Hardrock Seismic

Exploration

Editedby David W. Eaton,Bernd Milkereit,

and Matthew H. Salisbury

SeriesEditor.'Stephend. Hill

GeophysicalDevelopmentsSeriesNo. 10
Societyof ExplorationGeophysicists

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SOCIETY OF EXPLORATION GEOPHYSICISTS

Library of CongressCataloging-in-Publication
Data

Hardrockseismicexploration/ editedby David W. Eaton,Bernd Milkereit, andMatthew H. Salisbury.

p. cm.- (Geophysicaldevelopmentsseries;no. 10)
Includesbibliographicalreferences.
ISBN 1-56080-114-X (alk. paper)
1. Seismicprospecting. I. Eaton,David W., 1962- II. Milkereit, Bernd, 1955- III. Salisbury,MatthewH.
(Matthew Harold), 1943- IV. Geophysicaldevelopmentseries;v. 10

TN269.8.H37 2003
62T. 1592-dc21 2003043442

ISBN 0-931830-41-9 (Series)

ISBN 1-56080-114-X (Volume)

Societyof ExplorationGeophysicists
P.O. Box 702740
Tulsa, OK 74170-2740

¸ 2003 Societyof ExplorationGeophysicists

All rightsreserved.This bookor partshereofmaynot be reproduced
in anyform withoutpermissionin writingfrom
the publisher.

Printed in the United States of America

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 Acknowledgment

This projectwas supportedby the CanadianSocietyof ExplorationGeophysicists

throughthe CSEG Superfund,andthe Natural SciencesandEngineeringResearch
Council of Canada.Eileen Blackmorehelpedto prepareand compilethe manu-
scriptandfigures.

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Downloaded 26 Jun 2012 to 95.28.162.50. Redistribution subject to SEG license or copyright; Terms of Use: http://segdl.org/
 Contents

Introduction

HardrockSeismic
Exploration:MatureTechnologies
Adaptedto NewExplorationTargets
D. Eaton, B. Milkereit, and M. Salisbury

Part I: PhysicalRockPropertiesand Geophysical

Logging
1. The AcousticPropertiesof Oresand HostRocksin HardrockTerranes
M. H. Salisbury,C. W.Harvey,andL. Matthews
2O
2. Geophysical
Logging
for ElasticProperties
in Hard Rock:A Tutorial
D. R. Schmitt,C. J. Mwenifumbo,
K. A. Pfiug,andL L. Meglis

Part II' SimulatingElasticWavesin the Hardrock Environment 43

3. Influence
ofMorphology
andSurfaceRoughness
ontheSeismic
Response
of Massive
Sulfides,
45
Based on Elastic-Wave Kirchhoff Modeling
G. J Clarke and D. W. Eaton

4. 3DModeling
of Seismic-Wave
Propagation
UsingComplex
ElasticScreens,
withApplication
59
to Mineral Exploration
R. W. Hobbs

5. ElasticSeismic-Wave
Scattering
fromMassiveSulfideOrebodies:
On theRoleof Composition
7O
and Shape
T. Bohlen, C. M•iller, and B. Milkereit

Part III: RegionalSeismicReconnaissance

Studies 91

93
6. Experiences
fromShallow
R•flectionSeismics
overGraniticRocksin Sweden
C. Juhlin and H. Palm

110
7. Seismic
Exploration
of theManitouwadge
Greenstone
Belt,Ontario'A CaseHistory
B. Roberts,E. Zalesla',G. Perron,E. •4dam,L. Petrie,andM. Salisbury

8. Seismic-Reflection
Imagingof theEnvironment
aroundtheMountIsa Orebodies,
Northern
127
Australia: A Case Study
B. J. Drummond,•4.J. Owen,J. C. Jackson,B. R. Goleby,andS. N. Sheard

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vi Contents

Part IV: 2D SeismicImaging of Mineral Deposits 139

9. SeismicImaging of Preciousand Base-Metal Depositsin Southern Africa 141

F. Stevenson,R. M. A. Higgs, and R. d Durrheim

10. Using Surface-SeismicReflection to Profile a Massive Sulfide Deposit at Mount Morgan, Australia 157

B. d Evans, M. Urosevic, and A. Taube

11. A Comparison of 2D SeismicLines Shot over the Ansil and Bell Allard Mines in the Abitibi
Greenstone Belt 164
A. d Calvert, G. Perron, and Y. Li

Part V: Downhole SeismicImaging 179

12. Vertical SeismicProfiling at the Bell Allard Orebody, Matagami, Qu6bec 181

E. Adam, T. Bohlen, and B. Milkereit

13. Application of Downhole SeismicImaging to Map Near-Vertical Structures: Norm6tal (Abitibi

Greenstone Belt), Qu6bec 194

G. Perron, D. W.Eaton, B. Elliot, and D. Schmitt

14. Multiazimuth VSP for Rock Characterization of Deep Nuclear Waste Disposal Sites in Finland 207
C. Cosma, P. Heik]a'nen, and d Kes]a'nen

Part Vl' 3D SeismicImaging 227

15. 3D SeismicImaging for VMS Deposit Exploration, Matagami, Quebec 229

E. Adam, G. Perron, G. Arnold, L. Matthews, and B. Milkereit

16. A Review of 16 Years of Hardrock Seismicson the Kaapvaal Craton 247

C. C. Pretorius,M. R. Muller, M. Larroque,and C. Willa'ns

Index 269

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Hardrock SeismicExploration: Mature Technologies
Adapted to New Exploration Targets
D. Eaton, B. Milkereit, and M. Salisbury
INTRODUCTION
... the bulwarkof a continenthere laid bare, with itsproper
soil sweptoff,'the elementalbedrock,with its hiddenriches
and its answersto great mysteries.
B. Moon, The Canadian Shield
Hardrock environmentsoccur on every continent.
From modern mountain belts to ancient
eas, this geological setting is dominatedby diverse
and often stronglydeformedassemblages of igneous
and metamorphicrocks. Suchenvironmentsare gener-
ally far removedfrom petroliferoussedimentarybasins
where seismicexplorationis commonplace--andvirtu-
ally terra incognitato the vastmajority of exploration
seismologists. Yet, theseregionshosta substantialfrac-
tion of the planer'smineralwealth,providean unparal-
leled geologicalrecordfor mostof Earthhistory,and,in
the caseof stableshieldregions,arethe focusof various
nationalprogramsto find long-termstoragesolutionsfor
dangerousman-madewaste.As an economicforce,the
impactof mining aloneis significant.For example,the
combinedvalue of worldwidegold, copperand nickel
productionamountedto an estimated$57.9 billion in
1999 (Table 1), representingalmost 10% of the value
of worldwidecrudeoil productionduringthe samepe-
hod. Explorationandresearchactivitiesrelatedtothese
themesrelyupongeophysical techniquesto providecrit-
ical subsurfaceinformationand 3D mappingcapabili-
ties.Improved,cost-effective geophysicaltechniques are
neededto map and explorethe deep structureof these
regions.
Classicalnonseismicgeophysicalmethods,including
electromagnetic,induced-polarization,potential-field,
and, more recently,radiometrictechniques,have been
thebackboneof mineralexplorationfor decadesandthus
havea moreobviousassociation, for mostgeophysicists,
with hardrocksettings.Thesemethodsexploit anoma-
lous physicalpropertiesof mineral deposits,such as
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Introduction
enhancedelectricalconductivity,chargeability,or mag-
netization, in order to pinpoint potential targets for
drilling. Althoughwell suitedto shallow(<500 m) ex-
plorationproblemsandreadilyadaptable(in somecases)
to airborneor satelliteremotesensingapplications,these
classical"hardrock"techniquesare constrainedby in-
escapablelimitationsto their sensitivityand resolving
shield ar- powerwith increasingdepth.Theselimitationsarea fun-
damentalconsequence of theunderlyingphysicsof these
methods,whichultimatelyreston Laplace'sequationor
the principlesof diffusion.While thesemethodshave
been sufficient to meet the needs of industrialized nations
in thepast,recentdeclinesin basemetalreserves,caused
by the depletionof known shallowdepositsand declin-
ing ratesof discoveryfor new deposits,will requirethe
useof deeperexporationmethods(e.g., Debicki, 1996).
Seismicmethodsoffer onepossiblesolution.
For more than 70 years, seismic-reflectionmethods
havebeenusedwith great successto exploresedimen-
tary basinsfor deep-seatedhydrocarbonreservoirs,by
mappingstratigraphicand structuraldiscontinuitiesin
the subsurface.With the exceptionof coal exploration,
however,seismicmethodshave had relatively limited
use in mineral explorationand otherhardrockapplica-
tions.This hasbeen due, in part, to the relativelyhigh
costof seismicmethods(a major deterrentto compre-
hensivefield testing),coupledwith a lack of a detailed
understandingof the relevantphysical-rockproperties.
In the 1980s two key casehistoriesestablishedthe po-
tential of seismicsas a mappingtool in the hardrock
environment.Green and Mair (1983) presentedseis-
mic imagesof complexfracturesystemsat a radioactive
wastedisposalsitein theCanadianShield.Subsequently,
Pretoriuset al. (1989) demonstratedtheusefulness of an
integratedseismicandpetrophysicalapproachto image
key geologicalstructuresfor mineralexplorationin the
Witwatersrand Basin, South Africa. These case histo-
ries, togetherwith large-scalecrustalseismic-profiling
2 Introduction
Table 1. Estimated value of worldwide production of selectedminerals and crude
oil in 1999, in $U.S.
Commodity Net GlobalProduction
Gold1 2540
Nickel2 1120000
Copper
3 12600000
Oiln 29747.5
1 BasedonAmey,E. B. (2001)
2 BasedonKuck,E H. (2001)
3 BasedonEdelstein,
D. L. (2001)
4 BasedonChang(1999)andPetzet(1999)
initiatives,suchas COCORP (U.S.A.), LITHOPROBE
(Canada),DEKORP (Germany),ECORS (France)and
AGSO (Australia),have servedas catalystsfor numer-
ous integratedhardrockseismicinvestigationsduring
the 1990s. These largely independentresearchefforts
aroundthe globehaveestablished the potentialof seis-
mic methodsto providestructuralimagesfor deepmin-
eral exploration,radioactivewastedisposalsiteevalua-
tion and geotechnicalinvestigations.
This specialpublicationbringstogetherrepresenta-
tive contributions,from aroundthe world, that document
the growingimportanceof seismic-exploration methods
in the hardrockenvironment.Througha compilationof
tutorialsandcasehistoriesillustratinginnovativeappli-
cationsof maturetechnologiesto new targets,thisbook
providesan up-to-date,authoritativereferencedescrib-
ing how seismicdataacquisition,processingand inter-
pretationcanbe effectivelytailoredfor usein hardrock
applications.Our objectiveis to increaseawarenessof
hardrockexplorationwithin the traditionalseismicin-
dustry,as well as to provide the basis for a broader
appreciationof seismicmethodswithin the mineral-
explorationandgeotechnical-engineering communities.
OVERVIEW
Seismic-exploration methodsilluminate the subsur-
face using elastic(P and S) waves.The signalsof in-
terest arise from reflection,refraction and scattering
of thesewavesat lithologicand structuralboundaries,
where abrupt changesin elasticrock propertiesoccur.
A soundgeologicalinterpretationof theseseismicsig-
nalsrequiresa completeunderstanding of the pertinent
rock properties(e.g., P-wave velocity, S-wavevelocity
and density)and how they are relatedto specificrock
types,as well as how they are influencedby pressure,
temperature,and pore-fluid conditions.To provide an
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Unit Unit value Totalvalue(billions$)
tonnes $9,002,196 22.87
tonnes $7,488 8.39
tonnes $2,114 26.64
Mb/c $20,000,000 594.95
overviewof the relevantlaboratoryandfield techniques,
tutorials on physical-rock properties and borehole
loggingtechniquesarepresentedin Part I of the book.
In the first paper, Salisburyet al. review laboratory
velocity and density measurements performed under
insitupressures(200 MPa) on a wide variety of rocks,
includingboreholesamplesof oresandhostrocksfrom
mining camps. S-wave velocities of ores, critical for
a completeunderstandingof elastic-waveinteractions
with ore deposits,are alsopresentedfor the firsttime in
this paper. Salisburyet al. showthat elasticproperties
andacousticimpedancesof massivesulfidesare signifi-
cantlydifferentfrom thoseof mostcommonhostrocks.
This implies that ore depositsshouldbe detectableas
reflectorsor scatterers,providedthat geometricalcon-
ditionsfor imaging(size and depthof the deposit)are
met. Severalconsiderations that complicatethe analysis
of reflectivity,suchas seismicanisotropyand orebody
morphology,arealsoreviewed.In thenexttutorialpaper,
Schmittet al. summarizethe petrophysicsof wireline
loggingapplicationsin the hardrockenvironment,with
illustrative examples.They note that laboratory mea-
surements from samplesmay not be fully representative
of the physicalpropertiesof ore depositsat seismic
wavelengthscales,becauseof thepresenceof fractures,
formationdamage,andambientstressconditions.Con-
sequently, full-waveformsonicanddensitylogsprovide
essentialin-situconstraints on elasticproperties.A prac-
titioner must be aware, however,of other effectsthat can
influencethe final interpretationwireline loggingdata.
Despitethe diversityand sophistication of available
tools for seismicmodeling, wavefield simulationre-
mainsa significantchallengein thehardrocksettingdue
to the need for 3D modelsto accountfor out-of-plane
scatteringeffects,the oftencomplexmorphologyof tar-
get features,and the stochasticnatureof background
heterogeneity. Threepapersare containedin the Part II
 Hardrock seismicexploration: Mature technologiesadapted to new exploration targets
of this volume,describingdifferentnumericalmethods
that can be used to simulate wavefields in a hardrock
environment.The methodstradeoffvarying degreesof
approximationagainstcomputationalefficiency.Clarke
and Eaton introduce a new, fast elastic Kirchhoff tech-
niquethatcalculatesseismicwavefieldsby computingan
integraloverthe surfaceof an elasticinclusion(suchas
an ore deposit).They applythis techniqueto investigate
the influenceof inclusionshapeand surfaceroughness
on the scatteredsignals.Clarke andEatonfind that flat-
tened inclusionsscattersignalspreferentiallyperpen-
dicular to the long axis of the body, and that surface
roughness can causean objectto appearseismicallyun-
detectable,even in the presenceof a large impedance
contrast.
In the following article, Hobbs appliesthe recently
developedcomplex elastic-screenmethod to investi-
gate scatteringcharacteristics of a massivesulfideore-
body containedwithin a volcanic sequencewith ran-
dom velocity fluctuations.By comparingthe computed
responsefor 3D surface-reflectionseismic data and
3-component vertical-seismic-profilingdata, Hobbs
showsthatimagingof smallore depositsin a stochastic
mediummay be problematicusingsurfacerecordings.
On the other hand,he finds that P- and S-wave energy
recordedby vertical seismicprofilescanbe usedreliably
to detectsuchfeaturesat rangesof over 1 km.
In the next paper,Bohlen et al. describethe first ap-
plicationof 3D viscoelasticfinite-differencemethodsto
forward modeling problemsin a hardrocksetting.By
modelingthe full wave equation,this approachreveals
thatlargeoredepositsleadto a strongandcomplexscat-
teringresponsethat is dominatedby shear-waveevents.
They find that the directivity imposedby the shapeof
an ore depositis a first-ordercharacteristicof the scat-
teredwavefield,asa consequence of amplitudefocusing
phenomena.Compositioneffects,however,provide an
importantsecondarysignal,sincethe FD modeling in-
dicatesthat the first arrivalphasereversalsoccuralmost
irrespectiveof shape.Thispotentialto infer composition
fromphase-reversal observationsis encouraging,sinceit
supportsthepossibilityof distinguishing scatteringfrom
oresfrom othertypesof scatteringthat can complicate
seismic records in hardrock environments.
PartIII of thisbookdealswith regionalseismicrecon-
naissance studies in hardrock environments. In the first
paperof this section,JuhlinandPalm summarizeresults
from five site investigationsin Swedenwhere seismic-
reflectionprofiles have been used to image important
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3
geologicalfeaturesto depthsof up to 2 km, primarily
for high-level nuclearwaste disposalstudies.The au-
thorsprovidea clearandconciseoverviewof the neces-
sarymodificationsto tailor dataprocessingtechniques
to hardrockterranes.In addition,they showthat fracture
zonesin graniticrockscan sometimesbe differentiated
from dolerite(diabase)sillsbasedon the polarity of the
reflectedwaves,andthat it is possibleto imagefeatures
that dip up to 60-70 ø using surfaceseismic-reflection
methods.
The nextpaper,by Robertset al., describesa multidis-
ciplinary studyin the Manitouwadgegreenstonebelt of
northernOntario,whererecentmine closuresprovidea
strongmotivationfor developinggeophysical techniques
that can guide deep drilling programs.This area is the
mosthighlydeformedandmetamorphosed hardrockset-
tingpresentedin thisvolume,andinitial detailedgeolog-
ical mappingwasnecessaryto generatea workingstruc-
tural model. Follow-on studiesincluded physicalrock
propertyand boreholesurveys,which providedcritical
acousticpropertydatafor the main lithologicalunits.In
addition,3D forward modelingprovideda framework
for surveydesignandinterpretation.A programof three
intersectingseismicprofiles was acquiredto delineate
key marker horizons.Roberts et al. show that seismic
geometriesfrom thisprogramare consistentwith the re-
gional structuralmodel. Severaldeepboreholes,drilled
to testhigh-amplitudeseismicanomalies,confirmedthe
interpretationof themain contactsbut did not encounter
massive sulfides.
Drummondet al. invokethe mineral-systemconcept,
which recognizesthat ore depositionrequiresa fluid
source,a migrationpathway,and a trap as a framework
for seismicinterpretationin mineral exploration.This
innovativeapproachwas applied to investigatestruc-
tures that controlled the location of silver-lead-zinc and
copper orebodiesat the Mount Isa mine in northern
Australia.The ParooFault, a reflectivemarkerthat rep-
resents the structural lower limit of mineralization in the
area,was the primary targetfor seismicimagingrather
that the mineralizationitself. Detailed mappingof this
fault providesimportant structuralconstraintsfor ex-
ploration.Furthermore,the alterationhalos aroundthe
copperorebodiesseemto be broad enoughto form a
likely target.
In Part IV, Stevenson et al. document a diverse set
of successful case histories in which seismic methods
have been used for precious- and base-metalexplo-
ration in hardrock settingsof southernAfrica. In the
4 Introduction
WitwatersrandBasin, reflection seismologyhas been
instrumentalin severalrecent major gold discoveries,
by allowingArcheanmarkerhorizonsto be mappedat
depth and thus enablingthe position of gold-bearing
reefsto be inferred. High-resolutionvibroseismethods
have also been usedin the BushveldComplex,a giant
ultramafic intrusion estimated to contain about 70% of
the world'sreservesof platinumgroupelements.In this
case,theapplicationsof seismic-reflection
areto identify
different"reef" facies,andto mapthe extentof a mine-
planningproblemreferredto as potholes(areaswhere
the platinum-bearingreef crosscutsits own unlithified
footwalland occursunconformablyat a lowerhorizon).
Stevenson et al. also describe a new subsurface borehole
technique,calledmine seismicprofiling,andpresentre-
sultsfrom seismicsurveysfor base-metalexplorationin
Namibia.
The nextpaperin thispart,by Evanset al., documents
an experimentalsurfaceand upholeseismicsurveyde-
signedto delineatea deepdepositnearthe now-depleted
Mt. Morgan gold mine in Queensland,Australia. The
data were acquiredin a challengingnear-surfaceenvi-
ronmentcontainingmine tailings and abandonedmine
infrastructure.Specialacquisitionandprocessingtech-
niques, such as the use of extreme staticsand VSP-
derivedvelocities,yieldeda seismicimagethat suggests
that the depositmay be more extensivethanpreviously
thought.Clearly,old mine workingsrepresenta hostile
settingfor surfaceseismicsurveys.Calvert et al. com-
pare 2D seismicprofiles acrossAnsil and Matagami,
two of the most importantmining campsin the Abitibi
greenstonebelt of northern Quebec.The many avail-
ableboreholesin theseregionsprovideexcellentsubsur-
facecontrolfor the interpretationof seismicreflections.
Calvert et al. showthat it is sometimespossibleto map
synvolcanicfaultingin orderto providedrillingtargets.
The interpretationof theseseismicprofilesis compli-
cated,however,by the pervasivepresenceof mafic sills.
In addition,oneseismicline recordeda strongreflection
from the top surfaceof a volcanogenicmassivesulfide
orebody,but the characterof the reflectionis similarto
othereventsreflectedfrom nearbymafic sills.
In PartV, boreholeseismicstudiesarepresented.Cer-
tainhardrockenvironments areparticularlyproneto dis-
tortionsof the seismicwavefieldcausedby near-surface
layers.This is oftenthe casewherea highly attenuating,
low-velocitylayer of variablethickness,suchas glacial
till, overlieshigh-velocitybedrock.One way aroundthis
difficulty is to useboreholesin orderto place sources,
receivers,or both, beneaththe near-surfacelayer and
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closerto thetargetzone.Adam et al. presentresultsfrom
two vertical seismicprofile (VSP) surveysacquiredin
thevicinityof a 1-kmdeepvolcanogenic massivesulfide
depositin northwesternQuebec.In thecaseofa borehole
intersectingthe deposit,strongscatteredP- andS-waves
were observed.In the caseof a nearbynonintersecting
borehole,however,no prominentscatteredeventsfrom
the ore zone were evident. Adam et al. reconcile their ob-
servationswith numericalmodeling,which showsthat
while strongscatteringoccurs(asexpectedfromthesig-
nificantimpedancecontrastof the ore depositrelative
to the hostrocks),seismicamplitudesdecreaserapidly
with distanceand exhibit strongvariationswith offset
and azimuth.Using so-calleddownholeseismicimag-
ing (DSI) techniques, Perronet al. focusonproblemsas-
sociatedwith subsurface mappingin structuralsettings
where featuresof interest(e.g., shearzones,lithologi-
cal contacts)are subvertical.The DSI methodcombines
multioffset,multiazimuthVSP dataacquisitionwith var-
ious3D seismicimagingtechniques.This approachwas
usedto processandinterpretmultioffsetVSP datafrom
a boreholenearthe (abandoned)Norm•tal Zn-Cu mine
in northwesternQuebec.The resultsof this studyen-
abledmappingof the volcanicunits of the mine up to
500 rn awayfrom the borehole,as well as imagingof a
tabulargabbroicintrusionthat cutsacrossthe dominant
geologicstrikedirection.
MultiazimuthVSP surveyshavebeena partof Finnish
site surveyinvestigationsfor safe disposalof radioac-
tive wastesincethe mid 1980s.Cosmaet al. providea
comprehensive review of the techniquesused in these
surveys,with the objectivesof detectinghydraulically
transmissive zones(normallyfracturezonesandfaults)
and determiningtheir geometry.The core of the pro-
cessingschemefor these data is the so-calledimage
point (IP) transform,a versionof the radontransformin
which summationis performedalonghyperbolicpaths
that correspondto the time-depthfunctionsof possible
reflectors.Thisapproachfacilitatestheapplicationofco-
herencyfiltersto enhanceweakreflections,andefficient
separationof interferingreflections.The processingand
interpretationmethodsare illustratedusing examples
from two sitesin Finland, showinga good correlation
betweenprominentseismicreflectorsandhydrogeolog-
ically significantzones.
Part VI of this volume contains case histories
of 3D seismic surveysfor deep mineral exploration
(Canada) and mine development(South Africa). The
3D seismic technique involves data acquisition on
an areal grid, followedby specializedprocessingand
 Hardrock seismicexploration: Mature technologiesadapted to new exploration targets
interpretationmethodsthat exploit the method'scom-
plete spatialsamplingof the wavefield.By virtue of its
uniquevisualizationand subsurfacemappingcapabil-
ities, 3D seismicshas had a profoundand lasting im-
pact on oil and gas explorationin sedimentarybasins
(Weimer and Davis, 1996). Few nonhydrocarbon3D
seismicsurveys,however,havebeenreportedin theliter-
ature.Adametal.provide
acasehistory
fora20-km23D
dynamitesurveyat the Matagamimining camp,in the
northernAbitibi belt of Quebec.The surveyobjectives
wereto determinetheseismicresponse of a typicaldeep-
seated(1 km) volcanogenicmassivesulfidedepositand
to map a key stratigraphicmarkerhorizon.The survey
wassuccessful in mappingthe main markerhorizonand
imagingthe Bell Allard orebody,in the form of a 100-m
wide zone of high seismicamplitudes.Pretoriuset al.
presentan overviewof pioneeringlessonslearnedby
Anglo American Corporationthrougha uniquelysus-
tainedprogramof seismicacquisitionon the Kaapvaal
Craton since 1983, to assistgold mine planning and
development.Among the most importantlessonsare
waysto improvethe cost-effectiveness of dataacquisi-
tion throughdynamicin-fieldmonitoringof dataquality
andreductionof arraysizes;emphasisonfield staticsand
surface-consistent deconvolutionduring data process-
ing; andan integratedapproachto geophysicalmapping
and interpretationof the orebodyand its hoststratigra-
phy.This unrivaledperspectiveis complemented by an
illustrativecasehistoryof 3D seismicsurveysfor gold
mineplanningin the WitwatersrandBasin,at Vaal Reefs
no. 10 shaft.
OUTLOOK
Deep explorationof the hardrockenvironmentspells
excitingnew opportunitiesfor the seismic-exploration
industry. The experienceof researchgroups around
the world suggeststhat "off-the shelf" seismicsources
(vibroseisand impulsive),sensors,and moderndigital
recordingequipmentdo not requireany specialadapta-
tion to thehardrockenvironment.However,thissettingis
an extremelychallengingdataacquisitionenvironment,
andtypicalcharacteristics of seismicdata,includinglow
signal-to-noise ratios,powerfulsource-generated noise,
discontinuous reflections,and scatteringof seismicen-
ergy imposespecialrequirementsfor data processing
and interpretation.Specificpointsto emphasizeare
1) For seismic-reflection
studies,high-fold datasets
are essential; rules of thumb for minimum fold,
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as appliedto dataacquisitionin more familiar set-
tings,mustbe revisedand amended
2) As a result of the high velocities that pre-
vail in hardrockenvironments,high frequencies
(> 100Hz) are neededto ensureadequateresolu-
tion of thetargetsof interest,be theyfracturezones
for radioactivewastedisposalinvestigations, or ore
depositsin mineral exploration,etc.
3) Forward modeling is essentialto decipher the
(sometimescounter-intuitive)scatteringresponse
from hardrocktarget zones.Familiar tools of the
trade,suchasray tracing,maynot be adequatefor
manytypesof problemsfacedin this environment
4) In the absenceof pronouncedstratifiedreflectiv-
ity, robustprocessingsequences, includingcareful
statics,surface-consistent deconvolutionand dip
moveout,mustbe developed
5) Unusualphysicalrock propertiesmustbe consid-
eredfor datainterpretation
6) As evidentfrom thiscollectionof papers,apparent
differencesof opinion exist concerningthe value
of seismicmigrationas an aid to interpretation;in
caseswhere isolatedscatteringbodiessuchas ore
depositsare of paramountinterest,it is advisable
to make extensiveuse of unmigrateddata (in ad-
dition to migratedsections)to pinpointdiagnostic
diffractionresponses
The guidingprinciplein all of theseconsiderationsis
the needto allocatetime andresourcesfor testing(both
in dataacquisitionandprocessing)in any new hardrock
explorationproject.
In the petroleum industry,seismicmethods,partic-
ularly 3D techniques,are recognizedas proven (and
exceptionally cost-effective) technology. Experience
clearly shows,however,that the cost of deep seismic
surveysis considerablyhigher than the cost of tradi-
tional geophysicalmethodsusedin mineralexploration,
mine planning,and geotechnicalstudies.Thus,to eval-
uatethe utility of seismictechniquesfor theseapplica-
tions,its potentialbenefitsmustbe weighedagainstthis
relativelyhigh costprior to the acquisitionof the seis-
mic surveys(Eatonet al., 1997). Moreover3D seismics,
arguablythe most desirableapproachin the hardrock
settingwherea fully comprehensive prospectevaluation
is desired,falls on the extremeendof the costspectrum.
Severalpapersin this volumeaddressthis issue.Adam
et al. notethatthe costper squarekm of 3D seismicsur-
veysin remoteareasof northernQu6becis comparable
to drilling two 800-m deep boreholes.Pretoriuset al.
6 Introduction
convincinglydemonstrate the value of 3D seismicfor
goldmine planningin the WitwatersrandBasin.Never-
theless,thereis a needto seekimprovements to existing
methodologiesto reducefield costs,in order to bring
them into alignmentwith budgetallocationsfor such
activities.
The technologicalrisk of seismicsin mining explo-
ration is also subjectto considerableuncertainty.Re-
sultsto-date indicatethat reflectivitycharacteristics of
the crystallinecrustdiffer in fundamentalandimportant
waysfrom reflectivityin sedimentarybasins,impacting
many aspectsof seismicsurveydesign.For example,
acousticimpedancevariationsin sedimentarybasinsare
largelycontrolledby velocitychanges,whereasdensity
and velocity can vary independentlyin hardrockset-
tings.Furthermore,reflection-coefficient powerspectra
derivedfrom boreholelogs suggestthat the reflectiv-
ity of the crystallinecrustmay be depletedin the seis-
mic bandwidth(<500 Hz) relativeto sedimentary basins
(Milkereit and Eaton, 1998). Another prime considera-
tion is the relationshipof lithologyto elasticproperties
for rock typesrelevantto mineral explorationand the
hardrockenvironment. Thisareaof studyis onlystarting
to be investigated (e.g., Salisburyet al., 1996),yet virtu-
ally everynewhardrockstudyareabringsto light unan-
ticipatedphysicalpropertyrelationships. Consequently,
we wouldlike to stressthatanyreliableexplorationpro-
gram for the shallowcrystallinecrustmust utilize and
integrateboreholegeophysicaldata.We alsorecognize
thatadvancement of seismic-imaging capabilitiesanda
betterunderstanding of high-frequencywave propaga-
tion requireaccessto a muchlargerdatabaseof modem,
Downloaded 26 Jun 2012 to 95.28.162.50. Redistribution subject to SEG license or copyright; Terms of Use: http://segdl.org/
high-qualitylithologicalandgeophysical
logsfrom the
shallowcrystallinecrust.
REFERENCES
Amey,E. B., 2001, Gold FactSheet,U.S. GeologicalSurvey,Mineral
CommoditySummaries.
Chang,T, 1999, Worldwiderefiningcapacitycreepsupward,most
growth in Asia-Pacific:Oil and Gas Journal,97, No. 51, 84-85.
Debicki, E., 1996, MITEC's Exploration TechnologyDivision:
Helpingreversethetrendof decliningmineralreservesin Canada:
CIM Bull., 89, 53-59.
Eaton,D. W., Milkereit, B., andAdam,E., 1997,3D seismicexplo-
ration, in Gubbins,A. G., Ed., Geophysicsand geochemistry at
the millenium:Prosp.and Devel. Assoc.Can., 65-78.
Edelstein,D. L., 2001, Copperfact sheet:U.S. Geol. Surv.,Mineral
CommoditySummaries.
Green, A. G., and Mair, J. A., 1983, Subhorizontalfractures in a
granite pluton: Their detectionand implicationfor radioactive
wastedisposal:Geophysics,48, 1428-1449.
Milkereit,B., andEaton,D., 1998,Imagingandinterpreting theshal-
low crust:Tectonophysics, 286, 5-18.
Kuck, P. H., 2001, Nickel fact sheet: U.S. Geol. Surv., Mineral
CommoditySummaries.
Moon, B., 1970. The Canadian Shield: Natural Science of Canada
Ltd.
Pretorius,C. C., Jamison,A., Irons,C., 1989, Seismicexplorationin
the WitwatersrandBasin,Republicof SouthAfrica: Proceedings
of Exploration'87, OntarioGeol. Surv.,Spec.Vol. 3, 241-253.
Pretzet, A., 1999, Decline in world crude reservesis first since '92:
Oil and Gas Journal, 97, No. 51, 94.
Salisbury, M. H., Milkereit,B., andBleeker,W., 1996,Seismicimag-
ing of massivesulfidedeposits:Part I. Rock properties:Econ.
Geol., 91, 821-828.
Weimer,P.,and Davis, T L., 1996,Applicationsof 3D seismicdata
to explorationandproduction:AAPG Studiesin Geology,No. 42
and SEG GeophysicalDevelopmentsSeries,No. 5.
 Part I

Physical Rock Properties and

GeophysicalLogging

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Downloaded 26 Jun 2012 to 95.28.162.50. Redistribution subject to SEG license or copyright; Terms of Use: http://segdl.org/

The Acoustic Properties of Ores and Host Rocks
in Hardrock
MatthewH. Salisbury,Craig VL/.
Harvey, and Larry Matthews
ABSTRACT
Compiled laboratorymeasurementsof the densities
(p) and compressional(V•) and shear (Vs) wave ve-
locities of common rocks demonstrate that the veloc-
ities of silicate rocks increasewith density along the
Nafe-Drake curve as the rocks become
and increasein metamorphicgrade. Reflection coeffi-
cientscalculatedfrom impedancecontrastsbetweenfel-
sic and mafic rocks and other common lithologiesin
hardrock terranes often exceed 6%, the estimated min-
imum value required to give strong reflections.This
finding is consistentwith observationsof deep struc-
ture and stratigraphyin high-gradeterranesusingseis-
mic reflection.Sulfideslie far to the right of the Nafe-
Drake curvein a largevelocity-densityfield controlled
by mixing lines connectingindividual sulfide miner-
als and their hosts.The elastic propertiesand acous-
tic impedancesof massivesulfidesdiffer significantly
from thoseof mostcommonhostrocks,suggesting that
large massivesulfidedepositsshouldbe detectableas
reflectorsor scatterers
usinghigh-resolutionseismicre-
flection techniques,a prediction confirmedby recent
VSP, 2D and 3D MCS surveys in Canada. Labora-
tory measurementsof acousticvelocities under in-situ
conditionsprovide the basis for the interpretationof
seismicrefraction and stackingvelocities in terms of
lithology.
INTRODUCTION
Seismicreflectionhas been the explorationtool of
choicefor the petroleumindustrysinceits first success-
ful commercialapplicationalmost75 yearsago, but it
has only been systematicallyusedin hardrockterranes
for the pastseveraldecadesandits usehasbeenlimited
primarilyto basicresearch.Thereare severalreasonsfor
this:
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Chapter 1
Terranes
1) Acousticimpedancecontrastsand signal-to-noise
ratiosare generallylow in hardrockenvironments,
causingreflectionsto havelow amplitudes
2) Hardrock terranes often display much greater
rangesin lithology,metamorphism,and deforma-
more mafic tion than sedimentarybasins,causingreflections
to be laterally discontinuousand more difficult to
interpretin termsof lithologyand structure
3) Finally, economic incentivesfor seismic explo-
ration in thesesettingshavebeen limited because
economictargetssuchasmassivesulfidesare diffi-
cult to detect due to their small size and because the
capabilitiesof alternativegeophysicaltechniques
(e.g., aeromagnetic,electromagnetic,inducedpo-
larization,andradiometricmethods)havesufficed
to meet industrydemands
High-resolutionseismicmethodshaveseveraldistinct
advantagesoverconventionalsurfaceexplorationmeth-
ods,however,includingtheir relativelyhighresolutionat
depthandtheir apparenteaseof interpretation.Interestin
hardrockseismicexplorationhasincreaseddramatically
in recentyearsfollowing major advancesin the acqui-
sition and processingof seismicdata (e.g., Enachescu,
1993);thesuccessful multichannelseismic(MCS) imag-
ing of deep crustal structure by programs such as
DEKORP, COCORP,BIRPS, and LITHOPROBE (e.g.,
Barazangi and Brown, 1986; Matthews and Smith,
1987); andrecentdeclinesin basemetal reservescaused
by the depletionof known shallowdeposits(Debicki,
1996). For example, high-resolution2D surveyshave
beenusedto delineatedeepstructureandstratigraphyin
mining camps (Wu et al., 1995; Goleby et al., 1997;
Stevenson and Durrheim, 1997; Adams et al., 2000;
Robertset al., thisvolume),to delineateknownorebod-
ies (Salisburyet al., 1997), and to identify faults and
acquifersin hardrock terranes (Juhlin and Palm, this
volume). Similarly, VSP (vertical seismic profiling)
10 Physical rock properties and geophysicallogging

surveyshavebeenusedto delineatesteeplydippingore Depth (km)

12 18
bodies (Eaton et al., 1996; Adam et al., this volume) ] [ [ [

andto identify fracturezonesin potentialnuclearwaste 0.3

disposalsites(Cosmaet al., this volume).Finally,high-

resolution3D MCS surveyshavebeenusedextensively
in South Africa to map gold-producinghorizons for 0.2

mine planningandproductionpurposes(Pretoriuset al.,

1997, this volume) and to explorefor massivesulfides 0.1
in Canada(Eaton et al., 1997; Milkereit et al., 1997).
Although the resultsof most reflectionsurveysare
visually suggestive,to interpret any of them in terms
of lithology and structurerequiresa knowledgeof the
physicalpropertiesof rocks and the limits of seismic Massive
sulfide
methods.The purposeof this chapteris to providean 6.5

overviewof the acousticpropertiesof rocksanda review

of the waysin whichthey canbe usedin the geological
interpretationof seismicdata.

THE PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

OF COMMON ROCKS 6.0

While many factorsinfluencethe strengthof seismic

reflectors,themostimportantparameteristhedifference
in acousticimpedancebetweenlithologies,where the
acousticimpedanceZ of a rock is definedas its P-wave
velocity-densityproduct,
5.5 i i i i [ i
Z- Vpp. (1) 0 200 400 600

Forthe simplecaseof two lithologiesin contactalong
a planar surface,the reflectioncoefficientR (the ratio
of reflectedto incidentenergy)for a normal-incidence
P-wave is equalto
Z2 - Z1 VP2P2- Vp,Pl
- = , (2)
Z2 q- Z1 VP2P2
q- Vp,pl
whereZ1, pl, and Ve1 are the impedance,density,and
compressional-wave velocity,respectively,of the upper
medium;Z2, P2,and Ve•arethecorresponding parame-
tersfor the lowermedium;andequation(2) is the Zoep-
pritz equationfor P-wavesfor the caseof normal inci-
dence.In practice,a planarsurfacewhichreflectsaslittle
as 6% of the incidentenergy(R --0.06) can be read-
ily detectedby the seismic-reflectionmethod(Salisbury
et al., 1996).In general,thisrequiresan impedancecon-
trastofabout2.5 x 105g/cm2s.
Thustopredict
whether
any two lithologiescan generatesignificantreflections
only requiresa knowledgeof their densitiesandveloci-
ties,andthustheir impedances,at appropriatepressures.
Since the early 1960s laboratorymeasurementsof
Ve, Vs, and p have been made on thousandsof rocks
Pressure(MPa)
Fig. 1. Vp versuspressureto 600 MPa (18 km equivalent
depth) for a typical silicaterock and a massivesulfide
(dry samples).The calculatedreflectioncoefficientR be-
tweenthe two lithologiesshowsalmostno variationwith
pressure.
to hydrostaticconfiningpressuresof up to 1 GPa using
the pulsetransmissiontechniqueof Birch (1960, 1961;
Christensen,1985) and the resultshavebeen compiled
for comparisonwith refraction,reflection,and logging
data (Christensen,1982; Salisburyand Iuliucci, 2000).
As canbe seenin Figure1, whichshowsVe versuspres-
sure to 600 MPa for a fairly typical silicate rock and
a massivesulfide,Ve increasesrapidlywith pressureto
about200 MPa in responseto the closureofmicrocracks
andgrainboundariesandthenincreases moreslowlyand
linearly in responseto the intrinsicelasticpropertiesof
the constituent minerals of the rocks.
To facilitate predictionsof seismicreflectivity and
the interpretationof seismicdata in hardrockterranes,
the averagecompressional-and shear-wavevelocities

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 Acoustic properties of ores and host rocks in hardrock terranes 11

Table 1. Acousticpropertiesof commonigneousand metamorphicrocksat 200 MPa and room temperature.

