of final products and other human
activities. Residuals recycled or reused at the place of generation are excluded.
Categories of Wastes
1.Based on Generation
 Industrial Wastes
 Municipal Waste
 Medical Wastes
 Agricultural Wastes
 Construction Activity Wastes etc.

(Current status of solid waste generation in India)

2.Based on Physical Condition

 Solid Wastes
 Liquid Effluents Wastes
 Gas Wastes
 Steam Wastes etc.
3.Based on nature of Waste
 Bio-Organic Wastes
 Inorganic Wastes
 Hazardous Wastes (combustibles like solvents, explosives, corrosives, heavy metal
bearing wastes, Radio-active wastes) etc.
Waste not the Waste................................

Utilization of waste
The generator of waste wants to discard a waste does not necessarily mean that the material is
useless. Possibilities are that its utilization may not be in his core area of business or scale of
operation etc.
The possibility of utilization of a ‘waste’ depends on following characteristics:
 Chemical composition of the waste
 Mineralogical content
 Presence of any valuable trace material
 Presence of any Bio-resource
 Hazardous nature (if any) – radio activity, combustibility, pH, high reactivity
 Impurities and their likely effect on proposed product
 Volume of waste and availability/transportation etc.
 Availability of suitable technology for its utilization
 Economic considerations/profitability
A Random List of Inorganic Wastes
 Fly Ash
 Red mud
 Spent Catalysts – Metal oxides, Manganese oxide
 Marble dust and other inorganic powder wastes
 Metal Extraction/Processing/Etching Wastes
 Jerosite cake/Gypsum
 Mineral tailings/Kimberlite/Mine over burden
 Construction Industry Wastes
 Electronic Wastes
FLY ASH

India ranks fourth in the world in the production of coal ash as by-product waste after USSR,
USA and China, in that order. Fly ash is defined in Cement and Concrete Terminology (ACI
Committee 116) as the finely divided residue resulting from the combustion of ground or
powdered coal, which is transported from the fire-box through the boiler by flue gases’. Fly ash
is fine glass powder, the particles of which are generally spherical in shape and range in size
from 0.5 to 100 μm.
Fly ash or flue ash, also known as pulverized fuel ash in the United Kingdom, is a coal
combustion product that is composed of the particulates (fine particles of burned fuel) that are
driven out of coal-fired boilers together with the flue gases. Ash that falls to the bottom of the
boiler is called bottom ash. In modern coal-fired power plants, fly ash is generally captured by
electrostatic precipitators or other particle filtration equipment before the flue gases reach the
chimneys. Together with bottom ash removed from the bottom of the boiler, it is known as coal
ash. Depending upon the source and composition of the coal being burned, the components of fly
ash vary considerably, but all fly ash includes substantial amounts of silicon dioxide (SiO2) (both
amorphous and crystalline), aluminium oxide (Al2O3) and calcium oxide (CaO), the main
mineral compounds in coal-bearing rock strata.

Current Indian Generation of fly ash is more than 120 million tons/year. Current utilization is
approximately 67%. The unutilized part is disposed off in fly-ash ponds as slurry.Physical
categorization of fly ash is- Ceno-spheres, coarse fly ash and fine fly ash, high/low carbon fly
ashes.

The minor constituents of fly ash depend upon the specific coal bed composition but may include
one or more of the following elements or compounds found in trace concentrations (up to
hundreds ppm): arsenic, beryllium, boron, cadmium, chromium, hexavalent chromium, cobalt,
lead, manganese, mercury, molybdenum, selenium, strontium, thallium, and vanadium, along
with very small concentrations of dioxins and PAH compounds. It also has unburnt carbon.

In the past, fly ash was generally released into the atmosphere, but air pollution control standards
now require that it be captured prior to release by fitting pollution control equipment. In the
United States, fly ash is generally stored at coal power plants or placed in landfills. About 43% is
recycled, often used as a pozzolana to produce hydraulic cement or hydraulic plaster and a
replacement or partial replacement for Portland cement in concrete production. Pozzolans ensure
the setting of concrete and plaster and provide concrete with more protection from wet
conditions and chemical attack.

In the case that fly (or bottom) ash is not produced from coal, for example when solid waste is
incinerated in a waste-to-energy facility to produce electricity, the ash may contain higher levels
of contaminants than coal ash. In that case the ash produced is often classified as hazardous
waste.

