Dedan Kimathi University of Technology

Group members

Clement Kipyegon Rono

E023-01-0794/2017

Donald mayaka Bogonko

E023-01-0801/2017

Bachelor of Science in Mechanical Engineering

METROLOGY

EMG 3212

NAME OF THE LECTURER: ENG.MACHIRA

NAME OF THE TECHNOLOGIST: MR OMONDI

18/10/2019
ABSTRACT
A practical investigation of metrology was undertaken where measurements were taken of
various objects. The use of Vernier calipers, go or no-go plug gauges, dial test indicators and
gauge blocks were investigated through the measurements. Uncertainty analyses were conducted
where possible.
INTRODUCTION
Metrology is a science of measurement. Metrology can also be defined as the process to establish
weights and measures as the basis for accurate measurements worldwide. Establishing a standard
to which all measurements can adhere to is crucial in all engineering applications as accurate and
precise work ensures good engineering practice. Uncertainty analysis forms an integral part of
metrology as there is always a level of uncertainty in measurements. Accuracy is the closeness of
measured values to a set standard or known value while precision is the closeness of measured
values. Uncertainty can be due to measurement equipment or external factors such as thermal
expansions, humidity as well as pressure.

Contents
ABSTRACT .................................................................................................................................... 2
INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................................... 2
Objectives ................................................................................................................................ 2
Stepped shaft dimensions ............................................................................................................. 9
Determine the ovality of shaft 1...................................................................................................... 9
Diameter of shaft 2........................................................................................................................ 10
Profile projector
analysis……………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………10
Discussion ................................................................................................................................. 10
Conclusions ........................................................................................................................... 12
References…………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………….13

Objectives
The objectives of this experiment are to:
1. Determine the least possible number of gauge blocks that can give the most precise height of a
triangular test piece.
2. Determine if there is an angular discrepancy in a triangular gauge block through the use of a
dial test indicator.
3. Determine the geometry of a stepped shaft through the use of a Vernier caliper.
4. Determine the length of a stepped shaft by using a Vernier caliper

Data tables
Triangular work piece
Size of gauge Number of blocks

Base 75+22.5+7=104.5 3
Height 50+22.5+1.5=74 3
Hypotenuse=127.01
Angle=33.54°
Angular discrepancy
Maximum deviation=0.8
Digital Vernier Readings

Height 73.26mm=b
Base 104.41mm=a

Vernier caliper readings (cm)

Readings (a) Base (b) Height

1 10.46 7.34

2 10.45 7.32

3 10.47 7.33

Stepped shaft dimension

Measurement I Measurement II
(mm) (mm)
 TOP 2.04 1.28

MIDDLE 2.03

BOTTOM 2.03 1.27

(II) To determine the axis perpendicularity of shaft 2

Measurement number Length(mm)
1 0.751

2 0.853

3 0.804

Ovarality =D-d
Length of the shaft
Shaft 1 mm Dimension(shaft I) Dimension(shaft II)
I. 5.68 1.33

II. 5.67
1.32
III. 5.68 1.33

Diameter of the shaft (using Vernier calliper)

Shaft 1 (cm) Shaft 2 (cm)

1.28 2.03

1.29 2.02

1.27 2.03

MEASUREMENTS USING PROFILE PROJECTOR

Aim: To measure the thread parameter of given screw thread using profile projector.
Operators Required: Profile projector, thread specimen, gear.
Theory
The optical comparator is a device that applies the principle of optics for the inspection of
manufactured parts. The profile projector is basically an optical instrument which makes use of
enlarged instruments. The purpose of the optical projector is to compare the shape or profile of
relatively small engineering compound with an accurate standard or drawing. The projector
magnifies the profile of specimen and shows this on the built in projection screen. From this
screen there is usually grid that could be rotated 360 degrees. Therefore the XY axis of the
screen could be aligned correctly using straight edge of machine part to analyze or measure.
Dimension can be directly measured on the screen or compared to the standard reference