Density Vp Vs Poisson's Acoustic
Rocktype g/cm
3 km/s km/s ratio impedance*
Quartzite 2.57 4- 0.12 5.48 4- 0.57 3.55 4- 0.41 0.14 4- 0.07 14.1 4- 2.1
Granite 2.66 4- 0.05 6.03 4- 0.23 3.50 4- 0.23 0.24 4- 0.04 16.0 4- 0.9
Granodiorite 2.69 4- 0.07 6.04 4- 0.35 3.41 4- 0.21 0.27 4- 0.02 16.2 4- 1.4
Quartz-mica schist 2.79 4- 0.07 6.22 4- 0.11 3.55 4- 0.17 0.26 4- 0.04 17.4 4- 0.8
Felsicgneiss(amphibolitefacies) 2.73 4- 0.07 6.14 4- 0.17 3.55 4- 0.16 0.25 4- 0.03 16.8 4- 0.9
Felsicgranulite 2.70 4- 0.06 6.17 4- 0.11 3.49 4- 0.09 0.27 4- 0.02 16.7 4- 0.7
Metapelite 3.10 4- 0.11 7.09 4- 0.36 3.99 4- 0.21 0.27 4- 0.01 22.0 4- 1.9
Intermediategranulite 2.79 4- 0.11 6.31 4- 0.20 3.53 4- 0.14 0.27 4- 0.03 17.6 4- 1.3
Metagabbro(greenschistfacies) 2.91 4- 0.09 6.55 4- 0.30 3.69 4- 0.11 0.27 4- 0.01 19.1 4- 1.5
Gabbro 2.94 4- 0.09 6.91 4- 0.22 3.72 4- 0.18 0.29 4- 0.02 20.3 4- 1.3
Mafic granulite 3.03 4- 0.17 6.78 4- 0.27 3.56 4- 0.22 0.31 4- 0.02 20.5 4- 2.0
Anorthosite 2.80 4- 0.10 6.73 4- 0.31 3.61 4- 0.20 0.30 4- 0.02 18.8 4- 1.5
Amphibolite 3.05 4- 0.10 6.99 4- 0.24 3.75 4- 0.21 0.30 4- 0.02 21.3 4- 1.4
Pyroxenite 3.27 4- 0.04 7.63 4- 0.15 4.19 4- 0.27 0.28 4- 0.04 25.0 4- 0.8
Peridotite/dunite 3.28 4- 0.04 7.94 4- 0.23 4.33 4- 0.18 0.29 4- 0.02 26.0 4- 1.1
Eclogite 3.43 4- 0.09 7.86 4- 0.28 4.34 4- 0.16 0.28 4- 0.02 27.0 4- 1.7
Serpentinite 2.59 4- 0.09 5.46 4- 0.55 2.69 4- 0.44 0.34 4- 0.03 14.1 4- 1.9
After Holbrooket al. (1992)
* x 10s g/cm2s.
Based
on V?.

and densitiesof commonrocksare presentedat a stan- (Z = 20 x 105g/cm2s)

dard confiningpressureof 200 MPa (the crackclosure
pressure)androomtemperature in Table1 andFigures2
and3. Alsoshownforeachrocktypearetheaverageval-
ues of the acousticimpedanceZ and Poisson'sratio •r
(seeTable2). Thedatain Table1havebeenadaptedfrom
Holbrooket al. (1992), with the velocitiesrecalculated
to 200 MPa assuminga Vp versuspressuregradientof
+0.04 km/s/100MPa and a Vs versuspressuregradi-
ent of about+0.02 km/s/100MPa. For pressures below
200 MPa, largernonlinearcorrectionswouldhaveto be
appliedbecauseof the effectsof microcracks.
As canbe seenin Figures2 and3, the averageveloc-
ities of the commoncrystallinerockstend to increase
with densityalong the well known Nafe-Drake curve
(Ludwigetal., 1971).Closeinspection showsthattheve-
locities and densities increase as the rocks become more
mafic or increasein metamorphicgrade.Thus,serpen-
tinites,kimberlites,andmetasedimentary rockhavethe
lowestvelocitiesanddensities, followedin orderby fel-
sic igneousandmetamorphicrocks,intermediatemeta-
morphics,thengreenschist, amphibolite,andgranulite
faciesmaficrocks,andfinally,pyroxenites, peridotites,
andeclogites.If linesof constant
acousticimpedance are
superimposed on Figure2, it can be seenthat Z varies
fromabout12.5to27.5x 105g/cm2s
forcommon
rocks
and it is immediatelyobviouswhich pairs of litholo-
giescangiveriseto strongP-wavereflectionsif the ge-
ometry is appropriate,since an impedancedifference
of at least2.5 x 10s g/cm2s
is required.
Thusgranites
will not reflectagainstgranodiorites,
mostmaficrocks
cangivestrong
reflections
when
in contactwith felsicrocks(a findingconfirmedby many
reflectionsurveys)andfreshultramaficrockswill reflect
againstany lithology.
As canbe seenin Figure3, shear-wavevelocitiesin-
creasewith densityalonga trendwhichis similarto that
for V•, but the trenddisplaysseveralsignificantdiffer-
ences:
(1) SinceV•, • Vs•/3 formostrocks,therangeof
velocitiesand impedancesfor Vs will be much smaller
thanthatfor V•,.(2) While V•, • Vs•/3 formanyrocks,
severalimportantrock typesdepartsignificantlyfrom
thispattern.In particular,quartz-richrockshaveanoma-
lously high shear-wavevelocitieswhile thoseof mafic
granulitesare anomalouslylow.
Finally,it shouldbepointedoutthatwhile V•,, Vsand
many of the dependentelasticconstantsare quite sen-
sitiveto pressure,R andty are relativelyinsensitivebe-
cause their calculation involves ratios of velocities which
tendto risetogether(Figure 1). Thus,valuesof R andty
calculated from stable velocities measured at 200 MPa
will be reasonablycorrectthroughout thecrust.In prin-
ciple, a gabbrosill in contactwith rhyolitewill be just
as reflective at the base of the crust as at the surface.
THE PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
OF MASSIVE SULFIDES
To this point, we have discussed
the acousticprop-
erties of common crystalline rocks, but systematic
measurementsof Ve, Vs, and p have recently been
completedfor massivesulfides(Salisburyet al., 1996)

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12 Physicalrock properties and geophysicallogging
7
%,%,. :• .... ,.• ".... '..... _ ship of Wyllie et al. (1978).
• • "•.. -%• "......
•o•
........ pentlandite,andbornitewill haveanimpedanceof about
//
Density(g/cm3)
Fig. 2. Vp versusdensity at a confiningpressureof
200 MPa for commonhardrocks.Ellipseshaveareascor-
respondingto standarddeviationsof densityand veloc-
ity in Table 1 and major axessubparallelto Nafe-Drake
curve(light grey).Lines of constantacousticimpedance
are superimposedfor reference;an impedancediffer-
ence of 2.5 x l0 s g/cm2s causesa reflectioncoefficient,
R -- 0.06, theminimumrequiredto givea significantre-
flection.Heavydashedarrowshowseffectof fracturewith
10% water-filledporosityon impedance.
using the same techniquesand the results have an
importantbearingon seismicprospectingfor economic
sulfidedeposits.As canbe seenin Table3, andFigures
4 and5, the sulfideslie far to theright of theNafe-Drake
curvein a velocity-densityfield controlledby the end-
memberpropertiesof pyrite, pyrrhotite,chalcopyrite,
and sphalerite(pentlandite,bornite,and galenaare not
usuallypresentin largevolumes).As discussed by Birch
(1961), manyof the differencesin velocitybetweensili-
caterocksandhigh-densityoressuchassulfidesaredue
to differencesin meanatomicweight,but someare due
to variationsin bondingand crystalstructure.The low-
velocity sulfides,for example,displaypartial metallic
bonding,whereaspyrite, which has an extremelyhigh
velocity(8 km/s)anda densityof 4.9 g/cm3, displays
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covalentbondingand a crystallographicstructuresi-
200MPa milar to that of diamonds.
Examinationof Figures4 and5 showsthatthe sulfide
field can be further divided into subfields in which the
densitiesand velocitiesare controlledby simplemix-
ing linesbetweenthe propertiesof the end-membersul-
fidesandtheir silicatehosts.Thusrockscomposedof a
mix ofpyrite andfelsicgangueincreasein velocitywith
increasingdensity,while orescomposedof sphalerite,
chalcopyrite, or pyrrhotiteandtheir associated gangue
mineralsactuallydecreasein velocitywith increasing
densityandgrade,a resultwhichseemscounter-intuitive
but whichis consistent with the time-averagerelation-
If linesof constantacousticimpedancearenowsuper-
imposedon Figures4 and5, it is clearthatmanysulfide
oresshouldmakestrongreflectorsagainstmostcommon
silicaterocks,and somewill reflectagainstalmostany
hostif thedepositmeetsthegeometricconstraints for de-
tection(seebelow). For example,massivesulfidescom-
.........
l
posedof anymix of sphalerite,chalcopyrite, pyrrhotite,
......... 22 x 10sg/cm2sandwillmakeastrongreflectoragainst
any likely silicatehost excepthigh-grademafic rocks,
and massivepyrite will reflectagainstany silicatehost
rock. It is alsoclearthatmetamorphicgradecanhavea
stronginfluenceon the reflectivityof an oredeposit.For
example,pyrite convertsto pyrrhotiteat high metamor-
phic grades.Thus a pyrite-richore would be reflective
in a greenschist faciesmafic settingbut wouldbecome
invisiblein the granulitefaciesasthe pyrite convertsto
pyrrhotitewith an impedancesimilarto that of gabbro
LITHOLOGIC INTERPRETATION
OF SEISMIC DATA
To interpretseismicdatain termsoflithology,several
optionsare available,dependingon the type of databe-
ing considered.In principle,refractiondata (and sonic
logs) from either soft or hardrockterranescan be in-
terpretedsimplyby comparingthe refractionvelocities
with thevelocity-densityfieldsshownin Figures2 and3
andnotingwhichrocktypeshavethe samevelocityafter
adjustingfor confiningpressure.Similarly, reflection
datacanbe interpretedin principleby superimposing in-
tervalvelocitiesor impedancestacks,ratherthanrefrac-
tion velocities,on the velocity-densityfields.While this
will be easierto do for sedimentarybasinsthanhardrock
terranes, because reflections in hardrock environments
tend to be discontinuous and the data more difficult to
 Acousticpropertiesof oresand hostrocksin hardrock terranes 13

Table 2. Dependent elasticconstantequations.

Elasticconstant Units Symbol Equation
0.5
Poisson's ratio cr = 0.5 -
(Ve/Vx) 2 - 1

Bulk modulus

Compressibility

Shear modulus

Young'smodulus

Seismic
parameter
(km/s)2 • = V•2
- 5V•
Lame's
constant GPa X = p( V•2- 2V•)
AfterBirch(1961);p -- density
ing/cm
3, Ve = compressional
wavevelocity
inkm/s,
V$ = shearwavevelocityin km/s.

stack,theuncertaintiesin the absolutevaluesof physical

properties
derivedfromstackingvelocitiesandrelative
amplitudeanalysis
will beconsiderably
largerthanthose
determined from refraction.
An important issue that must be confrontedin
the interpretationof seismicdata is the problemof
nonuniqueness. As can be seenin Figure2, refraction
4 velocities can be used to make a crude assessment of
lithology,but detailedassessments areoftenimpossible
becauserefractionaveragesover large volumesof the
crustandbecausemanyrocktypescandisplaythe same
velocity.A compressional wavevelocityof 5.5 km/s,for
example,couldrepresent eitherquartziteor serpentinite,
while a velocityof 7.0 km/sprobablyrepresents a mafic
rock of some flavor, but could also be causedby an
anorthosite,amphibolite,or metapelite.This ambiguity
can often be reduced,however,if more informationcan
be broughtto beanFor example,if both Vp and Vs are
known,quartzitescaneasilybe distinguished from ser-
2.5 3.0 3.5 pentinitesbecausequartz-richrockshavemuchhigher
Density
(g/cm
3) shear-wavevelocities.The interpretationof reflection
Fig. 3. Vs versusdensityat a confiningpressureof data suffersfrom similar problems.In the absenceof
200 MPa for commonhardrocks.Ellipseshaveareascor- velocityinformation,the presenceof a reflectionon a
responding
to standard
deviations
of densityandvelocity seismicrecordonlyinformsusthattwo lithologieswith
in Table1 andmajoraxessubparallel
to theNafe-Drake animpedance
difference
>2.5 x 105g/cm2s
arejuxta-
curve.Linesof constant
impedance
aresuperimposed
for
reference.Colorsare as in Figure2. posedat a certainlocationin the crust,with the depth

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14 Physicalrock properties and geophysicallogging

Table 3. Acoustic properties of common sulfidesat 200 MPa.

Density Vp Vs Poisson's Acoustic
Mineral g/cm3 km/s km/s ratio impedance
• Ref.

Pyrite 4.91 7.99 4.94 0.19 39.2

Sphalerite 4.07 5.44 2.80 0.32 22.1
Chalcopyrite 4.28 5.12 2.49 0.35 21.9
Pyrrhotite 4.71 4.60 2.73 0.23 21.7
Pentlandite 4.68 4.56 2.95 0.14 21.3
Bornite 5.07 4.40 2.07 0.36 22.3
Galena 7.51 3.69 2.11 0.26 27.7

P-waveimpedance,
x105g/cm2s.
Harvey,1997.
Thisstudy.
Christensen,
unpublished
data.

i i i i i i

200MPa

"CpY/
sPh
'/'g •'-. Sph
ß
' Cpy,,
Ga n"•

/ '"'-.. /

2.5
I
3.0
I
3.5
--e....
'.0
6- '.....
I
4.0
--- oB
o
'/•-.S'..
~.,.
4.5
'"-..
".•
5.0
Density(g/cm3)

Fig.4. Vp-density
fieldsforcommon
sulfides
at 200MPasuperimposed
onvelocityversus
density
plotfor
sihcate rocks shown in Figure 2. Also shown are lines of constantacousticimpedancefor felsic
(Z = 17.5x 105g/cm2s)
andmaficrocks(Z = 20 x 105g/cm2s)
andtheminimum
reflection
coefficient
requiredto makea strongreflection.Colorsas in Figure2, Abbreviations'Py, pyrite; Sph,sphalerite;Cpy,
chalcopyrite;Po,pyrrhotite;Bo, bornite;Pn,pentlandite;Ga, galena;g, gangue.Colorsasin Figure2.

specifiedin units of time. If the reflectionis spatially
extensive,the two lithologiesalmost certainly lie on
the Nafe-Drake curvebut their positionon the curve is
not fixed,eventhoughtheir separationcanbe estimated
from relative amplitudeanalysisand the presenceof
velocity inversionscan be determinedfrom phasere-
versals.The mosteffectiveway to reducethe ambiguity
inherent in the interpretationof reflection data is to
constrainthe resultsin terms of known geology.Since
the compositionand metamorphicgrade of the upper
crustis oftenknownfrom surfacemapping,it is usually
possibleto dismissmanyrock typeson theNafe-Drake

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 Acoustic properties of ores and host rocks in hardrock terranes 15

200MPa
Py

Mixed sulfides

PB

Po Gao•
........12.5
......

..... Z• 10.... øBø

2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0

Density(g/cm3)

Fig.5. Vs-density
fieldsforcommon
sulfides
at 200MPasuperimposed
onvelocityversus
density
plotfor
sircate rocks shownin Figure 3. Lines of constantacoustic•mpedanceare shownfor reference.Colors as
in Figure 2, Abbreviations:Py, pyrite; Sph, sphalerite;Cpy, chalcopyrite;Po, pyrrhotite;Bo, bornite; Pn,
pentlandite;Ga, galena;g, gangue.Colorsas in Figure2.

curve from consideration.For example, if the country or tectonized,and even some primary igneous and
rock has been pervasively metamorphosedto the sedimentaryrocks, displaypronouncedseismicaniso-
greenschistfacies, two thirds of the velocity-density tropy,defined(in %) as
fields in Figures2 through6 can be deleted,including
all of thefieldswithZp > 20 x 105g/cm2s,
making rmax- rmin
A= x 100. (3)
the problemmuchmoretractable. Vmean

CONSTRAINTS AND COMPLICATIONS

While the physical properties of rocks are gener-
ally consistentwith the detectionof strongreflections
from deep structuresand ores in MCS surveysand a
quantitativerationaleexistsfor the interpretationof re-
flection,refraction,and loggingdata in termsof lithol-
ogy,thereareotherconstraints andcomplications which
mustbe takeninto accountwheninterpretingsuchdata:
Anisotropy
While many rock types are essentiallyisotropic,
somerockswhich have been stronglymetamorphosed
V•, canvary with directionin suchrocksby asmuch
as20%, dependingon the directionof propagationwith
respectto tectonicfabric or preferredcrystallographic
orientation(Vs canvaryby similaramounts,butdepends
on the vibrationdirectionas well as the propagationdi-
rection).For example,while granites,basalts,andeclog-
itesare almostalwaysisotropic,V•, canvary from 8.1 to
8.8 km/sin a tectonizedperidotite,dependingonwhether
the propagationdirection is parallel to the preferred
olivine crystallographica or b direction (Christensen
andSalisbury,1979). Similarly,V•, canbe up to 1.9 km/s
fasterparallel to foliation than it is normal to foliation
in felsic gneissesand schists(Fountain et al., 1990).

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16 Physicalrock properties and geophysicallogging
If foliation is tectonicallyinduced,it can causestrong
reflectionsin the absenceof any compositionalchange.
Thus autoreflectivitycausedby straightrockscan well
explainthereflectivityof manydeepfaults(Hurichand
Smithson,1987).
Fractures and Attenuation
Fractureshave two principle effectson seismicre-
flectivity:First, by reducingthe acousticvelocityand
densityof a medium,theycancausea significantreduc-
tion in its acousticimpedance.Using the time-average
relationshipof Wyllie, for example,it canbe shownthat
the introduction of a fault with 10% water-filled
porositywill causea 16%reductionin impedanceat the
contactwith the countryrock, evenif alterationeffects
alongthe fault areignored(Figure2). This is morethan
enoughto causea reflectionand can easilyexplainthe
reflectivityof shallowfaultsin hardrockterranes.Sec-
ond, fractures cause attenuationof seismic waves and
a reductionin the signal-to-noise
level, makingdeeper
reflectors more difficult to detect.
Water Saturation
To facilitatethecomparison of datafromdifferentlab-
oratories,thevelocitiespresentedin Figures2 through5
are for dry samples,althoughrockvelocitiesareknown
to vary with watersaturationandcrustalrocksareoften
saturatedin situ.As shownby Nut andSimmons(1969),
if the pore pressureis low, saturationcausesVp to in-
crease toward intrinsic values because it increases the
rigidity,but it hasrelativelylittle effecton Vs.Thus,the
principaleffectof saturationat low pressures is to par-
tially compensate for the effectsof microcracks.Satura-
tion reducesattenuation,but otherwisehasa negligible
effecton intrinsicreflectivitybecauserock velocitiesin
hardrockterranestend to rise togetherwith increasing
saturation.
Geometry
Wehavethusfar onlyconsidered reflectionsfromcon-
tinuous,planarreflectorssimilarto thosefoundin sedi-
mentarybasins.While suchreflectorsarefrequentlyob-
servedin hardrockterranes,it is necessaryto examine
the limits of resolution of the seismic reflection method
in both the vertical and horizontal directions in order to
determinewhatcanandcannotbe imaged.Thisispartic-
ularly importantsincemetamorphismand deformation
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can cause reflectors to become contorted and discon-
tinuousand even economicore depositscan be small
relative to seismic wavelengths.As summarizedby
Salisburyet al. (1996), thefactorscontrollingtheresolu-
tion of seismicreflectionarethe diameter(d), thickness
(t) and depth(z) of the target,the averagevelocity (v)
of the formation,andthe dominantfrequency(f) used
in the survey.The minimum vertical thicknesstminthat
canbe resolvedby reflectioncanbe estimatedfrom the
quarter-wavelength criterion(Widess,1973), where
tmin:
4f' (4)
fracture
In addition,the smallestdiametertargetthat can be
resolvedasa planarsurfaceis governedby the diameter
df of thefirstFresnelzone,where
(5)
Thus, the resolutiondecreaseswith depth and in-
creaseswith the dominantfrequencyemployedin the
survey.To put this in perspective,if the averageP-wave
velocityof the formationis 6 km/s,it shouldbe possible
with unmigrateddatato resolvea targetwhich is 15 m
thick and >_350m acrossat a depthof 1 km usinga
centerfrequencyof 100 Hz, and a body about 500 m
acrosscan be resolvedat a depthof 2 km. It should
be notedthat after successful 3D migrationthe lateral-
resolutionlimit theoreticallyapproaches the Widesscri-
terion[equation(4)], butin the caseof small,point-like,
scatteringobjectsit may not alwaysbe possibleto dis-
cernsmallscattering bodiesin the presenceof noise.
While smaller bodies than those discussed above can
be detectedby seismicmethods,the simpleimpedance
criteriafor reflectionbeginto break down as the target
becomesa scatterer,rather than a reflector, and startsto
shedsomeof the incidentenergyforward,muchof it as
convertedS-waves.Althoughscatteringcan be caused
by anychangein elasticityacrosstheboundarybetween
two rock types,numericalmodelingsuggests thatwave
conversion andscatteringarequitesensitiveto the shape
of the body andto changesin Poisson's ratio acrossthe
interface(Bohlenet al., this volume;Clarke and Eaton,
thisvolume).Sincemassivesulfideswith similaracous-
tic impedances candisplaya widerangeof Poisson's ra-
tio values(Figure6), it is likely thatamplitudevariations
with offset(AVO) andotherdifferencesin the scattering
of seismicwavesby oredeposits will eventuallybe used
 Acoustic properties of ores and host rocks in hardrock terranes 17

.40
200MPa _
,Serpentinite
//•x, xAnorthositeoBo
- ! x•• Ma•ic 'Cpy
.30
_ •x•/J
__.x.•P
h /•fmafi'c
- Felsic • xpo• []Ga
.20
_
lnt.
granulite
Metapelite

.Pn

.10 uartzite

R =0.06

I I

20 30 40
Zpx 105g/cm2s
Fig. 6. Poisson'sratio (o') versusP-waveacousticimpedance(Z) for commoncrystallinerocksand sulfide
minerals.Colors as in Figure 2, abbreviationsas in Figure 5. Black bar correspondsto the impedance
differencerequiredto makea strongreflection(R = 0.06).

to estimatetheir compositions.Given the economicim- greenschistfacies(Adair, 1992), while laboratoryphysi-

portanceof massivesulfides,this is a subjectof much
current research.
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS
From the analysispresentedabove,it is evidentthat
seismicrefraction and reflection data as well as log-
ging datacan be qualitatively,and in many cases,quan-
titatively interpretedin terms of lithology in hardrock
terranesthrougha comparisonwith laboratorydata on
the acousticvelocitiesand impedancesof rocks at ap-
propriatein-situ pressures.An excellentdemonstration
of both the interpretationprocessdescribedaboveand
the potentialimportanceof high-resolutionmultichan-
nel seismicsurveysin hardrockseismicexplorationis
providedby a seriesof reflectionstudiesrecentlycon-
ductedby Norandaandthe GeologicalSurveyof Canada
at the Halfmile Lake Cu-Zn deposit in the Bathurst
campin northernNew Brunswick.Mappingin theregion
showsthat the countryrocksconsistof metasediments,
rhyolites, basaltic andesites,and gabbros,all in the
calpropertiesstudiesshowthattheaverageimpedanceof
themaficrocks(about17.5x 105g/cm2s)
isonlyslightly
higherthanthatof the felsicrocksbecauseof retrograde
metamorphism(Salisbury,1997).Massivesulfidesin the
area,however,displaymuchhigherimpedances because
of their high pyrite content,suggestingthat they should
be strongreflectors.Thus the country rock shouldbe
essentiallytransparent, makingthe campan ideal envi-
ronmentfor seismicprospecting,a predictionconfirmed
by logging, VSP, and 2D seismicreflectionprofiling
over the Halfmile Lake deposit.Encouragedby these
results,Noranda recently conducteda full 3D seismic
reflectionsurveyin the area and identifiedtwo promis-
ing reflectors.Drilling showedthat one was causedby
anisotropyin straightrocks along a fault zone, a fac-
tor not originally considered,but the secondproved
to be a large, previouslyunknownmassivesulfide de-
posit lying down-dip from the Halfmile Lake deposit
at a depth of 1300 m (Figure 7). Although the deposit
was pyrite-rich and thus subeconomic,this represents
the first discoveryof a massivesulfidedepositthrough

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18 Physicalrock properties and geophysicallogging
h. frail:
ß .
le ,.'es
½.
Fig. 7. Cross-section
through3D seismicreflectioncubeat Halfmile Lake, Bathurstcamp,New Brunswick,
showing3D imagesof a massivesulfidedepositdiscoveredat a depthof 1300 m by seismicreflectionand
shallowerdepositsknownfrom previousmappingand drilling.No verticalexaggeration.
the useof seismicreflectiontechniques(Gingerichet al.,
2002).
In the precedingdiscussion,we concentratedon the
seismicexplorationfor ores as an exampleof the new
interestbeing shownby industryand the researchcom-
munity in hardrockseismology,but as many papersin
this volumeattest,high-resolutionseismicmethodsare
also being used extensivelyfor other purposes.As the
needfor high-resolution dataat depthincreasesandfur-
ther advancesare made in the acquisition,processing,
and interpretationof seismicdata, it seemsalmostin-
evitablethat high-resolutionseismicimagingwill play
an increasinglyimportantrole in mapping,exploration,
and delineation in hardrock terranes.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We wish to thank R. Iuliucci at the Dalhousie/GSC
High PressureLaboratoryfor hisassistance
in measuring
the acousticpropertiesof sulfidesand Noranda, Inc.,
FalconbridgeLtd., and INCO for their encouragement
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3-D acoustic
impedan e -•rget
and assistance in these studies. K. Hale assisted in the
preparationof the figures.
REFERENCES
Adair, R. N., 1992, Stratigraphy,structureand geochemistryof the
Halfmile Lake massivesulfide deposit,New Bnmswick: Expl.
Mining Geol., 1, 151-166.
Adams,E., et al., 2000, A review of high resolutionseismicprofil-
ing acrossthe Sudbury,Selbaie,Norandaand Matagamimining
camps:Can. J. Earth Sci., 37, 503-516.
Barazangi, M., and Brown, L. D., Eds., 1986, Reflection seis-
mology;The continentalcrust:Am. Geophys.Union, Geodyn.
Ser., 14.
Birch, F., 1960, The velocity of compressionalwaves in rocks to
10 kilobars,1: J. Geophys.Res., 65, 1083-1102.
•1961, The velocity of compressionalwaves in rocks to
10 kilobars,2: J. Geophys.Res., 66, 2199-2224.
Christensen,N. I., 1982, Seismic velocities, in Carmichael, R. S.,
Ed., Handbook of physical propertiesof rocks, Vol. II: CRC
Press.
--1985, Measurementof dynamic propertiesof rocks at ele-
vatedtemperatures and pressures:Am. Soc.for Testingand Ma-
terials,Spec.Tech.Pub.,869, 93-107.
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Christensen,N. I., and Salisbury,M. H., 1979, Seismicanisotropy Maxwell, A. E., Ed., The sea,Vol. 4: JohnWiley & Sons,Inc.,
in the oceanicuppermantle:Evidencefrom the Bay of Islands 53-84.
ophiolitecomplex:J. Geophys.Res., 84, 4601-4610. Matthews,D. H., andSmith,C., Eds., 1987,Deepseismicreflection
Debicki,E., 1996,MITEC's ExplorationTechnologyDivision:Help- profilingof the continentallithosphere:Geophys.J. Roy. Astr.
ingreversethetrendof decliningmineralreservesin Canada:CIM Soc., 89.
Bull., 89, 53-59. Milkereit, B., Berrer,E. K., Watts,A., and Roberts,B., 1997, Devel-
Eaton,D., et al., 1996, Seismicimagingof massivesulfidedeposits, opmentof3D seismicexplorationtechnologyfor Ni-Cu deposits,
Part III: Borehole seismicimaging of near-verticalstructures: SudburyBasin, in Gubins,A. G., Ed., Proc. of Exploration97:
Econ. Geol., 91,835-840. 4thDecennial
Internat.
Conf.onMineralExpl.,Prosp.
andDevel.
Eaton,D. W., Milkereit, B., andAdams,E., 1997, 3D seismicexplo- Assoc. of Can., 439-448.
ration,in Gubins,
A. G., Ed.,Proc.of Exploration
97:4thDecen- Nur,A., andSimmons,G., 1969,Theeffectsof saturation onvelocity
nial Internat.Conf. on Mineral Expl., Prosp.andDevel. Assoc.of in low porosityrocks:Earth andPlanet.Sci. Lett., 7, 183-193.
Can., 65-77. Pretorius,C. C., Trewick,W. F., andIrons,C., 1997,Applicationof
Enachescu, M., 1993,Amplitudeinterpretation of 3D reflectiondata: 3D seismicsto mine planningat Vaal Reefs gold mine, number
The LeadingEdge, 12, 678-683. 10 shaft,Republicof SouthAfrica, in Gubins,A. G., Ed., Proc.of
Fountain,D., Salisbury,M. H., andPercival,J., 1990, Seismicstruc- Exploration
97:4thDecennial
Internat.
Conf.onMineralExpl.,
ture of the continentalcrust basedon rock velocity measure- Prosp.andDevel. Assoc.of Can., 399-408.
mentsfrom the Kapuskasinguplift: J. Geophys.Res., 95, 1167- Salisbury, M., and Iuliucci, R., 1999, Geological Survey of
1186. Canada/DalhousieUniversityrock propertiesdatabase:http://
Gingerich, J. C., Matthews, L. W., and Pleshko, M. J., 2002, gsca.nrcan.gc.ca/pubprod/rockproperties/index_e.php.
The developmentof new explorationtechnologiesat Noranda: Salisbury,
M. H., etal., 1997,Physicalproperties andseismicimaging
Seeingmorewith hyperspectral anddeeperwith 3D seismic:CIM of massivesulfides,in Gubins,A. G., Ed., Proc.of Exploration97:
Bull, 45 (1058), 56-61. 4thDecennial
Internat.
Conf.onMineralExpl.,Prosp.
andDevel.
Goleby, B. R., et al., 1997, Structurallycontrolledmineralization Assoc. of Can., 383-390.
in Australia--How seismicprofilinghelpsfind minerals:Recent Salisbury,
M. H., Milkereit,B., andBleeker,W., 1996,Seismicimag-
casehistories,
in Gubins,
A. G., Ed.,Proc.of Exploration
97, 4th ing of massivesulfidedeposits:Part 1. Rock properties:Econ.
DecennialInternat. Conf. on Mineral Expl., Prosp.and Devel. Geol., 91, 821-828.
Assoc. of Can., 409-420. Stevenson,
F.,andDurrheim,R. J.,1997,Reflectionseismics
for gold,
Harvey,C., 1997, Shearwave velocitiesof sulfide-bearing
assem- platinumandbasemetalexplorationandminingin SouthAfrica,
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ments: M.Sc. thesis,Dalhousie Univ. Internat. Conf. on Mineral Expl., Prosp. and Devel. Assoc. of
Holbrook,W. S., Mooney,W. D., and Christensen, N. I., 1992, The Can., 391-397.
seismicvelocitystructureof the deepcontinentalcrust,in Foun- Widess,M., 1973, How thin is a thin bed?:Geophysics,
38, 1176-
tain, D. M., Arculus,R., and Kay, R. W., Eds., Continentallower 1180.
crust:Elsevier SciencePubl. Co., Inc., 1-43. Wu, J.,Milkereit,B., andBoerner,D. E., 1995,Seismicimagingofthe
Hurich, C. A., and Smithson,S. B., 1987, Compositionalvariation enigmaticSudburystructure:J. Geophys.Res., 100, 4117-4130.
and the origin of deepcrustalreflections:Earth and Planet. Sci. Wyllie, M., Gregory,A., and Gardner,G., 1978, An experimental
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GeophysicalLogging for Elastic Properties
in Hard
DouglasR. Schmitt,C. donathonMwenifumbo,KarenA. Pfiug, and Irene L. Meglis
ABSTRACT
Contrasts in the elastic-wave velocities and densities
of rocksarethemostimportantphysicalpropertiesinflu-
encingthe overallseismicresponseof an orebody.The
wavevelocitiesdependon the in-situelasticproperties,
which in crystallinemetamorphicandigneousrocksare
controlledby mineralogicalcontent,damage,stress,in-
situfractures,pressure,andsaturation.The elasticprop-
erties of core samplesof rocks at standardconditions
usuallywill not be representativeof thosefor the same
materialat depthwithin the earth.Elastic-waveandden-
sity geophysicalwireline logsprovideimportantinfor-
mation to constrainthe in-situ elasticproperties,but a
practitionermustbe awareof whateffectscaninfluence
thefinalinterpretationof thelogs.Twoexamplesof com-
bineddensityandfull waveformsoniclogshighlightthe
utility of suchlogs in delineatingmassivesulfideore-
bodiesand the use of suchlogs to estimatethe in-situ
elasticimpedances neededfor modelingof the seismic
wavefield.
INTRODUCTION
Traditionally, active seismic-explorationmethods
have not been employedin the searchfor basemetal
deposits.The reasonsfor this vary. For one, airborne
electromagnetic andmagneticmethodsareproventools
for economicallyprospectingrelatively large areas.
Surface-seismictechniques,which were developedfor
use in primarily flat lying sedimentarybasins,are rel-
atively expensiveand do not have the spatialresolu-
tion to imagetypicalbase-metaldeposits.Finally,there
was insufficientinformationregardingthe contrastsin
the elasticpropertiesbetweenoresandtheir usualhost
rocksto warrantthe useof seismictools.Today,mostof
the near-surfacebase-metaldepositshavealreadybeen
found and future developmentsmust seekever-deeper
orebodies.As such,the potentialof seismicmethodsto
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Chapter 2
Rock: A Tutorial
provideadditionalcomplementaryinformationin aid of
the detection of massive sulfide orebodies needs to be
re-examined.
Much of the technical expertise developed in
petroleumexplorationcanbe directlyappliedto seismic
investigations
of themetamorphiccrust,butthereremain
someimportantdifferences.Foremost,geologicstruc-
turesin metamorphicterranesare oftensteeplydipping,
makingimagingof suchstructuresfrom the surfacedif-
ficult. The dimensions of the orebodies themselves are of
the sameorderas the illuminatingseismicwavelengths
and many economicbodieswould thus tend to scatter
seismicenergyinsteadof specularlyreflectingit. The
geologicstructurescan be considerablymore hetero-
geneousand three-dimensionaleffectswill contribute
to the observedwavefield.Despitethis increasedstruc-
turalheterogeneity, therangein seismicvelocityfor most
metamorphicrocksis lessthan is encounteredfor lay-
eredsedimentsandvariationsin densitymaybe of more
importancein controllingthe contrastsin the seismic
impedancebetweenunits (see Salisburyet al., 2000).
Finally, it is likely that in-sire fracturingandjointing at
shallowdepths(<400 m) mayplay a moreimportantrole
in seismologicalstudiesof the metamorphiccrust.
As notedabove,nonspecularscatteringof seismicen-
ergywill be particularlyimportantin the discrimination
of base metal orebodies.Scatteringof seismicenergy
from complexorebodiesis describedin numerouspub-
lications(seeEaton, 1999,for a reviewof thistopic),but
it is crucial to note that the observedseismicresponse
will dependin part onthecontrastin seismicimpedance,
whichfor isotropicmaterialsis simplytheproductof the
velocity and the density.Geophysicalwellborelogging
methodsare an importantcomponentof determiningor
constrainingthesephysicalproperties.
Geophysicallogsgenerallyaid geologicdescriptions
of formationsby measuringthe in-sirephysicalproper-
tiesat thewellboreandby accuratelylocatingthe spatial
2O

variationsin theseproperties.The purposeof thisreview
is to focuson the role of densityand sonicloggingin
providingthe informationrequiredfor the modelingof
seismicresponsesin supportof seismicexplorationin
metamorphicterranes.There are numerousborehole
surveying, electromagnetic,magnetic, electrical, and
radioactive methods that also are used in base-metal
exploration;thesewill not be describedhere and the
readeris insteaddirectedto additionalresources(e.g.,
Hallenburg, 1984; Tittman, 1986; Ellis, 1987; Timur,
1987; Killeen et al., 1996; andHearstet al., 2000). This
contribution consists of a review of the fundamental
tors controllingthe elasticpropertiesof metamorphic
rocks, a compilationof the propertiesof the common
constituents of such rocks and their associated ore min- tively. These formulasare derivedand the moduli de-
erals, andabriefdiscussion ofhowthein-sire properties fined in numeroustexts(e.g., Lay and Wallace, 1995).
dependon compositionand micro-crackporosity.The
physicalprinciplesusedto acquireboth sonicand den-
sity logsare describedin detail as well as the practical cept for the caseof galena (Table 1), denserminerals
concernsto be addressedin the analysisand interpre-
tation of suchdata in the crystallinerock context.Two
examplesof combineddensity/sonic logging,to produce
a calculatedlog of the elasticimpedance,concludethe
review.
ELASTIC PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
Overview
A petrologistdescribesa metamorphicrock largely
on thebasisof its mineralogicalcomposition.This same
rock, however,can havea wide rangeof elasticproper-
ties that dependsignificantlyon other extrinsicfactors
suchasin-sirestressandporefluidpressure.The factors
affectinga rock'selasticity,from its constituentminer-
als to the influenceof the pore structure,will be briefly
considered here.
Beforeproceeding,it is appropriateto review a num-
ber of basicprinciplesregardingelasticproperties.The
mass
density
p,giveninSIunitsofkg/m3,needs
theleast
introduction.The bulk massdensityof a given rock is
simply
M
p- • •p,,
i:1
where (I)i and pi are, respectively,the volume fraction
anddensityof eachof the M differentminerals,fluidsor
voidsconstitutingthe rock. For metamorphicrocksthe
total porosityis usuallysmall (< 1%) and,for purposes
of determiningthe density,may oftenbe ignored.
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Geophysicalloggingfor elasticproperties in hard rock 21
The velocitiesof compressional
(V•,) and shear(Vs)
wavesarealsoof fundamentalimportance.In thisreview,
the rocks will be assumedto be elasticallyisotropic;
underthis condition,the compressional (longitudinal)
wavevelocity is
andthe shear(transverse)wavevelocityis
• 4 p
(2)
fac-
Vs
- V/-•, (3)
whereK and tx are the bulk and shearmoduli, respec-
Equations(2) and(3) might suggestthat the greaterthe
densityof the rock,the lowerthe velocity.However,ex-
are alsousuallylesscompressibleand more rigid such
that sulfide ores have seismic velocities similar to other
silicate-based rocks(e.g.,Ludwiget al., 1970;Gebrande,
1982; Salisburyet al., 1996).
Constituent Properties
The mineralogicalcompositionis the mostimportant
factor in determiningthe overall elasticpropertiesof
metamorphicrocks. This contrastswith many of the
moreporoussedimentary rocksin whichsuchproperties
are controlledby the porosity,the mineralsthemselves
often being of secondaryimportance.In this context,
the intrinsicelasticpropertiesof the void-freemineral
assemblage providea usefulupperlimit for benchmark
comparisons.Such intrinsicpropertiesin turn depend
directly on the propertiesof the constituentminerals.
The densities and wave velocities of the most common
of thesemetamorphicmineralsandbrines,alsolikely to
be encounteredin metamorphicenvironments,are pro-
vided in Table 1. The methods used to determine such
propertiesare describedin Schrieberet al. (1973) and
Bass(1995).
All geologicmineralsare elasticallyanisotropic;the
(1) velocitiesof the compressionalandthe two shearwaves
will depend stronglyon the direction of propagation
throughthe mineral. An in-depth discussionof veloc-
ity anisotropyis beyond the scope of this presenta-
tion (Babuska and Cara, 1991) and only maximum,
minimum, and mean values of the velocity are pro-
vided in Table 1, where available. In some cases,values
22 Physicalrock propertiesand geophysicallogging

Table 1. Elastic-wavevelocitiesof commonconstituentsof metamorphicrocks.