Chemical composition and classification

Fly ash material solidifies while suspended in the exhaust gases and is collected by electrostatic
precipitators or filter bags. Since the particles solidify rapidly while suspended in the exhaust
gases, fly ash particles are generally spherical in shape and range in size from 0.5 µm to 300 µm.
Component Bituminous Subbituminous Lignite
SiO2 (%) 20-60 40-60 15-45
Al2O3 (%) 5-35 20-30 20-25
Fe2O3 (%) 10-40 4-10 4-15
CaO (%) 1-12 5-30 15-40
LOI (%) 0-15 0-3 0-5
Two classes of fly ash are defined by ASTM C618: Class F fly ash and Class C fly ash. The
chief difference between these classes is the amount of calcium, silica, alumina, and iron content
in the ash. The chemical properties of the fly ash are largely influenced by the chemical content
of the coal burned (i.e., anthracite, bituminous, and lignite).

Not all fly ashes meet ASTM C618 requirements, although depending on the application, this
may not be necessary. Fly ash used as a cement replacement must meet strict construction
standards. -five percent of the fly ash must have a fineness of 45 µm or less, and have carbon
content, measured by the loss on ignition (LOI), of less than 4%.The particle size distribution of
raw fly ash tends to fluctuate constantly, due to changing performance of the coal mills and the
boiler performance. This makes it necessary that, if fly ash is used in an optimal way to replace
cement in concrete production, it must be processed using beneficiation methods like mechanical
air classification. But if fly ash is used as a filler to replace sand in concrete production, Non
beneficiated fly ash with higher LOI can be also used.

Class F: The burning of harder, older anthracite and bituminous coal typically produces Class F
fly ash. This fly ash is pozzolanic in nature, and contains less than 7% lime (CaO). Possessing
pozzolanic properties, the glassy silica and alumina of Class F fly ash requires a cementing
agent, such as Portland cement, quicklime, or hydrated lime—mixed with water to react and
produce cementitious compounds. Alternatively, adding a chemical activator such as sodium
silicate (water glass) to a Class F ash can form a geopolymer.
Class C: Fly ash produced from the burning of younger lignite or sub-bituminous coal, in
addition to having pozzolanic properties, also has some self-cementing properties. In the
presence of water, Class C fly ash hardens and gets stronger over time. Class C fly ash generally
contains more than 20% lime (CaO). Unlike Class F, self-cementing Class C fly ash does not
require an activator. Alkali and sulfate(SO4) contents are generally higher in Class C fly ashes.
Physical Properties of Fly ash
 Shape: Spherical
 Size range: 0.5µm to 300µm
 Bulk density : 0.9 to 1.3 g/cm3
 Specific gravity : 1.6 to 2.6
 Water holding capacity : 40-60%
 pH = 6.0 to 8.5
 Surface area: 500 – 5000 m2/kg
 Cohesion - Negligible
Disposal and market sources
In the past, fly ash produced from coal combustion was simply entrained in flue gases and
dispersed into the atmosphere. This created environmental and health concerns that prompted
laws that have reduced fly ash emissions to less than 1% of ash produced. Worldwide, more than
65% of fly ash produced from coal power stations is disposed of in landfills and ash ponds.
The recycling of fly ash has become an increasing concern in recent years due to increasing
landfill costs and current interest in sustainable development.
Reuse: Coal ash uses include (approximately in order of decreasing importance):

 Concrete production, as a substitute material for Portland cement,sand.

 Fly-ash pellets which can replace normal aggregate in concrete mixture.
 Embankments and other structural fills (usually for road construction)
 Grout and Flowable fill production
 Waste stabilization and solidification
 Cement clinker production - (as a substitute material for clay)
 Mine reclamation
 Stabilization of soft soils
 Road subbase construction
 As aggregate substitute material (e.g. for brick production
 Mineral filler in asphaltic concrete
 Agricultural uses: soil amendment, fertilizer, cattle feeders, soil stabilization in stock
feed yards, and agricultural stakes
 Loose application on rivers to melt ice
 Loose application on roads and parking lots for ice control

Environmental problems

1. Groundwater contamination:

Since coal contains trace levels of trace elements (like e.g. arsenic, barium, beryllium, boron,
cadmium, chromium, thallium, selenium, molybdenum and mercury), fly ash obtained after
combustion of this coal contains enhanced concentrations of these elements, and therefore the
potential of the ash to cause groundwater pollution needs to be evaluated.