Procedure:
1. Calculate the least count of micrometer of the projector.
2. Fix the given test specimen under the magnifying lens on the fixture provided.
3. Select a suitable magnification.
4. Switch on the projector and focus to obtain the clear image of the object on screen.
5. Adjust the reference axis (core wire) to a point of element by adjusting the micrometer and
angular disc.
6. Note down the initial reading of micrometer.
Fig 1: teeth profile of a gear
Observation:
Reading from the profile projector.
Pitch of the screw=1.951
Depth of the thread=1.084
Angle of the thread=74.48°
𝑀𝑅1 = 0.0
𝑀𝑅2 =-1.153
𝑀𝑅3 = -11.23
𝑀𝑅4 =-12.317
𝑀𝑅5 = 0
𝑀𝑅6 = 1.968
𝑀𝑅7 =
𝑀𝑅8 =0
𝑀𝑅9 = 63.36

N=number of thread between two end points

Major diameter= 𝑀𝑅1 -𝑀𝑅4 =0 − −12.317=12.317 mm
Minor diameter=𝑀𝑅4 -𝑀𝑅3 = −1.153 − −11.23 = 10.077mm
Pitch diameter=𝑀𝑅2 -𝑀𝑅4 =−1.153 − −12.317 = 11.164 mm
A: depth of thread =𝑀𝑅1 -𝑀𝑅2 =0 − −1.153 = 1.153mm
B: depth of thread =𝑀𝑅3 -𝑀𝑅4 =−11.23 − −12.317 = 23.547mm
(𝐴+𝐵) (1.153+23.53.547)
Average depth = 2 = = 12.35𝑚𝑚
2
Pitch=MR5-MR6 =0 − 1.968 = −1.968mm
(𝑀𝑅 −𝑀𝑅 ) (0−𝑀𝑅 )
Average pitch= 5 2 7 = 2 7

Angle of thread=𝑀𝑅8 -𝑀𝑅9 =0 − 63.36 = −63.36°

MR8−MR9 −63.36
Flank angle= = = −31.68°
2 2

The angle of the thread as measured from the experiment was found out to be 74.48 but from the
calculations it is 63.36 meaning that there is a deviation of 11.12°
Gauge blocks
Gauge blocks are precision ground metallic blocks that are often used as a measurement
standard, or means of calibration. These devices are available as sets, typically ranging from
1:001mm to 100mm. Gauge blocks can have uncertainties ranging from 0.05 microns to 1.00
microns, making them extremely precise and a good standard for measurements. An example of
a gauge block set is shown
Fig 2:set of gauge blocks
Angle gauge blocks
Angle gauge blocks are similar to the gauge blocks discussed in subsection. The main difference
is that they are purposely designed to precise angles. They are also used as a standard to calibrate
equipment.
Vernier caliper
Vernier calipers are precision measurement instruments that can be used to measure linear
widths, depths, external and internal diameters. A Vernier caliper is shown in

Fig 3: vernier calliper

DTI's are used to measure small changes in linear displacements. Each division for this
experiment measures a displacement change of 2 microns.
Fig 4: Digital test indicator (DTI)

Stepped shaft
A steel stepped shaft of unknown dimensions, shown schematically in, is measured with the use
of a Vernier caliper.
Fig 5: stepped shaft work piece
For this measurement a triangular test piece of known hypotenuse length and inclination angle is
used. It has a hypotenuse length and inclination angle of 127.01mm and 33.54° respectively.
The objective is to determine its height, the uncertainty thereof and the combination of the least
number of gauge blocks needed to form that height. Shows the calculations for the height of the
triangle shows the uncertainty in the aforementioned calculations, opposite to the 27.01° angle.
The final height of the triangle is 74 mm. This height can be achieved by a combination of mass
pieces
Angular discrepancy
Given a triangular test piece of known base length, the angular discrepancy must be determined
through the use of a dial test indicator. The procedure follows:
1. Ensure the test piece is clean.
2. Place the test piece on a rig that only allows linear motion.
3. Place the sensor button of the DTI on one edge of the test piece.
4. Set the DTI reading to zero.
5. Slowly move the test piece until the sensor button is on the side opposite to that which it
started on.
6. Record the reading on the DTI.

Stepped shaft dimensions

A stepped shaft of unknown geometry is given. A series of measurements is required to describe
the geometry of the shaft. Shaft 1 is the smaller diameter section and 2 is the larger diameter.