Density V?max V? min V? Mean Vsmax Vsmin VsMean
Mg/m3 (km/s) (km/s) (km/s) (km/s) (km/s) (km/s)
Amphiboles
Hornblende
• 3.15 8.13 6.18 6.81-7.036 4.6 3.37 3.72-3.826
Hornblende
s 3.120 7.90 6.01 6.93 4.35 4.15 3.79
Feldspars:
Microcline
• 2.56 8.15 5.10 6.006 4.96 2.14 3.266
Albite• 2.61 7.26 5.31 6.066 4.63 2.59 3.356
(Or79Ab19)
5 2.56 8.20 4.31 6.41 4.85 2.34 3.52
Anorthite6 2.76 7.056 3.806
Anorthite
5 2.765 8.61 5.87 7.27 5.02 2.91 3.94
(Or65Ab27An24)
5 2.57 7.84 4.31 6.14 4.43 2.30 3.36
Quartz
or-quartz
! 2.66 7.00 5.36 6.036 5.06 3.35 4.096
[3-quartz
6 2.533 6.80 6.59 6.635 4.043
Micas:
Biotite• 2.89 7.80 4.21 5.136 5.06 1.34 2.986
Muscovite6 2.831 5.81 3.36
Muscovite5 2.844 8.12 4.53 6.63 5.04 2.37 3.89
Garnet:
Almandine
6 4.318 8.516 5.256
(Alm74PY20Gr3
Sp3)s 4.160 8.58 8.52 8.53 4.83 4.72 4.76
Pyroxenesand Olivines:
Augite
6 3.300 7.10 4.12
Enstatite
s 3.198 8.41 7.46 8.10 5.09 4.46 4.88
Ferrosilite
s 4.002 7.03 5.83 6.60 3.84 3.15 3.64
Jadeite
s 3.33 9.46 7.86 8.84 5.66 4.25 5.11
Fosterite
s 3.221 10.91 7.88 8.66 5.66 4.55 5.06
Fayalite
s 4.380 7.79 6.17 6.87 4.22 2.72 3.48
Sulfides and Sulfates
Pyrite• 5.013 8.4 7.78 7.916 5.66 4.7 5.066
Pyrites 5.016 8.48 7.76 7.91 5.71 4.57 5.06
Pyrrhotite
2 4.63 4.68
Sphalerite
s 4.088 5.59 5.00 5.50 3.30 2.13 2.89
Chalcopyrite
2 4.06 5.36
Galenas 7.597 4.09 3.50 3.71 2.60 1.74 2.13
Barite3 4.4806 4.346 2.266
Barites 4.470 4.89 4.01 4.43 2.78 1.64 2.34
Gypsum s 2.317 6.66 4.62 5.34 3.57 1.86 2.73
Miscellaneous
Magnetite3 4.97 7.416 4.26
Magnetites 5.206 7.44 7.26 7.37 4.28 4.05 4.19
Calcite6 2.710 6.66 3.39
Calcites 2.712 10.32 5.56 7.71 7.60 2.67 4.85
Dolomites 2.795 10.53 5.46 7.65 7.45 2.62 4.92
Graphite 2.260 21.66 4.00 15.97 13.95 0.36 9.82
Halites 2.163 4.76 4.40 4.55 2.90 2.43 2.63
Sylvite
s 1.987 4.51 3.65 4.02 2.91 1.78 2.30
Water3 STP
Pure 1.00 1.470 0
Brine, 200,000 ppm 1.146 1.689 0
Brine, 100,000ppm 1.073 1.585 0
Ice I (270 øK)S 0.9175 5.09 3.74 4.18 3.83 1.80 2.44
Air • STP 0.00122 0.33145 0
Table
entries
fromBabuska
andCara(1991).
Table
entries
fromSalisbury
etal.(1996)measured
under
pressure.
Table
entries
fromHallenberg
(1984).SeealsoBatzle
andWang
(1992).
Cramer(1993).
Maximum
andminimum
values
calculated
fromdensities
andelastic
moduli
inBass
(1995)
withthemean
velocity
determined
using
theVoigt
estimate
for
a monominerallic
aggregate
of randomly
oriented
crystals
according
to Simmons
andWang(1971).Unlessotherwise
indicated
in Bass(1995),theelastic
constants used are those at standard conditions.
Table
entries
fromSchon
(1996);
Olhoefi
andJohnson
(1989).

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 Geophysicalloggingfor elasticproperties in hard rock 23

providedfrom laboratorymeasurements of monominer-

alic samplesare contrastedwith Voigt theoreticalesti-
Dun.tell
matesfor the samematerial calculatedusingthe min- /INorite
eral's completeset of elastic stiffnesses(Bass, 1995). //Amhiboite
The meanvaluesin Table 1 are the isotropicvelocities
presumedfor a void-freeaggregateof the mineralcom- /Geiss
posedof randomlyorientedcrystals(e.g., Simmonsand /Marble
Wang, 1971); for a polycrystallinesamplewith a single
/Quartzite
anisotropiccomponent,the Voigt (V) boundsare given
by • •'•---•- Basalt

1 •Edabase
Kr* - 5(A+ 2B), • Rhyolil:e
and Gal>bro• •
1 • [ )iorite
!x•- •(A- B+ 3C), • G•'anite
where
2 2.5 3 3.5 4
1
,4-- •(Cllq-C22
q-C33), (4) Densityg/cm3
1 Fig. 1. Density of some igneous and metamorphic
hostrocks(from compilationsof Hallenburg,1984 and
B-- •(c12
-+-
c23
-+-
c31), OlhoeftandJohnson,1989).
and

1 minerals
generally
exceed
4000kg/m3andarenotshown
C-- 5(c44
-•-c55
-•-c66), (seeSalisburyet al., 2000); therecanthusbe a very large
contrastin the densityof an orerelativeto thatof thehost
and the variousco representthe elasticstiffnesses
in
metamorphicrock.
Voigt'sabbreviatednotation(e.g., Watt et al., 1976) as
Mixing rules are also employedin determiningthe
providedin Bass(1995). Oncethesebulk andshearmod-
overallelasticpropertiesof the rock, but in polyminer-
uli are determined,the correspondingcompressional-
alic rocks,they may only be determinedwithin certain
and shear-wavevelocitiesare easily calculatedusing
theoreticalbounds(seeWatt et al., 1976 for an extensive
equations(2) and (3). In reality, however,the mineral
discussion). The generalformsfor the lower(Reuss,R)
grains in many metamorphicrocks producea texture
andupper(Voigt, V) boundsfor theaveragemodulusM*
(foliation and lineation) causedby preferentialalign-
(eitherK or ix) of a compositeofn isotropiccomponent
ment duringdeformation;this preferredorientationof
phasesis
the minerals accordingto their crystallographicaxes
resultsin an anisotropicrock (Brace, 1965; Kern and
Wenk, 1990; Siegesmundet al., 1993; and Mainprice
and Humbert, 1994).
<M*<•-• Mi--M•,i=1

Intrinsic Rock Properties
Most metamorphicrocksarean aggregateof minerals
suchasthosein Table 1, andthe simplemixing rule of
equation(1) adequatelydescribes their density.A given
type of rock, however,can still have a wide range of
modal compositionsand densities.The densitiesof a
numberof igneousand metamorphicrocksare shown
in Figure 1. Note that the densitiesof the sulfide ore
(5)
where Mi is eitherthe bulk or shearmodulus(K or
of theithphaseand• is thevolumefractionof that
phase (Voigt, 1928). The actual modulus falls within
theseboundsandHill (1952) employedtheir geometric
mean. The estimatecan be improvedby use of the
Hashin-Shtrikmanbounds,but further improvements
requireconsiderationof the actualshapeof the crystals
(see Watt et al., 1976). When the elasticmoduli of the

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24 Physicalrock properties and geophysicallogging

a) 100 GranulitE
9O
Serpent nite
• 80
.uartzite

'• 70 Kv 1
Sch st
60 Gneis•
s0 Di..base
• 40
30 .... Basalt
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8

Volume Fraction Quartz

Pyrolenite
_./
b) 7000 Glbbro
•
6500

6000
.•5500
Granit

2.5
I E__;•:
•;'2• ;•?_5•.;J
1
3
jorite
3.5 4 4.5

5000 Sheor-wove velocity km/s

4500

4000 Granultte._
'__
3500
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 Se•
pentinile
• __
Volume Fraction Quartz
-7-5-
•_ _ • •-_ "
Q•artzite
Schist
Fig.2. (a) Voigt(V) andReuss(R) bulk(K) andshear(ix)
moduliversusquartzvolumefractionfor a hypothetical .•neiss • _
rock composedof a mixture of quartz and hornblende.
(b) Voigt(V) andReuss(R) compressional-wave
shear-wave(Vs) velocitiesversus
(Ve) and
quartzvolume fraction
Diaba•e
for a hypotheticalrock composedof a mixtureof quartz B; LSalt
and hornblende. While a common mineral in the crust,
quartzis unusualin that its bulk modulusis lessthan its
shear modulus. Plroxenit
v.......
•........
Diorite
(•abbro
-•
mineralsdo not differ substantially,as is oftenthe case ,• . Granit :,
for metamorphicrocks,the two boundsare relatively
close.For example,both boundsyield nearlythe same 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
shear modulus for a hypothetical isotropic mixture
of quartz and hornblende(Figure 2a), while the bulk Compressional-wove velocity km/s
moduli differ by, at most, 16%. Similarly,the bounds Fig. 3. Intrinsiccompressional
andshear-wave
velocities
on the shear-wavevelocity(Figure2b) calculatedfrom for commonigneousandmetamorphicrocks;summary
equations(1) and (3) differ insignificantly,while those valuesfrom compilationsin Schon(1996).
for the compressional wave velocity vary at most by
4.6% for a rock with 44% quartz.
Theseestimatesarein relativelygoodagreementwith for a givenrocktypeappearto be largeandtheresultsof
the observedrangeof intrinsicvelocitiesfor crystalline Figure3 shouldbeusedcautiously, asoftencompletede-
rocksassummarizedin Figure3 andaspresentedin nu- tails on how the velocitywasmeasuredin eachrock are
merouscompilations(e.g.,Carmichael,1989;Gebrande, not providedand couldbe contaminated by microcrack
1982; Salisburyet al., 1996; Schon,1996). The ranges porosity(Rasolofosaonet al., 2000).

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 Geophysicallogging for elastic properties in hard rock 25

Influence of Crack-like Porosity a) 55

There is a wealth of theoretical studies on the influ-
enceof crack-likeporosityon thephysicalpropertiesof •45
50
• c=lmm
K = 55 Gpa
t-t= 33 Gpa
elastic materials (e.g., Walsh, 1965; Andersonet al., • 40
1974; O'Connell and Budiansky,1974; Hudson, 1981;
• • = 0.25
o
Hudson,1990).The self-consistent approachto comput- • 30
ing effectivemoduli is often usedfor two-phasecom-
-• 25
positesin whichthe minorphaseis in the form of dense
m 20
inclusions(O'Connell & Budiansky,1974). The effect
of a singleisolatedinclusionis computedby considering 15
it to be embedded in a material with the effective moduli
'200 '400'600'800'1000
of the composite,ratherthan in the major phase.This b)
problemhasbeen solvedfor severalspecificinclusion 6

geometries andisusedto modelthepropertiesof cracked

solidsby allowing the minor phaseto be an empty or
fluid-filledvoid. The propertiesof crackedsolidsare of .• 5
o
interestbecause,while typicalcrackporositiesfor crys-
tallinerocksmaybe ontheorderof 1% or less,thissmall
volumefractionof crackscanhavea dramaticimpacton
the rockproperties.
The effective moduli are a function of the uncracked
solid matrix properties,the density or abundanceof m2
voids,thecracksizeandthecrackaspectratio(aperture/ o ' 200 ' 400 600 800 1000
length).
Thecrackdensity
parameter,
• = n(c3),charac- Number of Cracks / cm3
terizesthe crackpopulationin termsof boththe density Fig. 4. Influenceof crackdensityon (a) the effectivebulk
(n) of cracksandtheir radius(c). (K) andshear
(Ix)moduli,and(b)thecompressional
(Ve)
For rockswith dry circularcracksthe effectivebulk andshear(Vs) wavevelocities.The hypotheticalrockhas
modulusK' is givenby intrinsic(crack-free)moduli K = 55 GPa,Ix = 33 GPa,
ando-- 0.25; thecrackradius(c) is assumedto be 1 mm.

K'--K 1+•- • • • , (6) couplingacrossthe crack. Consequently, if the cracks

representonly a smallvolumeof the solidthe effective
bulk modulus can be taken to be the same as that of the
andthe effectiveshearmodulusIx' is
uncracked matrix:

K'-- K. (8)
Ix'-Ix1q-• i5•
7•'5 • , (7) However the effective shear modulus is reduced from

where cr=(3K - 2tx)/2(3K + Ix) is the Poisson'sratio that of the uncracked solid:
of the uncracked solid.
An illustrativeexampleof howthecrackdensityinflu- 32 - -1
(9)
encesboththeelasticmoduliandwavespeeds(Figure4)
showsthat crack-likeporosityhasa large effect on the
rock properties.Accordingto this theory,one hundred The porosityof metamorphicrocksis generallysmall
cracks
percm3 withradiiof 1 mmwill lowerthecom- (<1%) anddifficultto measureusingconventionalmeth-
pressionalwavevelocityby over 10%. ods (Schmitt and Li, 1995). This porositymay further
In the presenceof fluids within the crack porosity, be characterized
ascrack-likewith openaperturesmuch
bulk strain associated with closure of cracks is inhib- smallerthan their lengths.This smallporositycan es-
ited to a greaterdegreethan strainassociated
with shear sentiallybe ignored for purposesof determiningthe

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26 Physical rock properties and geophysicallogging

w
a) 4 0.5

0.4

0.3

Fig. 5. Idealizedmicrocrackof total lengthto. Crack is 0.2

closednear its tips.
0.1

• lO
overall rock density,but it doeshave a substamialin- 0

fluence on the overall rock velocity (e.g., Feves and -0.1

Simmons,1976). The elasticmoduli, and consequently, -{1.2

theseismicvelocitiesof rocksarestronglydependenton 14 -0.:5

the confiningstressesapplied(e.g., Nur, 1971; Carlson -0.4

and Gangi, 1985). Such"microcracks"are prevalentin
metamorphicrocks,both within the mineral grainsand
especiallyat the boundariesbetweendifferent grains
(Kranz, 1983). Their lengthsare typically lessthan the
characteristicgraindimensions withintherock,andthey
havevery smallaperturesof at mosta few Ixm.A given
rock will have a distributionof cracksof differing di-
mensions(Simmonset al., 1974; Doyen, 1987, Wong
etal., 1989).Theyareproducedby stress-caused changes
in temperature,release of confiningpressureduring
drilling andpossiblyduringunloadingof the crust,and
damagedue to incipientfaulting. To somedegree,we
may expect many crystallinerocks, especiallywithin
the upper few kilometersof the crest, to containsuch
cracks, which will in turn influence the overall seismic
propertiesof the medium(Hajnal et al., 1983; Katsube
and Mareschal, 1993).
The influenceof microcrackporosityis furthercom-
plicatedby the fact that the aperture,and resultingef-
fectiveradius,of a microcrackis sensitiveto confining
stress.A microcrackis highly compressiblein the di-
rectionperpendicularto its plane. The effectivelength
of an idealizedcrack (Figure 5) consequently changes
with confiningstressand a perfect crack has a well
definedpressureat which it completelycloses(e.g.,
Simmonset al., 1974). Although few cracksare ideal
(e.g.,Mavko andNur, 1978),the effectivelengthof mi-
crocracksin rocksdecreases with pressure,with the re-
sultthat the elasticmoduli of a typical crystallinerock
increasewith pressure.Becauserocks containmicro-
crackswith a distributionof lengths,the stress-strain
curvesfor suchrocksare highly nonlinear.This nonlin-
earityis apparentwhenvelocityis measuredas a func-
tion of confiningpressure(Meglis et al., 1996) as in
Figure 6 which showsthe transittime and velocityof
shearwavestravelingthrougha typical metasedimen-
tary rockin a laboratoryexperimentto a confiningpres-
sureof 300 MPa. The velocity versuspressurecurve
in Figure 6b is quite characteristicof most metamor-
16
0- i00 :b0 '00........ ..... ioo 0
Pressure(MPa)
b)
'• 3550
e•
m ............
2bO .... "6
Pressure(MPa)
Fig. 6. Shear-wavetransittime (a) andvelocity(b) versus
hydrostaticconfiningpressurefor a typical sampleof
metasedimentaryrock. Color scale indicates relative
amplitudesof the recordedwaveforms.
phicrocks,with a rapidincreasein velocityat low pres-
sureswhich becomeslinear at pressuresin excessof
•200 MPa. At low confiningpressuresmuch of the
microcrackporosityremainsopen,loweringthe veloc-
ity. The microcrackporosityprogressivelydiminishes
with pressure,however,and the velocity increasesuntil
the bulk of the microcracksare closed.At thispointthe
velocityapproaches that expectedfor the crack-free,in-
trinsicmineralmatrixalone(Figure7). Furtherincreases
in velocitywith pressurearedueto the closureof the re-
maining microcracksand to a gradual increasein the
elasticmoduliof mineralswith pressure.Typically,the
elasticmoduliincreasewith confiningpressureat a rate
of 4-6 MPa/MPa for K and 1-3 MPa/MPa for Ix. As

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 Geophysicallogging for elastic properties in hard rock
Intrinsic
Laboratorymeasurement
/ phic rock will dependon a varietyof factorsincluding
Pressure
Fig. 7. Effectsof confiningpressureon elastic-waveve-
locitiesin crystallinerock.Dashedlineindicatesexpected
poreandcrack-freeintrinsicvelocitywhichdepends only
on mineralogicalcomposition. At sufficientlyhighpres-
sure, the crack porosityis closedand the two curves
merge.
the moduliof the constituentmineralswill only change
very little overtherangeof pressures expectedin theup-
per partsof the crust,the observedvelocitiesare nearly
constantonce the pressuresare sufficientto closethe
microcracks.It is difficultto determineat whatpointthe
intrinsicvelocityis actuallybeingmeasured,with some
workersapplyingpressures up to 1 GPaonrocksamples
in order to ensurethat the microcracksare completely
closed.The attenuationof transmittedelasticwavesmay
provide one criterionfor indicatingwhen an intrinsic
measurementof velocity has been made in the labora-
tory (Molyneuxand Schmitt,1999).
The sampleshownin Figure 6 was cycledto a maxi-
mumconfiningpressurenear300 MPa andthenreturned
to roompressure.The velocityversuspressurecurvefol-
lows a nearlylinear path on initial decompression and
becomesnonlinearbelowapproximately120 MPa. One
further point to note is that within the linear regime,
the velocitiesobtainedon decompression exceedthose
at corresponding pressures duringinitial pressurization.
For example,at a confiningpressureof 200 MPa, the
velocityduringpressurization is morethan 15 m/s lower
than that on decompression. This hysteresisin the ob-
served velocities is another indication of the nonlinear
elasticbehaviorof rocks,the implicationsof which are
only now being investigated(e.g., Guyer et al., 1995)
andarebeyondthe scopeof thisreview.This effectmay
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27
influencethe velocity of the rock near a wellbore and
complicatesthe comparisonof sonicloggingresultsto
in-sire seismic velocities.
Implications for Logging Measurements
To reiterate, the observedvelocity of a metamor-
mineralogicalconstitution,the existenceof pore flu-
ids, and microcrackporosity.The fact that microcrack
porosityandelasticwavevelocitiesarehighlypressure-
dependentaddsadditionaluncertaintyto in-sirelogging
measurements.It is thus difficult to interpret a given
observedvelocity directly in terms of lithologyin the
absenceof othergeologicinformation.
One of the importantreasonsfor loggingwells is to
obtaina measureof the in-sireproperties,in particular
the wave velocitiesand densities.The complexelastic
behaviorof metamorphicrockscomplicatesthis deter-
mination,because,as will be discussedlater, the depth
of investigationof the sonicloggingtool may at most
be a few cm from the wellbore wall. This zone is sub-
ject to substantial
concentrationsof in-sirestresses,both
at the bottom of the hole during drilling (e.g., Li and
Schmitt,1998) andalongthe walls (e.g., Hiramatsuand
Oka, 1962; Peskaand Zoback, 1995). The stresscon-
centrationscan be quite complexif the wellboreis not
alignedwith a principal stressin the earth. However,
the simplestcasein which two of the principal stresses
in the earth, S• and Sh, are perpendicularto the well-
boreaxisis worthmentioning.Forthisconfiguration, the
magnitudeof the circumferential"hoop"stressrr00(r,0)
varieswith azimuthrelativeto directionof thepredomi-
nantcompressive stressS•; thecompression isamplified
and diminishedat pointsperpendicular(0 = 90ø, 270ø)
andparallel(0 = 0ø, 180ø)to thisazimuth,respectively.
This stressconcentrationis describedby (Kirsch, 1898):
2b2
(10)
*00(r,
0)- (S•+ Sh)
--(S•- Sh)-•-cos(20),
where S• and Sh are the greatestand least compres-
sive stresses,
respectively,r is the radial distancefrom
the wellbore axis, and b is the wellbore radius. These
concentratedstresseshave two importantimplications
that can affect measurements of elastic-wave velocities.
First,if the stresses
are sufficientlylarge,the zoneswith
concentratedstressescan be damagedto the point of
failure,whereuponwellborebreakoutsareformedat az-
imuthson the wellborewall perpendicularto the stress
28 Physicalrock properties and geophysicallogging
(e.g., GoughandBell, 1981) andtensionfracturingcan
evenoccurundercertainconditionsat azimuthsparallel
to crH.Aside from the physicalchangesto the wellbore
shapeand the corresponding errorsthis may introduce
in the measurements of elasticwave velocity,the mate-
rial near the wellborewall may be seriouslydamaged
due to the introduction of new microcracks
have a lower velocity than might normallybe expected
in-sire (e.g., Winkler, 1997). Second,if the materialis
not severelydamaged,the stressconcentrations may in-
duceanisotropyin the elasticpropertiesand velocities
aroundthewellbore(Schmittet al., 1989;Winkler, 1996;
Winkler et al., 1998) which couldbiasnormal soniclog
measurements to highervaluesthanmight be expected
in-situ.
Macroscopicfracturesalso have a significantinflu-
ence on the in-sire elastic wave velocities
with soniclogs.There are numerousstudiescomparing
soniclog valueswith high quality but spatiallyaliased
laboratorymeasurements andwith surfaceandwellbore
seismictestssuchas thosepresentedelsewherein this
volume.The differingstudiesdo not necessarilyarrive
at the same conclusions.
A subsetof the comparisons betweenlaboratoryand
sonic log velocitieshas been carried out in relatively
unfracturedcrystallinerock formationsandhaveshown
that in-sire velocities exceeded those measured in the
laboratory,this discrepancybeingattributedto the pres-
ence of water in the microcracks(Simmons and Nur,
1968) or drilling-inducedmicrocrackdamagein cores
retrievedfrom greatdepths(WangandSimmons,1978).
Salisburyet al. (1994) found goodagreementbetween
sonic logs and laboratorymeasurementsof the rock
intrinsic velocity in the Sudburystructurethat could
be used in modeling the expectedseismicresponse
(Milkereit et al., 1994).
A different situation occurs in fractured formations.
StiermanandKovach(1979) observeddifferencesof as
muchas2 km/s betweenintactrock samplesandin-sire
soniclog velocitiesin a granodioriteto a depthof 700 m
nearthe SanAndreasfault in California. Sjogrenet al.
(1979) andHajnal et al. (1983) bothfoundlow-velocity
zones at seismicand sonic frequenciesto depthsof
'•30 m in metamorphicandigneousrocksthatcorrelated
well with fracturesfound in the core samples.Ultra-
soniclaboratorymeasurements on corresponding intact
samplesyielded significantlylarger velocities(Hajnal
et. al., 1983). This further suggeststhat the low in-sire
velocitieswerea consequence of near-surface fracturing.
Using ultrasonicboreholeteleviewerimagesand sonic
logs,Moos andZoback(1983) foundstrongcorrelations
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betweenanomalouslylow zonesof Vp and Vswith high
concentrationsof macroscopicfractures.In additionto
the overallchangesin the elasticpropertiescausedby
the fractures themselves, increased alteration and mi-
crocrackingnearthe fractureswasalsoinfluential.These
resultswere further confirmedin the Cajon Passwell-
and will bore (Moos, 1988) where fracturezoneswere found to
substantiallyinfluencethe observedvelocities,making
Vsobservations difficult(BartonandMoos, 1988). Jones
and Holliger (1997) and Holliger (1996) suggestedon
the basis of a lack of correlation between the mechanical
logsandthenaturalradioactivitylogthatin theKTB hole
rapid fluctuationsof velocity over rangesof lessthan
'• 100 m areprimarily a consequence of fluid-filledfrac-
tureporosityanddo not dependon petrology.Finally,in
a comparativestudyof VSP andsoniclog observations,
as measured Moos (1984) found slightly greater seismicvelocities
alongmostof the lengthof a 860-m well drilledthrough
a fracturedgranodioriteformationnearthe SanAndreas
fault. The importantpointto recognizeis that caremust
be exercisedin the interpretationof log velocitiessince
both microscopicand macroscopicfracturingcan have
a substantialinfluenceon the in-sirevelocities.The log
interpretermayneedto accountfor thiswhenattempting
to determinethe overallimpedanceof a formation.
DENSITY LOGGING
Elemental Mass and Density
In orderto understandhowloggingtoolsmaybe used
to determinedensitiesin crystallinerocks,it is neces-
saryto reviewthe atomicstructureof theelementsandto
describethe physicsof •/-ray scattering.Massdensityis
primarilydependentonthenumberof atomspackedinto
a givenvolumeof material.Eachatomconsistsof a nu-
cleuscontainingN neutronsand Z protonssurrounded
by a cloudof Z electrons,where Z is the atomicnum-
ber. The massesof neutronsand protonsdiffer by less
than 0.14%, and both are '• 1836 times that of the much
lighterelectronmass;electronsdonotcontributesignif-
icantlyto the overallmassof an atom and for the pur-
posesconsideredhere may be ignored.Atomic masses
are often representedin terms of the atomic-massunit
(amu),definedas1/12themassof thei2c atomwhich
is 1.6605402x 10-27 kg. Themasses
of a protonand
a neutron are 1.0072766 amu and 1.0086652 amu, re-
spectively.The amu is a convenientunit becauseit also
represents
themassin gramsof 1mole(Avogadro's num-
ber,NA= 6.022x 1023)of particles.
Theatomicweight
A of an elementdependsfor themostpart on the simple
 Geophysicalloggingfor elasticproperties in hard rock 29

Table 2. Physicalproperties of various elements,metamorphic minerals and rocks important in 3t-'Ylogging.

Molecular
or Atomic
Weight Z/A Ratio Bulk Apparent
Formula (amu)1 (amu-1) Density(Mg/m3)1 Density(Mg/m3)2
Elements
Hydrogen H 1.00794 0.9920
Graphite C (Graphite) 12.011 0.4995 2.281
Oxygen O 15.9994 0.5000
Sodium Na 22.98977 0.4784 0.97
Magnesium Mg 24.305 0.4937 1.74 1.73
Aluminum A1 26.98154 0.4818 2.70 2.60
Silicon Si 28.0855 0.4984 2.281
Sulphur S 32.06 0.4990 2.076
Chlorine C1 35.453 0.4795
Potasium K 39.0983 0.4859 0.86
Calcium Ca 40.08 0.4990 1.52
Titanium Ti 47.9 0.4592 4.5
Kamacite(or-Iron) Fe 55.847 0.4655 7.873
Cobalt Co 58.9332 0.4581 8.9
Nickel Ni 58.7 0.4770 8.910
Copper Cu 63.546 0.4563 8.932
Zinc Zn 65.38 0.4588 7.14
Lead Pb 207.19 0.3957 11.342

Feldspars:
Albite (Low) NaA1Si308 262.23 0.4885 2.621 2.56
Orthoclase KA1Si308 278.33 0.4958 2.571 2.55

Quartz SiO2 60.085 0.4993 2.648 2.65

Micas:
Biotite K(Mg,Fe)3A1Si30lo(OH)2 0.4900 2.90(2.65-3.1) 2.84
Muscovite KA12A1Si3Olo(OH)2 398.3 0.4966 2.834 2.91
Sulfides:
Pyrite FeS2 119.98 0.4850 5.010 4.91
Pyrrhotite Fe7S8 647.44 0.4812 4.628 4.40
Sphalerite ZnS 97.434 0.4720 4.097 3.78
Chalcopyrite CuFeS2 183.51 0.4751 4.180 3.99
Galena PbS 239.25 0.4093 7.614 6.14
Miscellaneous min.
Magnetite Fe304 231.54 0.4774 5.200 4.95
Olivine (Fosterite) Mg2SiO4 140.70 0.4892 3.227 3.23
Calcite CaCO3 100.90 0.4996 2.7106 2.71
Serpentine Mg3Si205(OH)4 277.1 0.5062 2.625 2.23
Chlorite (MgsA1)(A1Si3)Olo(OH)2 555.8 0.5056 2.640 2.74
Barite BaSO4 233.40 0.4454 4.467 3.96
Water STP
Pure H20 18.0154 0.5551 1.00 1.11
Brine, 200 000 ppm 0.5401 1.146 1.238
Brine, 100 000 ppm 0.5476 1.073 1.175

1 FromSmythandMcCormick (1995)andgeneral
periodic
tablereferences.
2 FromHallenberg
(1984),Table5-5,pp.133-136.

sum of the massdue to the numberof neutrons(N) and crystallinerocks if some simplifying assumptionsare
protons(Z) andwhenreportedin unitsof amus,is often made.Specifically,if oneis ableto measurethe number
nearly an integer(Table 2). Deviationsfrom the integer of protonsin a givenvolume of the material(the proton
value are due to consumptionof somemassin binding density,
np)thenthemassdensityisdetermined
directly
the nucleustogetherand becausethe numbersreported from
in Table2 representthe weightedaverageof the masses np
of isotopesof a given elementasthey occurin nature. p- (11)
'
For densitylogging,it is usefulto considerthe ratio
Z/A betweenthe atomicnumberand the atomicweight if the atomic number to atomic weight ratio, Z/A, is
as this holdsthe key to estimatingthe massdensityof known in moles/g.
Downloaded 26 Jun 2012 to 95.28.162.50. Redistribution subject to SEG license or copyright; Terms of Use: http://segdl.org/
30 Physical rock properties and geophysicallogging

50 H
0.9
0.8

• 40 0.7

• 30 mn
0.6

0.5
A1
Si;Ca
FeNiZn
0.4
Z 20 Na Mg K Mn Cu
Ca
N•
A1. S 0.3
. Si 0.2
10 - O Mg
0.1
I•1
ii I•l
0 H
IiIiiiiiiiiii1
10
iiiiiiiiiIiiiiiIIII
20 30 40
o0
II Illill IllIll

10
Illll IllIll

20
IllIll

30
IllIll II

40

Atomic number Z
Atomic number
Fig. 9. Z/A ratio versusatomic number.Heavy line in-
Fig. 8. Neutron numberN versusatomic number Z for dicatesZ/A--0.5. The commonrock and ore-forming
theprincipleisotopeof theelementsbelow Z -- 40. Filled elementsare shownwith filled symbols.Lead (Z --82)
symbolsindicate common rock and ore-forming ele- is not shownbut has a Z/A ratio significantlydifferent
from 0.5 as indicated in Table 2.
ments.