2. Ecology:

When newly produced the dust is strongly alkaline; a pH as high as 11 is known, and >9 is
normal. It leaches a solution dominated by sodium and sulfate, with enough boron (>15 mg l−1)
to kill most plants, though coastal species often tolerate the salinity and boron to grow on young
ash lagoons. In dry conditions these solutes rise to the surface to form a hard salt crust, impeding
all plant growth, though hardy grass species can later colonize it.

3. Spills of bulk storage:

Where fly ash is stored in bulk, it is usually stored wet rather than dry to minimize fugitive dust.
The resulting impoundments (ponds) are typically large and stable for long periods.

4. Contaminants:

Fly ash contains trace concentrations of heavy metals and other substances that are known to be
detrimental to health in sufficient quantities. Potentially toxic trace elements in coal include
arsenic, beryllium, cadmium, barium, chromium, copper, lead, mercury, molybdenum, nickel,
radium, selenium, thorium, uranium, vanadium, and zinc.
Exposure concerns

Crystalline silica and lime along with toxic chemicals represent exposure risks to human health
and the environment. Fly ash contains crystalline silica which is known to cause lung disease, in
particular silicosis. Crystalline silica is listed by the IARC and US National Toxicology Program
as a known human carcinogen.

Lime (CaO) reacts with water (H2O) to form calcium hydroxide [Ca(OH)2], giving fly ash a pH
somewhere between 10 and 12, a medium to strong base. This can also cause lung damage if
present in sufficient quantities.

Material Safety Data Sheets recommend a number of safety precautions be taken when handling
or working with fly ash. These include wearing protective goggles, respirators and disposable
clothing and avoiding agitating the fly ash in order to minimize the amount which becomes
airborne.

The National Academy of Sciences noted in 2007 that "the presence of high contaminant levels
in many CCR (coal combustion residue) leachates may create human health and ecological
concerns".

Fly ash and ceno-sphere

Properties of Ceno-spheres:
 Thermal stability
 Resistance to acids
 High strength
 Presence of internal cavities and porosity
 Density : 0.19 to 0.4 g/cm3
 Diameter : ~ 100 to 180 microns
 Wall thickness : (3.1 to 7.6 microns)
 50–65 wt % SiO2, 20–36 wt % Al2O3, and 2–10 wt % Fe2O3
 The glass-crystalline shell of ceno-spheres is a multiphase system consisting of the
glass phase (50–90 wt %) and the crystalline phases of mullite, quartz, cristobalite,
calcite, potassium feldspar, hematite, and magnetite.
Applications of Ceno-spheres
 In light weight ceramic/refractory components
 Metal coated particles for electrical use
 Fast flowing materials in concretes
 Filler in light weight Rubber/Polymer/metal composites
 Adsorbents for recovery of rare earths
 Adsorbents for disposal of toxic and radioactive wastes

Use of ceno-spheres for making Al-ceno-sphere syntactic foams
Ceno-spheres of different size ranges were extracted from thermal power plant waste fly ash.
These ceno-spheres are hollow spheres primarily consisting alumino-silicate phases. These are
stable up to 1000 degree Celsius and the shells are strong. In view of these low cost by-product
of thermal power plant was used as micro-pore formation in aluminum alloys to make aluminum
cenosphere syntactic foams. The density of aluminum cenosphere syntactic foams comes to be
around as low as 1.9 gm/cc. The remelting of aluminumcenosphere syntactic foams followed by
solidification, leads to generation of Functionally graded syntactic foams. These foams further
tested for electromagnetic shielding and found that they have improved EMI shielding as
compared to aluminum alloy. The absorption coefficient is also much higher than the alloy.