Determine the ovality of shaft 1

2 measurements are taken 90° to each other at the top, middle and bottom of region
1 with the external jaws of the Vernier caliper. Measurements that were taken. The ovality of a
shaft is defined as:
ovality = D – d
shaft 1
1.29-1.27=0.02 mm
2.03-2.02=0.01mm
Where D is the largest diameter measurement and d is the smallest diameter measurement. The
ovality of shaft 1 is found to be approximately 0.02mm and 0.01mm for shaft 2. All
measurements must be taken by pushing the Vernier jaws-first onto the diameter that is being
measured. The Vernier must be removed in the same manner.
Determine axis perpendicularity of shaft 2
The stepped shaft is set up on the DTI rig with the sensor button on the outer most point of the
diameter of shaft 2 and calibrated to zero. The shaft is then slowly rotated 360°, the largest
deviation was then recorded.
Length of the sample
The length of the shaft was found by use of a digital Vernier caliper and measurements are taken
at random locations around the circumference of the shaft. Shows the measurements.
Lengths of shaft 2 and shaft 1
The length of shaft 2 was found with the Vernier caliper’s external jaws. Three random
measurements around its circumference are taken. The length of shaft 1 is found mathematically
by subtracting the length of shaft 2 from the total length of the shaft.

Diameter of shaft 2
The diameter of shaft 2 was found with the external jaws of a Vernier caliper. Only one
measurement is taken and is found to be 74.9mm. The measurement is taken with the Vernier at
an acute angle with the surface of the shaft as this ensures that the true maximum external
diameter is found.
Discussion
Measurements of various objects were recorded with the use of a number of different
measurement devices. The precision of these devices vary and are critically evaluated in this
section, along with the deviations from the ideal measurements. The first measurements taken
were done with the objective of demonstrating the use of gauge blocks as a means of calibrating
a measurement. A triangular test piece of a known hypotenuse length and inclination angle was
used. The ideal height of the side opposite to the inclination angle was found to be 74.9mm by
the sine trigonometry relationship. The uncertainty was found to be 1.00mm due to an angular
uncertainty. These findings lead to the conclusion that 3 blocks of the dimensions. These were
the least number of blocks needed to give the ideal length. The least number of blocks need to be
used in order to reduce the amount of uncertainty in the measurements. Although gauge blocks
are made with extreme accuracy and precision, they still have uncertainties in the region of a few
micrometers. In the process of calibration there must be as little uncertainty as possible because
the point of calibration is to conduct measurements with the datum set to a known and universal
standard. In the second measurement set, a triangular gauge block is assessed for an angular
discrepancy by use of a dial test indicator. Only the base length of the triangular test piece is
known and no uncertainty is given by the manufacturer for this length. The inclination angle and
the uncertainty in the base length of this test piece are unknown. Measurements showed that
there is a 1.47 rads discrepancy in the inclination angle. The angular discrepancy in such a high
precision piece of equipment is difficult to attribute to the production process. The angular
discrepancy in this triangular gauge block could be due to corrosion from usage of the test piece.
The usage of the sample is unknown, and hence a source of uncertainty. The surface on which
the test piece was sliding is also not guaranteed to be perfectly at and may have contributed to
the angular discrepancy. Knowledge of the angular discrepancy is vital when attempting to
calibrate with this gauge block, particularly in high precision measurements, as it is assumed to
be the standard. The ovality of the small diameter shaft was found to be 0.017mm. This deviation
could be attributed to the machining process used to make the shaft. The process used is not
known so no further conclusions or recommendations can be made. The surface of shaft 2 was
found to have a 0.02 mm discrepancy with surface of shaft 1. The discrepancy means that the 2
surfaces are not perfectly perpendicular. Again, this error can be attributed to the machining
process used. The length of the shaft was found through the use of a Vernier caliper, DTI. The
difference in these measurements are considered as the process used to establish these values is
the same. The difference could be due to electrical noise in the transducer. Even though it is
more precise, it might not be as accurate as the DTI since the DTI uses mechanical elements to
conduct measurements and is less likely to have systemic imbalances.
Height of triangle
The readings from the digital Vernier calipers was as follows:
Height=73.26mm
Base=104.41mm

The height of the triangle and the angle of inclination are given as 74 mm and 33.54°degrees
respectively

Fig 6: figure showing the representation of the Triangular test piece

A conversion from degrees to radians is not necessary, but preferred as that stays consistent with
the use of radians in the uncertainty analysis. A simple trigonometric manipulation gives the
general height of the triangle in terms of
ℎ = 𝑟 sin 𝜃
From the experiment the hypotenuse was measured to be 127.01 mm
The height can now be found, given the hypotenuse and the inclination angle.
33.54°𝜋
∴ ℎ = (127.01𝑚𝑚) sin( 180° ) = 70.17 mm
Angular discrepancy
The angular discrepancy, shown in Figure 8, is found by a simple trigonometric relationship.