Photoelectric effect
N = Z for mostofthe lighter(Z < 20) rock-forming
elementssuchas O, Si, A1, Mg, and Ca (Figure 8). This ße- Ejected
interestingfeatureof the periodictable allowsfor sub- photoelectron
Low energy
stantialsimplificationin the use of equation(11) when y-rays

loggingin low porositycrystallinerocks.Consequently,

one expectsthe Z/A ratio in theseelementsto be close
to 0.5 (Figure 9). This will also be true for any com-
poundsformedfrom theseelements,includingmostof Medium energy Deflected
the commonrock-formingminerals.In the contextof ),-rays ),-ray

low porositymetamorphicrocks,thismeansthatthe ap-

parentdensity,
Pe-- (0.5g/mole)
np
providesa reasonableestimateof the bulk massden-
sity in the absenceof exactknowledgeof the chemical
compositionof the rock. The apparentdensitiesfor a
numberof mineralsare givenin Table2. Thusin order
to determineor at leastestimatedensity,it is necessary
to determine
theprotondensitynp.Unfortunately,
npis
difficultto measuredirectly.However,the electronden-
sity,he, is muchmore easilydeterminedusingscattered
•/-rays, andbecausean electricallyneutralatomhasthe
samenumberof electronsasprotons,neis a directproxy
for np in equation(12).
e-
Compton scattering
(12)
Fig. 10. Gamma-rayinteractionswith matterto produce
the low-energyphotoelectriceffectandmoderate-energy
Comptonscattering.
PhysicalBasis of Gamma-Gamma
Density Measurements
Density loggingrelies on the mannerin which high-
energy electromagneticradiation (•/-rays) is scattered
within a material. There are three main processes
throughwhich •/-rays interactwith matter:photoelec-
tric absorption,Comptonscattering,andpairproduction
(Figure 10). Eachprocesspredominates overa different

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Fields of Gamma-Ray Interactions
lOO I i i I I I I I [
8o
_---.Pb(82)
-
Photoelectric
Effect
Dominant
._(2 4O
. In Comptonscattering,an intermediateenergy•/-ray
E zn (30)
o •Cu (29)
Ni (28)
2O
Si(14) •
o subjectto Comptonscattering,sometimesa numberof
O.Ol 0.10
Gamma-ray Energy (MeV)
Fig. 11. Atomic numberversusgamma-rayenergyplot
showingregionswherephotoelectriceffect(left of curve
D) andComptonscattering(fight of curveD) dominates.
D representsthecurvealongwhichthereis anequalprob-
abilityof photoelectric
effectandComptonscatteringoc-
curring(Davisson,1965). WLand W• aretypicalspectral
ranges,usedin theGSC spectral•/-•/logging tool.Forele-
mentstypicallyfoundin crystallinerocksandbasemetals
(exceptPb), Comptonscatteringis the dominantinterac-
tion occurringin W•. Photoelectriceffectdominatesfor
base metals with Z > 28 in Wz.
•/-ray energyband (Figure 11), but only the Compton
scatteringeffectisusefulin densityloggingasit provides
a measureof the electrondensityof the material. Pair
productionoccursat the highestenergieswhena photon
(> 1.022 MeV) interactswith the electricfield arounda
nucleusandis destroyedto producean electron-positron
pair.The positronis soonannihilatedby interactionwith
an electron,resultingin the emissionof two 0.511 MeV
photonswhich can be detectedbut containvery little
informationaboutthe densityof the material.
Photoelectricabsorptionis a quantum mechanical
effect.Lower-energy•/-rays haveenergiesequivalentto
thediscretebindingenergiesof orbitalelectrons.A •/-ray
with energy exceedingsuch a level may be absorbed
by collisionwith an electron,with someof the energy
being usedto eject the electronfrom its orbit and the
remainderprovidingthe lone electronwith additional
kinetic energy.This electrontravelsthroughthe mate-
rial but will eventuallyjoin anotherionized atom with
the emissionof a lower energyX-ray. Sincethe proba-
bility of photoelectricabsorptionfor a photonof energy
E is proportional
to ZS/E3, thismechanism
predomi-
natesat low •/-ray energiesandhighatomicnumbers(Z).
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Geophysical logging for elastic properties in hard rock 31
Neither of theseprocessescan easilyprovideinforma-
tion aboutthe massdensity,andin densitylogging,such
I
•/-ray energiesare to be avoided.However,the spec-
i i i•i trum of the fluorescenceproducedby reabsorptionof
the ejectedelectronsby other atomsdoesprovideuse-
/ ful informationaboutthe chemicalcompositionof the
materialand is exploitedin spectral•/-•/ logging(e.g.,
Bertozzi et al., 1981).
is deflected,or scattered,by an atomic electron.Part
Compton of the energygoesto the recoil-electronthat is ejected
Scattering and travelsthroughthe medium ionizing other atoms.
Dominant ThisprocessemitsX-rays.The scattered photonis again
1.00
times, continuallylosing kinetic energysuchthat it is
eventuallydestroyedby photoelectricabsorption.The
secondaryphotonsare scatteredin all directionswith
differingprobabilitiesand with differingenergies(e.g.,
Ellis, 1987).Theprobabilityof scatteringdependsonthe
chanceof encounteringan electronalong the photon's
path,whichin turn dependson the electrondensityne of
the material.Obviously,the higherthe electrondensity,
the greaterthe chancethe photonwill be absorbedand,
conversely,the attenuationof the •/ radiationindicates
the electrondensity.As notedabove,the electronden-
sity ne is the sameasthe protondensityn•, whichin
turn dependson the overallbulk densityof the material.
Froma knowledge
of n•, thedensitycanthenbe deter-
mined from equations(11) or (12). Thus the processof
Comptonscatteringprovidesa usefulmechanismfor the
determinationof bulk density.
Compton scattering predominatesat intermediate
•/-ray energies and low atomic numbers. Gamma-
gammaloggingrelieson the fact that the probabilityof
Comptonscatteringof the •/-ray is nearly independent
of the atomsthemselves.Consequently, if the materialis
irradiatedwith •/-rays with energiesbelowthatrequired
for pair-productionand only thosescattered•/-rays re-
turned to the detectorwith energiesabovethat of the
photoelectricrangearemeasured,thenthe countingrate
will be determinedsolelyby he. Since Z/A is closeto
0.5 in mostcases,the countrate is controlledprimarily
by the bulk densityp of the material.Hence, measure-
ment of ne providesa relatively accuratebulk density
throughthe useof equation(12). Furtherdetailedinfor-
mation on •/-ray scatteringis found in Ellis (1987) and
Tittman (1986).
Figure 12 showsthe periodictable. In hardrockand
base-metal sulfide environments,minerals that form the
hostrockconsistmainlyof relativelylow-atomicnumber
32 Physical rock properties and geophysicallogging

H H He

LJ Be B C N O F Ne
8

Na Mg AI SI P S Cl Ar
11 12 13 14 16

19
K Ca
20
Sc Ti V Cr
'Mn ' ICo ' ' "' I
ß : ' •
Ga Ge As Se Br Kr

Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe

Fr Ra Ac Th Pa U

Fig. 12. Periodictable of the elements.The mostcommonconstituents of the rock-formingmineralsare

highlightedin yellow while the metallicelementsin the mostimportantsulfidemineralsare highlightedin
red.

elements(Z = 10 to 26; e.g., silicatesand carbonates
comprisingmainly A1, Fe, Mg, Ca, K, Na, C, and O),
whereasthebase-metalsulfidesconsistof relativelyhigh
Z elements(Z = 26 to 82; e.g. Cu, Zn, Fe and Pb sul-
fides and/or oxides). The high Z elementswithin the
sulfidesraisethe densityof the rocks.Thus basemetal
sulfidesare evident as zonesof anomalouslyhigh val-
ues on densitylogs. On the plot of atomicnumber(Z)
versus•/-ray energy(Figure 11), regionsin whichphoto-
electricabsorptionandComptonscatteringpredominate
are indicated.The two •/-ray energywindows(denoted
W• = .05 to .10 MeV and W/• = .20 to .50 MeV) that
areusedin spectral•/-•/logging toolsare alsoindicated
in Figure 11 to showthe fieldsof•/-ray interactions.The
curveindicatesanequalprobabilityfor eitherinteraction
(i.e., for Si, photoelectricabsorptionand Comptonscat-
tering are equally likely for a •/-ray of energybetween
.04 and .05 MeV).
For mostrock-formingelements,Comptonscattering
is the only significantinteractionoccurringin the spec-
tral rangeW/• and,therefore,the W/• countrateprovides
a measureof therock density.If Z/A is assumedconstant
(whichis a goodapproximationfor mostrocks),thenthe
rock densitycan be computedfrom the W• countrate.
Note that Pb, which has a very high atomic number of
82 and a Z/A ratio that deviatessignificantlyfrom 0.5,
is moreproblematicbecausephotoelectricabsorptionis
the dominant interaction for Pb over the W/• window. At
the lowerenergiesencounteredin WL,photoelectricab-
sorptionbecomesincreasinglyimportant,andthe count
rate in this window contains information
sity and atomic number of the rock. The ratio of the
countrate in W/• overthe countrate in WL (SGG Ratio)
providesa measureof the averageatomicnumberof the
rock.
Logging Tool
The •/-•/ densityprobe measuresthe bulk densityof
therock surroundingthe borehole.The probecomprises
a radioactivesource(370 MBq Cobalt-60) and a cae-
sium iodide [CsI(TI)] or sodiumiodide [NaI(TI)] scin-
tillation detector.Gamma-raysfrom the sourceinteract
with the rock around the borehole and some are scattered
backtowardthe detector.Figure 13 showshow the den-
sity loggingmeasurementsare acquiredin a borehole.
A 6øCo-source
emits•/-rays(1.17and1.33MeV) that
undergophotoelectricabsorptionand Comptonscatter-
ing in the rock mass.The detectorcountsthose•/-rays
that are backscattered towardthe probe and sortsthem
into an energyspectrum.Sincethe probabilityof Comp-
ton scatteringis proportionalto the rock density,density
canbe determinedfrom the •/-ray countrate in a suitably
chosenenergywindow.
The •/-•/density probeusedto pr6videdensitylogsis
a spectraltool (spectral•/-•/: SGG) whichrecordstheen-
tire backscattered•/-ray spectrumover an energyrange
from 0 to 1 MeV. The densityand SGG ratio logs are
derivedfrom thesebackscattered •/-ray spectra.Density
information is determined from the count rate in an en-
ergywindowabove200 keV,whereasinformationonthe
effective atomic number is derived from a ratio of the
about the den- countratesin an energywindow above200 keV and an
energywindow below 200 keV. Typical backscattered

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 Geophysicallogging for elastic properties in hard rock 33

SIGNAL
500

CABLE
400 - COUNTRY
ROCK

300- ORE
ZONE
DETECTOR BACKSCATTERED
GAMMA RAY 200-

SHIELDING
SPACER
100 -

COLLIMATOR
/•- •'•"J - • 0
•' 0 200 400 600

ENERGY (keY)

SO.
UR'CE '• P.HOTOELE'•T•!C
ABSO'RP•ON
WL = LOW ENERGY WINDOW
W H = HIGH ENERGY(DENSITY) WINDOW

Fig. 13. Schematicof a •/-densityloggingtool. Left panelshowsthe configurationof a typical loggingtool

in thewellbore.
Rightpanelshows
typicalspectra
observed.
Thecountratesintegrated
overthebandfrom
200 keV to 500 keV are usedto infer •n-simdensity.

•/-ray energy spectrarecordedby the SGG probe in
countryrock and ore and the energywindowsusedfor
densitymeasurements are shownin Figure 13.
An example of a densitylog througha massivesul-
fide depositin New Brunswickis given in Figure 14.
This log highlightsthe large differencesin densitybe-
tweenthe massivesulfideorebodies(Pb-Zn sulfidesand
pyrite)andtheirsilicatehostrocks(predominantlymeta-
morphicruffsandmetasediments). In this case,the true
lithology is known from geologicanalysisof the cores
from the wellbore.
Density Logging Procedure, Processing
and Calibration
Density loggingprocedure. Density logging measure-
ments are generally acquired at logging speeds of
9 m/min duringthe down-runand 6 m/min on the up-
ran. Data arerecordedeverysecond.The followingrep-
resentsthe standardGSC loggingprocedures.
Depth is measuredfrom when the top of the cable
headis at the top of the casing.The lengthof the probe,
from the top of the cablehead to midway betweenthe
sourceand the detector,is addedduringprocessing,so
the sampledepthis consideredto be midway between
the sourceand detector.The probe is stabilizedin the
hole for about 30 minutes (to reach the borehole fluid
temperature).The probeis thenremovedanda 1-minute
spectrumis recordedwith cesium(Cs) andbarium(Ba)
calibration sources(these have •/-ray peaks at 81.0,
356.0, 661.6 keV) to energycalibratethe probe. The
6øCo-source
is screwed
ontotheendof theprobeand
the hole is logged.The probeis removedfrom the hole,
the6øCo-source
is removed
andtheenergycalibration
with the Cs and Ba sourcesis repeated.
Data processingprocedure. The two calibration runs
recordedbeforeand after loggingare usedto determine
the true energycalibration(about 1 keV/channel).Us-
ing the correctenergycalibration,a log of the sum of
the countsin a •/-ray energywindow,the densitywin-
dow(W•r = 200-500 keV; Figure 13), wherethe Comp-
ton scatteringprocessis the main •/-ray interactionwith
the rock mass(Tittman and Wahl, 1965; Bertozzi et al.,
1981) is computedfrom the spectraldata.If densitycali-
brationsarecardedoutseveralmonthsprior to the actual
field data acquisition,correctionsare made to the den-
sity window countrate to accountfor the decayof the
6øCo-source.
Thedensitylog(in counts persecond)is
converted
to a logofthedensity
(in g/cm3)asdescribed
below.
Densitycalibration. The densitycalibrationprocessin-
volvesthe conversionof the countratesin the density
window to true formation or rock densities. The Geo-
logical Survey of Canada(GSC) calibratesits spectral
•/-•/ density logging tools in density models and test

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34 Physical rock properties and geophysicallogging

Density to a plot of count rates in this energywindow versus

coredensityto obtainthecalibrationequation.However,
(g/cm
3) thetheoreticalrelationshipbetweenmeasuredcountrate
and densityis exponentialand dependson the ratio of
atomic number(Z) to atomic weight (A) (Pickell and
Heacock, 1960; Tittman and Wahl, 1965; Borsaru et al.,
1983). For mostrocks,the atomicnumberis fairly low
(Z < 20) and the Z/A ratio is roughlyconstantat about
0.5 (Hallenburg,1984).Rockformationscontainingsig-

jTuff nificant amountsof basemetal sulfideminerals,however,

haverelativelyhigh effectiveatomicnumbers(Z > 26)
withZ/A ratios<0.5 anddensities
>4.0 g/cm3.In these
cases,the assumptions of a lineartool responseandcon-
stantZ/A ratio are not valid, and the methodsnormally
Pb-Zn Sulfict's used for calibratingthe densityloggingtools result in
densitiesthat are underestimated. It is possibleto im-
provethe densityestimatesin high-density/high-Zma-
Pyrite terial by incorporatinglower energygamma-rays(i.e.,
Wz) in the calibrationequationand calibratingin holes
that intersectsuchhigh-density/high-Zmaterial (Pflug
et al., 2000).
Other factorsthatmay affectthe accuracyof the den-
Met sediments sity measurements includetemperaturevariationsin the
hole and variationsin boreholediameter.Temperature
variationsin the hole may create a drift in the detec-
tor response.Althoughthis is accountedfor duringthe
energycalibrationprocessing,it is an "average"for the
entire hole.

SONIC LOGGING

Principles of Sonic Logging

Fig. 14. Exampleof a densitylog througha sequenceof
massivesulfidesat the Stratmatdeposit,New Brunswick.
boreholesat its Bells Cornerscalibrationfacility near
Ottawa(Killeen, 1986; Schocket al., 1991). The models
areconstructed
fromconcrete
(1.63-2.50g/cm3) and
the test boreholesintersectsandstone,dolomite, gran-
ites,andgneisses
(2.30-3.05g/cm3).Thesedensities equidistantfrom the walls of the hole. The transmitter,
are fairly representativeof unmineralizedsedimentary,
metamorphic,andigneousrockscommonlyencountered
in the mining industry.
The standardmethodof calibratingdensityprobesas-
sumesa simplerelationshipbetweenthe formationden-
sity and the count rate in the densitywindow. In the
densityrange encounteredin the Bells Cornersholes,
the tool responseis fairly linear.A straightline is fitted
A soniclogprovidesa measureof thein-situcompres-
sionalor shear-wave velocityof thematerialsurrounding
the wellbore.In principle,measuringthis velocity sim-
ply reducesto determiningthetraveltimeAt of anelastic
wave travelingbetweena transmittingacousticsource
T and a receiver R, separatedby a known distance1
(Figure 15). Ideally,this tool wouldbe pulled up along
the central axis of the wellbore such that T and R are
usually made of either magnetostrictiveor piezoelec-
tric materialsproducingfrequenciesin thebandbetween
20 kHz and40 kHz, introducesan acousticpulseintothe
fluid within the wellbore (usually water in crystalline
rocks). The acousticpulsesradiate throughthe water
as P-waves to the borehole wall where some of the en-
ergy is convertedto S-waves.In crystallinerocksboth
the compressionaland shearwave velocitiesare often

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 Geophysicalloggingfor elastic properties in hard rock 35

N
P S Tube
Wellbore
diameter

,.r Ittt1
receiverve
•A•J}•{••
,•,•,,
....

Near
r
ree'vl

ThreSho
TlJ
T2
T= (T2- T1)
= Interval traveltime

Transmitter

Fig. 16. Determination

of transittimesusinga dualre-
craversoniclog configuration.
Fig. 15. Schematicof sonicloggingtool with a single
transmittingsourceT and a singlereceiverR in a well-
bore.

well in excessof theP-wavevelocityof water(Table 1). thereciprocalvelocityor slownessA T/Ax of theforma-

Consequently,critically refractedP- and S-headwaves
propagatethroughthe rock alongthe wellborewall and
leak back into the wellbore fluid as P-waves that are de-
tectedby the receiverR. T and R mustbe far apart for
thesehead waves to be detected.Further, for the transit
times and the velocitiesto be properlydetermined,the
transittime delaysthroughthewatermustbe considered
(e.g.,Ellis, 1987).Thisisnotnecessarily straightforward,
especiallyif thetool is not centeredor is poorlyaligned,
and consequently, this simpleconfigurationis not often
used.
Most conventionalsonicloggingtoolsattemptto cir-
cumventthis difficulty by using multiple transmitters
and receivers.The total transit times T• and T2 for each
receiverin Figure 16, for example,sharethe sameto-
tal time delay Tw introducedby the double transit of
the wave through the wellbore fluid. The difference
AT --T2- T• is the transittime. In conventionallogs,
tion (wherex is the spacingbetweenthetworeceivers)is
plottedversusdepth.This procedurestill doesnot com-
pletely accountfor errors introducedwhen the tool is
misalignedwith thewellbore.To overcomethisproblem,
evenmoresophisticated "compensated" systemsinclude
upperand lower transmittersand two pairs of receivers
(e.g., Ellis, 1987). The log providesthe averagetransit
time of the upgoingand downgoingpropagationpaths
in muchthe sameway that reversedseismicrefraction
tests are carded out.
Suchtools generallyprovideonly a measureof the
transit times of the first P-wave arrivals. However, the
ßcylindricalfluid-filled wellbore is a good waveguide
that supportsnumerousdifferent propagationmodes
(Hearstet al., 2000). In additionto thecriticallyrefracted
P-wavesrecordedby mostlogs,thereare alsocritically
refractedS-waves,trappedinterfacialtube-waves(i.e.,
Stoneleyinterfacialwaves),pseudo-Rayleigh wavesand

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36 Physical rock properties and geophysicallogging

leaky P-waves(fully reflectedcompressionalreverber-

Transit time - far receiver
ations)propagatingalong the wellbore.These features
are seen in the waveformsof Figure 16 in which the _,
o Time (Its)
initial, low amplitudeP-wave arrival is followed by a o

higheramplitudeS-waveandfinally,a slowpackageof o

interferinginterfacialand trappedmodes.
The P-waveand S-wavelogsare of the greatestinter-
est herebecausethey are directindicatorsof the elastic
propertiesof the rocksthroughwhich they travel. How-
ever, the more complex wave packet that follows the
S-wave arrival (Figure 16), hereafterreferredto as the
tube-wave,is importantfor two reasons.First, because
componentsof the tube wave result from trappedreso-
nant modesof the wellbore,thesewavescan propagate
long distanceswith little attenuation,and they are of-
ten of much greateramplitudethan the two-bodywave
arrivals.The sensitivityof the tool mustbe adjustedto
accountfor the variationin signalstrengths.Second,the
wave packetis sensitiveto openmacroscopicfractures
and joints intersectingthe wellbore and large changes
in its charactermay be usedto detectfracturedzones.
Sincefracturesthemselvescanhavea seismicresponse, -:. - t- ..,
knowingabouttheir existenceis important.
With typical soniclogs,all amplitudeandtransittime
information for the S-wave and tube wave are lost. Full-
waveformsoniclogscircumventthisby providinga con-
tinuousimage of the completeset of sonicwaveforms
acquiredduringlogging.This has great advantagesbut P-wave Tube-wave
comes with the cost that substantial volumes of data must S-wave
be transmittedalong the length of the wireline, stored
Fig. 17. Exampleof full waveformsoniclog from a well-
and displayed,and must often be manuallyinterpreted. bore drilled throughmetamorphicrock. Colors indicate
However,thesedisadvantages are more than offset by relative amplitudesof differentarrivals.These increase
the additional information obtained about the formation. from low amplitudeP-wave arrivals throughstronger
S-wavearrivalsto high-amplitudetubewaves.
An exampleof a full-waveform soniclog is shownin
Figure 17 where the waveform recordedat each depth
by the far receiveris shownas a functionof time, with frequencyof about28 kHz. The receiverseparationis
the amplitudeproportionalto colon The coherencyof 30 cm. The probediameteris 45 mm to permitoperation
the different arrivalswith depth is readily apparentin in BQ (60-mm diameter)or largerholes.The measure-
sucha displayandallowsfor muchmoreaccuratedeter- ment processis describedin more detail in Pflug et al.
minationof transittimes than might be possibleby ex- (1994).
aminationof individualtraces.This is particularlytrue The mostlabor-intensive partof processingfull wave-
for the low amplitudeP-wavearrival. form data is repicking the P-wave arrival times. Since
the algorithmsthat are availablefor automaticallypick-
ing the P-wavearrivaltimesdo not work very well in all
Full-Waveform Sonic Data: P-, S-, instances,thesearrivaltimeshaveto be repickedmanu-
and Stoneley-Waves
ally in noisy sectionsof the loggingdata.This involves
Acousticvelocitymeasurements aremadewith a full- lookingat severalthousandwaveforms.Figure18 shows
waveformacousticvelocityprobesimilarto that shown P-wavevelocitylogsat threestagesof editing.The first
schematicallyin Figure 16. The probeconsistsof a sin- logontheleft is therawvelocitylogasdeterminedby the
gle transmitterand two receiversoperatingat a center automaticpickingalgorithmusedby thedataacquisition

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 Geophysicallogging for elastic properties in hard rock 37

Vp - raw Vp- auto repicking Vp - final VDL- Far Receiver

(km/s) (km/s) (km/s) 8 Time(ps) .-
i

_ _--

Fig. 18. Sonic compressional-wave velocity determinationat three stagesof editing. Leftmostpanel, raw
velocitypicks.Middle panel,velocitiesafter automaticpicking of waveforms.Right panel,velocitiesafter
manualinteractiveediting.Visual displaylog (VDL) at far right showsfull waveforms.

software.This algorithmpickstheP-wavearrivalat each I,,,,111111111,,,,,,I,,,,,,,I,l,,•,,,,,,l•,,,,,,•,l,•,,,,,,,I

receiver when the signal crossesa preset threshold.

Noise at the beginningof the waveform,causedby the
probe bumping along the boreholewall, often causes Far
re•ceiver

.......
'"'I'"
false triggering,resultingin spikeson the velocity log.
Also, if the recordedsignalis weak, the first arrival may
be correctlypicked on the near receiver,while a later
Correct
I
cyclein thewaveformmaybe pickedon the far receiver.
This situationis knownascycleskipping(seeFigure19).
travel
I
The nextlogto theright is thevelocitylog asdetermined •ickedtrav•time
by a programthat automaticallyrepicksthe P-wavein-
terval traveltimesby crosscorrelatingthe near and far
receiverwaveforms(see Scott and Sena, 1974, for the
algorithm).Despitethe improvementof thevelocitydata
Nea
rrecei••,
•
from the old algorithmto the crosscorrelation algorithm, ........
the dataare still noisy.The velocity log on the far right
......... ! ......... I
is the final velocity log after manualeditingof individ-
ual traveltimes.Manual editing, in this case, involves 100 200 300 400 V500 600
viewing individualwaveformpairs and slidingthe near Time gs
receiver waveform relative to the far receiver waveform
Fig.19. Example
of errorintraveltimes
caused
bycycle-
until the first arrivalsoverlap(visual crosscorrelation). skipping.

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38 Physicalrock properties and geophysicallogging

Density Velocity Impedance VDL-Farreceiver

Geology (g/cm
•) (km/s) (km/s
g/cm
•) o Time (!•s)
O O

Gabbin

Basalt

RhyoliteLapilliTuff

Quartz-FeldsparPorphyry

Carbonatized
Basalt
•
Talc-Carb
Rock
GraphiticArgillite
TalcDyke,
Graphitic
Argillite
Massive Sulfides

Talc-Carb Rock

RhyoliteLapilliTu . ; •.•
BasalticDyke
Mafic/RhyoliteLapilliTuff •.

Basalt
t,.._•_.
Quartz-FeldsparPorphyry--•
Basalt
•
Fig. 20. Density,compressional-wave
velocity,calculated
acoustic
impedance,
andfull waveformsoniclogs
from Hole 4509, Kidd Creek mine, Ontario.

EXAMPLES distinctionwould be even greaterif the sulfide den-

sitieswere correctedfor Z/A. As a consequence, the
Massive Sulfide Body
higherdensitycausesthe seismicimpedanceat vertical
Figure 20 showsthe massdensity,P-wavevelocity, incidence,
calculatedacousticimpedance,andfull waveformsonic
logsacquiredin hole4509 attheKidd Creekcopper-zinc
mine near Timmins, Ontario, Canada. This is one of the I--oVa, (13)
world'slargestvolcanogenicmassivesulfidedeposits.
Hole 4509 intersects semimassive to massive sulfides of the sulfidesto be largerthanthatof their silicatehost
from about 505 m to 515 m. The velocity correlates rocks.This aids the detectionof suchbodiesby seis-
well with lithology in the hole but cannotbe used to mic techniques becausetheaverageacousticimpedance
distinguishthe sulfidesfrom the mafic volcanicrocks in thesezones(18x105g/cm2s
beforecorrection)
is
(e.g., basalts).The averagevelocitiesfor the volcanics higherthan the acousticimpedanceof the enclosing
range from 5.3 km/s to 6.8 kin/s, while that of the rock(about16x 105g/cm2s).
Underidealconditions,
semimassiveto massivepyrite averages6.0 km/s. In this would result in a strongP-wave reflectioncoef-
contrast,asidefrom a narrow zone of tuff at greater ficient (R > 0.08) from an interfacebetween silicate
depth,the densityof the sulfidessubstantiallyexceeds rocksand ores,a valuelargeenoughto causestrong
thatof the surrounding metamorphichostrocksandthe reflections.

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 Geophysical logging for elastic properties in hard rock 39

Density Velocity Impedance VDL- Farreceiver

GEOLOGY
(g/cm
•) Fractures (km/s) (km/s
g/crn
•) o Time
(ILS)
o !
.

CrystalTuff
Diabase Dyke
Felsic Tuff
_

Argillite

Crystal
Tuff

Argillite,
Crystal
Tuff
Argi!!ite,
~

CrystalTuff
M. Sulfides

Argillite
Greywackex••
M. Sulfides•
Argillite• o c:) cD

DiabaseDyke
Argillite
M. Sulfides

CrystalTuff
M. Sulfides

LapilliTuff
CrystalTuff

Fig. 21. Geology,density,fracture locations,compressional-wave

velocity, acousticimpedance,and full
waveformsoniclog for the Stratmatmain zonedeposit,Hole St221.

Influence of Fractures CONCLUSIONS

Figure 21 showsa typical responseof density and Density and sonicloggingare importanttools to aid
acousticparametersin a massivesulfideenvironment. in the descriptionof the physicalpropertiesof rocks in
The data were acquiredat the StratmatMain zone, a the immediatevicinity of drillholes.The sonic logs in
massive Pb-Zn-Cu sulfide deposit in central Canada particularprovidean estimateof the in-situvelocitythat
with veryhighimpedances (I = 20-25x 105g/cm2s). is otherwisedifficultto estimatefrom coresamples,due
Also shownin the figure is a fracturelog determined to the wide variety of extrinsicfactorsthat may influ-
from drill-core information illustrating the effect of ence the elastic propertiesof rocks. Similarly, density
fractureson the densityand sonicvelocity.Fractures,in logscanprovidean accuratemeasureof in-situdensities
general,lower both the observeddensityand velocity for mostcommonrocks.Thesetwo parameterstogether
(Timur, 1987). Their existence is also noticeable in providethe informationrequiredto carry outthe seismic
the quality of the sonic log. In particular, fractures modelingusedin the assessment of seismicprospecting
lower the compressionalwave velocity and inhibit the for ores.
propagationof shearwaves.The amplitudesof all three
modes are similarly reducedwith the Stoneleymode
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
being reducedbecauseenergyis partitionedinto fluid
motion in fractures(Paillet, 1980); taken together,this The authors thank Ms. Gloria Reese for her assistance
information can indicate the existence of fractures.
in the preparationof thismanuscript.

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4O Physicalrock properties and geophysicallogging
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 Part II

Simulating Elastic Waves in the

Hardrock Environment

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 Chapter 3
Influence of Morphology and Surface Roughness
on the SeismicResponseof Massive Sulfides,
Based on Elastic-Wave Kirchhoff Modeling
Gregoryd. Clarke and David W.Eaton
ABSTRACT
In orderto interpretscatteredseismicwavefieldsand
optimizethedesignof seismicsurveysfor thecrystalline
crust,accurateand efficientforwardmodelingtoolsare
required.Most currentlyavailablemethodsare limited
to acoustic(e.g., existingKirchhofftechniques),weakly
heterogeneous (e.g.,Born), layered(e.g.,reflectivity,ray
methods),and/or smoothlyvarying (e.g., ray method)
media. Other forward-modelingtechniques,such as
3D finite difference methods, do not suffer from such
limitations,but are very computationallyintensive.In
this studywe describea new,elasticformulationof the
classicalKirchhoff method,a computationallyefficient
integralapproachto simulatefar-field scatteringin het-
erogeneous media.Insightconcerninglocalizationof the
scatteringresponseon the surfaceof the scatteringbody
is providedby a surface-excitationfunctionthat arises
naturallyin the mathematicalformalism.Using a suite
of examplesthat representgenericorebody-likeinclu-
sionsof variousshapes,we illustratethistechniquewith
a series of numerical tests. We also consider the influ-
ence of surfaceroughnesson the amplitudesof scat-
teredelasticwaves.Our resultsshowthat: (1) the shape
of an inclusion(i.e., flattenedversusequidimensional)
plays a significantrole in the directivity of backscat-
tered waves, with the largest amplitudesincreasingly
concentratedin the specularscatteringdirectionas the
degreeof flatteningincreases;(2) the local radius of
curvatureof the scatteringsurfacestronglyinfluences
the relative contributionsof P- and S-wave scattering,
with a relatively greaterproportionof S-waveswhen
the radiusof curvatureis small; (3) surfaceroughness
exerts an important influence on the scatteredsignal,
and can evencausean objectto appearseismicallyun-
detectable,despitethe presenceof a large impedance
contrast.
45
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INTRODUCTION
Laboratorystudies(Salisburyet al., 1996, 1997) show
that massive-sulfide oresare characterizedby high val-
uesof acousticimpedancerelativeto manytypicalhost
rocks.On thebasisof traditionalmeasuresof reflectivity,
suchas normal-incidenceplane-wavereflectioncoeffi-
cients,this propertyof massive-sulfidedepositsmakes
them potentiallyobservableseismictargets.Recentre-
sultsfrom borehole(Salisburyet al., 1997;Adam et al.,
1996; Eatonet al., 1997; Perronet al., this volume),2D
(Milkereit et al., 1996;Stevenson et al., thisvolume),and
3D seismicsurveys(Adam et al., 1997; Milkereit et al.,
1997; Gingerichet al., 2000) confirmthat ore deposits
representprominentseismicscatterers(in this chapter,
the term scatteringis consideredto include reflection
aswell asdiffractionprocesses). However,the observed
directivity and characterof the scatteredsignalsfrom
thesemorphologicallycomplexbodiesare not compat-
ible with simplemodelsof point-like omni-directional
seismicdiffractions(Eaton, 1999). Moreover, ore de-
positsarerarelythe only sourceof seismic-wavescatter-
ing in the hardrockenvironment(e.g., Calvertet al., this
volume).Effectiveforward-modelingtoolsaretherefore
neededin orderto gaina betterunderstanding of scatter-
ing phenomenain a rangeof realisticscenarios,and as
a complementaryapproachto the interpretationof mi-
gratedseismicimagesfor characterizingthe shapeand
compositionof targetbodies.
The hardrockenvironmentdiffers from sedimentary
basins,thegeologicalsettingofprimary interestfor most
seismicexplorationstudies,in a numberof fundamental
ways. In particular,hardrockterranesexhibit a greater
degree of intrinsic structuralcomplexity,albeit with
weakerparametercontrasts(Milkereit andEaton,1998).
Most currentlyavailableforward-modelingmethodsare
limited to acoustic(e.g., existingKirchhofftechniques),
46 Simulating elastic wavesin the hardrock environment
weaklyheterogeneous (e.g., Born), layered(e.g., reflec-
tivity, ray methods),and/or smoothlyvarying (e.g., ray
method) media and so are not ideally suitedto han-
dle the weak but complex3D heterogeneitythat char-
acterizesthe crystallinecrust.The elasticphase-screen
approach(Hobbs, this volume) is well suitedto mod-
eling narrow-aperturetransmissionof wave energyin
highlyheterogeneous media,butthe applicabilityof this
approachfor backscatteredsignalsis not well estab-
lished. Finite-difference(FD) methods(Bohlen et al.,
this volume)yield completerepresentations of the seis-
mic wavefield for virtually any geological scenario,
but are computationallyintensive.This paperdescribes
an efficient elastic-waveKirchhoff modeling method,
which, in principle, can accommodateheterogeneous
modelsof comparablecomplexityto the othermethods,
andyieldsfar-fieldresultsthat are very closeto the FD
solutions.
For simplicity,this studyis concernedwith the rela-
tively simplecaseof elastic-wavescatteringfrom an in-
clusionof arbitraryshapein an otherwisehomogeneous
medium.This scenariorepresents a first-orderapproxi-
mationto hardrocksettingsof practicalinterestin which
thebackgroundvelocitiesarenearlyconstant.The com-
plexmorphologyof oredepositsprecludestheuseof an-
alyticmethodsto solvethe scatteringproblem,because
thesemethodsare limited to a few simplegeometrical
shapes(e.g., KorneevandJohnson,1993). Previousim-
plementationsof Kirchhoff methods(e.g., Hilterman,
1970; Haddonand Buchen,1981; andBleistein,1984)
dealwith the acousticcase,andthusdo not adequately
handle elastic-wave interactions at material discontinu-
ities.Forexample,Hilterman(1970) discusses reflection
processes for geologicsurfacesof variouscurvatures by
makingestimatesusingan acousticform of Kirchhoff's
waveequationandcomparingthemwith acousticphys-
ical models.Haddonand Buchen(1981) combinean
isochronalparameterizationof the controlsurfacewith
Kirchhoff'ssurfaceintegralrepresentation of the scalar
wavefieldto obtaina highly efficientmethodfor com-
putingsyntheticseismograms by convolutionof a sur-
face weightingfunction(surface-excitationfunctionin
our terminology)with the time-derivativeof the source
function.
Thepurposeof thischapteristo extendpreviouslyde-
velopedKirchhoff methodsto the elasticcase,thus ac-
countingfor elastic-waveinteractionsat materialbound-
ariesof arbitraryshapeand compositionaldifference.
Ourgoalis to achievea betterunderstanding
of theseis-
mic expressionof ore depositsin a hardrocksetting.
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In the first sectionbelow, we outline the theoreticalba-
sisof our method.Importantdetailsof our implemen-
tationof this mathematicalformalismare presentedin
the next section.In our approach,we approximatesur-
facesof arbitraryshapeusinga triangulartessellation
scheme.In contrastwith previousKirchhoff methods
(e.g., Bleistein, 1984), we considercontributionsfrom
internally refracted/reflectedwaves in additionto the
backscattered signalfrom the illuminatedregionof the
surface.Forward-modeling testsare performedfor a
suiteof geologicmodelsthat are broadlyrepresenta-
tive of varioustypesof ore deposits.Next, we evaluate
the influenceof surfaceroughnesson the amplitudes
of scatteredelasticwavesby computingthe scattering
response of quasi-planarsurfaceswith sinusoidaldepth
variations.Thisinvestigation of surfaceroughness
ismo-
tivatedby the recognizedimportanceof thisparameter
from observations usingseafloorsonar(Stanton,1984)
andgeoradar(Jezeket al., 1992).
THEORY
This sectionprovidesa brief summaryof the theo-
reticalbasisfor an elastic-Kirchhoffmethodproposed
by Eaton and Clarke (2000). For a rigorousdevelop-
ment of the theory, the reader is referred to Pao and
Varatharajulu(1976). Exceptwherespecifiedotherwise,
vectorsare denotedby boldfacedlowercaseletters,sec-
ond rank tensorsby boldfaceduppercaseRomanlet-
ters, and tensorsof rank three or higherby boldfaced
capitalGreekletters.Quantitiesassociated with the ray
segmentfrom the sourceto the scatteringpointareindi-
catedby the • (tilde) overscript,while quantitiesasso-
ciatedwith the ray segmentfrom the scattering pointto
the receiverare indicatedby the ^ (hat) overscript.See
Figure 1 for an illustration of the scatteredwavefield
geometry.Here, we use the term scatteredwavefieldin
a general sensethat includes the diffracted,reflected,
convertedand transmittedwavefieldsarisingfrom the
interactionof an incidentwave with a heterogeneous
region.
The Kirchhoff formula (or Helmholtz formulain the
frequencydomain)represents thewavefieldat anypoint
in a continuousmedium,basedonknowledgeof certain
wavefieldparameterson a controlsurface.The formula
is derivedusingthe divergence theorem(seeBleistein,
1984), and provides,in the absenceof singularitieson
the controlsurface,an exactanalyticrepresentation of
the scattered wavefield. If the control surface is chosen
to coincidewith the boundaryof an inclusion,thenthe
 Influence of morphologyand surface roughnesson the seismicresponseof massivesulfides 47

Source
©%
%-
ß%
Scattered
wavefield
(P-P,
P-S, Receiver
u'(x,
to)
+f [if(x)- n(x')ßEø(xIx')
Incident
%•, S-P,S-S) .• •© - T'(x')ßn(x').Gø(xIx')]d•/. (2)
wavefield--% • • '•
In equation(2), T representsthe stressdyadic associ-

(P+S)
,•• •••
Fig. 1. Geometry of scatteredwaves from a surface
element d•/ of the surface F, boundingan inclusion
of arbitraryshape.
Kirchhoff (or Helmholtz) formula providesa powerful
mathematicaltool to link physicalprocesses
on the sur-
face of the inclusion with far-field observations. For sim-
plicity,it is usefulto beginwith themorefamiliaracous-
tic form of the Helmholtz formula for the wavefield,
u(x, to)externalto a closedcontrolsurfaceF (Bleistein,
1984):
atedwiththeparticledisplacement
u, Go is theelasto-
dynamicGreen'sdyadic for particle displacementand
E0 is theassociated
elastodynamic
Green's
tensorfor
stress.A very similar expressionappliesto the inter-
nally refractedwavefieldwithin the inclusion(Pao and
Varatharajulu, 1976).Onlythescattered wavefieldu' and
the associatedstressfield T' on the boundaryof the in-
clusionarerequiredto computethe final result,because
in the absenceof externalsources,the integraloverthe
controlsurfaceof the incidentwavefieldis zero (Paoand
Varatharajulu,1976).
Equation(2) can be simplifiedby making a seriesof
high-frequencyapproximations.The Green'sfunctions
Goand•0 canbeapproximated
usingraytheoryif the
velocitygradientsin the backgroundmediumare weak,
generallya reasonable approximationin a hardrockenvi-
ronment.By substitutingexpressions for ray-theoretical
amplitude(A) and traveltime(-r), and reflectioncoeffi-
cientsfor all combinationsof wave-types(P-P,P-S, S-P,
S-S), a decompositioninto four wavetype-specific inte-
gral equationsfor elastic-wavescatteringis obtained:

u(x')
- u(x)
aG(x
an
Ix')_ G(x
Ix')an J d•/. u'j(x,
t)=fr[•t
f(t- xPP)wPe(x')]
F

(1) -Jt-
fF[St
f(t- 'I'PS)wPS(xt)]
d•l
In equation(1), G(x[x') is the Green'sfunction (im-
pulseresponseof the medium)and n(x) is the outward- +fr[8t
f(t- ,Se)wSe(x')]
d•l
pointing unit normal to the surface F. This formula
shows that knowledge of the wavefield and its nor- +fr[8tf(t
- xSS)wSS(x')]
d•l,(3)
mal derivativeon the surfaceof an inclusion,together
wheref(t) denotes
thesource
function.In addition,wee
with knowledgeof the impulse-response operatorfor the
representsa surface-excitation
functionfor P-P scatter-
medium,are sufficientto computethe wavefieldat any
ing, and is givenby
externalpoint in the medium.The formulais nonlinear,
pp ~ p P ',p
however,sinceit requiresa priori knowledgeof the total w•- R [Agi na•i•,-•4ikl'lkq•ij.P].(4)
wavefield(incidentplus scatteredcomponents)on the
surface of the inclusion.
In thisequation,Ree denotes
the effectiveP-P scat-
tering coefficient,g denotesthe polarizationvector for
The elasticcaseis morecomplicatedthanthe acoustic
the respectivewave types,and the dyadics4>and • are
case,becausewe needto accountfor both stressand dis-
given by
placementcomponents onthesurfaceof theinclusion,as
well as their normal derivatives.Pao and Varatharajulu %-xøa/•(a•)•g•+•ø[(a,•)dg•+(a•)•g,l, (5)
(1976) derived the following Helmholtz-type equa- and
tions for the scattered wavefield external to a closed
surface: - + + (6)

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48 Simulating elastic wavesin the hardrock environment