New Fly ash utilizations – Geopolymer

 Cement Free Concrete from FlyAsh (Geo-polymers), Road making, Prefabricated
building components, foamed panels for partitions/insulation Structures, Gradient
Stabilizers, Reclamation of lands
 90% Fly Ash + 10% Chemicals (High fly ash utilization)
 Cement Replacement : 1 ton Cement ~ 1 Ton CO2
 No adverse effect of chloride ions
 Water Curing Not required
 Coastal areas – Sea sand and sea water may be used
 20 MPa to 40 MPa. Target = 100 Mpa
Geopolymers are inorganic, typically ceramic, materials that form long-range, covalently
bonded, non-crystalline (amorphous) networks. Obsidian is an example of naturally occurring
geopolymer. Commercially produced geopolymers may be used for fire- and heat-resistant
coatings and adhesives, medicinal applications, high-temperature ceramics, new binders for fire-
resistant fiber composites, toxic and radioactive waste encapsulation and new cements for
concrete. The properties and uses of geopolymers are being explored in many scientific and
industrial disciplines: modern inorganic chemistry, physical chemistry, colloid chemistry,
mineralogy, geology, and in other types of engineering process technologies. Geopolymers are
part of polymer science, chemistry and technology that forms one of the major areas of materials
science. Polymers are either organic material, i.e. carbon-based, or inorganic polymer, for
example silicon-based. The organic polymers comprise the classes of natural polymers (rubber,
cellulose), synthetic organic polymers (textile fibers, plastics, films, elastomers, etc.) and natural
biopolymers (biology, medicine, pharmacy). Raw materials used in the synthesis of silicon-based
polymers are mainly rock-forming minerals of geological origin, hence the name: geopolymer.
Joseph Davidovits coined the term in 1978 and created the non profit French scientific institution
(Geopolymer Institute).
A conceptual model of geopolymerization

According to T.F. Yen geopolymers can be classified into two major groups: pure inorganic
geopolymers and organic containing geopolymers, synthetic analogues of naturally occurring
macromolecules. In the following presentation, a geopolymer is essentially a mineral chemical
compound or mixture of compounds consisting of repeating units, for example silico-oxide (-Si-
O-Si-O-), silico-aluminate (-Si-O-Al-O-), ferro-silico-aluminate (-Fe-O-Si-O-Al-O-) or alumino-
phosphate (-Al-O-P-O-), created through a process of geopolymerization. This mineral synthesis
(geosynthesis) was first presented at an IUPAC symposium in 1976.
The microstructure of geo-polymers is essentially temperature dependent

 It is X-ray amorphous at room temperature,

 But evolves into a crystalline matrix at temperatures above 500 °C.

One can distinguish between two synthesis routes

 In alkaline medium (Na+, K+, Li+, Ca2+, Cs+ and the like);
 In acidic medium with phosphoric acid, organic carboxylic acids from plant extracts
(acetic, citric, oxalic and humic acids).

The alkaline route is the most important in terms of research and development and commercial
applications.

Geopolymers are a class of totally inorganic, alumino-silicate based ceramics that are charge
balanced by group-I oxides. They are rigid gels, which are made under relatively ambient
conditions of temperature and pressure into near-net dimension bodies, and which can
subsequently be converted to crystalline or glass-ceramic materials.

Geopolymerization is the process of combining many small molecules known as oligomers into a
covalently bonded network. The geo-chemical syntheses are carried out through oligomers
(dimer, trimer, tetramer, pentamer) which provide the actual unit structures of the three-
dimensional macromolecular edifice.
Example:
a) (-Si-O-Al-O-) Geopolymerization with metakaolin MK-750 in alkaline medium
b) Zeolitic (Si-O-Al-O-) geopolymerization with fly ash in alkaline medium

Commercial applications
There exist a wide variety of potential and existing applications. Some of the geopolymer
applications are still in development whereas others are already industrialized and
commercialized.

1. Geo-polymer resins and binders

 Fire-resistant materials, thermal insulation, foams;

 Low-energy ceramic tiles, refractory items, thermal shock refractory;
 High-tech resin systems, paints, binders and grouts;
 Bio-technologies (materials for medicinal applications);
 Foundry industry (resins), tooling for the manufacture of organic fiber composites;
 Composites for infrastructures repair and strengthening, fire-resistant and heat-
resistant high-tech carbon-fiber composites for aircraft interior and automobile;
 Radioactive and toxic waste containment
 2. Geopolymer cements and concretes
 Low-tech building materials (clay bricks)
 Low-CO2 cements and concretes
3. Arts and archaeology
 Decorative stone artifacts, arts and decoration
 Cultural heritage, archaeology and history of sciences

Geo-polymer cements
Production of geopolymer cement requires an aluminosilicate precursor material such as
metakaolin or fly ash, a user-friendly alkaline reagent. Room temperature hardening is more
readily achieved with the addition of a source of calcium cations, often blast furnace slag.