Fig7: figure showing the angular discrepancy in the triangular work piece measurements

Since the change in height and the base length of the test piece are known as 74-70.17=4.17 mm
and (104.5-104.41) mm= 0.39 mm respectively, a tangent ratio can be applied:
4.17×10−3
tan 𝜃= 3.9×10−4 = 10.6
The angular discrepancy of the triangular gauge block in radians is therefore:
∴ 𝜃 = 1.477𝑟𝑎𝑑
The maximum deviation was also gotten to be 0.8
Uncertainty analysis
The following section gives an uncertainty analysis of all measurements and calculations. It is
the general uncertainty propagation on which all of the following uncertainties are based on. In
general if f is a function of a, b and z such that f = f(a; b; :::; z) then the uncertainty in f for any
number of variables is:
𝛿𝑓 2 𝛿𝑓 𝛿𝑓
𝛿𝑓 = √( ) + ( )2 + ⋯ . ( )2
𝛿𝑎 𝛿𝑏 𝛿𝑏
Equation 2 is tailored to the specific needs of each problem, as shown in the following sections.
Height of triangle
The ideal height of the triangle is calculated. The uncertainty in the height can be found through
Equation 3 which is a simplification of Equation 1 and
Equation 2.
𝜕ℎ
𝛿ℎ = 𝜕𝜃
𝜕𝜃

The units for the angles are changed to radians because radians represent a ratio between the arc
length and the radius of a circle, which is a dimensionless ratio. The uncertainty in the height due
to the angle uncertainty can now be found:
(42.44−33.54)°𝜋 33.54°𝜋
𝛿ℎ = (128mm) cos 180 =0.1295 mm
180°
Stepped shaft geometry
The uncertainty in the measurements of the stepped shaft arises from the uncertainty in the
measurement equipment. The equipment used is the Vernier caliper,
Vernier
The Vernier has an uncertainty of half the smallest increment on the Vernier scale, which is
0.005mm.
Dial test indicator
The dial test indicator uncertainty is half of an increment, which translates to 1micron since each
incremental movement on the gauge is 2microns.
Conclusions
The following conclusions were made from the objectives as set out:
The stepped shaft lengths, diameters, ovality and perpendicularity were determined through the
use of a Vernier caliper with the digital Vernier as well as the manual one.
The thread parameters as found out through the use of profile projector was as follows:
• Major diameter =12.317 mm
• Minor diameter = 10.077mm

• Pitch of screw = mm
• Depth of thread = 12.35mm
• Angle of thread = −63.36° degree

A combination of 50.00mm, 22.5mm and 1.5mm blocks was the least amount of blocks that give
the desired height of 74mm.
It was found by use of a DTI that there is an angular discrepancy of 1.47 rad as calculated using
the trigonometric substitutions in the triangular gauge block that has a base length of 104.5 mm.
 References
Mitutoyo, (n.d.). Length Standard Gauge Blocks. [online] Japan: Mitutoyo. Available at:
mitutoyo.co.jp/eng/support/service/catalog/09/E12014.pdf [Accessed 18
Mar. 2017].

Integrated Publishing, I. (n.d.). Chapter 2 Measuring and Re-pair Instruments.

[online]Enginemechanics.tpub.com. Available at:enginemechanics.tpub.com/14076/css/...
[Accessed 18 Mar. 2017]
Math Is Fun, (2013). Accuracy and Precision. [online] Mathsisfun.com. Available at:
mathsisfun.com/accuracy-precision.html [Accessed 18 Mar. 2017].

Howarth, P. and Redgrave, F. (2008). Metrology - in short. 1st ed. Lyngby: [Danish
Fundamental Metrology], p.21