Expressionsfor surface-excitationfunctionsfor other

typesof scattered
waves(wes,ws•',wss)haveidentical
form to equation(4). In principle,the effectivescatter-
ing coefficientsfor eachscatteredwavetypeare chosen
to satisfythe conditionsof continuityof displacement isochrons - constant)
and stressat the surfaceof the inclusion.In our imple-
mentation,R•'•',Res,Rs•', and Rssare obtainedfrom
the Zoeppritzequations.As discussedin the next sec-
tion, thesescatteringcoefficientsaccountfor multiple
waveinteractionswith the scatteringsurface,as well as
obliquitybetweenthe scatteredray andthe correspond-
ing ray that satisfiesSnell'slaw.
FollowingHaddon and Buchen(1981), we note that
the integralequation(3) canbe recastasconvolutions if
a particular2D parameterization of thecontrolsurfaceis
adopted.One of the two variablesof integrationin such
a parameterizationis chosento be parallel to surface
isochrons(i.e., lines of constanttwo-way traveltime).
The resultingreformulationof the integralequations,
as a convolution of the time-derivative of the source
waveform with a surface-excitationfunction, lends a
particular clarity to their interpretation.Namely, for
specifiedacquisitiongeometry,the surface-excitation
functionexpresses theway in whichan objectis "seen" Fig. 2. Tessellationof the scatteringsurfaceof arbi-
at a distanceby thesourceandreceiver.In theexamples traryshapeintotriangularelementsd•/, showingsurface
isochrons(contoursof equaltwo-waytraveltime).
givenbelow,we showhow the surface-excitation func-
tionprovidesinsightsconcerning thespatiallocalization
of contributions from differentparts of the scattering theverticesof triangularsurfaceelements,resultingin a
surface. tessellationof the boundaryof the inclusion(Figure2).
This representationof the surfaceis well suitedto the
methodof isochronalintegrationdevelopedby Buchen
andHaddon(1981). Thus,a triplet of nodalindicesde-
IMPLEMENTATION
scribeseachsurfaceelement.The indexingof coordi-
We havedevelopedan elasticKirchhoffmodelingal- natesin this form allowscomplexsurfacesto be repre-
gorithmcalledkmod3d,basedon equations(3) to (6) sented,the catalogueof which is sometimesreferredto
above.In our algorithm,a user-suppliedgeometrical asan adjacencymatrix (Mortenson,1997). The internal
surfacedefinestheshapeof theinclusion.Strictlyspeak- elasticproperties,nodecoordinates, andadjacencyma-
ing, the surfacemustbe closed,with the sourcesexter- trix for eachsurfacearecontainedwithina user-supplied
nal to the inclusion.Receiversmay be placedwithin file thatis accessedby theprogram.
or outsidethe boundaryof the inclusion.In practice, One of the featuresuniqueto this implementation
it is possibleto modelan opensurface,providedthat comparedto thoseof previousworkersis the ability
the surfaceextendsfar enoughbeyondthe limits of to accountfor internallyreflectedand refractedwaves.
the source-receiver arraysothat contributions from the For example,Haddonand Buchen(1981) and Bleistein
edgesarrive at the receiversafter the maximum time of (1984) employtheconventionthatonlythoseportionsof
the syntheticseismogram. Theoretically,the far sideof the scatteringsurfacewhichare illuminatedby boththe
the inclusioncan thenbe consideredas a hemisphere source and receiver are used in the evaluation of the sur-
of arbitrarily large radius, for which the Sommerfeld faceintegral.A limitationof thisapproachis thatit fails
radiationconditionsapply.Surfacesare represented in to account for the contribution from the far side of the
three-dimensional spaceby a seriesof discreteCarte- inclusionin the computationof the backscattered sig-
siancoordinates, callednodes.The nodescorrespond to nal. Comparisonswith FD results(seeBohlenet al., this

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 Influence of morphology and surface roughnesson the seismicresponseof massivesulfides 49

Receiver
volume) reveal that, due to interferencewith the scat-
Source
teredsignalfrom the fully illuminatedregion,this con-
tributionfrom the far sideis importantfor caseswhere
inclusionshave dimensionsthat are small comparedto
the Fresnel radius.
To accountfor contributionsfrom all partsof the sur-
face, the traveltime to each node on the surface is com-
putedby allowing the incidentwave to seek any path
throughthe inclusion,and invokingFermat'sprinciple.
Oncethetimesaredetermined, theray-theoryamplitude
for each surfacenode is evaluatedbasedon the prod-
uct of a geometricalspreadingterm and a viscoelastic
(constantQ) attenuationterm. To computethe effective
scatteringcoefficientsrequiredfor thesurface-excitation
function,our computationschemeis basedon a subdi-
visionof the scatteringsurfaceinto four regimes,based
on the number of interactions of the incident/scattered
rayswith the surface(Figure3). The four regionsare in-
dexedasfollows:(1) a fully illuminatedregionthathas
a "directline of sight"to both the sourceand receiver;
(2) a partly illuminatedregionthat hasa line of sightto Areaof Areaof surface
the sourceonly; (3) a partly illuminatedregionthat has surface illuminatedby
illuminated receiver
a line of sightto the receiveronly; (4) a "dark" region
by source
thatis illuminatedby neitherthe sourcenor the receiver.
Forregion1, the incident/scattered raypathinteractswith Fig. 3. Subdivisionof the scatteringsurfaceinto four
the surfaceonly once,andthe effectivescatteringcoef- regimes:
a regionilluminated
bythesource,
a regionillu-
minatedby thereceiver,a regionilluminatedby both,and
ficientsare determinedusingonly the reflectioncoeffi- a darkregionilluminatedby neither(seetext for details).
cients.Forregions2 and3, theincident/scattered raypath Sample
raypath
illustrates
a raythatreflects
fromthedark
intersectsthe surfacetwice. At bothpointsof intersec- port•onof the surfaceand,thus,intersectsthe boundary
tion, the ray is transmittedacrossthe surface;therefore, of the inclusionin threeplaces.
theeffectivescatteringcoefficientsaredeterminedusing
theproductof theplane-wavetransmission coefficients. EXAMPLES
Forregion4, the incident/scattered ray intersectsthe sur-
facethreetimes andthe effectivescatteringcoefficients Influence of Scatterer Shape
are determinedusingthe productof two transmission For this study,we havedesigneda suiteof four mod-
coefficientsanda reflectioncoefficient(Figure3). els to representgenericorebody-likeinclusions.Three
A user-suppliedset of source-receivercoordinates of theseshapesexemplifyend-memberoredepositmor-
definesthe surveygeometry.Our implementationeffi- phologies(for a discussionon ore depositmodels,see
cientlyhandlesarbitrarysource-receiver configurations, Lydon, 1984). Each model is constrainedto have the
includingzero-offsetanddownholereceiverarrays.The same estimatedtonnage(6 Mt), density,elastic-wave
free-surfaceeffect(Eaton, 1989) is modeledfor sources velocity,andaveragedepthastheBell Allard Southore-
at or nearthe surfaceby accountingfor reflectionampli- body (BAS), a well-studiedZn-Cu ore depositlocated
tudesandphasechangesin the emittedP and S waves. in Matagami,Quebec(Adam et al., this volume).These
For the examplesconsideredbelow, typical run-times parameterswereselectedbecauseBAS providesa good
range from 1 to 4 secondsper trace on a PentiumIII- exampleof a deep,but economicallyviable,oredeposit
500 MHz systemwith 256 Mb RAM. This technique for which seismicmethodsmight providea useful ex-
is thereforea relativelyfast methodcomparedto other plorationtool. BAS itself embodiesthe fourth model.
numericalschemesfor simulatingwavefieldscattering The velocitiesand densitiesof the backgroundmedium
in a hardrocksetting(Hobbs,this volume;Bohlenet al., and ore (inclusions)are basedon averagevaluesfor the
this volume). Matagamicamp,andaresummarizedin Table1. The first

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50 Simulating elastic waves in the hardrock environment
Table 1. Elastic parameters for forward-modeling
simulations.
Medium Irp(m/s) Its(m/s)
Background 6000 3000
Ore (inclusion) 5500 2750
Table 2. Dimensions of inclusions.
Lengthor Width or Thicknessor
Shape Figure diameter(m) diameter(m) diameter(m)
Sphere 4 69.4 69.4
Lens 5 438 219
Disk 6 562 562
inclusionis a sphericalbody, representativeof equidi-
mensionaldepositmorphology.The secondinclusionis
designedto representlenticularoredepositswith moder-
ate dip, andcanbe thoughtof asa smoothrepresentative
from the morphologicalclassto which the BAS deposit
belongs.This shapewas constructedusingintersecting,
mirror-image parabaloids.The third shapeis that of a
thin disk, and is intendedto be representativeof strati-
form deposits.The dimensionsof thesethreesimplein-
clusions are summarized in Table 2. The center of mass
for eachscatteringbody was at (0,0,1000 m), and,with
the exceptionof the sphericalbody, all are dipping to-
ward the north (positivey direction)at 45ø. Sincethese
four examplesall have the same composition,we are
attemptingto isolatethe effectsof depositmorphology
on the scatteringresponse.For a discussionon the influ-
ence of compositionon scatteringresponse,the reader
is referredto Bohlenet al. (this volume).
Forwardmodelingtestswere performedusing a ver-
tical seismicprofiling (VSP) survey geometry,similar
to that usedfor previousboreholeseismicsurveysdis-
cussedby Adam et al. (1996) and Eaton et al. (1996).
Figures4-7 (a, b) provide illustrationsof the model-
ing geometryusedin our study.We havesimulated214
downholereceiversat 5-m intervals, startingat 200 m
depthand endingat 1200 m. The boreholeis confined
to the yz-plane and plunges at 70ø toward the south,
passingthroughthe centerof massof each respective
scatteringbody. An explosivepoint sourcewas simu-
latedon the surface,at x = 0, y = 414, 50 m northof the
boreholecollarusinga Ricker waveletwith a centerfre-
quencyof 50 Hz. The free-surfaceeffect (Eaton, 1989)
hasbeenaccountedfor in modelingthe source-radiation
pattern.Thesesurveygeometriesand scatteringbodies
are broadlyrepresentativeof a range of deposittypes,
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andincorporatesufficientangularapertureto assessthe
directionalcharacteristicsof the scatteringresponse.
p (kg/m3) In the followingexamples,all seismograms havebeen
scaledidentically,exceptthatthe amplitudesin the scat-
2700
4300 tered wavefield-onlyfiguresare amplified to twice the
valuesin the full wavefieldfigures.This amplification
factorpermitsweakerscatteredsignalsto be identified
and interpreted.It shouldbe notedthat the modeledre-
sponsefor observationpoints inside the inclusiondif-
fers in amplitude and characterfrom the responseat
neighboringexternalpoints. This differencearises,in
69.4 part, becauseour algorithmdoesnot includewavesthat
43.8
5.6 haveundergonemultiple internalreflections,which are
likely to be significantfor internal observationpoints.
In addition,far-field expressionsare used to represent
the backgroundGreen'sfunctions,whereasreceiversin
closeproximityto theboundaryof the inclusionaresitu-
atedin thenearfield.Consequently, althoughthefar-field
(i.e., more than a wavelengthawayfrom the boundary)
responseis consideredaccurate,the modeledresponse
for observationpointscloseto the boundaryof the in-
clusion,andparticularlyfor pointsin the interior,should
be regardedasapproximate.The simulatedresponsefor
interior points is neverthelessuseful, since it provides
a kinematic link between backscattered and forward-
scatteredwaves.In all VSP figures,we indicateinterior
receiverpositionsclearly.
In the first example,we considerthe simulatedscat-
teringresponsefor a sphericalinclusion.Figures4a and
b depictthe surface-excitation functionfor P-P andP-S
wavetypes,respectively,for a singlereceiverlocation.
The asteriskindicatesthe positionof the receiverused
to computethesesurface-excitation functions.The parts
of the surfacethat make largecontributionsto the scat-
teredsignalsareshownin white.Note thattheregionsof
maximum contributionto the scatteringresponsecoin-
cide with the first Fresnelzone, which is centeredon the
specular(ray-theoretical)scatteringpoint. In the caseof
thesphere,theFresnelzonefor P-P scatteringoccupiesa
smallerareathanthe Fresnelzonefor P-S scattering.Re-
flectionsfrom the front andback facesof the sphereare
evidentin the computedseismograms (Figures4c andd)
as distinctarrivalsthat mergewith increasingdistance
from the sphere.The S-P and S-S scatteredphaseshave
relatively large amplitudescomparedwith the P-P and
P-S phases.
In the caseof a lenticularscatteringbody,we observe
a slightlylargerFresnelzonefor bothP-P andP-S wave
types(Figures5a andb). Comparedwith the spherical
inclusion,thisenlargementin theFresnelzonesreflectsa
Influence of morphologyand surfaceroughnesson the seismicresponseof massivesulfides 51

o d • d o
.• ß

d
;;. -%..
.

;•õ
(s) •w!l

>' z >' z

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52 Simulating elasticwavesin the hardrock environment

: .

'•'"
"•,1i 0
0
0

(u4)q;doo

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 Influence of morphologyand surfaceroughnesson the seismicresponseof massivesulfides
greaterareaof constructiveinterferencesurrounding the
ray-theoreticalscatteringpoint. The VSP seismograms
(Figures5c and d) showreflectionsfrom the front and
back facesthat merge over a short distanceinto a sin-
gle event.In comparisonwith the previousexample,the
amplitudeof P-P and P-S scatteringis larger in rela-
tion to the S-P and S-S modes. The surface-excitation
functionfor a thin disk (Figures6a and b) revealsfur-
ther enlargementof the P-P and P-S Fresnelzones.The
exaggeratedflatteningof this scatteringbody empha-
sizesthe mirror symmetryof the P-S surface-excitation
(Figure 6b) relative to the plane containingthe source
and receiver. The VSP seismogramsin this case
(Figures6c and d) revealrelativelylargeP-P wave am-
plitudes,as well as scatteredsignalsfrom the edge of
the body.
The surface-excitation functions for the BAS model
(Figures7a and b) imply a remarkablyweak P-P con-
tributionto the scatteredsignals,with a significantly
greaterdegreeof P-S scatteringindicatedby lighterar-
eas on the surface of the inclusion. This observation is
consistentwith theVSP seismograms (Figures7c andd),
whichreveala complexcodawith strongS-wavescatter-
ing and extremelyweak P-waveresponse.Thesechar-
acteristicsof the scatteredsignalsare distinctfrom the
scatteringcharacteristics of the simple shapesconsid-
eredabove.Sincethe volumeandelasticparametersfor
all of these models are the same as BAS, we attribute
thesedifferencesto the complextopologyandundulat-
ing surfaceof theBAS orebody.We aremotivatedby this
observation to considerexplicitlythe effectsof surface
roughnesson scatteredsignalstrength.
Surface-RoughnessStudies
In this section,we model the seismicresponseof a
quasi-planarsurfacein orderto investigatethe effectsof
surfaceroughness on scatteringamplitudes.In addition
to the simulatedresponseof theBAS orebodydescribed
above,this avenueof investigationis motivatedby pre-
vious studiesof surfaceroughnessin sonar(Stanton,
1984) andground-penetrating radar(Jezeket al., 1992)
applications.In theexamplesbelow,we approximatethe
interfaceby assigninga sinusoidalvariationto an oth-
erwiseflat planarsurface.In the presentstudy,we limit
ourdiscussion to P-waveamplitudes.Thesepreliminary
observations formpartof an ongoing,morecomprehen-
siveinvestigation of the consequencesof surfacerough-
nesson elastic-wavescattering(for both P-wavesand
S-waves).
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53
Stanton(1984) andJezeket al. (1992) relatethe level
of roughness to the wavelengthof the sourcefrequency
usingthe criterion
4k2cr
2< 1, (7)
where k = 2•r/wavelengthis the angularwavenumber,
and rr is the rms surfaceroughness. For this study,we
haveuseda constant sourcefrequency of 50 Hz, yielding
a P-wavelengthof 120 m for a backgroundvelocityof
6000 m/s. Based on the above criterion, sinusoidalsur-
facescharacterizedby small roughnesscorrespondto
peak-to-peakfluctuations of lessthan30 m. In compar-
ison, the BAS model contains undulations of 20-60-m
amplitude,and25-75-m wavelength. By modelinga sur-
facewith similarproperties anddimensions totherough-
nessof BAS, we attemptto quantifythe effectof surface
roughness on elasticscattering,by comparingthe scat-
teredamplitudesto thosefrom a "smooth"interface.
In thefollowingexamples,weutilizeorthogonalzero-
offsetsurveylineswith a receiverspacingof 2 m, to sim-
ulateunmigrated,high-resolution,surfaceseismicpro-
files. The sourcewavenumberk and the wavelengthof
theundulations (60 m) areheldconstantin eachexample,
thusisolatingthe effectsof the peak-to-peakamplitude
of the roughness. Figure8a showsthe P-P scatteringre-
sponseof a smoothplanar interface,providinga refer-
enceplot for the subsequent figures.As in the previous
models, the impedancecontrastacrossthis interface
is equivalentto BAS, yielding a normal-incidenceP-P
reflectioncoefficientof 0.19. Figure 8b exhibitsthe ef-
fect of undulatinginterfacetopography,with a north-
southstrikedirectionand30-m amplitude,on mutually
perpendicularseismicprofiles.A significantreduction
in amplitude(•,78% loss) is apparentfor profilesori-
ented both parallel and perpendicularto the strike of
the undulations.Surprisingly,when 30-m undulations
occurin bothdirectionscreatingan egg-cartontopogra-
phy (Figure8c), the apparentamplitudeloss(•,58%) is
lesssignificantthan in the caseof a singlesetof undu-
lations.On the otherhand,when a singleset of north-
southstrikingundulationswith an amplitudeof 60 m
is modeled (Figure 8d), the amplitudeloss is •,87%,
whereasforperpendicular 60-mundulations (Figure8e),
we observenear-completedestructiveinterferencewith
•,94% amplitudereduction.Theseexamplesshowthat,
despitethepresenceof a significantimpedancecontrast,
destructive interference can all but eliminate reflections
from a roughinterface.The degreeof interferenceap-
pearsto be relatedin a nonlinearfashionto peak-to-peak
amplitudeof the surfaceroughness, andis alsosensitive
54 Simulating elasticwavesin the hardrock environment

0 •

>" z >" z

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Influenceof morphologyand surfaceroughnesson the seismicresponseof massivesulfides 55

o
{•} •W!.L
(s)aWLL I

, •-, ,•
(w) qldao (w) q•daa

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56 Simulating elastic wavesin the hardrock environment

o.•

a) 0.2

o.•

0.2

b)

• - _

-•o •:4 '-•':- Z7'•_.-• ?'

•.
e) Nothing
(m)- ,:?':•- Easting
(m)
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 Influenceof morphologyand surfaceroughnesson the seismicresponseof massivesulfides
to the presenceof morethanonesetof surfaceundula-
tions.
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS
Motivatedby recentfieldandlaboratorystudiesonthe
detectionof massivesulfidedeposits,we havedeveloped
a new elastic-wavemodelingtechniquebased on the
Kirchhoffintegralrepresentation of the scatteredwave-
field. Our algorithmcansimulatethe far-fieldscattering
response of aninclusionof arbitraryshapeandcomposi-
tion in an otherwisehomogeneous medium.Calibration
of this methodusinganalyticalscatteringsolutionsfor
a sphere(Clarke,2000) showsthat,in the far field,our
Kirchhoff integralyields accurateamplitudeinforma-
tion for the leadingpart of the scatteredP-waveform.
This techniqueis particularlywell suitedfor surveyde-
signapplicationsandgeometricalinterpretation, in sit-
uationswhere a complexscatteringbody or roughsur-
face is incorporatedinto the model. In comparisonto
alternativemodelingmethods,integralscatteringtech-
niquessuchasthisarevery fast,providedthattheback-
groundmediumcanbe treatedashomogeneous. In cases
wherethebackground mediumcannotbe regardedasef-
fectivelyhomogeneous (e.g., seeHobbs,this volume),
or where subtlewaveformdetailsor multiple scattering
areconsidered important,thenother3D modelingtech-
niquesmaybe preferable.
The focus of the presentstudy is the influenceof
shapeon the scatteringcoda, includingthe effectsof
surfaceroughness. Using a suiteof modelsto represent
end-memberdepositmorphologies, we havecomputed
syntheticseismograms for a downholeseismicimaging
surveygeometry.Theseexamplesdemonstratecertain
insightsaboutthe interactionof the incidentwavefield
with the inclusionthatcanbe obtainedfrom the analysis
of surface-excitationfunctions,which are a by-product
of our computationaltechnique.Our resultsshowthat
the shapeof the inclusionplaysa significantrole in the
directivityof the backscattered wavefield.Specifically,
Fig. 8. (a) Seismicresponseof a smoothplanar surface.
White lines showthe orientationsof two orthogonalpro-
filesusedin this study.Zero-offsetreceiversare located
at the free-surface,
with the scatteringinterfaceat a depth
of 400 m. (b) Scatteringresponsefor north-southstrik-
ing undulations,with a peak-to-peakamplitudeof 30 m.
(c) Scattering
response for two setsof undulationswith a
peak-to-peak amplitudeof 30 m. (d) Scattering response
for north-southstrikingundulations, with a peak-to-peak
amplitudeof 60 m. (e) Scatteringresponse fortwosetsof
undulations with a peak-to-peakamplitudeof 60 m.
Downloaded 26 Jun 2012 to 95.28.162.50. Redistribution subject to SEG license or copyright; Terms of Use: http://segdl.org/
57
scatteredsignalsareprogressively focusedin the specu-
lar (ray-theoretical)directionasthe degreeof flattening
is increased. The local radius of curvature of the scatter-
ing surfacealsoinfluencesthe relativecontributions of
P- and S-wavescattering,with a relativelygreaterpro-
portionof S-wavescattering whentheradiusof curvature
is small(e.g.,sphericalinclusion)ratherthanlarge(e.g.,
disk-shaped inclusion).Motivatedby the comparatively
weak and complexseismicresponseof the Bell Allard
model, we have shown that destructiveand construc-
tive interferencephenomenadue to surfaceroughness
can substantiallyinfluencethe amplitudesof scattered
P-waves.In casesof extremesurfaceroughness(60-m
peak-to-peakamplitudein the casestudiedhere), even
objectswith a large impedancecontrastmay become
effectivelyundetectable. More work is neededto char-
acterizemore fully the influenceof surfacetopography
on scatteredelastic signals,includingthoseof both P-
waves and S-waves.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Thisresearchwasconductedasa partof theDownhole
SeismicImaging Consortium.Funding for this work
was providedby the Natural Sciencesand Engineering
Council of Canada.
REFERENCES
Adam, E., Milkereit, B., Arnold, G., and Pineault,R., 1996, Seismic
response
oftheBellAllardorebody,
Matagami,
Quebec:
66thAnn.
Internat.Mtg., Soc. Expl. Geophys.,ExpandedAbstracts,634-
637.
Adam, E. et al., 1997, Seismic exploration for VMS deposits,
Matagami,Quebec,in Gubins,A. G., Ed.,Proc.of Exploration97:
4thDecennialInternat.Conf.onMineralExpl.,Prosp.andDevel.
Assoc. of Can., 433-438.
Bleistein, N., 1984, Mathematicalmethodsfor wave phenomena:
Academic Press Inc.
Buchen,P.W., andHaddon,R. A. W., 1981,Isochronalintegrationof
seismicdiffraction,in Husbeye,E. S., and Mykkelveit, S., Eds.,
Identificationof seismicsources--Earthquake orunderground ex-
plosion:Proc.NATO AdvancedStudyInstitute,373-381.
Clarke,G. J.,2000, Simulating3D elastic-wave scattering
frommas-
sive sulfideore depositsusing the Kirchhoff integralmethod.
M.Sc. thesis,the Universityof WesternOntario.
Eaton, D. W., 1989, The free-surfaceeffect: Implications for
amplitude-versus-offset inversion:Can. J. Expl. Geophys.,25,
97-103.
-- 1999,Weakelasticscattering frommassivesulfideorebodies:
Geophysics,64, 289-299.
Eaton,D. W., and Clarke, G., 2000, A Kirchhoffintegralmethodto
modelelastic-wavefield scatteringfrom an inclusionof arbitrary
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shape:
70thAnn.Internat.Mtg., Soc.Expl.Geophys.,
Expanded sulfidedepositspart I: A descriptivemodel:GeoscienceCanada,
Abstracts, 2472-2475. 11, 195-202.
Eaton,D. et al., 1996, Seismicimagingof massivesulfidedeposits: Milkereit, B., Berrer,E. K., Watts,A., andRoberts,B., 1997,Devel-
Part III. Borehole seismic imaging of near-vertical structures: opmentof 3D seismicexplorationtechnologyfor Ni-Cu deposits,
Econ. Geol., 91,835-840. Sudburybasin,in Gubins,A. G., Ed., Proc. of Exploration97:
Eaton,D. W., Milkereit, B., andAdam, E., 1997, 3D seismicexplo- 4thDecennial
Internat.
Conf.onMineralExpl.,Prosp.
andDevel.
ration,inGubins,
A. G.,Ed.,Proc.ofExploration
97:4thDecennial Assoc. of Can., 439-448.
Internat.Conf. onMineral Expl., Prosp.andDevel. Assoc.of Can., Milkereit, B., and Eaton,D., 1998, Imagingand interpretingthe
65-78. shallowcrust:Tectonophysics, 286, 5-18.
Gingerich,J.,Matthews,L., andPeshko,M., 2000, The development Milkereit, B. et al., 1996, Seismic imaging of massivesulfide
of new explorationtechnologiesat Noranda: Seeingmore with deposits:Part II. Reflectionseismicprofiling:Econ. Geol., 91,
hyperspectraland deeperwith 3D seismic:Presentedat Mining 829-834.
Millennium 2000, Prosp.and Devel. Assn.Can. Mortenson,M. E., 1997, Geometricmodeling:JohnWiley & Sons,
Haddon, R. A. W., and Buchen, P. W., 1981, Use of Kirchhoff's Inc.

formulafor bodywavecalculations in theEarth:Geophys.J.Roy. Pao, Y.-H., and Varatharajulu,V., 1976, Huygens'principle,radia-

Astr. Soc., 67, 587-598. tion conditions,andintegralformulasfor the scattering
of elastic
Hilterman, F. J., 1970, Three-dimensionalseismicmodeling:Geo- waves:J. Acoust. Soc. Am., 59, 1361-1371.
physics,35, 1020-1037. Salisbury,
M., Milkereit,B., andBleeker,W., 1996,Seismicimaging
Jezek, K. C., Arcone, S. A., Daly, S., and Wills, R. H., 1992, of massivesulfidedeposits:PartI. Rock properties:Econ.Geol.,
Impulse radar studiesof interface roughness,in Pilon, J., Ed., 91, 821-829.
Ground penetratingradar: Geol. Surv. Can., Paper 90-4, 107- Salisbury,
M. etal., 1997,Physical
properties andseismic imagingof
115. massivesulfides,in Gubins,A. G., Ed., Proc.of Exploration97:
Korneev, V. A., and Johnson,L. R., 1993, Scatteringof elastic 4thDecennial
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Conf.onMineralExpl.,Prosp.
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wavesby a sphericalinclusion-I. Theory and numericalresults: Assoc. of Can., 383-390.
Geophys.J. Internat., 115, 230-250. Stanton,T. K., 1984, Sonarestimatesof seafloormicroroughness:
Lydon,J. W., 1984, Ore depositmodels--8. Volcanogenicmassive J. Acoust. Soc. Am., 75, 809-818.

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3D Modeling of Seismic-WavePropagation Using
Complex Elastic Screens,with Application to
Mineral Exploration
ABSTRACT
The interpretationof seismicimagesgeneratedfrom
data acquiredover hardrockenvironmentsis difficult.
Unlike imagesfrom sedimentary rocks,theimagesfrom
crystallineor metamorphosed rocks are often domi-
nated by apparentlyincoherentscatteredenergywith
only sparsecorrelatableevents.Previous attemptsto
model the seismicresponseof suchtargetshave been
largelyin two dimensions becauseof limitationsin com-
puter resources.A new approachto generateaccurate
syntheticdatafor three-dimensional modelsovercomes
many of the currentrestrictions.The complexelastic-
screen method is both fast and accurate
ing reflectionand vertical seismicprofile (VSP) data.
The code is used on models of a massive sulfide ore-
body, 370 m x 160 m x 30 m, containedwithin a vol-
canic sequencecharacterizedby randomvelocity fluc-
tuations. Both 3D surface reflection seismic data and
3-componentVSP data are synthesized.The results
showimagingthroughmigrationof surface3D data is
problematicbecauseof the relativelysmallsizeof these
ore bodies,whereasthe scatteringof P- and S-waveen-
ergyrecordedontheVSPs is shownto be a morereliable
and can be usedto detectore bodiesat rangesof over
lkm.
INTRODUCTION
Over the past 30 years extensiveresearchhas been
undertaken into the nature of the continental
lithosphericmantle (e.g., Snyder and Hobbs, 1999).
Many of these2D seismicreflectionprofilescrossareas
wherebasementrockscrop out on the surface.Someof
the profilesyield spectacularimagesto depthsof over
40 km revealingdiscretezonesof reflectorsthroughout
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Chapter 4
R. W. Hobbs
the lithosphere.Another characteristicof theseprofiles
is the pervasiveincoherentbackscattered energy,which
is testamentto the heterogeneous nature of basement
rocks.Detailed mappingof this type of rock (Holliger,
1996 and 1997; Levander et al., 1994a) show that the
crystallinerock fabric can be describedas a stochastic
medium with some characteristiclength scale.Hence,
the propagatingwavefieldwill encounterscatterwith a
varietyof sizes:from thosethat are significantlysmaller
thana wavelength;to thosewith lengthscalesof similar
size that will react stronglywith the wave to produce
backscatteredenergy (Raynaud, 1988; Smith, 1994);
for model- to bodieswith a size significantlylarger than a wave-
lengthwhichwill producediscretereflections.Attempts
to model thesedata(Levanderet al., 1994b;Frenje and
Juhlin,1998)produceresultsthataresimilarin character
to real seismicdata.It is againstthisbackgroundof per-
vasivescattering,or"noise,"thatthemineralexploration
geophysicistmusttry to identify and quantifymassive
mineral ore deposits.The impedancecontrastsbetween
anorerich in sphaleriteandchalcopyriteanda mafichost
rock give reflectioncoefficientsaround0.1 (Salisbury
et al., 1996). However,these depositsare structurally
complex in three dimensions,so, unlike sedimentary
strata,thesebodiesare not expectedto produceclean
specularreflectionsthat can be readily tracedthrough
a 3D volume. In suchsituations,the seismicsignature
of the orebodymay be subtleand standardsurface3D
reflectionimaging, as developedby the hydrocarbons
industry,may not be the most appropriatemethodfor
crust and exploration.Therefore,the mineral industrymay have
to use other seismicexplorationmethodsto maximize
the likelihood of detectingore bodies and train their
interpretersto differentiatethe seismicsignatureof an
orebodyfrom the backgroundnoise.Also, it is unlikely
that migration or inversionwould be effectivein this
59
60 Simulating elastic wavesin the hardrock environment
situationsincethe size of the targetbody is generally
small and the signal-to-noiseratio is likely to be poor.
Consequently, interpretationof the finalmigratedimage
requirestheidentificationof pointscatterers, ratherthan
themoreeasilyrecognizeddiffractionhyperbolas,in the
presenceof high noiselevels.
A fundamentalstartingpoint is to examinethe scat-
tering characteristics
of known ore bodies.This infor-
mation can then be usedby the interpreteras reference
points from which to predict what can be expected
from differentgeologicalandacquisitionscenarios. This
is a complex 3D problem. Ray tracing codes, e.g.,
RAYINVR (Zelt andEllis, 1988), arenot appropriatefor
thistype of problem,whereasfull wavefieldcodessuch
as 1D codes(Fuchs and Miiller, 1971) and 2D codes
(Levander,1989) have restricteduse becausethey ig-
nore the 3D structure.This leads us to require a 3D
codethat canmodelbothtraveltimeandamplitude,and
be of directuseto aninterpreterto modelthesameband-
width as achieved in the field.
Field data acquiredusing small explosivecharges
in a hardrock environment shows that a bandwidth
50-300 Hz can be achieved(Juhlin and Palm, 1999).
The high frequenciesbecomea major barrier for 3D
finite-differencecodes(Bohlen et al., this volume) for
realistically sized models becausethey require a fine
spatialsamplingto avoiddispersionof the propagating
wave.An alternativemethodis requiredthat avoidsthe
costlyoverheadof finite-differencecodes,yet canaccu-
rately computea seismogramfor specificcaseswhere
the forward- and back-scattered wavefield
the directionof propagation(Aki and Richards,1980;
Raynaud,1988), which is the case for most commer-
cial seismic-reflectionmethods.We presenthere a new
methodthat fulfills the requirement,using a computer
codethat is both compactand efficient,enablinglarge
andcomplex3D modelsto be evaluatedon a competent
workstation or PC.
THE COMPLEX-ELASTIC
SCREEN METHOD
The complex-elasticscreen(Wu, 1994)is a modeling
schemefor forwardpropagationin 3D elasticmedia.The
methodis notnew to seismologyandhasbeenusedasa
migrationmethodfor acousticdata(Stoffa et al., 1990).
The rigorousmathematicalderivationfrom first prin-
ciplespresentedby Wu (1994) was revisitedby Wild
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and Hudson (1998) and cast as a geometricproblem
yieldinga simplerderivationof the samesetof govern-
ing equations.In principle,the complexelasticscreen
approximationstatesthat wave propagationthrougha
heterogeneous volumemay be approximatedby propa-
gationthrougha homogeneous volumewith a correction
for propagationdelay and scatteringat one of the faces
of the volume.Implementationof the methodrelies on
two assumptions, two physicalprinciples,andonemath-
ematicaltrick to simplify the problem.First, I assume
narrow angle scattering,i.e., scatteredenergycloseto
the directionof propagation.Althoughthis approachis
bestsuitedto simulatethe responseof scatteringbodies
that do not havelarge dips,it is worthnotingthatmod-
eling work by Korneevand Johnson(1993) showsthat
scatteringfrom roughly equidimensionalinclusionsis
narrowly focusedaroundthe propagationdirectionfor
wavelengths smallerthanthe sizeof the scattering body.
Secondly,I assumea local Born approximationthat im-
plies weak scattering,and in any given subvolumeof
the model,a wavemay only undergoa singlescattering
of event.This is not a majorrestrictionsincethewholedata
volumemay be brokeninto an arbitrarynumberof sub-
volumesthat adequatelysamplethe medium.Hence, it
is possiblethatthe energymayundergomultiplescatter-
ing as it traversesthe model. The physicscomesin the
form of Snell'slaw which definesthe refractionangleat
a velocityboundary,andthe Zoepritzequationsthat de-
scribethepartitioningof theincidentenergybetweenthe
reflectedand refractedphasesat an impedancebound-
lies close to ary for both P- and S-waves.By invoking the small-
angleapproximation,I need only computevaluesfrom
theZoepritzequationsat closeto normalincidence.The
mathematicaltrick is usedto movethewavefieldthrough
themodelby transformingthe waveintothe Fourierdo-
main, sothatpropagationbecomesa simpleadditionto
the phaseterm that is both propagation-angle and fre-
quencydependent.
The firststagein implementingthemethodisto divide
the modelvolume into a seriesof subvolumes by means
of a setof parallelboundariesorthogonal to theprincipal
direction.Subvolumesin which the elasticparameters
are uniform may be large with the boundarieswidely
spaced.Where there is a high level of complexityin
theelasticparameters, the subvolumes needto be small
with the boundariescloselyspaced(Wild et al., 2000).
Theseboundariesform the complex-elasticscreenson
whichthe calculationstake place.For eachsubvolume,
the equations
 3D modeling of seismic-wavepropagation using complex elastic screens 61

u.e(x•+•,
y, z, to) (Adametal., 1997).The orebodyis approximately370 m
long and 165 m wide with an averagethicknessof 30 m.
= F-• e•t•:'•-•'Tax
2 2 F[Pfe(y,
z)u.
P(xj,
y,z,to) It is buried 1000 m below the surface. The host rocks for
the orebodyare rhyolitesand gabbros.The sulfideore-
+ pSe.
ty,z)u.s(x,y,z, }, (1) body consistsof pyrite and sphaleritewith minor chal-
and copyriteand pyrrhotite.If the contactis assumedto be
smoothwith two half-spacesaboveandbelow,then one
u.S(x•+l,
y, z, to) wouldexpecta plane-wave,normal-incidencereflection
coefficientof 0.14 (Salisburyet al., 1996). However,as
= F-1{eU'k•-k2
raxF[j tY,z)u.S(x•
rpSS, ,Y,z,to) the surfaceof the orebodyis roughandthe body is thin,
the energyreturnedmay vary significantlydue to the
+ Pjes
(y,z)u.P(x•,
y,z,to)]}, (2) effectsof interferenceand scattering.Both surface3D
describe the process. Looking at equation (1): andVSP surveyshavebeenacquiredin the area.The 3D
u•'(xj,y, z, to)istheincident ona subvolume surveycovered
P-wave anareaof 20 km2 with 1900receivers
of themodel
bounded
screen
j; pj•eis thespatially and 956 dynamiteshots.After processingto a stacked
variant correctionfor propagationdelay and the con- section,the 3D datashowa diffractionhyperbolathat is
version factor for P- to P-wave scattering;similarly interpretedasoriginatingfromtheorebody(Adam et al.,
forpfe(y,z)uS(xj , y,z,to)whichdescribestheincident 1997). An exampleof VSP datafrom this areais shown
S-wave that traverses the volume and is converted to in Eaton (1999).
P-waveenergy.The sumof thetwopossiblesourcesof P- These two acquisition scenarios are tested here
waveenergyaretransformedinto Fourierspace(F) and (Figure 2). The first is a surface3D survey covering
thenphaseshiftedby a term that is an angle-dependant an areaof 4 km2 usinga regulargridof 1681single-
functionthatpropagatesthe wavefieldby a distanceAx, componentvertical geophoneswith a 50-m spacingin
the width of the subvolume. The inverse Fourier trans- both inline and crossline directions, with 25 P-wave
form(F -•) returns to spatialcoordinates point sourceson a 500-m grid. The areal coverageis
thewavefield
at the outputface of the currentsubvolume,ready for shadedgrey on Figure 2. The secondis a seriesof
inputintothe next subvolumeof the modelboundedby 3-componentVSPs (vertical seismicprofiles)spacedat
screenj + 1. The samedescriptioncan be usedto de- 500 m alonga line throughthebody(numbered1 to 5 on
codeequation(2) for S-wavescattering. Figure2), with onesourcepointat the collarof the VSP
The schemeabove is used to propagatethe wave- directlyoverthe body (#3) and the secondat the collar
field forward throughthe model (Figure 1). The oper- of VSP #1, 1000m awayfromthebody(Figure3). Both
atorspjee(y,z), etc.,incorporate
thecalculation
ofthe datasetsare acquiredwith andwithouta heterogeneous
backscatteredenergythat canbe savedat eachscreenas backgroundof scatterersto simulateother scatteringin
the forwardwavepassesthroughthemodel.The compu- the hostvolcanicsequence.
tationof thebackscattered
signalis thensimple.Starting Three completerunswere madefor boththe 3D and
with a zero wavefield for both P- and S-waves at the base VSP surveys:the first ran, with an orebodyhaving a
of the model,the wavefieldis passedback throughthe compressional-wave velocityof 6000 m/s, a shear-wave
model accordingto equations(1) and (2), but as each velocityof 3464m/s,anda densityof 4500kg/m3 in
screenis encountered,
the savedlocalbackscattered sig- a homogeneoushost rock with a compressional-wave
nal is added into the total wavefield so that when the field velocity (Ve) of 6000 m/s, a shear-wavevelocity of
reachesthe surface,it has "collected" all the backscat- 3464m/sanddensity
of2900kg/m3(Figure4); thesec-
teredenergywith the correcttravelpathsandscattering. ond ran, with the sameorebodybut with the hostrock
defined as a 3D self-similar medium with a Gaussian
probabilitydensityfunction(Frenje and Juhlin,2000).
IMAGING OF THE BELL ALLARD
The correlationlengthis 120 m with a standarddevia-
MASSIVE SULFIDE OREBODY
tion of 2% and Hurst numberof 0.1 superimposedon
The Bell Allard deposit is a massivesulfide ore- a backgroundvelocity of 6000 m/s, shear-waveveloc-
body locatedin an Archean volcanic sequenceat the ity and densityvary accordingthe relationshipsabove;
Matagami mining camp in the northeastof Canada and the final run with a heterogeneous
hostrock, as in

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62 Simulating elastic wavesin the hardrock environment

Save outputwavefield

/thi•Sthe• NO

Initialize wavefields to
zero at top of model
and inject source

Sum forward scattered

components
Apply phaseshiftin
frequencydomainto
move wavefield to
next screen
Apply phaseshift in
frequencydomainto
move wavefield to
next screen

Save backscattered
Apply correction wavefield for
to phasedelaysand current screen
computescattering
Add backscattered
wavefield for current
screen to wavefield

Sum forward scattered

components

Apply correction
to phasedelaysand
computescattering

NO
Initialize wavefield
to zero at base of
model

YES
Fig. 1. Flow diagramshowingthe operationof the complex-screen
modelingcode.