Geo-polymer cement categories

 Slag-based geo-polymer cement.

 Rock-based geo-polymer cement.
 Fly ash-based geopolymer cement :Type 1: alkali-activated fly ash geo-polymer,
Type 2: slag/fly ash-based geo-polymer cement.
 Ferro-sialate-based geo-polymer cement.

Fly ash Utilization : Composites and agricultural use

 Wood Substitute - Furniture
 Partition panels/Doors
 Lower weight sandwich panels/doors
 Soil modifier in Agriculture
 Improves water retention
 Reported to provide micronutrients
 Improves crop yield
RED MUD
Red mud is the solid waste residue of the digestion of bauxite ores with caustic soda foralumina
(Al2O3) production. Approximately 35–40% of the processed bauxite ore goes intothe waste as
alkaline red mud slurry which consists of 15–40% solids and 0.8–1.5 tons ofred mud is generated
per ton of alumina produced. Red Mud is produced during the Bayer process for alumina
production. It is the insoluble product after bauxite digestion with sodium hydroxide at elevated
temperature and pressure. It is a mixture of compounds originally present in the parent mineral,
bauxite, and of compounds formed or introduced during the Bayer cycle. It is disposed as a
slurry having a solid concentration in the range of 10-30%, pH in the range of 13 and high ionic
strength.
RM is a very fine material in terms of particle size distribution. Typical values would account for
90 volume % below 75µm. The specific surface (BET) of RM is around 10m2/g.

As it is apparent RM is a highly complex material that differs due to the different bauxites used
and the different process parameters. Therefore RM should be regarded as a group of materials,
having particular characteristics, such:

 Produced during the Bayer process

 Water suspensions and highly alkaline
 Mainly composed of iron oxides and have a variety of elements and mineralogical
phases
 Relatively high specific surface/fine particle size distribution

Red Mud Generation in India is about 5.5 Million Tons per year. High Temperature solid state
reaction along with additives generates phases for radiation shielding from X-rays and Gamma
Rays (BRNS program, testing at BARC and certified by AERB).

Red Mud – Fly Ash Combination (AMPRI, Bhopal):

 Pavement Blocks developed and tested for several years;
 Bricks/Prefab under development
 Red Mud-Fly ash – Polymer Composite door panels developed

Composition and Properties

Chemical composition of red Weight percentage Density

mud (gm/cm3)

Haemitite (Fe2O3) 35-40% 5.255

Rutile (TiO2) 20-24% 4.25

Alumina (Al2O3) 19-25% 3.69

Silica (SiO2) 6-8% 2.30

Alkali 8-10% 2.27

S. No. Properties Conventional AMPRI Developed * materials
materials

1. Composition Simple physical Chemically formulated multi

mixture of Haemitite phase and multi elemental
and cement. material using barium compound

2. Shielding phases Haemitite, Calcium Barium iron titanate, Iron titanate

aluminum silicate silicate etc.
(Cement)

3. Density (gm/cm3) 3.20 – 3.50 3.7 – 4.2

4. Shielding thickness 7.0 3.06 (Shielding thickness reduced

(cm) by 60%)

5. Mechanical Meets ASTM-C- Meets ASTM-C-637-98a(2003)

properties 637-98a(2003)

Applications of Red mud

 Metallurgical ones (iron and steel production, titanium, alumina and alkali, minor
constituents recovery)
 Production of building materials (constructional brick, light weight aggregates, bricks
roofing and flooring tiles, cements etc)
 Catalysis
 Ceramics (pottery, sanitary ware, special tiles and glasses, glazes, ferrites)
 Other miscellaneous direct uses (in waste treatment, as a filler, as a fertilizer, etc).