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 3D modeling of seismic-wavepropagation using complex elastic screens 63

9O ß ß ß ß

•4 - section
B 7O

#3 '

1000 m

lO 30 70 90

Crossline number

Fig. 2. Surfacelayoutof the 3D model. The shadedarearepresentsthe coverageof the 3D surfaceseismic

datawith a receiverspacingof 50 m anda shotspacingof 500 m (diamonds).The largediamondsshowthe
locationof computedVSPs (#3 and #4) for shotsat locations#1 and #3. The vertical sectionslabeledAA
andBB are shownin Figure3. The orebodylies at the centerof the model directlyunderVSP location#3.

the secondrun, with the standarddeviationin velocity
increased to 5%.
The physicalparametersof the model are specified
on a 20 x 20 x 10 m three-dimensionalgrid (Figure 3).
This is then horizontallysliced,in depth, into volumes
of varying thicknessaccordingto the conditionsof the
complex-screenmethoddescribedabove.The shotsand
the receiversneed not be located on a node point of
the grid as the wavefieldis fully definedon any given
screen,making it possibleto interpolateaccuratelythe
wavefieldat anyspecifiedpoint.The edgeof themodelis
boundedby a 160 m wide attenuationzone to minimize
wrap-aroundeffects.Any part of the wavefieldentering
this zone is systematicallyreducedin amplitudewith a
Gaussianweightingfunctionwhichdecaysfromunityto
1/1000 towardsthe edgeof the box. Thoughvery effec-
tive for thenormalincidencesimulations,thisboundary
conditiondoesleave a small amountof energythat ap-
pearson the VSP records.When theseeffectsbecome
serious,they can be further reducedby increasingthe
sizeof the model,increasingthe width of the absorbing
boundaryor by increasingthe numberof screens.
For the 3D surfacesimulation,the model is sampled
every 20 m in the two horizontal directionswith 128
samplesin eachdirection.The positioningof the screens
in theverticaldirectionvarieswith depth.The top 800 m
is sampledevery 100 m, then from 800 m to 1160 m,
screensareplacedevery10m. The orebodyispositioned
in the centerof the modelat an averagedepthof 980 m.
The P-wave point sourcefunctionis zero-phase,has a
flat frequencyspectrumof 0.1-400 Hz and generates
energyoutto 60ø from thevertical.The top surfaceis an
absorbingboundary.The codeis run on an Ultra Sparc
333 MHz workstationwith 512 Mb memoryandtypical
run times for each shotare 2.8 CPU hrs. For the VSP, the
parameterizationis similar exceptthat there is a screen
every 10 m andthemodelsizeis increasedto 256 by 256
samplesto minimizeboundaryeffectnoise,asdiscussed
above.A VSP simulationtakes29 hrper shotonthesame
workstation.
3D Results
Figure5 showsthreeof the shotgathers,onefrom the
model without scatterers in the host rock and the oth-
erswherethe scatterersare present.The datahavebeen
filtered by a zero-phaseband-passfilter (50-150 Hz)
and have been 3D binned then stackedand migrated

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64 Simulating elasticwavesin the hardrock environment

Section AA
to identify the lower frequencydiffractionscausedby
#1 #3 #4
the orebody,but when the standarddeviation is in-
!
I ! creased to 5%, identification of the diffractions caused
I t
I ! by the orebodyis no longerpossible.There is a high
!
! ! frequencycomponentin the scatteringevident on all
500 -
t
three shotgathersthat maybeattributedto the orebody.
t
!
However,this characteristicis not a reliable diagnos-
! I
tic for analyzingfield data where the real scattering
..c: lOOO -
may not fit with the simplemodel chosenhere. Stack-
ing the datain the 3D volumeyields a more encourag-
ing resultfor the weakerscatteringhostrock. Figure5
1500 -
showsa verticalslicethroughthe stackedvolumealong
sectionAA. The high-frequencycomponentis lost but
the presenceof the orebodycanbe detectedby thepres-
2000 i i i ence of diffractionhyperbolas.Again, identificationof
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90

Inline number
the orebodyin the strongerscatteringhostrock is diffi-
cult;the strongerdiffractionsat 350-370 mscanbe seen
Section BB buttheirorigincanonlybe confirmedby referenceto the
#3 otherstacks.Three-Dmigrationof the stackvolumecol-
I.
lapsesthe diffractionsbut givesa very disjointedimage.
This image is the sameon all of the migratedsections
shownin Figure 5. Migration has further increasedthe
500 -
amplitudeof the signalfrom the orebody,but the poor
lateral coherencymakesit difficult to interpret.
The roughsurfaceof theorebodyproducesa complex
..c: lOOO - interferingdiffractionpatternthat is bestvisualizedas
t
time slicesthroughthe 3D stackvolume(Figure6). This
showsthe shift of the centerof the diffractingbody to
1500 - higherinline numbersat longertraveltimesbecauseof
its dip.

2000 ß .• i i i i i • • • VSP Results

lO 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90

Crossline
Fig. 3. Sectionsthroughthe 3D volume showingthe
locationof the modeledorebodyand its relationshipto
the VSP boreholes//3and//4 (dashedlines)and shotsat
locations #1 and//3. The box on section AA shows the
location of the stackedsectionsand migrated images
shownin Figure5.
assuminga velocity of 6000 m/s. The selectedshot
lies directlyabovethe orebodyand on the receiverline
that extendsalong the sectionAA (Figure 3). The top
boundaryof the reflectedarrivalsfor the nonscattering
host rock caseis determinedby the orebody,whereas
for the scatteringhostrock this boundaryis set by the
top of the scatteringvolume at 800 m depth (266 ms
at normal incidence). When there is a 2% standard
deviation in velocity of the host rock, it is possible
number
Two VSPs for two shotsarepresented.One VSP (#3,
Figure 1) penetratesthe orebodyand the other(#4) is
500 m away along the sectionAA. The shotsare lo-
cated at the collars of borehole #3 and borehole #1,
1000 m apart.The point sourceproducesP-wavesonly
with a limitedaperture,givinga sphericalwavefrontout
to 40ø decayingto zero amplitudeat 60ø. Simulations
were conductedwith the orebodycontainedin a homo-
geneoushostrockandthe two scatteringhostmediums,
described above. The data are filtered between 50 and
150 Hz. All of the sectionsare plotted with a constant
scalingto enabledirect comparisonof results.For the
shot at borehole//3, the VSP in borehole//3 shows a
strongdowngoingwaveon the verticalcomponent with
little directdowngoingenergybeingrecordedon either
of the horizontalgeophones(Figure 7). With the in-
troductionof scattering,both scatteredP- and S-wave

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 3D modeling of seismic-wavepropagation using complex elastic screens 65

9OOO

8000
Pyrite

Gabbro Magnetite
7000
Rhyolite

6000

5% 2%• Basalt
Sphalerite
• O
ß Modeled
Ore
Modelled Chalcopyrite
5000 host rock

Pyrrhotite

4000
2500 3000 3500 4000 4500 5000 5500

Density(kg/m3)
Fig. 4. A summaryof thephysicalparameters at Bell-Allard afterAdam et al. (1997). The blackdotsshowthe
P-wave/density relationshipsfor oreminerals(Salisburyet al., 1996) andthe shadedareasshowlaboratory
measurements for typicalhostrocksfoundnearthe orebody.The opensquareshowsthephysicalparameters
for the modeledorebody.The filled squareshowsthe physicalparametersfor the homogeneous hostrock,
the errorbarsrepresentthe variationin P-wavevelocityanddensityintroducedinto thehostrock to simulate
scatteringwith a 2% and 5% standarddeviation.

downgoingenergy is observed.For the homogeneous scatteringmodel,higheramplitudearrivalsfrom the ore-

hostrock,upgoingenergyis recordedon all threecom-
ponentson VSP//3, with the highestamplitudeson the
vertical.For VSP//4, upgoingenergyscatteredfrom the
orebodyis seenon both the vertical and radial compo-
nentsbut not on the transversecomponent.Note that
the eventsdo not merge with the downgoingwave as
the orebodydoesnot intersectthis borehole.The intro-
duction of scatterers in the host rock has two effects.
First, it producesa continuouslevel of backscattered
energy down the VSP. Secondly,P- to S-wave scatter-
ing closeto the sourceproducesa strongdowngoing
S-wave which is seen best on the radial component;
S- to S-wavescatteringis recordedas later arrivalson
all three components.Thirdly, as more energyis scat-
tered in the overburden,less energyreachesthe level
of the orebodyand, for a velocity perturbationof 5%
the orebody,is indistinguishablefrom the background
scattering.The vertical componentfor this shot shows
the combination of scattered wavefield due to local het-
erogeneitiescloseto the boreholeand, for the weaker
body.The radial componenton VSP//4 is lessaffected
by local scatteringand showsupgoingenergyscattered
by the orebody.The groupvelocity for this energy(ar-
rowedin Figure7), is closeto 6 km/s. The syntheticsfor
the homogeneous hostrock casecanbe usedto identify
which parts of the wave are associatedwith the ore-
body as marked on the figure. However,without this
prior knowledgeunambiguousinterpretationwould be
difficult.
For the shot at borehole#1 (Figure 8), downgoing
energyis detectedon both the vertical and radial com-
ponentson all the VSPs. This energy doesnot start at
zero time becausethe shotis 1000 m awayfor VSP//3
and 1500 m away for VSP//4. The low-amplitudear-
rivals at zero time and depthare due to aliasingof the
highestsourcefrequenciesleakingawayfrom the source
injectionpoint. The late downgoingarrival seenon the
vertical and radial componentson VSPs//3 and//4 at
a depthrangeof 500-1000 m and a traveltimeof 500-
600 ms is dueto reflectionof thedowngoingwaveby the

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66 Simulating elastic wavesin the hardrock environment

homogeneous sigma= 2% sigma = 5%

:.i-•i•lI i•iii i.l,.'•lq•;
300
l•i•{• •11' :•l,iiiiiii•I
' "I',: ,, ,i•11111
shotgather E i i i
4O0

300

E
"" 350
stack
._

4OO

300
iil'(1I
• i i ,ii iill"Ji•i;:
migrated
image

10 50 90
lnline number

Fig. 5. Examplesfrom the modeled3D surfaceseismicreflectiondata set. Three typesof data are shown
along sectionAA (Figure 3): a shot gather for the shotdirectly over the orebodyand receiverline, with
tracesplotted at their mid-point location;a sectionfrom the 3D stackedvolume; and a sectionfrom the
3D migratedimage.For eachdatatype, resultsfrom the threesimulationsare shownfor the homogeneous
host rock model and for two host rocks that include scatterers with a 2% and 5% standard deviation. The
backscatteredarrivalsfor the homogeneous hostrock caseare all from the orebody,whereasfor the other
casesthe additionaleventsare due to scatteringin the hostrock. The stackedsectionand migratedimage
locationis shownas the box on sectionAA in Figure3.

edgeof the model,whichis not completelyattenuatedby DISCIJSSION

the boundarycondition.However,theseartifactsdo not
detractfrom the main conclusionspresentedhere. For
the homogeneous hostrock, the upgoingenergyis most
significantonVSP #3, whichintersectsthe orebody,with
energyon the transversecomponenttoo. Scatteringby
the orebodyis also detectedon VSP #4. Measurements
of groupvelocity showthat energyis being scatteredby
the orebodyasboth compressionalandshearwaves.The
VSP recordswith a scatteringhostrock are particularly
interesting.The scatteringof energyinto the transverse
componentof VSP #3 is dominatedby the orebodyir-
respectiveof the host rock and, for this geometry,is
diagnosticof the presenceof a small body with a large
impedancecontrastsuch as an ore deposit,as are the
higheramplitudeupgoingarrivalsobservedon the ver-
tical componentof VSP #3. When the VSP recordis a
further 500 m from the shot(VSP #4) the combination
of the vertical and radial componentsshowsa charac-
teristic pair of P- and S-wave arrivals (arrowedradial
componentson Figure 8). Again this signatureis robust
evenwhen the hostrock has 5% heterogeneity.
Implications for Detection of Orebodies
by SeismicMethods
For the seismicdetectionof orebodiesto be recog-
nized as a viable method, it must be shown to be ac-
curatein its interpretationand economicalto perform.
The modelingpresentedhereshowsthat,giventhe likely
physicalparametersof the volcanichostrock and ore-
body,it is likely that thesebodiescan be detected.
The 3D seismicreflectionmethod,as usedby the hy-
drocarbonindustry,may provideusefulinformationfor
the detectionof orebodieswithoutthe needto drill deep
holes for down-holepulse EM or VSPs. The ability to
detecttheseorebodiesis criticallydependenton the na-
ture of the hostrock. If it is only weakly reflectiveand
the orebodyhasa high impedancecontrast,thenthe ore-
body shouldbe visible on shot records.As scattering
in the hostrock increases,stackingof the 3D data im-
provesthe signal-to-noiseratio and again will help to
detectthe presenceof an orebodyas shownby Adam
et al. (1997) for real data. However,the effectiveness

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 3D modeling of seismic-wavepropagation using complex elastic screens 67

Inline number Inline number Inline number Inline number Inline number
lO 50 90 50 90 50 90 50 90 50 9C
..

ß 50-
homogeneous ,_•.•

90'

sigma = 2%

sigma- 5%

300 ms 320 ms 340 ms 360 ms 380 ms

Fig. 6. Time slicesthroughthe 3D stackedvolumefor the homogeneous model.Note the progressivemove-
mentof the locusof scatteringto higherinline numbersaspredictedby the geometryof thebody shownin
Figure 3.

of stackingcan be compromisedby an inaccurateve- detectionof scatteredenergyon thesehorizontalcom-

locity model or errors in the near-surfacemodel used
to derivestaticcorrections.Further,the presenceof lat-
erally continuousreflectorsmay disguisethe scattering
from the orebody.As in the hydrocarbonindustry,3D
surfaceseismicreflectionsurveysmaybebestusedto de-
terminethegrossgeometryof thesubsurface andto track
key horizonswhereorebodiesmayhaveformed.The dis-
advantageof surface3D is that it is an intensivemethod
involving a large field crew and accessto a seismic
processing facility.
The alternativemethod presentedin this chapteris
the use of 3-componentVSP records.The complex3D
geometryof the orebodiesmakesthem efficientscatter-
ers of seismicenergy in all directionsas both P- and
S-waves.In particular,energyscatteredout of the plane
of the propagationdirectionappearson adjacenthor-
izontal geophonesin both the radial and transverse
directions.For the homogeneoushost rock case, the
ponentscould be consideredas a diagnosticsignature
of an ore depositand evenwith significantscatteringin
the hostrock, an orebodywill still producedetectable
energy on the horizontal components.The synthetics
showthat, besideswhere the borehole intersectsthe ore-
body,significantenergycanbe detectedover500 m from
the orebodywith shotsthat may be over 1000 m away.
In fact, it appearsthat the chancesof detectingan ore-
body are improvedif the shotis not directly abovethe
body, as then the interactionof the incidentwave and
the orebodycan producesignificantscatteringin both
P- and S-wavesthat is significantlyabovethe modeled
noise level. The resultspresentedhere are consistent
with modelingand datapresentedby Eaton (1999) that
showedthat shapeand dip of the scatteringbody had a
significanteffectontheabilityto detectthem.The detec-
tion of shear-waveenergyis key to the likely successof
the method,asthe shearenergyseemsto be lessaffected

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68 Simulating elasticwavesin the hardrock environment

homogeneous sigma= 2% sigma= 5%

VSP number #3 #4 #3 #4 #3 #4
Receiverdepth (m) 0 500 1000 500 1000 500 1000 500 1000 500 1000 500 1000

'•' 200
E

vertical '•• 400

.--

6OO

'B' 2OO
E

radial '-'
E
.-- 400

6OO

• 200
E

transverse .• 400
600

Fig. 7. VSPsat locations/½3and/½4for a surfaceshotat location½½3.

The threecomponents of the geophones
are shownfor eachof the simulationswith a homogeneous, 2% and5% standarddeviation.Upward-traveling
energyon the VSPs in the homogeneous hostrock are dueto the orebody.The upgoingP-waveenergyon
VSP ½½4 is shownby anarrowontheradialcomponents for eachsimulation.Also notethedowngoingS-wave
from near sourceP- to S-waveconversionson the simulationswith heterogeneous hostrock, which is best
seenon the radial and transversecomponents.

homogeneous sigma= 2% sigma= 5%

VSP number #3 #4 #3 #4 #3 #4
Receiverdepth (m) 0 500 1000 500 1000 500 1000 500 1000 500 1000 500 1000

•' 200
E

vertical '•
.• 400
6OO

,*,
......
;."•:.]!
,. .'•ii!il
i"' !')i'l!ii'ii'•:•,,
..- ':'!i!j!i,½.,.,•
radial
•'
E
20O
....
:':::....,•
...• ............
:?,,,,•
........... ,.•,
-- ,................
i•,;f;
;;•g[',:•
....... •.•
._E 4OO
..-.•'%,., .-:;;..,.:•...-•
'•½:
ß ......... ."-•i:::
.... ½•,.'
.•"• •;;:........• ._•;!':•:,• •'- .•1;•i,!:
6OO
•$ ....... f!i•:::. • ;?...?;:::'..
..... :. .1•½::!i:•,:•:'
::,,=:
,,. •' .• :!i•
!., ......:::'.'
'-"

• 200
E

transverse ._ • 400
6OO

Fig. 8. VSPsat locations½½3and½½4 for a surfaceshotat location½½

1. The threecomponents of the geophones
are shownfor eachof the simulationswith a homogeneous, 2% and5% standarddeviation.Upwardtraveling
energyon the VSPs in the homogeneous hostrock are dueto the orebody.The upgoingP-waveand S-wave
energyon VSP ½½4 are shownby a pair of arrowson the radial components for eachsimulation.The high-
frequencydispersive waveseenon theverticalandradialcomponents startingat 0 ms is causedby aliasl'ng
of the sourceenergyand is an artifactof the modeling.

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 3D modeling of seismic-wavepropagation using complex elastic screens
by scatteringnearto theboreholecontainingthereceiver
array.Themodelingsuggests thatit shouldbepossibleto
detectsufficientlylarge orebodies,suchas Bell Allard,
usinga sparsegridof VSPsandshotsevery500-1000 m.
Modeling by the Complex-ScreenMethod
The resultspresentedhere show that the complex-
screencode is a fast and efficient methodto compute
syntheticseismograms for complex3D models.It is im-
portantto be awareof the potentialstrengthsand lim-
itationsof the code. Its prime advantagesare that it is
computationally compact,it canmodelthefull wavefield
for highly complexelasticmodelson a workstationor
competentPC and it can computethis for a frequency
rangethat is comparableto that recordedin the field. Its
resultsare limited by two approximations.The narrow-
anglerestfictionmeansthat the codeis best suitedfor
near normal incidence seismic reflection; however, the
code can also computeVSPs, but someenergywill be
lostwhenthe scatteringangleis large.This angleis fre-
quencydependentandis determinedby the k-filter used
to preventaliasingduring the propagationstep in the
Fourierdomain.Thismayappearto be a majordisadvan-
tage, but modelinghas shownthat scatteringbecomes
highly directionalaroundthe principlepropagationdi-
rectionwhenthe incidentwavelengthis smallerthanthe
size of the scatterer(Korneevand Johnson,1993). The
effect of the secondassumption,single scattering,can
be minimizedby the appropriateselectionof screenlo-
cations within the model.
The compactnatureof the complex-screen codewill
enableit to be loadedontoa portablenotebookcomputer
and taken into the field to test modelsagainstreal data
and,perhaps,to changethe proposedshotor V SP loca-
tionsand thusoptimizethe work plan to focuseffort on
likely targetsas they are detected.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The author wishes to thank A. Wild and J. Andriatsito-
hainafor helpingto developthecodeusedhere;L. Frenje
whoprovidedthedatafor generatingthe scatteringin the
hostrock;the DSI consortiumat the GeologicalSurvey
of Canada who providedthe motivation and data for
this work; and K. Holliger, D. Eaton, and M. Salisbury
for theirconstructive
reviews.CambridgeEarth Science
number: 6062.
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69
REFERENCES
Adam, E., et al., 1997, Seismic explorationfor VMS deposits,
Matagami,Qu6bec,in Gubins,A. G., Ed., Proc.of Exploration97:
4thDecennial
Internat.
Conf.onMineralExpl.,Prosp.
andDevel.
Assoc. of Can., 433-438.
Aki, K., andRichards,P. G., 1980, Quantitativeseismology:
W. H.
Freeman and Co.
Eaton, D. W., 1999, Weak elastic-wavescatteringfrom massive
sulfideorebodies:Geophysics,64, 289-299.
Frenje,L., and Juhlin,C., 1998, Scatteringof seismicwavessimu-
latedby finitedifferencemodelingin randommedia:Applications
to the Gravberg-1well, Sweden.Tectonophysics, 293, 61-68.
2000, Scatteringattenuation:2D and 3D finite difference
simulationsversustheory:J. Appl. Geophys.,44, 33-46.
Fuchs,K., andMiiller, G., 1971, Computationsof syntheticseismo-
gramswith the reflectivitymethodandcomparisonwith observa-
tions:Geophys.J., 23, 417-433.
Holliger, K., 1996, Upper-crustalseismicvelocityheterogeneityas
derivedfroma varietyof P-wavesoniclogs:Geophys.J.Internat.,
125, 813-829.
--1997, Seismicscatteringin the uppercrystallinecrustbased
on evidencefrom soniclogs:Geophys.J. Internat.,128, 65-72.
Juhlin,C., andPalm,H., 1999,3D structure
below•vr6 Islandfrom
high-resolutionreflectionseismicstudies,southeastern
Sweden:
Geophysics,64, 662-667.
Korneev,V. A., and Johnson,L. R., 1993, Scatteringof elastic
wavesby a sphericalinclusion--I. Theoryandnumericalresults:
Geophys.J. Int., 115,230-250.
Levander,A. R., 1989, Finite-differenceforwardmodelingin seis-
mology, in James, D. E., Ed., Encyclopediaof solid earth
geophysics:Van NostrandRheinhold,New York, 410-431.
Levander, A., et al., 1994a, Stochasticcharacterisationand seismic
responseof upperandmiddlecrustalrocksbasedonthe Lewisian
gneisscomplex,Scotland:Geophys.J. Internat.,119, 243-259.
Levander,A., et al., 1994b,The crustasa heterogeneous"optical"me-
dium,or "Crocodilesin themist":Tectonophysics, 232, 281-297.
Raynaud,B., 1988, Statisticalmodelingof lower-crustalreflections:
Geophys.J., 95, 111-121.
Salisbury,M. H., Milkereit, B., andBleeker,W., 1996,Seismicimag-
ing of massivesulfidedeposits:Part I. Rock properties:Econ.
Geol., 91, 821-828.
Smith,S. K., 1994,Assessing the qualityof deepseismicdata:Ph.D
thesis,Universityof Cambridge.
Snyder,D., and Hobbs,R., 1999, The BIRPS Atlas II: A secondde-
cadeof deepreflectionprofiling:Geol. Soc.London,3 CD-ROM.
Stoffa, P. L., et al., 1990, Split-stepfourier migration:Geophysics,
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Wild, A. J., Hobbs,R. W., and Frenje,L., 2000, Modeling complex
media:An introductionto the phase-screen method.Phys.Earth
Plan. 120, 219-225.
Wild, A. J., and Hudson,J. A., 1998, A geometricalapproachto the
elasticcomplexscreen:J. Geophys.Res. 103, 707-726.
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J. Geophys.Res., 99, 751-761.
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forwardmodeling:J. Expl. Geophys.24, 16-31.
 Chapter 5
Elastic Seismic-Wave Scattering from Massive
Sulfide Orebodies:
of Composition and Shape
ThomasBohlen, ChristofMiiller, and Bernd Milkereit
ABSTRACT
We studythe influenceof compositionand shapeof
massivesulfideore depositshostedin crystallinerocks
on the full scatteredwavefieldthrougha seriesof nu-
merical modeling experimentsbased on the 3D elas-
tic finite-difference(FD) method. Ores consistingof
the end-membersulfidemineralspyrite, sphalerite,and
galena,which spanthe full range of observedveloci-
ties and densitiesin ore rocks, as well as gabbro in-
clusions,are investigatedfor six differentshapeswhich
representthe complexmorphologiesoftenobservedfor
ore deposits.Three-D FD modelingrevealedthat large
ore depositslead to a strongand complexscatteringre-
sponsethat is dominatedby shear-waveevents.Scatter-
ing frommassivesulfidescannotbe describedaccurately
by the widely usedBorn approximation.The shapeof
the oremainlycontrolsthe directionaldistributionof the
scatteredwavefield. The directivity imposedby shape
is a first-order characteristicof the scatteredwavefield,
whereascompositioneffects are of secondaryimpor-
tance.Amplitude focusingcausedby the shapeof the
depositmay leadto very strongamplitudevariationwith
offset/azimuthtrends. Therefore, the interpretationof
amplitudevariationwith offset/azimuthvariationsalong
scatteringhyperbolasis highly ambiguouswithout de-
tailed prior knowledgeof the inclusionshape.The FD
modelingshowedthatthe firstarrivalphasereversalsoc-
cur almostirrespectiveof shape.If observed,they may
serveas a diagnostictool to classifythe compositionof
the scatteringobject.
INTRODUCTION
In mineralexploration,massive-sulfideorebodiesare
traditionally a target of electromagneticor potential-
field techniques.Seismic methodsare often regarded
7O
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On the Role
as ambiguousand ineffective,due to a generallack of
understandingof how observedwavefieldcharacteris-
tics correlatewith subsurfaceand in-situ physicalrock
properties.
Laboratoryinvestigations haveshownthat strongcon-
trastscanexistbetweenthe elasticpropertiesof massive
sulfideoresandtypical crystallinehostrocks(Salisbury
et al., 1996). Direct observationsof seismicscattering
from deepmassivesulfideore depositsindicatea com-
plex responseand havebeen identified,for example,in
boreholeseismicrecordings(Adam et al., this volume),
2D surface-seismic studies(Calvert and Li, 1999), and
3D seismicsurveys(Milkereit et al., 2000) in Canada.
Thesemeasurements indicatethat seismicscatteringby
ores may give rise to pronouncedamplitude-variation
with offset(AVO) andamplitude-versus-azimuth trends.
Full wavefield seismic modeling will provide a bet-
ter understandingof the observedtrendsand may lead
to more effective design, processing,and interpreta-
tion of 3D seismic surveys for mineral exploration.
In addition,it providesthe kernel for the inversionof
seismicamplitudes.
For any inhomogeneousmodel, the term scattered
wavefieldhereindenotesthe differencebetweenthe en-
tire wavefieldand a so-calledreferencewavefield.The
latter corresponds to the casewherethe targetbody is
absent.This definition for the scatteredwavefield, which
hasits rootsin perturbationtheory,includessignalsthat
are scatteredin any direction, including forward and
back-scattered signals.It shouldbe notedthat forward
andback-scattered signalsarenotmathematicallyequiv-
alent to familiar notions of reflected and transmitted
waves,which are typically definedfor the specialcase
of plane wavesincidenton a planar interface.
Exact solutionsfor scatteringproblems are known
for only a few types of shapes,e.g., sphericalinclu-
sions(Korneev and Johnson,1993a). Thus, asymptotic
 Elastic seismic-wavescattering from massivesulfide orebodies
solutionsare commonlyused to predict the main fea-
tures of the scatteredwavefield from more complexly
shapedbodies.Recently,approximatemethodsbasedon
the Born approximationhavebeenusedto explainthe
observeddirectivityof scatteredwavesfrom deep de-
positsin termsof the shapefactor,which dependsonly
on the shapeof the inclusion(Milkereit et al., 2000;
Eaton, 1999). However,it is not yet clearto what degree
this approximationis valid. Therefore, full amplitude
modelingof the seismicscatteringresponseof ore de-
positsremainsimportant.In additionto thisuncertainty,
the low signal-to-noise ratio of seismicdatafrom crys-
talline terranesmakesit imperativeto determinethe di-
agnosticcharacteristics of scatteringfromorebodiesthat
distinguishthem from sourcesof coherentnoisesuchas
reflectionsfrom mafic sills or fractures.Surveydesign,
processing, andinterpretation needto be tunedto the an-
ticipatedresponseof potentiallyeconomicore deposits.
In thischapterwe investigate theinfluenceof thecom-
positionandshapeof smallandlargeorebodiesthrough
a seriesof numericalmodeling experimentsbasedon
the 3D FD method.Besidea typicalgabbro,the sulfide
mineralspyrite, galena,and sphaleriteare usedas end-
membersto studythe influenceof composition,because
theyspanthe full rangeof observedvelocitiesanddensi-
ties of ore rocks.Massivesulfideore depositsoften are
of complexshapebecausetheir rheologyis generally
moreplasticthanthe surroundingrocks.This motivated
us to consider3D inclusionsof differentshape:a point
scatterer,a sphere,a lens,a dike, a fractal shapedbody,
andthe Bell Allard orebody.The aim of thischapteris to
investigatethe separateinfluenceof shapeandcomposi-
tion on the full scatteredwavefield,andthusto providea
frameworkfor the futureinterpretationof seismicscat-
tering from massivesulfidedepositsin the crystalline
crust.
In the firstpart of the paperwe analyzethe influence
of the compositionof small inclusionson the observed
scatteredamplitudesusing Rayleigh-scattering theory.
In this contextwe also investigatethe accuracyof the
widelyusedBornapproximation for Rayleighscattering,
by comparingit to low-frequencyRayleigh scattering
solutionsderived for a sphere.In the secondpart we
extendour analysisto largerinclusionswith a diameter
of approximatelyone wavelength(Mie scattering).We
considereffectscausedby scatteringfrom largebodies
with differentshapesandcompositionin orderto assess
the relativeimportanceof shapeversuscompositionin
controllingthe full wavefieldscatteringresponseof ore
depositsin a crystallineenvironment.
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71
SMALL INCLUSIONS
(RAYLEIGH SCATTERING)
Seismic-wavescatteringby small crystallineinclu-
sionscan be describedby the Rayleigh scatteringthe-
ory. An inclusioncanbe assumedto be smallwhen the
averagesize of the scatterer(L) is much smaller that
the wavelength(X) of the incidentwave, i.e., L/X << 1.
Grittoet al., (1995) showedthatthe errorof theRayleigh
scatteringtheory is less than 5% if L/X is less than
0.17. Thus,for a typicalP-wavelengthof 100 m in crys-
talline environments, Rayleighscatteringtheorycanbe
appliedto inclusionswith diameterslessthan approx-
imately 17 m. Such small ore bodieswould be of no
commercialinterestbut canbe regardedasbeingpart of
a biggerinclusion,aswill be discussed in the following
section.
Scattered Amplitudes of P-P and P-S Waves
In thissectionwe analyzethe influenceof composition
on the amplitudesof displacementof scatteredP-waves
andconvertedS-waves.We comparelow-frequencyfor-
mulasderivedfor a spherewith the commonlyapplied
Rayleigh-Bornapproximation(Gubernatiset al., 1977a;
Wu, 1989; Eaton, 1999). The low-frequencysolutions
for a sphere,which are valid for arbitrarystrongcon-
trastsin material properties,were derivedby Korneev
and Johnson(1993a,b; 1996).
Figure 1 showsthe influenceof compositionon the
displacementamplitudesof scatteredP-P waves(a) and
convertedS-waves(b). In the following we refer to
these functionsalso as "compositionfactor" for P-P
and P-S waves,respectively.Solid lines correspondto
the analytical solution obtained for a sphere in the
long-wavelengthlimit (equation(22) of Korneev and
Johnson,1993b), whereasthe Rayleigh-Bornapproxi-
mations[equation(2.11) ofGubematis et al., 1977; see
also equations(9) and (10) of Wu and Aki, 1985] are
indicatedby the dashedlines.The elasticparametersfor
the typesof inclusionsconsideredare listedin Table 1.
The scatteringangle 0 in Figure 1 denotesthe an-
gle betweenthe incident P-wave and the direction of
the scatteredwave. The forwarddirectioncorresponds
to 0 = 0 ø and the backward direction to 0 = 180 ø. From
Figure 1 it is obviousthat a variation in the composi-
tion affectsthe amplitudeof displacementof the scat-
tered P- and S-waves.Generally,the scatteredP-waves
show minimum displacementamplitudesat approxi-
mately0 - 60ø-100ø,i.e., more-or-lessperpendicularto
the incidentdirection,and maximum amplitudesin the
72 Simulating elastic wavesin the hardrock environment

RayleighScatteringP-P Table 1. Average P-wave velocity (o•), S-wave velocity

• Pyrite (13), and density (p) for the five types of inclusions and

i •..............
•........
•.........
• !Sphalerite
......
•'•i
.....
.. the crystalline background medium considered in this
+ Galena

study (Salisbury et al., 1996; Schbn, 1996).

[] Gabbro
4> Quartzite
o•[m/s] [3[m/s] p[kg/m3]
Pyrite 8040 5140 5020
Sphalerite 5500 2680 4080
Galena 3650 1990 7560
Gabbro 6200 3300 3000
Quartzite 4000 2560 2600
Background 6000 3000 2700

in which the receiversare lying more or lessperpendic-

ular to the incident direction will tend to be dominated
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180

a) Scatteringangle (deg.) by the convertedS-waves.The overallamplitudesof the

RayleighScatteringP-S
•1. ß i ! !
3-
"ø'&•
0 • 40 • •
b) Scafferingangle (deg.)
Fig. 1. Far-fieldscattering
patterns(compositionfactors)
of P-waves(a) andconvertedS-waves(b) fora smallinclu-
sion(sphere
withradiusof 5 m) in a crystalline
medium.
Solidhnescorrespond to the low frequencysolutionfor
a sphere,dashedlinesto the Rayleigh-Bornapproxima-
tions.Plotsshowvariationsin amplitudeof displacement
versuscomposition(seeTable1). Incidentwaveis a plane
P-wave(centerfrequency50 Hz) propagatingin the for-
warddirection(0 = 0ø).The dashedcurveswerealsoob-
tainedand discussedby Eaton (1999).
forward(0 = 0ø) andbackward(0 = 180ø) directions.In
thelatterdirectionsthe scatteredS-wavesgenerallyhave
zero amplitudes.In comparisonwith the P-waves,the
S-waveamplitudesof displacementare relativelyhigh
when the scatteringsignal deviatesfrom the incident
direction.The overall displacementamplitudesof the
converted
S-waves
areapproximately
(O•o/[3o)
2m3times
strongerthantheP-P amplitudeswhereO•o and[3odenote
the backgroundvelocitiesof the compressionalwaves
and shearwaves,respectively[seeequation(22) of Ko-
rneev and Johnson,1993b]. Therefore,VSP recordings
P-P andP-S wave scatteringresponsedoesnot constrain
ii i ...... i .......
the composition,sincethe total scatteringamplitudeis
proportionalto the volume of the inclusion(Korneev
• Sphalerite and Johnson,1993b).
[]Gabbro
• Qua•ite
Accuracy of the Born Approximation
Elastic-wavescatteringby small inclusionsis often
describedby the Rayleigh-Bornapproximation.Exam-
ples are the estimationof the seismicattenuationfrom
coda waves (Sato, 1984), the classificationof the in-
fluenceof the compositionon the scatteredwaveampli-
tudes(Wu andAki, 1985),andtheanalysisof the scatter-
ing characteristics of massivesulfideorebodies(Eaton,
1• 120 1• 1• 180
1999). The validity of the Born approximationfor the
different scatteringsituationshas been investigatedby
severalauthors(Gubernatiset al., 1977b; Hudsonand
Heritage, 1981; Korneev and Johnson,1993b; Gritto
et al., 1995). The validationconditionsfor the Rayleigh-
Born approximationare rather complicatedand de-
pend on the elasticparametersof both the background
medium and the scatterer.Generally,the Born approxi-
mation for Rayleighscatteringis valid if the contrastin
the materialsis small. In the following, we will investi-
gatethe accuracyof the Born approximationin estimat-
ing the radiation patternsfor high-contrastinclusions
(Table 1) in crystallinehost rocks, suchas orebodies,
which are targetsfor mineral exploration.For compar-
ison with the anlayticalsolutionsfor the small sphere
in the long-wavelengthlimit (Figure 1, solid lines) we
plottedthe scatteringpatternscomputedwith the Born
approximationin Figure 1 asdashedlines.The compar-
isonrevealsthatthe Born approximationis significantly
in error when there is a large contrastin the velocity
(pyrite, quartzite),but seemsto be quite accuratefor
largedensitycontrasts(galena).

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 Elastic seismic-wavescattering from massivesulfide orebodies
The relativeamplitudeerrorof theRayleigh-Bornap-
proximationaveragedover all scatteringangles(0ø to
180ø) is shownas a continuousfunction of P-wave ve-
locity and densityof the inclusionin Figure2 for P-P
scattering(a) and P-S scattering(b). The error pat-
terns for the scattered P-waves and converted
are very similar.For crystallinehostrocksa perturba-
tion in seismicvelocity leads to a much larger error
than a perturbationin density.A domainwith small er-
rors (lessthan 2%) can be observedfor perturbations
lying betweenthe parametersof the crystallineback-
ground(square)and galena.In this area the inclusions
have approximatelythe sameimpedance(dottedlines)
as the backgroundmedium. Therefore,the Rayleigh-
Born approximationis most accurateif the velocity
and/orimpedancecontrastis small.However,in orderto
avoidinaccuracies,we suggestusingthe analyticallong-
wavelengthformulasfor the sphere,which are mathe-
maticallyvery similarto theweak-contrast
Bornapprox-
imations.
First-Arrival Phase Reversals
For an incidentplaneP-wavethe amplituderadiation
patternof the scatteredP-wave[P-P compositionfactor,
seeequation(22) of Korneevand Johnson,1993b] is a
quadraticfunction of cos0, where 0 denotesthe scat-
tering angle. The compositionfactor may thus exhibit
zero,one,or two zerocrossings at real-valuedscattering
angles(seeFigure l a). Each real-valuedzero crossing
corresponds to a phasereversalof the scatteredP-wave.
We have analyzedthe sensitivityof the phase-reversal
position(scatteringangle0) with respectto the compo-
sitionby computingthe zero crossingsof the P-P com-
positionfactor.Isolinesof the scatteringanglesfor the
firstandsecondphasereversalsare shownin Figure3a
and 3b, respectively.The patternshownin this figure
revealsthat a singlephasereversaloccursfor a broad
range of elastic perturbations.If observedin seismic
recordings,it may serve as an indicator for the com-
positionof the inclusion.Note, for example,thatpyrite
and quartziteinclusionsdo not showa phasereversal,
whereassphaleriteproducesa phase reversal.In the
caseof weak impedancecontrasts,the phasereversal
occursmainly in the backwarddirection([0[ > 90ø).In
this directionthe impedancecontrastbetweenthe scat-
terer and the crystallinehost rock can be determined
relativelywell. In the caseof positivedensityand ve-
locityperturbations, thephasereversaloccursmainlyin
theforwarddirection([0[ > 70ø).Generally,for negative
Downloaded 26 Jun 2012 to 95.28.162.50. Redistribution subject to SEG license or copyright; Terms of Use: http://segdl.org/
73
velocityanddensitycontrasts,no phasereversalwill be
observed.
Figure 3 showsthe variationof phasereversalposi-
tionsasa functionof P-wavevelocityanddensityonly.
Note that the phasereversalpositionalso dependson
S-waves the S-velocityof the inclusion.For the computationof
the isolines,we assumeda constantod[3-ratioof two.
The patternchangesfor otherratios.For example,gab-
bro showstwo phasereversals(not shownin Figure3)
if we assumethe elasticparametersfor gabbrolistedin
Table1 (seealsothe solidcurvefor gabbroin Figure1).
LARGE INCLUSIONS
(MIE SCATTERING)
In the previoussectionwe showedthat the compo-
sition has a significantinfluenceon the displacement
amplitudeand phaseradiationpattern for point scat-
terers.In this sectionwe extendour analysisto larger
inclusions,with a diameterof approximatelyone com-
pressionalwavelength.Suchlargebodiesrelativeto the
wavelength, thatfall withinthe so-calledMie scattering
regime,are of specialeconomicalinterestin mineralex-
ploration.In ordertounderstand andclassifysomeof the
typicalfeaturesof thefull wavefieldscatteredat largein-
clusions,we performa seriesof numericalexperiments
basedon a 3D viscoelasticfinite-differencealgorithm.
In particular,we investigatethe relativeimportanceof
the shapeand compositionof the scatterer.
Full-Wavefield Modeling
Some full-wavefieldforward modelingstudieshave
been carried out to analyze the Mie scatteringre-
sponseof isolatedobjectsusingdifferentmodelingtech-
niques (Bostock, 1991; Bostock and Kennett, 1992;
KomeevandJohnson,1993a;Liu andWu, 1994; Dong
and Rector, 1995; Imhof, 1996; Benites et al., 1997;
Yomogidaet al., 1997; Eaton, 1999). In this studywe
use the 3D viscoelastic finite-difference method for
this purposefor the first time. Our FD algorithmis a
3D extension of the 2D viscoelastic and elastic finite
algorithmsdescribedby Robertsonet al. (1994) and
Levander(1988), respectively.The FD programsolves
the velocity-stressformulation of the 3D viscoelastic
wave equationon a staggeredgrid (Bohlen, 1998). The
accuracy
ofthefinite-difference
operators
areof4thorder
in space
andof 2ndorderintime[O(4,2,)].
Finite-differencemodelingis commonlyregardedas
a realistic modeling method for arbitrarily complex
74 Simulating elastic wavesin the hardrock environment

lO

! !

Background ., Sphalerite ,.
,

;> 4 •'-•0'.,Quartzite
,.

• 31
-'--'•-
2 •

1
a) I 2 3 4 õ 6 7 8
Density(kg/m3)
lO

! !

,,

'Background ß
,

ß ,.
ß

•s'"•'•' 0 Quartzi "" ,.

Galena

1
b) • • 3 4 õ $ 7 8
Density
(kg/m
3)
Fig. 2. Error of the Rayleigh-Bornapproximation
for (small)inclusions
of variousvelocitiesanddensi-
tiesembedded
in crystalline
background
(square)
assuming
Ot2/•2-- 3. Theisolines
givethemeanrela-
tive error (averagedoverall scatteringangles)in percent;(a) error for P-P scattering,(b) error for P-S
scattering. Dottedlinesarelinesof constantacousticimpedance.

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 Elastic seismic-wavescattering from massivesulfide orebodies 75

lO

. . "',,, '•.Pyrit

ß
•
i
• Gabbr. -,. ß
' .

• •[ ",. •• Sphalerite "-,-.

'•
E a[
'"t
Quart ---_•
'
'"""-.. -'••ø•,"'••"-.•,Gooalena-

1 2 3 6 7 8
a) n [kg/m•]
Density
10 ! ,

• 8
'-..• •Pyrlte "...,,.
• 7

• 6 • Gabbro '.,,
'""-...
,...
-....
!.,......
:
ß
.,,, ß
"',.,...
•Sphaledte
,..,. --,-..
.
....
• 4 'a.Quartzite --..,.. --. ß

• 3 ".,,.. '"........... Galena.

, - .....

I I I I I 'i ......... ,,
2 3 4 5 6 7 8
b) Density
[kg/m
3]
Fig. 3. The labeledisolinesshowthe scatteringdirection(0) of the first-arrivalphasereversalas a function
of inclusionP-wavevelocityanddensity(o•/[3= 2.0 assumed); (a) Firstzerocrossingof theP-P composition
factor [equation(22a) of Korneevand Johnson,1993b], (b) secondzero crossing.For a broadrange of
perturbations, a singlephasereversaloccurs.If observed,it may help to classifythe type of the inclusion.
Dotted lines are lines of constantimpedance.

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76 Simulating elastic wavesin the hardrock environment

........ ! .... ! ...... ! ......... 1 ............ ! ...... ! ..... ' ....... i ............ ! ............ i ........

• • ,,•,

• •' ,,••.... vi•co•

p Z' ..." ...... •D•D v??•,•i• I
lO-" Z/' ........

Model sizein eachdimention[m]

a)

// .,,-',,'.............

f,..;...
,•,"'"'-
:...
;.... , 3• ,
200 400 600 8(X) 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000

b) Model size in eachdimention[m]

Fig. 4. Computationalrequirementsfor an 0(4,2) staggeredgrid 2D/3D elastic/viscoelastic
finite difference
algorithmasa functionof modelsize.Requirementswere estimatedfor a dominantfrequencyof 50 Hz and
a typical crystallinerock (o•- 6 km/s, [3- 3 km/s); (a) CPU-time per secondof seismicwavepropagation
time (CPU with a performanceof 1 Gflopsassumed).(b) memoryrequirements(8 bytesper float).

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 Elastic seismic-wavescattering from massivesulfide orebodies 77

-200

•,•,-400
lOOO

500

500
-500

-SO0 -1000 X (m)

Y (m)

Fig. 5. Three-D model of an inclusion(black) embeddedin a homogeneous crystallinebackground.See

Table 1 for inclusionand hostrock properties.The inclusionis a 400 m x 100 m x 200 m paraboliclens
centeredat a depthof 500 m. The long andintermediateaxeslie in thex-z (sagittal)plane.The long axis
dips45ø in the directionof positivex.

models.Inaccuracies,i.e., numericalgrid dispersionand 3D Finite-Difference Results

grid anisotropy,may occurif the spatialand temporal
samplingis not fine enough.For our 0(4,2) scheme,
thespatialgridspacing
h mustbelessthatX•
min
/6and
kmindenotes
theminimum shearwavelength
withinthe
model. This guaranteesthat the error due to numerical
dispersionis smallerthan $ percent(Robertsonet al.,
1994). The 3D FD algorithmis stableprovidedthe time-
stepAt fulfills the criterion
6h
At < signal is a Ricker wavelet with a center-frequencyof
- 7•-•otmax
' 50 Hz. The 3D modelwas discretizedwith a grid spac-
whereotmaxis the maximumP-wavevelocitywithin the
model(Blanch, 1995).
Based on the stability criterion for an FD simula-
tion, we plottedthe computationalrequirementsof elas-
tic/viscoelastic0(4,2) staggered-gridfinite-difference
schemes for 2D and3D inclusionmodelsin Figure4. We
seethat the requirementsincreaseapproximatelyexpo-
nentiallywith the size of the model, but are feasibleon
modernsupercomputers. For example,3D elasticmod-
eling of a crystallinecubewith 2-km sidesrequiresap-
proximately60 hoursof CPU-time and one Gigabyte
of memoryfor one secondof seismicwavepropagation
time (singlevector-processor, CRAY T94). We are cur-
rentlydevelopinga parallelversionof the FD program
andfoundthattheCPU timecanbesubstantially reduced
by distributingthe work on severalprocessors usingthe
Message-Passing Interface(MPI).
The large scatterer,which we investigatefirst, is the
lens-shaped3D inclusionshownin Figure5. The inclu-
sion is a 400 m x 100 m x 200 m paraboliclens. The
centerof the paraboliclensis centeredat (0,0,-500)m.
The long and intermediateaxeslie in the x-z (sagittal)
plane. The long axis dips 45ø in the directionof posi-
tive x. The shot and receivers also lie within the vertical
sagittalplane of the lens, 10 m below the surface.The
explosivesourceis locatedat X =-300 m. The source
ing of 5 m, the time stepAt was0.375 ms.A free surface
conditionwasappliedat the top of the model.The elas-
tic parametersusedfor this model are givenin Table 1.
A similar model was also investigatedby Eaton (1999)
usingthe Born approximation.
The scattered wavefield is defined as the difference
between the total and the incident wavefield. In order
to obtainthe scatteringresponsefrom the inclusion,we
subtracted the incidentwavefield(directarrivalsandthe
groundroll) from the total wavefield.This procedureis
explainedin Figure6. The resultingsyntheticdifference
seismograms showthe seismicresponseof the inclusion
and its modificationsby the earth'ssurface.
One of the advantagesof the FD methodis the abil-
ity to saveparticlevelocity for any numberof pointson
the grid and for all discretetime-steps.A particularly
informativeway to view wave propagationand to dis-
tinguishP- and S-wavesis to apply spatialdivergence

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78 Simulating elastic wavesin the hardrock environment
Y [m]
-300 0 300
0.i , , 0.i , ,
O.2
O. 0.3
O. 0.4
VVith scatterer
Fig. 6. The pure scatteringresponse(right) is obtainedby subtractingthe finite differencesimulationfor a
homogeneous crustwithoutthe inclusion(middle) from a simulationwherethe scattereris included(left).
The inclusion(lens)is locatedat Y = 0 rn and500 rn belowthe surface(seeFigure5). Seismograms
are normalizedon maximumamplitudes.
and curl operatorson the particle velocities(Morse and
Feshbach,1953). In order to preservethe phaseof the
resultingP- and S-energyfield,the energyvaluesat each
grid point are multipliedwith the signof the divergence
andcurl operators(Doughertyand Stephen,1988). Such
snapshots of the scatteredcompressional andshear-wave
energywithin the verticalsagittalplanethroughthe lens
areshownin Figures7 and8. Note thatthesnapshots plot
the spatialdistributionof scatteredenergy,which can-
notbe directlycomparedwith the scattereddisplacement
amplitudesdiscussedin the first part of the paper.We
assumethat the lens consistsof sphalerite(see Table 1
for the materialpropertiesof the inclusionandthe back-
ground).For comparison,the energyof the snapshots
was normalizedto the incidentP-wave arriving at the
lens.
From Figure7 we seethat the P-P energy(E • 30%)
is mainly scatteredin the forward direction.The back-
scatteredP-P energyis just roughly 3% of the incident
P-wave energy.In contrast,the maximum S-P energy
(E • 4%) propagates horizontallyin the downdipdirec-
tion. The S-S energy(Figure8) generatesa complicated
patternof S-S-P waves(Figure7, T > 0.2 s).
The snapshotsof the scatteredshear-waveenergy
(Figure8) showthatthe convertedS-wave(P-S) mainly
travelsperpendicular to the incidentdirection.Although
theinclusionis large,thisagreeswith theRayleighscat-
teringtheory (Figure lb). The energyof the converted
S-waves(Em 10%) is significantlyhigherthantheback-
scatteredP-P waves(Em 3%). The interferenceof the
P-S waveswithin the lensleadsto a strongfocusingof
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Y [m] Y [m]
-300 0 300 -300 0 300
0
0
0.
Without scatterer Difference
shown
shear-waveenergy(Figure 8, T = 0.23 s), whichpropa-
gatesbackwardto the surface.
Due to the direct interactionof the explosivesource
with the free surface,a strongdirect S-waveis emitted.
The direct S-wave has approximatelyfour times more
energythan the direct P-wave (E • 400%). High am-
plitude direct S-wavesare generallyobservedin VSP
recordingsin crystallinerock. The high energyof the
direct S-waves leads to strong scatteredS-S waves
(E•300%), which mainly propagate downward
(Figure 8, T = 0.18 s).
As canbe expectedfrom the snapshots, seismograms
recordedat the surfaceshowa complexwavefielddue
to the interferenceof multiple scatteredand converted
waves (Figure 9). One can clearly distinguishP-wave
from S-waveeventsby their different apparentveloci-
ties.We observenot only P-P and S-P scatteringmodes
(earlyarrivalsin the seismograms), but alsoP-S andS-S
modes(late arrivals).Except for the very first arriving
P-P mode most other modes interfere with each other,
whichmakesthe overallpictureevenmorecomplicated.
Late arrivingwavesare dominatedby multiplescattered
shearwaves(Figure9a).
The goodagreementbetweenthe 3D FD resultsand
the corresponding2D FD simulation (Figure 9b), in
which the wavespropagatewithin, and only within, the
vertical sagittalplane (x-z plane) throughthe lens, re-
veals that the main eventsare generatedand traveling
within this plane. The multiple scatteredshear-wave
eventsfor X < 0 (Figure 9a) are generatedout of this
plane.Figure9c showsresultsof the very fastprogram
 Elastic seismic-wavescattering from massivesulfideorebodies 79

T=0.1 s (Emax=0.0739) T=0.11 s (Emax=0.1409) T=0.12 s (Emax=0.2104) T=0.13 s (Emax=0.2707)

200
P-P

•oo

6OO

T=0.14 s (Emax=0.3298) T=0.15 s (Emax=0.3752) T=0.16 s (Emax=0.3606) T=O.17 s (Emax=0.3110)

2O0

S-P

P-P
600

P-P
T=0.18 s (Emax=0.2582) T=0.19 s (Emax=0.1739) T=0.2 s (Emax=0.1039) T=0.21 s (Emax=0.0827)

S-P
2OO

•.4oo

800

1'=0.22 S (Emax=0.0447) T---0.23s (Emax=O,,0439) T=0.24 s (Emax=O.0369) T=0.25

s (Emax=O.0351)

2OO

•.400

1'=0.26 s (Emax=0.0569) T_-0.27s (Emax=OX1688) T=0.28

s (Emax=O.0792)
T=0.29
s (Emax=0.1114)

200

•.4.00
,

..

6OO .

-4,00 -200 0 20• 400-400 -200 0 200 400-400 -200 0 200 400-400 -200 0 200 4OO
X[m] X[m] X[m] X[m]

Fig. 7. Three-D FD snapshotsof scatteredcompressional wave energywithin the verticalsagittalplane

(x-z-plane)throughthesphalerite
lensshownin Figure5. Emaxgivesthemaximumenergyof eachsnapshot.
The energyof the incidentcompressional wavearrivingat the inclusionis one.For display,snapshotsare
normalizedandscaledby a factoroften. Symbolsdenotetypesof scattered waves,for exampleP-S' incident
P-wave-scattered S-wave.

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80 Simulating elastic wavesin the hardrock environment

T=0.1 s (Emax=O.0556) T=0.11 s (Emax=O.O•l) T=0.12 s (Emax=O.0917) T=0.13 s (Emax=O.0904)

T=0.14 s (Emax=O.0959) T=0.15 s (Emax=0.1161) T=0.16 s (Emax=0.2071) T=0.17 s (Emax=0.7019)

P-S

•'::"--:
.• P-S
oCUssin:
T=0.18 s (Emax=l.1987) T=0.19 s (Emax=l.6868) T-_0.2s {Emax=2.1443) T=0.21 s (Emax=2.4695)

20O S-S .P-S

E •

•,.400

600

T=0.22 s (Emax-_2.7532) T=0.23 s (Emax=2.&•71) T=0.24 s (Emax=2.9188) T=O.25

s (Emax=2.8550)

2DO

•4oo

6DO

T=0.26 s (Emax--2.9273) T=0.27 s (Emax=3.0977) T=0.28 s (Emax-_3.2143) T=0.29 s (Emax=3.3210)

2OO

.E.
•..40o

800
ß ...

-400 -200 0 200 400-400 -200 0 200 400-400 -200 0 200 400-400 -200 0 200 40O
X[m] X[m] X[m] X[m]

Fig.8. Three-DFD snapshots

of shear-wave
energy
scattered
bya sphalerite
lens(compare
withFigu.
re7).
Emax givesthe maximumenergyof eachsnapshot. Energyof the incidentcompressionalwavearnwngat
the inclusionis one.For display,snapshots
arenormalizedandscaledby a factorof ten.

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 Elastic seismic-wavescatteringfrom massivesulfideorebodies 81

a -1000 -500 x0 500 1 ooo

0.2

0.5

-s

P-S focusing
b) -1000 -500 XCml0 500 1000

(•\ X [m]
J -1000 -500 0 500 1000

Fig. 9. Syntheticseismograms (verticalcomponents of particlevelocity)for surfacereceiversalongthe

x-axisoverthesphaleritelens(inclusion geometryasin Figure5). Resultsof differentmodelingalgorithms
arecompared: (a) 3D FD,(b) 2D FD,(c) BMOD3D(Eaton,1997).Fora bettercomparison, a 3D geometrical
spreadingcorrectionwasappliedto (a) and(c) anda 2D correction to (b).

BMOD3D (Eaton, 1997) which is basedon the Born
approximation. Recemly,the programwasusedfor the
interpretation of scatteredeventsfrom massivesulfide
ores(Milkereit et al., 2000; Adam et al., this volume).
AlthoughtheBornapproximation istheoretically invalid
in thissituation(Eaton,1999),themainwavefieldagrees
quitewell with the FD results.Due to the omissionof
multiplescatteringin theBornapproximation, theresults
agreebetterwith the2D FD method,whichalsoneglects
out-of-planescattering.The numericalresultssupport
the empiricalinvestigationby Eaton(1999) whichindi-
catethat the Born approximation in the Mie scattering
rangehasabroaderrangeof applicability thancanbeex-
pectedfrom theory.However,the resultsof BMOD3D

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82 Simulating elastic wavesin the hardrock environment

a) Gabbro
(Emax=0.107) 13) Sphalerite (Emax=0.330)

80O 80O
-4O0 -20O o •o •o -4OO
X[m]
C) Galena
(Emax=0.522) Pyrite (Emax=0.417)
......

,,•.. loo

-400 -200 0 200 ZlO0 -ZlO0 -200 0 200 400

X[m] X[m]

Fig. 10. Finite-differencesnapshots at T -- 0.14 s of compressional

wavesscatteredat thelensfrom Figure5.
Plots showa variationof composition:(a) gabbro,(b) sphalerite,(c) galena,(d) pyrite. The dashedline
indicatesthe directionof the incidentP-wave.Maximum energy(Emax) was normalizedon the incident
P-waveenergyarrivingat thelens.Fordisplay,snapshots arenormalizedandscaledby a factoroften. White
arrowsin (a), (b), and (c) pointto phasereversalsof the scatteredP-wave.

differ significantlyfrom the 3D FD computationsfor wards),whereasa significantportionof the scatteredP-S

someimportantprimary events,for examplefor P-P.
Influence of Composition
We investigatedthe influenceof the compositionof
largeinclusionson the scatteringwavefieldby compar-
ing FD simulationsfor different compositions.The
shape of the scatterer(lens) and the arrangementof
sourceandreceiversareshownin Figure5. In Figures10
and 11 we comparesnapshots of scatteredP- andS-wave
energy,respectively, for differentsulfideminerals(spha-
lerite, galena,pyrite) and a typical gabbro.The corre-
spondingelasticparametersare listedin Table 1.
For the compositionsconsidered,the P-waves are
mainly scatteredin the incident-raydirection (down-
wavespropagatein thedirectionperpendicular to thein-
cidentray,back to the surface.This agreesqualitatively
with the resultsobtainedfor point scatterers(Figure 1b).
However,the shapeof the inclusionalsohasa strongim-
pact on the directionalvariationof scatteredenergy,as
will be discussedin the followingsection.
Due to the smallcontrastof the gabbroinclusion,the
scatteredenergyof P- and S-wavesis relativelyweak,
i.e., approximately10% scatteredP-waveand 3% scat-
tered P-S wave energyrelative to the incidentP-wave.
In contrast,the sulfide minerals, which have a larger
contrastin the elastic properties,generatea stronger
scatteringresponseof compressional waveswhich ex-
ceeds30% of the incidentP-wave energy(Figure 10).
The P-S energy(Figure 11) is strongestfor galenaand

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 Elastic seismic-wavescattering from massivesulfide orebodies 83

a) Gabbro (Emax=0.034)
b) Sphalerite (Emax=0.096)

lOO lOO

2o0

600

7oo

x[m] x [m]
Galena (Emax=0.206) d) Pyrite
(Emax=0.457)
loo lOO

', .
-- .•, .

"( •
..

--...
. .

-. ....... .
700

o 2oo 4o0 -4o0 -2o0 o 2oo •

X [m] X [m]

Fig. 11. SameasFigure10 but scatteredshearwavesare shown.

pyrite (20% and 45%) due to the large S-waveveloc-
ity contrastof theseminerals.The compositionseems
to constrainsignificantlythe developmentof the wave-
field within the inclusion,especiallythe innerwavefield
of S-waves(Figure 11). Differencesin the innerwave-
field lead to amplitudevariationsof later arrivals,i.e.,
of the P-P coda, in seismicrecordings.This is quan-
tified in Figure 12 which showsseismogramsof the
backwardscatteredwavefield (vertical componentsof
particle velocity) recordedat the surfacefor the same
compositionsinvestigatedin Figures 10 and 11. The
seismograms were correctedfor geometricalspreading
andnormalizedto theirmaximumamplitudes.The com-
plexity of the scatteredwavefieldis resembledby the
seismograms. It showsdifferentdynamiccharacteristics
due to the diverse compositionsof the scatterer.The
kinematicbehavioron the otherhand is comparablefor
each example. The seismogramsreveal that the com-
positionhas a strongeffect on the amplitudesof the
eventsarriving later than the first main event, i.e., the
P-P wave. Theselater events,e.g., P-S and S-P,change
significantlyin amplitude for the different composi-
tions.Galena,for example,showsvery pronouncedP-S,
S-P, and S-S events and seems to generate strong
reverberations,whereaspyrite and gabbro show more
pronouncedsingle-scattered events.The amplitudedis-
tributionobservedin all seismograms has a tendencyto
be higher in the downdipdirection.This effect is most
reasonablyexplainedas a shapeeffect.The influenceof
compositionon the P-P-wave amplitudevariationwith
offset(AVO) is shownin Figure 13. The AVO behavior
of the P-P wave varies significantlywith composition.
The observedAVO trendsare very similarto the trends
obtainedfor point scatterersin Figure 1a.
In the first part of the paper we investigatedthe in-
fluenceof compositionon the scatteringangle of first
arrivalphasereversalsusingtheRayleighscatteringthe-
ory.Rayleighscatteringtheorypredictsa phasereversal

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84 Simulating elastic wavesin the hardrock environment

X (m) X (m)
-2000 - 1000 0 1000 2000 -2000 -1000 0 1000 2000
0.1
•max=0(•14 , 0. '
0.2 0.

•0.3- •-0.

0.4-

0.5" O. i ! ,

X (m) X (m)
-2000 -1000 0 1000 2000 -,,?.0
O0 -1000 0 1000 ,2000
0.1 o
Amax=0.03 A•"max'"=o:
..... '
0.2 o

•0.3-

0.4-

0.5'
,
Fig. 12. Finite-differencesyntheticseismograms (verticalcomponentof particlevelocity)showingthe in-
fluenceof the composition on scatteringfrom a largelens(inclusiongeometryas in Figure5). (a) gabbro,
(b) sphalerite,(c) galena,(d) pyrite. Seismograms-sectionswere correctedfor geometricalspreadingand
normalized
onmaximum
amplitude.
Amaxdenotes
themaximum
amplitude
of eachsection
withrespect
to
the incidentP-waveamplitude.

at a scatteringangle of approximately92ø for galena,
74ø for sphalerite,two phasereversalsat 58ø and 77ø
for gabbro and no phasereversal for pyrite (see zero-
crossingsof the P-P compositionfactor in Figure l a).
In the vicinity of thephasereversalslocationsthe wave-
field is relativelyweak sincephasereversalscorrespond
to zero crossingsof the P-P compositionfactor.A phase
reversalpositioncan be identifiedby analyzingthe po-
larity along the scatteredP-wavefront(Figure 14). A
phasereversaloccursat locationswherethe polarity of
the wavefrontswitchesfromplusto minusor vice versa.
The P-wave snapshotsfor the lens show phase rever-
salsfor gabbro,galena,and sphalerite(white arrowsin
centerof the inclusionbut will lie at the areasof strong
curvaturefirst reachedby the incidentP-wave.The FD
modelingthus suggeststhat the predicationsof phase
reversalsobtainedusingRayleighscatteringtheorymay
alsobe applicableto largerobjects.
The phasereversalsobservedin the snapshots lead to
significantpolarity changesin surfaceseismicrecord-
ings (Figure 13). In the case of gabbro,only one of
the two reversalspredictedby Rayleigh scatteringthe-
ory can be observedin a distanceof X • 500 m. The
other lies outsidethe assumedreceiver line, i.e., it would
be observedin a distancelarger than 2 km from the
ore.

Figure 10), whereasthe snapshotfor pyrite showsno re-

versal.The correspondingscatteringanglesagreequite
well with the Rayleigh theory, if we assumethat the Influence of Shape
corresponding scatteringcenter,i.e., the positionwhere In this sectionwe investigatethe influenceof struc-
the incidentray and the scatteredray intersect,lies at tural complexity (shape) of the inclusionon the scat-
the upperapexof the lens.Generally,for largecomplex tered wavefield. Figures 14 and 15 show snapshots
shapedobjectsthe scatteringcenterwill not lie at the of compressional-wave energyand shear-waveenergy,

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 Elastic seismic-wavescattering from massivesulfide orebodies 85

a. 0 500 1000 1500 2000

0 , = , =

,..•

0 500 I 000 I 500 2000

o i i i l

ø'ø
I
0.1

(• 0 500 1000 I 500 2000

øo.oi
o ' ' ' '
,

.•_ 0.10

500 1 000 1 500 2000

Fig.13. Zoomof theP-Pwave(radialcomponent

of particlevelocity)scattered
atthelensin Figure5. Plots
showthe P-P-waveamplitudevariationwith offset for the compositionsgabbro(a), sphalerite(b), galena
(c), andpyrite (d). For display,seismograms
were reducedwith 6 km/s. Note the phasereversalfor gabbro
at X• 500 m, sphaleriteat X • 1500 m, andgalenaat X • 650 m. Pyrite showsno reversal.

respectively,for six sphaleriteinclusionswith different compositionof theinclusion.Forlargebodies(b-e) most

shapes:(a) pointscatterer(smallsphere),(b) spherewith
a radiusof 69.4 m, (c) a bodywith a very complexshape,
(d) a lens,(e) the Bell Allard orebody(Adam et al., this
volume) and (f) a dike. Inclusionsb-f occupyapprox-
imately the samevolume. It is obviousfrom the snap-
shotsthat the shapeof the scattererhas a dominantim-
pact on the radiationpatternof the scatteredenergy.In
otherwords,the shapeof largescatteringobjectsmodu-
latesthedirectivityof the scatteredenergy,but asshown
above,the net relative scatteredenergyand the angu-
lar patternof polarity reversalsis still controlledby the
of the P-P energyis scatteredin the forwarddirection
(downwards),whereasfor the Rayleighscatterer(a), the
maximumP-P energypropagatesbackwards.Thus,the
dominantforwardscatteringfor largebodiesis mainly
causedby shapeeffects.For the largebodies(b-e), we
observestrongamplitudefocusingof P-S wavesinside
the body (Figure 15). Theselocal areaswith highly fo-
cusedshear-wave energyinsidethe inclusionact assec-
ondarysources.The emittedP- andS-energypropagates
back to the surface,causinglocalizedhigh amplitudes
in surfaceseismicrecordings(Figure9a).

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86 Simulating elastic wavesin the hardrock environment

Sphere (Emax=0.702)
a) •oo Poinl
(Emax=O.043) b) /
/
700 /
BOO
/
/
9OO

•.100o•
c•
1100 11oo

1200 12oo

1300 1•oo

-200 o 200 40O -200 0 200

X[m] X[m]
Fractal inclusion (Emax=0.256) Lens (Ernax=0.270)
c) EO0
/ d) /
70O
/ /
...

•00

/
900

1100

1200

1300 13•0

1• -200 0 200 -200 0 200

x[m] x[m]
Dike (Emax=O.207)
e) .o Bell
Allard
(Emax=0.302) f)
// -:.
.

1 lOO

12OO 1200

1•o -2oo o 2o0 40o 14oj• -•00 o •00 •o

x[m] X[m]

Fig. 14. Finite-differencesnapshotsat T = 0.24 s of scatteredcompressional wavesfor six sphaleritein-

clusionswith differentshapes.The dashedline indicatesthe incidentray direction.Emax is the maximum
energyof the snapshot normalizedto the energyof the incidentP-wave.Note the singlephasereversal(white
arrow) occurringat a scatteringangleof approximately76ø irrespectiveof the shape.

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 Elastic seismic-wavescattering from massivesulfide orebodies 87

Sphere (Emax=0.569)
,,
!
7oo / 700
/
/
/
/

11oo 11oo

1200 12D0

1300 1300

X[m]
Lens (Emax=0.210)
,,
!
!

12•0 1200

1•oo 13oo

1-4!• -200 o 2(•0 •00 1% -200 o 2o0 4oo

X[m] X[m]

e) • Bell
Allard
(Emax=O.280)
/ •') eoo Dike
(Emax=O.286)
/

11(x) •- 11oo -

13oo

-2O0 0 200 • 1-4!• -200 0 200 •0

X[m] X[m]

Fig. 15. Snapshots

of scatteredshearwavesfor six sphaleriteinclusionswith differentshapes.Comparewith
Figure 14.

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88 Simulating elasticwavesin the hardrock environment
All six sphaleriteinclusionsgeneratea singlephase
reversal in the scattered P-P events (see white ar-
rowsin Figure 14). The locationof the phasereversal
showssomespatialvariation,because thecorresponding
P-P scatteringoccursgenerallynot at the centerof the
inclusionsbut at the sideswith strongcurvatureat the
topof eachbody.If wemeasure thescatteringanglefrom
thesescattering centers,thephasereversalliesatapprox-
imatelythe sameposition,i.e., 0 • 74ø, for all bodies.
This procedureis illustratedin Figure 14e. The angle
agreesquite well with the Rayleighscatteringtheory
(Figure l a). The phasereversalscatteringsingleseems
to be independent of theshapeevenfor largeinclusions.
CONCLUSIONS
Theoreticalinvestigations for smallinclusions(diam-
eterlessthan 17 m) in crystallinehostrockshaveshown
that, dependingon the composition, the amplitudesof
scatteredP-P andP-S wavesshowsignificantamplitude
variationwith angle(AVA) variations.For smallinclu-
sions,theamplitudesof scattered convertedshearwaves
are strongest perpendicularto the directionof the inci-
dentP-wave.The overallP-S convenedwaveamplitudes
aregenerallyhigherthanthe amplitudeof theP-P wave.
High amplitudesof P-S convertedwavesarealsoob-
servedin the 3D FD simulationsfor large objectswith
different shape.Generallythe modeledscatteringre-
sponsefrom largemassivesulfideorebodiesconsisting
of pure sphalerite,galena,or pyriteis quitestrong.The
scatteredenergyfor P-P and P-S convertedwavesex-
ceeds25% of the incidentP-wave energy.Most of this
energyis directedin the forwarddirection(downwards).
The investigatedmineralsrepresentend-membersfor
thepossiblecompositions of ores.Formorerealisticore
deposits,the scatteredwavefieldmay be weaker.
The 3D FD modelingperformedfor largeinclusions
revealsthatthe shapehasthe mostsignificantimpacton
the directivityof the scatteredwavefield.The directivity
imposedby shapeis a first-ordercharacteristicof the
scatteredwavefield,whereascompositioneffectsare of
secondaryimportance.Thus,the AVA analysisof seis-
mic wavesscatteredfromlargeobjectsis highlyambigu-
ouswithoutdetaileda priori informationaboutthe shape
of the inclusion.
The FD modelingfor large inclusionsindicatesthat
onecompositioneffect,i.e., first arrival(P-wave)phase
reversals,occuralmostirrespectiveof the shape.They
maythusserveasa directdiagnostictoolfor determining
the compositionof massivesulfideorebodies,without
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havingdetailedinformationaboutthe shapeof the in-
clusion.Phasereversalsaremorelikely to be observedin
theforwardscatteringdirection.Therefore,VSP acquisi-
tion geometriesarefavorablefor theirdetection.During
processingand removalof the direct waves,the phase
informationof the scatteredsignalsmustbe preserved.
The FD modeling showsthat the coda of the scat-
teringresponsefrom small and largeorebodiesembed-
dedin a homogeneous background will be dominatedby
shear-waveevents.Becauseof the smallerwavelengthof
S-waves,seismicmigrationof thehigh-amplitudeshear-
wave eventsshouldlead to an improvedimageof large
inclusions.The backgroundmodelsconsideredin this
studycontainno small-scalerandomvariationsin the
elasticpropertiesas are often observedfor crystalline
host rocks. Small-scaleinhomogeneitiesmay lead to
a greaterdissipationof S-wavesthan P-waves.Thus,
S-waveoverP-wavescatteringfrom oresmay not be as
pronouncedin seismicobservations.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This modelingstudywas inspiredby the work of the
DownholeSeismicImaging(DSI) Consortiumfor Min-
eral Exploration.We thank Erick Adam, Greg Clarke,
David Eaton, and Richard Hobbs for discussion.We
arealsogratefulto Matt Salisbury,David Eaton,andR.
GerhandPratt for their thoroughreviews,whichhelped
to improvethe paper.FD modelingwasperformedon
the CRAY SVI supercomputer at Kiel University.
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teringof elasticwavesin 2D composite mediaI. Theoryandtest:
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Blanch,J., 1995, A studyof viscouseffectsin seismicmodeling,
imaging,andinversion: Methodology,computational aspects,and
sensitivity:Ph.D. thesis,Rice University.
Bohlen,T, 1998,Interpretationof measuredseismograms by means
of viscoelasticfinite differencemodeling:Ph.D.thesis,Kiel Uni-
versity.
Bostock,M., 1991,Surfacewavescatteringfrom 3D obstacles: Geo-
phys.J. Internat.,104, 351-370.
Bostock,M., and Kennett,B., 1992, Multiple scatteringof surface
wavesfrom discreteobstacles:Geophys.J. Internat., 108, 52-70.
Calvert, A., and Li, Y., 1999, Seismic reflection imaging over a
massivesulfidedepositat the Matagamiminingcamp,Quebec:
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Dong,Q., andRector,J., 1995, Seismicscatteringfrom inclusions:
65thAnn. Internat.Mtg., Soc.Expl. Geophys.,
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Dougherty,M., and Stephen,R., 1988, Seismicenergypartitioning Levander, A., 1988, Fourth-order finite-difference P-SV seismo-
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Gritto,R., Korneev,V., andJohnson,L., 1995,Low-frequencyelastic Morse, P., and Feshbach,H., 1953, Methodsof theoreticalphysics:
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Gubernatis,J., Dormany,E., and Krumhansi,J., 1977a, Formal as- differencemodeling:Geophysics,59, 1444-1456.
pectsof thetheoryof thescattering of ultrasound
by flawin elastic Salisbury,M., Milkereit, B., andBleeker,W., 1996, Seismicimaging
materials:J. Appl. Phys.,48, 2804-2819. of massivesulfidedeposits:Part I. Rock properties:Econ. Geol.,
--1977b, TheBornapproximation in thetheoryof thescattering 91, 821-828.
of elasticwavesby flaws:J. Appl. Phys.,48, 2812-2819. Sato, H., 1984, Attenuation and envelope formation of three-
Hudson,J.,andHeritage,J., 1981,The useof theBorn approximation componentseismograms of small local earthquakesin randomly
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Imhof, M., 1996, Scatteringof elasticwavesusingnon-orthogonal Sch6n,J., 1996,Physicalpropertiesof rocks:Fundamentalsandprin-

expansions: Ph.D.thesis,Massachusetts Instituteof Technology.
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251-263.
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 Part III

Regional SeismicReconnaissanceStudies

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Downloaded 26 Jun 2012 to 95.28.162.50. Redistribution subject to SEG license or copyright; Terms of Use: http://segdl.org/
 Chapter 6
Experiences from Shallow Reflection Seismics
over Granitic
ChristopherJuhlin and Hans Palm
ABSTRACT
Seismicimaging of the shallowcrystallinecrust in
graniticareashasseveralimportantapplications.These
include mineral prospecting,nuclear waste disposal,
groundwaterstudies,and regionalgeologicalmapping.
Granitic rock is generallyseismicallytransparentif it
has not been subjectedto tectonicforces.For instance,
extensionaltectonicsmay resultin the intrusionof sys-
tems of dolerite sheetsinto the granitic rock, whereas
compressional tectonicsmay resultin ductile shearing
or brittle faulting.A dolerite/graniteinterfaceprovides
a high impedanceboundarythat is often laterallycon-
tinuousovera largearea. Shearzonesandbrittle faults
in graniticrock appearto havea lesserimpedancecon-
trastandtheinterfacemaynotbe aslaterallycontinuous.
However,if careis takenin the acquisitionandprocess-
ing, it is possibleto image featuresat shallowdepths
in graniticrocks,suchas water-bearingfracturezones.
Five case histories from Sweden show how the seismic
reflectionmethodhassuccessfully imagedimportantge-
ologicalfeaturesat depthsof lessthan2 km. From these
casehistorieswe concludethat: (1) in somecasesit is
possibleto differentiatefracturezones from dolerites
in graniticrocksbasedon the polarity of the reflected
waves,(2) surfaceseismic-reflectionmethodscanimage
featuresdippingup to 60-70 degrees,(3) importantpro-
cessingstepsare choiceof frequencybandto process,
staticcorrections,and DMO, and (4) 3D effectsneedto
be consideredin any interpretation.The examplespre-
sentedhere are mainly related to site localization for
high-levelnuclearwastedisposal,but the methodsused
are highly relevantfor mineral explorationin hardrock
environments.
INTRODUCTION
The Geophysicssectionof the Departmentof Earth
Sciencesat Uppsala University has been carrying out
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Rocks in Sweden
seismic-reflectionexperimentsover crystalline rocks
since 1984. Most of theseexperimentshave been car-
ried out on a crustalscale (50 or 100 rn spacingbe-
tweengeophones), but a numberof thesehavealsobeen
high-resolutionsurveys(5 or 10rn spacingbetweengeo-
phones)where the targetshave been in the upper few
kilometers of the earth. In those areas where we have
focused on the more shallow crust we have often had
accessto boreholesfor controlof our interpretations.
Site characterizationfor disposalof radioactivewaste
in crystallinerock is one researchfield where we have
devoteda largeportionof ourtime in ourhigh-resolution
studies.The SwedishNuclear Fuel and WasteManage-
mentCompany(SKB) plansto storehigh-levelwastein
crystallinerock at about500 rn depth(SKB, 1992). An
importantaspectof locatingthe repositoryis the iden-
tification of pathwaysfor radionuclidetransportin the
eventof canisterleakage.Regionalwater-bearingfrac-
ture zonesare likely candidatesfor potentialtransport
pathways.Surfacereflectionseismicsurveysshouldbe
anidealtool for identifyingsubhorizontal fracturezones.
Althoughnot coveredin thischapter,the seismicreflec-
tion methodhasprovento be an effectivetool for char-
acterizingcrustal structurein gold provinces(Swager
et al., 1997). Many of the resultsreviewedhereare also
relevanttowardsthis application.
In this chapterwe will briefly reviewresultsfrom five
areasin Sweden(Figure 1), all of which are locatedin
granitic environments.Three of the surveyswere car-
ded out usingwhat is generallyconsideredto be high-
resolutionparameterswith stationspacingsof 5 or 10 rn
(Table 1). The other two surveyswere of a more re-
gionalcharacter.Theselattertwo havebeenincludedin
thisreviewsincetheyprovidegoodimagesof featuresat
depthsof lessthan2 km, e.g., depthsthat are of interest
for mining.All of the casehistoriespresentedherehave
beenpublishedpreviously,but we take this opportunity
to summarizetheseresultsalongwith somepreviously
93
94 Regionalseismicreconnaissance
studies

28 ø

36 ø
20 ø
I'• SiljanRing
o
o

I'• DalaSandstone øo

• FinnsjOn oJo
•? o oooo
o o -• in

[71Avr6
• .