Non-toxic Radiopac/Shielding Materials utilizing red mud and fly ash

The use of radiation is invariably associated with very well established harmful health hazards.
The wide application spectrum of the radiation based technology ranging from radio wave to X-
ray and gamma ray is well established. Application of high energy electromagnetic radiations i.e.
X-ray and γ-ray are inevitable in areas like medical applications (X-ray diagnostic and CT
scanner rooms/ establishments, gamma radiation therapy of cancer), energy sector, power
generation by nuclear power plants, defense sector (bunkers for army personnel) etc. They pose
challenges in terms of the strategic safety planning in view of increased global terrorism etc.
Lead has been conventionally used as a radiation shielding material, but is inherently toxic in
nature, has high density and does not provide effective shielding against neutron radiation.
Further, the element ranks second in the list of most hazardous materials in the UPA list of USA.
The use of toxic metals like lead and rare earth materials has been obligatory so far for radiation
shielding. Concrete has also been used as a shielding material against γ-ray radiation. However,
it suffers from shortcomings like large thickness requirement to serve the purpose and corrosion
due to depleted uranium. Accordingly, increased awareness for the environmental safety has
necessitated the need for the development of non toxic, i.e. lead free and eco-friendly radiation
shielding materials.
In view of the above, a novel process for making advanced new radiopac materials has been
developed at AMPRI for the first time in the world. The development involves a unique
approach and methodology for making highly effective shielding phases utilizing red mud and
fly ash. The shielding materials have been developed by using ceramic as well as ceramic
polymer composites in the form of cement, panel and tiles. The shielding efficiency of the
developed materials has been evaluated by Radiation Standards and Safety System Division of
BARC, and Atomic Energy Regulatory Board (AERB), Mumbai. The HVT (half value
thickness), i.e. shielding thickness, of the developed materials has been observed to be the same
as that of the conventionally used material i.e. lead for the diagnostic X-ray of 100kV and 60%
less in comparison to the conventionally used concrete for shielding gamma radiations.
Interestingly, the developed materials are 40-50% in weight compared to that of lead and are
cheaper than the latter due to the use of wastes as the raw material. They would also be lighter
than concrete keeping despite having comparable density in view their less thickness needed for
producing the same degree of shielding effect. The developed materials have also been found to
work efficiently for shielding against neutron radiation as well. Further, they meet the ISI and
ASTM standards to be used for constructing radiation shielding installations for multifarious
applications. The application potential of the X-ray shielding tiles has successfully been
demonstrated by fitting them in the X-ray room of Govt. J.P. hospital, Bhopal. Other potential
applications of the developed materials could be in the fabrication of storage devices for
radioactive wastes and shipping containers for radioisotopes.

Material Density, Half value Shielding Thermal Half value

g.cm-3 thicknes, cm capability Stability, oC thicknes, cm
(100 KVp (γ-ray
diagnostic) radiation)

Lead 11.34 0. 085 X-ray 328 (melting 1.0

point)

Concrete 2.3 22.5 (Bricks) γ-ray ~1300 7.0

Developed 2.0-4.5 0.078 X-ray, γ-ray, 1300 3.0

material neutron
radiation
 MARBLE DUST
Marble occurs abundant in nature. It is used and mined at many places in India since early
time. In India about 85% of marble production is received from Rajasthan and mostly all mining
and processing activities are under operation around Udaipur and Makrana. India status on
marble waste management, Environmental issues, necessity to this study. Rajasthan has more
than 4000 marble mines and about 1100 marble processing units. The marble processing industry
involves mines, processing plants for manufacturing walls tiles, floors tiles, articles, waste
production and other secondary activities. The marble industry is now one of the very important
industrial sectors in Rajasthan employed over one million people. The marble deposit in
Rajasthan is estimated to be more than 1,231 million tones. The granite reserve is estimated to be
9190 m3. The marble reserve in Rajasthan found in various colors and shades. Rajasthan
possesses around 1,100 million tones of reserves of superior quality in 20 districts of the State
leading largest in the country.
Marble waste slurry is produced at almost every operation and it has been disposed off nearby
area. When it gets dried it causes air pollution and health hazard. The marble processing industry
consumes huge water for its different operations for cooling and flushing different discharge. In
these operations large volume of wastewater has been discharged and water pollution of the
region is caused by discharging such marble slurry. Also dried air borne waste residues deposited
on vegetation hampers their growth. Mines under operation abandoned mines, dumping sites,
slurry waste sites, deposition of dried slurry site are major causes for pollution hazards in Marble
industry. Huge quantity of marble is being released from marble cutting, polishing, processing
and grinding. Improper handling and mismanagement of marble wastes create major
environmental and ecological problem as it contaminates soil, ground water and dissipate air
pollution and affect human health.
To safeguard the environment and efforts would be effectively utilize the waste produced during
marble, granite extraction, cutting, grinding efforts are being made for recycling different wastes
and utilize them in valuable applications. Granite and marble sawing powder wastes is
widespread by-product of industrial processes in India. Generally these wastes pollute and
damage the environment due to sawing and polishing processes. Accordingly, the amount of
mining and processing waste has increased. Marble and granite waste is generally a highly
polluting waste due to both its highly alkaline nature, and its manufacturing and processing
techniques, which impose a health threat to the surroundings. The marble and granite industrial
cluster in India is imposing an alarming threat to the surrounding communities.

The project at AMPRI, Bhopal targets to demonstrate that marble and granite waste particulates
can be used as:
 A potential reinforcement and filler to synthesize lightweight composites
 Reinforcement in high strength composites
 In sandwich composites and hybrid composites with glossy finish using suitable
polymeric binder / fibers system.
The expected outcome of the proposed program:
 To show significant improvement in the composites with a flexibility of light and stiff
components for various utility
 May open an avenue to beneficially exploit the abundantly available marble/granite
resources as a potential raw material in partially replacing glass fine composites and
other petroleum based synthetic products in different engineering applications.
 The proposed hybrid composites would have tremendous scope in wide range of
applications such as partition, flooring and ceiling, load bearing and non-load bearing
walls as architectural panels in construction industries.
The possible uses of these composites:
 In construction and housing
 Locomotive applications are berth panels, seat support panels, doors
 Roofing panels, partition and furniture
 There is great scope for use of the proposed hybrid marble/granite waste composites
in consumer goods and other strategic applications.
 The hybrid composites would be free from insects, fungus, termite and corrosion
attack. The composites proposed in this research program will have significant role
for commercial use in composite industry for sustainable development as well as
address effective use of Marble and granite wastes and avoid environmental pollution.
 The research aims to achieve dual benefits to maximize the utilization of marble and
granite waste particulates generated in mass quantity in India with suitable binder /
fibers system for making light weight, high strength, glossy finish green composites,
which can be used as an alternative materials for timber or conventionally available
timber substitute materials, plastic and GRP composites.
The proposed research program and their expected outcome have great scientific, technical and
industrial relevance to meet the current and future challenges on hybrid green composites.

NATURAL FIBRE
The increase in environmental consciousness and community interest, the new environmental
regulations and unsustainable consumption of petroleum, led to thinking of the use of
environmentally friendly materials. Natural fiber is considered one of the environmentally
friendly materials which have good properties compared to synthetic fiber.
Natural fibers in simple definition are fibers that are not synthetic or manmade. They can be
sourced from plants, animals (wool, silk, feathers) or minerals (asbestos). The use of natural fiber
from both resources, renewable and nonrenewable such as oil palm, sisal, flax, and jute to
produce composite materials, gained considerable attention in the last decades, so far.
The plants, which produce cellulose fibers can be classified into:
 Bast fibers (jute, flax, ramie, hemp, and kenaf)
 Seed fibers (cotton and kapok)
 Leaf fibers (sisal, pineapple, and abaca)
 Fruit fibre (coir)
 Mineral fibre (asbestos)
 Grass and reed fibers (rice, corn, and wheat)
 Core fibers (hemp, kenaf, and jute)
 All other kinds (wood and roots)
Fiber reinforced polymer matrix got considerable attention in numerous applications because of
the good properties and superior advantages of natural fiber over synthetic fibers in term of:
 Relatively low weight
 Low cost
 Less damage to processing equipment
 Good relative mechanical properties such as tensile modulus and flexural modulus
 Improved surface finish of molded parts composite
 Renewable resources, being abundant
 Flexibility during processing
 Biodegradability
 Minimal health hazards
 Good thermal and acoustic insulating properties
 Natural fibre polymer composites with a high specific stiffness and strength can be
produced by adding the tough and light-weight natural fiber into polymer
(thermoplastic and thermoset)

Problems with Natural Fibres

 The natural fibers structure consists of (cellulose, hemicelluloses, lignin, pectin, and
waxy substances) and permits moisture absorption from the surroundings which
causes weak bindings between the fiber and polymer.
 The couplings between natural fiber and polymer are considered a challenge because
the chemical structures of both fibers and matrix are various. These reasons for
ineffectual stress transfer during the interface of the produced composites.
 Restricted maximum processing temperature
 Lower durability, fibre treatments can improve this considerably
 Poor fire resistance
 Price can fluctuate by harvest results or agricultural politics

Natural fiber polymer composites

Natural fiber polymer composites (NFPC) are a composite material consisting of a polymer
matrix embedded with high-strength natural fibers, like jute, oil palm, sisal, kenaf, and flax.
Usually, polymers can be categorized into two categories, thermoplastics and thermosets. The
structure of thermoplastic matrix materials consists of one or two dimensional moleculars, so
these polymers have a tendency to make softer at an raised heat range and roll back their
properties throughout cooling. On the other hand, thermosets polymer can be defined as highly
cross-linked polymers which cured using only heat, or using heat and pressure, and/or light
irradiation. This structure gives to thermoset polymer good properties such as high flexibility for
tailoring desired ultimate properties, great strength, and modulus. Thermoplastics widely used
for biofibers are polyethylene, polypropylene (PP), and poly vinyly chloride; hereas phenolic,
polyester, and epoxy resins are mostly utilized thermosetting matrices. The hydrophilic nature of
the natural fiber and the fiber loading also have impacts on the composite properties. Usually,
high fiber loading is needed to attain good properties of NFPCs. Generally, notice that the rise in
fiber content causes improving in the tensile properties of the composites.

Mechanical properties of natural and syntheticfibres

PROCESSING TECHNIQUES
In principle, the production techniques for natural fibre composites can be similar to those for
glass fibres. Exceptions to this are techniques used where continuous fibres are used like
pultrusion (a yarn has to be made first) or where fibres are chopped like in spray-up or SMC-
prepreg preparation. Four examples of techniques are discussed below.

RTM, vacuum injection:

Resin transfer moulding or vacuum injection are clean, closed mould techniques. Dry fibres are
put in the mould, then the mould is closed by another mould or by just a bagging film and resin
is injected. Either with over-pressure on the injection side or vacuum at the other side the fibres
are impregnated. Tailored lay-ups and high fibre volume contents are possible. Therefore, the
technique enables the manufacture of very large products with high mechanical properties.
Dense mats of flax can be difficult to impregnate. Better resin flow can then be obtained by using
the thicker leaf fibres like sisal.

SMC:
An important difference with glass SMC (sheet moulding compound) is the production of the
prepreg. Normally prepregs are made by chopping the glass strands and dropping them on a film
of resin-filler compound. This preparation will not work for natural fibres since the chopping is
very difficult.
Sandwich technology:
Composite laminates in glass polyester are produced. Bonded on two sides of a foam block stiff
sandwich panels are built that are used a lot in trucks, trailers and building construction. They
provide thermal insulation and can fulfil a primary structural function. Small scale prototyping
has proved that substitution of glass by natural fibres is feasible. A bit less insulating, but still
very well suitable for wall and roof construction are sandwiches made of natural fibre composite
skins and bamboo pillars as the sandwich core. This concept is now under development.
Compared to corrugated iron the 'vegetable sandwich' is not only more elegant, it is more
durable, it insulates far better, and it uses renewable and local resources.

Applications of natural fibre polymer composites

 Automotive applications by many automotive companies such as German auto
companies (BMW, Audi Group, Ford, Opel, Volkswagen, Daimler Chrysler, and
Mercedes), Proton company (Malaysian national carmaker), and Cambridge industry
(an auto industry in USA).
 Building and construction industry (panels, window frame, decking)
 Sports (bicycle frame)
 Aerospace

Hybrid Composite
CSIR- Advanced Materials and Processes Research Institute (AMPRI), Bhopal has developed a
technology for making composite materials using industrial wastes, natural fibre and polymer.
This technology has been developed in view of the National Forest Policy of MOEF,
Government of India as an alternative material to timber and to minimise consumption of timber
in building and house construction and solving the problem of pollution, deforestation and
ecological imbalance. Industrial waste particulates and natural fibres have been used as filler,
surface finish and reinforcing materials in making hybrid composite.

Uniqueness of the products

Stronger than wood
Weather resistant and durable
Resistant to moisture, corrosion, termite, fungus
Fire self-extinguishing nature
Cost effective & maintenance free
Use in variety of applications as alternative materials to Timber, plastic, Synthetic wood, particle
Board, Rice Husk Board, Ply Wood, MDF Products.
Multifunctional Applications: Doors, roof & false ceilings, floor & wall tiles, partition, furniture
and electrical applications
Beneficiaries: Building construction and infrastructure industries and transport system