• SWShearzones
,I o
o

Platformcover .[-•] SouthSvecofennian

Caledonides '• Archaean Karelian
'W•Sveconorwegian 1 Archaean
Belomorian
• TIB 1 Archaean
KolaPeninsula
. [-• Granulite
beltandKalevian
• Fault
• NorthSvecofe•ian • T•st
• CentralSvecofe•ian •Normal fault
Fig.1. MapoftheBalticShield
showing
themaingeological
unitsandthelocation
oftheseismic
profiles.
MZ--MyloniteZone,PZ--Protogine
Zone,andTIB-Transscandinavian
IgneousBelt.MapafterWeihed
et al. (1992).

Table1. Acquisition
parameters
forsurveys.
TheSiljanand•vrii areas
hadmorethanonelineshotoverthem.
Area Siljan Finnsj6n DalaSandstone SWshear
zones •vr6
Dateacquired Win/Fall1985 Summer1987 Fall1988 Summer1996 Fall1996
Spread
type Split/end-on End-on End-on End-on/shoot End-on/shoot
through through
Numberof channels 96/120 60 60 140 105
Nearoffset(m) 200/150 100 60 75 20
Geophonespacing
(m) 50 10 10 25 5/10
Geophone type Single
28Hz Single
28Hz Single
28Hz Single
28Hz Single
28Hz
Shotspacing (m) 200/150 10 10 100 5/10
Charge type 5/10kgdyn. 50g dynamite 200g dynamite 1kgdynamite 100g dynamite
Nominal charge depth
(m) 10 2-4 2-3 3 2
Sample rate(ms) 1/2 1 1 2 1
Profile
length (km) 25/16 1.7 2 17 1/1

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 Shallow reflection seismicsover granitic rocks in Sweden 95

CDP

5,3,9,7m

20

Fig. 2. Seismicsectionover the Gravberg-1boreholewith the locationof dolerite sills thicker than 3 m
plottedat their corresponding two-waytraveltimes.Gap in the sectionshowslocationof the borehole,with
thicknesses of sillsindicated.FromJuhlin(1990).

unpublishedresultsfrom two of the areas.We alsosum-
marizeour thoughtson what are the mostimportantas-
pectsof the acquisition,processing,and interpretation
of high-resolutionreflectionseismicdataon crystalline
rocks.
REVIEW OF RESULTS
Siljan Ring
Seismicdatawereacquiredin the Siljan Ring impact
structureas part of the Swedish State Power Board's
DeepEarthGasResearch program(Bod•nandEriksson,
1988). The combination of numerous seismic lines
(a total lengthin excessof 100 km) andtwo deepbore-
holes(both drilled to ca. 7 km) within the Siljan Ring
area resultedin the identificationof the origin of seis-
mic reflectionsin graniticrocks and the calibrationof
impact mechanicsmodels(Juhlin and Pedersen,1987;
Juhlin 1990; Juhlinand Pedersen,1993; Papasikasand
Juhlin, 1997). A seriesof high-amplitudereflectorsare
presentbelowthe siteof the Gravberg-1deepborehole.
Although the Gravberg-1boreholewas drilled almost
entirely in granite, it occasionallypenetratedsubhori-
zontal sheets of dolerite. These dolerite sheets have a
high velocityand densitycomparedto the surrounding
granite(6.5 km/sand3.0 g/m3 versus6.0 km/sand
2.65g/cm3) andproducestrongreflections
(Figure2).
Subhorizontaldoleritesare also presentin the bottom

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96 Regional seismicreconnaissancestudies

Channel
20 40 60 20 40 60 20 40 60 20 40 60 20 40 60
0 I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

,,,
.... ......
., ....... ...... ...
•, '

200•
,,,,,,,,
300
• ••,•
'','I', .,,•'
,• •• ,•,•.,,
., ,¾•},,%•9:.,½,*
,•", ..• • '•
',•,•..,:,,.,.:•
"," "' •,,•-•,.:•?..•.,.•
,"• ............
.,....
................
......
I;•.;:..
.......:.
•,•,,
'"''"• ,':•'.
.........................
,.. ..

700
/
/','"5•q•t
q'.•',••a•q•',,t','11"'"."•,
•a '•'•
•"••"••;•:"2"115,';"•••••1•-•'•••••1;:." - "• """'••':•••'•
'•••

20-40 Hz 30-60 Hz 50-100 Hz 90-180 Hz Raw

Fig. 3. Variousfrequency
bandsof a •pical shotsectionfromtheDala Sandstone
profile.

part of the Stenberg-1boreholeand,eventhere, are the
sourceof high-amplitudereflectionsthat are observed
on the surfaceseismic(PapasikasandJuhlin,1997). In
addition,a reflectordippingat about30ø canbe traced
downto • 1 s two-waytime (3 km depth)whereit inter-
sectsthe Stenberg-1borehole.A low-velocityfracture
zoneisfoundatthisdepthanda thermalanomalyassoci-
atedwith the fracturezoneindicatesit to bepermeable.
Increaseddrilling fluid resistivityandtemperatureover
it indicatethatwaterwasflowingintotheboreholeat the
time of logging.
Dala Sandstone
A 2-km long profile of Dala Sandstonewas made
to test the capability of the seismicmethod to detect
fracturezonesthatcouldcontainmineralization(Juhlin
et al., 1991). Precambriansedimentaryrocks overlie
granitic rock in the area of the profile. The data set
showedtheimportanceof retainingthehighfrequencies
in the data acquisitionand processing(Figure 3). A
reprocessedstackedsection is shown in Figure 4.
The upper 200 ms has a clear subhorizontallayered
structure,whereasthereflectedenergybetween200 and
650 ms originatesfrom west-dippingstructures. At ca.
700 ms a strongsubhorizontal reflectionis presentwith
associated diffractions. In order to calibrate the seismic
results,a 723-m deepboreholewasdrilledontheeastern
end of the profile. Correlationof the surfaceseismic
data with the core data showsthe layeredreflections
in the upperca. 200 ms (500 m) to correlatewith the
Precambrian sedimentary rocks,whilethedippingevent
at ca. 250 ms (700 m) on the easternendof theprofile
originatesfrom a fracturezone (Juhlin et al., 1991).
This fracturezonecontainshighly alteredrock andhas
a significantlylowervelocitythanthe surroundingrock
(5.0 km/s versus6.0 km/s).No hydraulicconductivity
information is available from the borehole. Waveform
analyses andmodelingindicatethedeepersubhorizontal
event at ca. 700 ms to originate from a dolerite sill
(Juhlinet al., 1991).
The reprocessedstackedsectionshowsmore detail
thanthepreviousprocessingin Juhlinet al. (1991). This
is due to use of a time-variantband-passfilter, better
staticcorrections,moredetailedvelocityanalysesanda
differentchoiceof mutes.After migration(Figure5), the
baseof thesedimentaryrocksshowsanantiformalstruc-
ture locatedjust westof the borehole.A west-dipping
reflector in the basement intersects the base of the sed-
imentaryrocksat the easternend of the antiform.This
reflectoris parallelto andlocatedabout200 rn abovethe
fracturezoneidentifiedin theborehole(FZ in Figure5).
It is likely that this reflectoris also a fracturezone and
movementsalongit in a compressional regimeresulted
in the developmentof the antiform.

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 Shallow reflection seismicsover granitic rocks in Sweden 97

w E

0.1

OJ

0.3

O.

OI

0.8

O,

0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0

Distance(km)
Fig. 4. Reprocessed
stackedsectionof the Dala Sandstone
profile.

Finnsj6n Early work in Canadashowedthatreflectionseismics

One of the concernsof SKB in locating a disposal
sitefor high-levelwasteis thepresenceof subhorizontal
fracturezonesthroughwhichgroundwatercanmigrate.
These subhorizontal fracture zones are difficult
tect by surfacegeologicalmapping.Low sonicveloci-
ties, densities,andresistivitiesaretypicalpropertiesfor
the subhorizontal,and even the more steeplydipping
fracturezones.They vary in thickness(width) from a few
metersto over 100 rn and are generallymore hydrauli-
cally conductivethan the surroundingrock (Ahlbom
et al., 1992). The lower seismicvelocityand densityof
theseszonesimply theyshouldhavea negativereflection
coefficient at normal incidence.
is one geophysicalmethod that is well suited for de-
tection of fracturezones(Mair and Green, 1981). With
thisbackground,an attemptwasmadeto imagea known
to de- fracture zone with high hydraulic conductivityat the
Finnsj6nstudysite(Juhlin,1995). The zonedipsgently
to the west at depthsof 100 to 400 m. The initial pro-
cessingof the data failed to image this fracturezone.
However,after reprocessing, a clearimageof the gently
dippingfracturezonewasobtained(Figures6 and7). In
addition,severalotherreflectorswere imagedin the re-
processed section,bothgentlyandsteeplydippingones.
It is likely that the sourcesof thesereflectionsare also
fracture zones.

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98 Regional seismicreconnaissancestudies

w E

0.3

0.6
FZ
0.9

2.4

-.,.•,.,
.... .,,.,....,.d•..,...,,
,.,,•..,,--•,
• ' .. "• ': ';"
27
ß -,,-,.q.,,._
q.....
-'-'"'="-'""''
'',.. •..• •"""' .... "'-": ....
.,.,.,,,,,.... --'-"'
•,• --'=.
''__4,,I...e•"r ,,., . ,. '- ...;..
..,..,...-- q•...,.h. ",•_' -- ' ......
. "'"'
' '""'"
. .. :""
4.'"' t _. , o .,,•'
,,n..n,,.
ß ,,•.• .q,
. ""-11....
, - •-Hq[,,. •, . - ,,n-,,,
_-,.I-.._ j.....,,, - ,,I,_"4 - 4ß",.q-.. d.n
ß". - ,I.,.t,m,
.._ . -"' q[,
. ,, ,.,..,,,.--- " o"".,
.d. i dld4-•

......-q.;C.._..,..•q,,,,---••...
::':..,..7.,,.,.•
....
.,,-,...,.
,.•.._
:--..
.....,-..;...
,dq..,n,
.... . ..,,." d.dI"
• I["J•[Im44'amq [, ! 'q.• I]!-q•,.!
ß .qltm. ß d4 i ß ,•, allql1-1*'" .m, m, k '1. dq ' ß. ddq. .•4 .qnjld•
Pd'i• I ' .ß
q'h,•_ . ii '" ' •'"' "q "- .q4-.d,I-,q,.. l•,q .. , dl 4" .,..I - ,.ø,,..4
mh•n,•_"lq•_..
,. ' ....... . 4.-d•1' ' , ,' '. ' . . ß ,,4."
'"' ,p,d
'
30ß -•.•
........
I
"
.....I
- .
i
"-."
,-',
I ',4.......
.............
I I
.--.,,, ß -d-"'
i ß .... d
i I I

0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0

Distance(kin)
Fig. 5. Migratedreprocessed
sectionwith geological
coreinformation fromthe boreholesuperimposed.
B--base of sedimentaryrock, FZ--fracturezoneidentifiedfrom drilling,D--interpreteddoleritefrom
polarity analysis,and C--borehole.

..

Avr8 crossinghigh-resolutionseismicreflectionlines, were

Reprocessing of the Finnsj6ndatasetconfirmedthat acquiredin October1996 in orderto (1) testthe seismic
reflectionseismics is a viablemethodfor locatingsub- reflectionmethod for future site investigations, (2)
horizontalfracturezonesin crystallinerocks.Therefore, map knownfracturezones,and (3) addto the Swedish
database of reflection seismic studies of the shallow
furthertestingwascarriedoutby SKB andUppsalaUni-
versity
on•vr6 island
(Figure
8).Two,ca.1-kmlong, crystallinecrust.The data clearlyimagethreemajor

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 Shallow reflection seismicsover granitic rocks in Sweden 99

w CDP E

o 4o 80 120 160 200 240 280

I I I I I I

•;.-k•?,
•,'*•.•.c2:-'",:.
;•.'•.,;_,•,½,,•;-W•l.,.
'•'
',,•., ..,.,.,,,.
0,1- :.;•.'•:,• :;;•,,. :.',.".•-,,,...•;,;,•
n•';;q''•";• ........"'',..'T"'•;;,
•,',,•.,,;.,,,,,•..;
.,,..•".•,.,,,,,,
....,,,,;'•
.•,,,;,,.;,,•
,.•,..,,....½;;
•'..,,,•...•.•,-.,.•.
*:,,::%:,
::.:::,.;;:,:
•:•,:.,•
0,2- ;• •,,•:;,, .>....•..'":2.,-.•.,'•'•.';•
•"*•,,,•;,,•,
;;......:..,:,::•:-..;...
•:'
,.•,•,.....•:....,......4...,.•.,•,.,
,•;.....;•.,
",•:::,';,";';
;:;.;::'X::,.;.;.":..,.':,;
::
;;...,;;',;;:.';;';¾'.'?::•;;.;;.'>.....,;,;:.•.
",,.:
,•-"';'-'•:•'
'"::.;,;'•h.
,-•,.,.•,.;:,...,.
;;,;,•;=.:',,-
",,•,,
•:,- •;•;
0,3- •, .,,:..,,:•,.
•., ,,•.,•,';.•
,,;..,..,,•;;•::,:,•..:;;::::.
,,,;•. '";• ';.,. :.=......•.•
• ,"",•;::C•,,":.'"'••.-:: :..,',:;:2"'•,
"-.,:5;.,•..'*',.;•,-,':'-; ':: :',,"•"

0.4- '-., .,:,••;-.•.,

,,. ,,,.-. ,y.,•.•.,•,•,,,.,'• •. ,.•;:

;-.;,
;:.. •.,..;-.:,:,..,,•,,;
......... ,•;.,,.;•,,
0,5 I I

200 180 160 140 120 1 O0 80 60

Station
Fig. 6. Stackedsectionfrom the Finnsj6nprofile.

dippingreflectorsandonesubhorizontal onein theupper shouldbepossibleto reducethe chargesizeandthe shot-

200 ms (Figure 9). The dippingones(south,east,and hole dimensionsand still imagethe uppermost1500 m
northwest)intersector projectto the surfaceat or close of crust.The reducedshot-holedimensionwould signif-
to wheresurface-mapped fracturezonesexist(Figure8). icantlyreducethe costof the seismicsurvey.In orderto
Three-D effects are clearly apparentin the data and test this hypothesis,a 290-m long test profile was shot
onlywherethe profilescrosscanthe true orientationof along part of Line 1 (Figure 8). Recordingwas done
the reflectingeventsbe determined(Figure9). To orient in parallel on thirty 28 Hz and thirty 60 Hz singlegeo-
and locate all events observedon the lines requires phonesspacedat 10 m. Twosetsof thirty shotswerefired
acquisitionof 3D data. ReflectorB in Figures8 and 9 alongthe line. The firstsetconsistedof 7 gramsin a sin-
(the south-dippingreflector)dips parallel to the plane gle 12mm wide, 60 cm deepshotholeandthe secondset
of the north-southrunning Line 2. It can, therefore, consistedof 14 gramsdistributedevenlyin two 12 mm
be migratedproperlyand correlateswith the top of a wide, 60 cm deep shotholes.All holeswere made by
heavilyfracturedinterval observedin boreholeKAV01 a Hilti TE 55, a 6-kg electriccombi-hammerhandheld
at ca. 400 m (Figure 10). Likewise, a subhorizontal drillingmachine.All the shotholesweredrilleddirectly
reflectionat ca. 60 ms (reflectorD in Figure 10) can into bedrock.Total drilling time for eachshothole was
alsobe migratedproperlyand it also correlateswith a approximately10 min. To be ableto comparethe results
known fracture zone in borehole KAV01. fromthe smallchargetestlineswith the datafrom Line 1
in Juhlin and Palm (1999), which was recordedwith
5-m sourceandreceiverspacing,decimationof thelatter
Small-Source Test
datawas necessary.However,it is insufficientto com-
Four moderatelydipping reflectorswere imaged at pare only the samesubsurfacecoverage;the sameshot
later timesfrom 700 to 1400 ms (distancesof 2 to 4 km andreceiverpositionsneedto be compared.Due to ac-
fromthe survey).The observation of strongsignalpene- quisitionlogistics,it wasnot possibleto useexactlythe
trationto thesedepths(or equivalentdistancesif the re- sameshotpointlocationsonthesmallchargetestlinesas
flectionsare from out-of-plane)led us to the idea that it were usedon Line 1. Instead,to producethe decimated

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100 Regional seismicreconnaissancestudies

w KR11 E

KFi07 cDpBFi01
KFi06 HFi01
0 40 80 120 160 200 240 280
o
.,.
..

0.2

E 0.4
0.6

0.8

1.0

1.2

200 180 160 140 120 1 O0 80 60

Station
Zone 2 • Zone 6
Zone 5 ,• Zone 9
Fig. 7. Migratedsectionfrom the Finnsj6nprofilewith fracturezonesfrom boreholesalongthe profile
superimposed. Fracturezones2, 5, 6, and9 havewidthsof 100,
6
5, 5, and50 m, respectively.
Theiraverage
hydraulicconductivities
are25, 8, 0.006, and0.05 m/s x 10- (Ahlbomet al., 1992).Modifiedfrom Juhlin
(1995).

Line 1 stack,shotsandreceiverswere limited to the CDP data.Figure11b showsthe Line 1 datawhenonlythose

interval 100 to 212, and only every otherreceiverwas
includedin theprocessing. No othershotpointwascho-
sensincethiswouldhaveleft gapsin the stackedsection
making comparisonwith the test seriesdifficult. After
decimation,the datawereprocessedin a similarmanner
asthe smallchargetestdatawith minormodificationde-
pendingon datacharacter(Table 2). However,the fold
is still higheron the decimatedLine 1 stackthanon the
smallchargeteststacks.
Figure 11a showsthe completestackedsectionfrom
Line 1 withoutDMO. The framedareacorresponds to
that portion which is coveredby the small chargetest
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shotsandeveryotherreceiverwhichfall withintherange
of the small chargetest data are includedin the pro-
cessing.AdjacentCDPs havebeensummedto givethe
same CDP spacingas in the test. The differencebe-
tween this decimated stack and the full fold stack is
striking.Figure11c showsthe samedataasFigure1lb,
exceptthat the data have been processedin a manner
similar to that for the test data as shown in Table 2.
The smallchargetestdata stackedsectionsfor boththe
28-Hz geophones(Figure11d) andthe60-Hz geophones
(Figure11e) showa muchclearerimageat 300-450 ms
(ca. 900-1350 m) than the decimated Line 1 stack
 Shallow reflection seismicsover granitic rocks in Sweden 101

X[m]
2000 3000 4000 5000
8000

7000
SFZ11
FZ12
o
KAV03
E

C '-'60 ø

60OO
'SFZO•
small
charge
test
"•---•e
•AW•'•

SFZ10
5OOO

Fig.8. Location
oftheprofiles
on•vr6 Islandandthesurface
traces
ofreflectors
A, B, andC asdetermined
from projectionsto the surfacein Figure9. Locationof the smallsourcetestprofileis alsoshown.Modified
from Juhlinand Palm (1999).

(Figure 1l c). Above 300 ms, the two imagesare com-
parable,with theLine 1 decimatedstackprobablybeing
somewhatbetterdue to the higherfrequencycontentof
the 100-gram sourceon Line 1. This apparentparadox
of the larger chargesproducinghigher frequenciescan
be explainedby intrinsicattenuationwherethe high fre-
quenciesof the small chargesare so weak that they get
dampedto below the noise level in the upper 300 ms.
Below450 msthedecimatedLine 1 stackis alsosuperior
to the smallchargetestdatastacks.The 60-Hz, 14-gram
testseriesgivesthe bestoverallstackedsection.It is di-
rectly comparablewith the 28-Hz, 14-gramseriessince
the sameacquisitiongeometrieswereusedfor bothdata
sets.A direct comparisonwith Line 1 is not possible
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sincethe acquisitiongeometriesdiffer somewhat.How-
ever, in the upper 500 ms (ca. 1500 m) the data are of
comparableor betterquality than the decimatedLine 1
data. Single 7-gram chargesresultedin poorer images
than the 14-gram chargedata.
Polarity
A diagnostictool to evaluatethe sourceof a reflection
is to studythe polarity of the reflectedwave relativeto
the firstarrivalon shotgathersthathavehad onlyminor
processingapplied(Juhlinet al., 1991). Two shotsfrom
Line 2 on *vr6 Island were selectedwhere reflectors
B and E in Figure 10 are clearly observed.Reflecting
102 Regional seismicreconnaissancestudies

W Line1 (CDP) E
40 80 120 160ß

0.1

-•' :' •-'•'

':•"
"'"'
',.'L'...-::
"'•---
- -- '•.... •
;;•!:':...
-• -..
.

"• "•i' :'"''•" "

A ...

0.3 --•-

Fig.9. Timesections
fromthewestern
halfofLine1 andthenorthern
halfofLine2 on•vr/5Island
and
viewedfromthe southeast.
ReflectionsA, B, andC projectto the surfaceasshownin Figure8. FromJuhlin
and Palm (1999).

events from these discontinuitieswere aligned and
stackedand then comparedwith syntheticmodelsfor
positiveandnegativeimpedance contrasts(Figure12).In
themodeling,thederivativeof a 150-HzRickerwavelet
was used as the source. This source wavelet closely
matchesthe first arrival in the shot gathercontaining
reflectorE. Noise from forwardscatteringor wide angle
reflectionsdistortsthe first arrivalin the shotgatherfor
reflectorB; however,the initial shapeof the first arrival
is similarto thesourcewaveletusedin themodeling.The
syntheticmodelsthatbestmatchtheobservations arefor
a 10m or lessthick,high-impedance layerfor reflectorE
anda 10-m-or-lessthick low-impedancelayerfor reflec-
tor B. In graniticenvironments, high-impedance gen-
erally impliesmafic rocksand low impedanceimplies
fluid filled fracture zones. Therefore, it is likely that
reflectorE originatesfrom a localizedflat lying layer
of mafic rock while reflectorB originatesfrom a dip-
pingfracturezone.The latterinterpretation is consistent
with the observation that reflector B can be correlated
with a regionalsouthdippingfracturezone(Figure 10).
ReflectorslabeledE in Figure 10 appearto be similar
to the onethe polarityanalysiswasperformedon, and
probablyalso originatefrom localizedflat-lyingmafic
sheets.
SW Shear Zones in V•rmland
Seismic-reflectiondatawere acquiredalonga 17-km
longprofilein theeasternfrontalpartoftheSveconorwe-

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 Shallow reflection seismicsover granitic rocks in Sweden 103

0 80
CDP 160
0 • •
-2
-4
-6
15
Elevation
KAV01 (m)
40 80 120 160

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.6

0.7

0.8

0.9
40 80 120 160

CDP
Fig.10. Migratedsection
fromLine2 on•vr6 Islandwiththelocation of majorhydraulically
conductive
zonesin boreholesshown.Reflections
A andB projectto thesurface
asshownin Figure8. Reflector
D is
subhorizontaland correlateswith increasedhydrauhcconductivityin the KA V01 borehole.ReflectionsE
may originatefrom mafic lensesin the granitichostrock. From Juhlinand Palm (1999).

gian orogen,southwestern Sweden,over a geologically west and becomingprogressivelysteepertowardsthe

inferredfan-like structure.Imagingdepthsrangedfrom
a few hundredmetersdownto depthsof approximately
10 km. Deformational fabrics within the fan-like
ture dip approximately15-40øE in the westernpart of
the profile and 60-80øW in its easternpart. With the
potentialreflectinghorizonsgently eastdippingin the
east,reachingsubvertical,andthendippingto thewestin
the east,this geometryprovidesan excellenttestsitefor
struc- investigatingwhat dipscanbe imagedwith the seismic-
reflection method using standardacquisitionparame-
ters. The maximum apparentdip of structuresimaged
is on the orderof 60-70 ø (Figure 13). Sincethe seismic

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104 Regional seismicreconnaissancestudies

Table 2. Main Processingstepsfor small chargetest data

..
graniticrock and are subhorizontalto gently dipping.
on Avrii island.
Thefracturezonescontainfluids,andthusrepresent low-
1 Read SEG2 data impedancelayersin the granitichostrocks.They canbe
2 Add geometry subhorizontal to steeplydippingand are generallyless
3 Trace edit
4 Pick first break laterallycontinuous thanthedolerites.Polarityanalyses
5 Refraction statics of the seismic reflections is one method to differentiate
6 Band-passfilter 70-140-300-420 Hz, 0-200 ms;60- betweendoleritesand fracturezonesin graniticrocks,
120-300-450 Hz, 100-400 ms; 50-100-300-450 Hz,
300-600 ms; providedthe dataare of high enoughquality.
7 Velocityanalysis
8 Residual statics
9 Split datainto subsetsfor 28 resp.60 Hz. Acquisition and ProcessingStrategies
10 Sort to CDP domain
11 AGC: 100 ms window Several factors determine how shallow in the crust
12 NMO
13 Stack:5% alphatrimmedmean
specificfeaturescanbe imagedwith the seismicreflec-
tion method. Some of the most importantacquisition
parametersare stationand sourcespacing,number of
profile runs nearly perpendicularto the regionalstrike channels,andsourceandgeophonecoupling.Although
it is now clear that the seismic reflection method can be
of the geology(Figure 14), theseapparentdipsareclose
to the true dipsof the reflectors.Reflectionsfrom these appliedto problemsin many geologicalenvironments,
structures only stackat highNMO velocities.Due to the one of the main objectionsis still the cost of the sur-
irregularshootinggeometryit wasnot possibleto apply vey.All of the shotholesfor the surveyspresentedwere
DMO to these data. drilled with costly,truck-mounted,large drilling rigs,
A bivergentgeometryis observedin the seismicdata exceptfor oursmallchargetestsurveys
on •vr6 Is-
with the centralaxis situatedapproximately8 km east land.However,thesetestsshowedthatit shouldbe pos-
of a major fault [ProtogineZone (PZ) in earlierstudies, sibleto acquirecomparabledatafor theupper1500rn at
i.e., Gorbatschev,1980; Larson et al., 1990]. The sur- muchlowercostusingsmallchargesin narrowshallow
shot holes in favorable environments. A full-scale test
face structuraldatapredictthe hinge axisto be located
about3 km farthereast.Despitethis discrepancy, there of the small chargesource,consistingof two ca. 2-km
is good generalagreementwith the structureinferred long profiles,is currentlybeing conductedcloseto the
from the surfacedata (Figure 14). The imageobtained •vr6 Islandtestsite.Asidefromusingsmallcharges,
from the reflection seismic data establishes that the fan- we recommendthe followingacquisitionparametersfor
hardrock environments:
like structureis a major, upper crustalfeature.These
resultsin combinationwith previousdeepseismicdata ß Singlegeophones ratherthanarrays
sets(Juhlinet al., 1989; Dahl-Jensenet al., 1991) have ß Shotspacingequalto receiverspacing
beenusedto constrainthe tectonichistoryof the area ß Recordingof long offsets
(Juhlinet al., 2000). ß Digging to bedrockif soil coveris lessthan 0.5 m

There are two reasonsfor using single geophones

DISCUSSION rather than arrays. First, static correctionshave been
shownto vary widely from stationto stationalongour
Sourcesof Reflectivity
profiles.A shiftcorresponding to closeto the dominant
In granitic-rock-typeenvironmentsin Sweden two wavelengthof the datafrom onestationto the nextis not
predominantsourcesof seismicreflectionsare found, uncommon.If arraysare used and spreadout over the
dolerite intrusions and fracture zones. Dolerites were stationspacing,thenthe summationof signalsfrom the
founddirectlyin thedeepwellsin theSiljanimpactstruc- individualgeophones will resultin a significantlossof
ture and are inferredto be presentat depthin the Dala verticalresolution.Secondly,to a lesserextent,horizon-
Sandstone area. Similar subhorizontal reflections have tal resolutionwill alsobe lostwhenarraysareused.This
also been found below the Bothnian Sea which were maybelessof aproblemfor thecurrentstateof study,but
alsointerpretedashavingtheir originfrom doleritesills in thefuture,horizontalresolutionwill alsobeimportant.
(Babel WorkingGroup, 1991;Riahi and Juhlin,1996). By having shot spacingequal to receiverspacingand
Thedoleritesrepresent
high-impedance layersin thehost singlegeophones, anybiasof shootingupdipor downdip

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 Shallow reflectionseismicsover granitic rocks in Sweden 105

CDP
100 200 300
0.0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

0.8
100 200 300 100 200 100 200 100 200 100 200

(a) (b) (c) (d)(e)

Fig.11. (a) Stacked
section
from•vr6 IslandLine1 without
DMO.(b)Decimated
stacked
section
from
Line 1 usingthesameprocessingparameters asin (a). (c) Decimated
stacked
sectionfromLine 1 using
theprocessingparameters
in Table2. (d) Twenty-eight-Hz geophonestacked
section
fromthesmallcharge
testdatausingtheprocessing
parameters in Table2. (e) Sixty-Hzgeophone
stackedsection
fromthesmall
chargetestdatausingtheprocessing
parameters
in Table2.

on structuresis removed.In addition,there will be a suf- the nature of the reflectors. Maximum offsets of twice
ficient numberof tracesat shortoffsetsin the CDP gath- the targetdepthare not unreasonable
in the crystalline
ersto enableimagingof the shallowest
features.With a environment.
limited numberof channels,thereis a trade-off between Analysesof signalqualityas a functionof bedrock
maximizingthe recordingoffsetandensuringadequate depthshowthatgeophones placedonsoilcoverlessthan
horizontalresolutionby selectinga smallstationinterval 0.5-mthickrecordveryringydata.Geophones placedon
to preventaliasingof source-generatednoise.However, deepersoilcoverdonothavethisringyresponse, nordo
we haveoftenexperienced that we recordthe bestdata geophonesplacedin drilledholesonbedrock.Therefore,
on relativelylongoffsets.This maybe dueto the pres- wenowremovetheuppermost soilcoverbeforeplanting
enceof lesssource-generated noiseat longoffsetsor to geophones if thesoilcoveris lessthan0.5 m thick.

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106 Regional seismicreconnaissancestudies

CDP CDP
•,) 90 100 110 90 1 O0 1 10 B
0.0

(:D o.1

0.2

E E E E
b) 10 2O 3O lO 2O 30 E -- o • o E •

•0.1
E

0.2

Fig. 12. Polarityanalysesof reflectorsB (a) andE (b) in Figure10. Panelsare,fromleft to right,alignedfirst
arrivalson thosechannelswherethereflectionis clear,stackof alignedfirstarrivals,alignedreflection,stack
of aligned
reflection,
andsynthetic
modeling
fora negative
impedance
contrast
(a) anda positive
impedance
contrast(b), wherelayerthicknessis givenin (b). SI--single interface.

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 Central axis from seismic
Central axis from geological map
PZfault • 800•'
900 CDP
,I, ooo

W ( 5 km E
Fig. 13. Stackedsectionfrom the SW shearzoneprojectin Viirmland.The centralaxis will shift somewhat
to the eastafter migration.Modified from Juhlinet al. (2000).

.•.

',X,• "•, '•i " :,• ';:• '• ' • •:'t

•

-•'-• .... '...... •T• '%/';. -- - ......' , •' • , , •':' ;•',:d.-'..' r •" •'

• - • -•;,.'-•'•,'.':>'-
:' •7•..•.-
....• • •.-'_._•'-•<r'
• ' '•; -:•:.. . '. -.'- -2•';•,•;.,--.•L-
•-,•.-,":'; •, •'•-•C-.•

• '••C;•- "•' -:.'•?

• ".."-'.f'?•::•'•-:'.•'•:'--'•:;•-
•'•--• ••;-•G- .•?-?-.":;'Y'"•:>'
•s';•-'•..
•' I I s••al =a •
................... •>-:•----"•-'•:•-'.-<•;:•; ........-"-•••••--:•; ..... -..•:- '-II !i•ltltl

---• :?•--.:-'
:• ,-:-'"•..•,:•>•-.-•:-' ':,:-•:-.'--_,,
-s•:,,•. ;• '-•-' •:---•:-;_•/.---,.- II

CS':•:¾:T_
-•"••::•;.•:•;•- ;.... '-- '---?'-."•"•s;::-d-•-:'2•;•
•:,s•-'-
....5•-'•'•; •- ..... I I .........
•
.........
•"•- I:•J/:•'-'••..•2:
';:-•-•..... ,
-•:•
I .... :--•-'• i ':-"
..... ' I
.....
--' :•:--'-'
It
200 400 600 800 1000 1½00CD P
Fig. 14. Migratedline drawingfromthe SW shearzoneprojectin Viirmlandjoinedwith the surfacegeology.
From Juhlinet al. (2000).
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108 Regional seismicreconnaissancestudies
Processingis an importantcomponentof a seismic
survey.Improperlyprocessed datacanmaskimportant
features.Reflectionsfrom fracturezonesare generally
not continuousand canbe missedif large staticcorrec-
tionsarepresentor incorrecttemporalfiltershavebeen
applied.Reflectionsarriving after the first arrival but
beforethe direct S-wavecan generallybe processedif
good staticcorrectionsare calculatedand the correct
band-passfilter is used.Spectralwhiteningwill gener-
ally improvethe data quality further.After the direct
S-wave arrival it may be difficult to extractreflected
P-waveeventsif the dataare of poor quality.However,
if the data have similar bandwidth from trace to trace,
velocityfilteringcanbe appliedsuccessfully. Velocity
filteringgenerallyperformsbestin the receiverdomain
sincethe traceto tracecoherencyis generallygreaterin
this domain and the static corrections are less variable.
We havealso foundthat DMO •an greatlyimprovethe
seismicimagequality,but careis requiredto ensurethat
the acquisitiongeometryis asregularaspossiblegiven
the conditions of the terrain.
3D Considerations
As can seenin Figure 9, significant3D structureex-
istsbelow•vr6 island.Single2D profilesshouldbe
interpretedwith caution.Detailed predictionsshould
onlybe madealonga profilewherecrosslineinforma-
tionis available,particularlyif thesepredictionsareused
as the basisfor drilling recommendations. The strike
of the gently dippingtarget fracturezone at Finnsj6n
(Figures6 and7) wasconstrained by drilling;otherwise
it is a primeexampleof a reflectionthatmayappearsub-
horizontal,butactuallyoriginatesfroma steeplydipping
structurefrom out-of-the-planeof the profile (Zaleski
et al., 1997). The mismatchbetweenother reflections
in Figure7 andfracturezonesobservedin boreholesat
the siteis mostlikely dueto out-of-planeeffects,rather
thanerrorsin migrationvelocitiesor processing. If the
smallchargemethoddescribedin this paperprovesvi-
able then it may be possibleto acquire3D data, or at
least numerous2D profiles, in important areasto re-
moveanyambiguities priorto drillingand/orexcavation
in the crystallineenvironment.
CONCLUSIONS
Primary sourcesof reflectionsin graniticrock are
mafic sheets or lenses and fracture zones. In some cases
it is possibleto distinguish
betweentheseby analyzing
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the polarity of the reflection.Important for acquisition
of seismic data in the hardrock environment are use of
singlegeophonesto increaseresolution,densesource
spacing,and good contactwith the bedrockfor both
sourcesand receivers.Standardprocessingsteps,such
as refractionstaticcorrections,detailedvelocity analy-
ses,choiceof band-passfilter, and spectralwhitening,
shouldbe done carefully.After thesehave been done
properly,DMO and migration can improvethe image
significantly.Three-D aspectsneed to be considered
when interpreting2D lines in the hardrockenviron-
ment. Many of the reflectionson the sectioncan be
from out-of-the-planeof the profile. If properacquisi-
tion, processing,and interpretationare used,then seis-
mic imagescan be obtainedwhich are highly useful
for nuclearwastedisposalsite localizationandmineral
exploration.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The SwedishNuclear Fuel and Waste Management
Company
(SKB)funded
theFinnsj6n
andXvr6projects.
The GeologicalSurveyof Sweden(SGU) fundedthe
acquisitionandprocessingof the SW shearzoneproject.
C. Juhlin is fundedby the SwedishNatural Sciences
ResearchCouncil(NFR).
REFERENCES
Ahlbom,K., et al., 1992,Finnsj6nstudysite.Scopeof activitiesand
main results:SKB TechnicalReport, TR-92-03.
BABEL WorkingGroup,1991,Reflectivityof a Proterozoicshield:
Examplesfrom BABEL profiles acrossFennoscandia: Meiss-
ner,R., Ed., in Continentallithosphere:Deep seismicreflections:
AmericanGeophysicalUnion, 77-86.
Bod6n,A., and Eriksson,K.-G., Eds., 1988, Deep drilling in crys-
talline bedrock,Volume 1: The deep gas drilling in the Siljan
impactstructure,SwedenandAstroblemes: Springer-Verlag.
Dahl-Jensen, T, Dyrelius,D., andPalm,H., 1991,Deepcrustalseis-
mic reflectionprofilingacrosstwo majortectoniczonesin south-
ern Sweden:Tectonophysics, 195, 209-240.
Gorbatschev, R., 1980, The Precambriandevelopmentof southern
Sweden: GFF, 102, 129-136.
Juhlin,C., 1990,Interpretationof the reflectionsin the SiljanRing
area based on resultsfrom the Gravberg-1borehole:Tectono-
physics,173, 345-360.
--1995, Imagingof fracturezonesin the Finnsj6narea,cen-
tral Sweden,usingtheseismicreflectionmethod:Geophysics, 60,
66-75.
Juhlin,C., Dyrelius,D., Lund,C.-E., andPalm,H., 1989,Crustalre-
flectionsunderneathLake Vfinern,Sweden:Geophys.J.Internat.,
99, 567-578.
Juhlin, C., Lindgren,J., and Collini, B., 1991, Interpretationof
 Shallow reflection seismicsover granitic rocks in Sweden
seismic reflection and borehole data from Precambrian
the Dala Sandstonearea, central Sweden: First Break, 9, 24-
36.
Juhlin,C.,andPalm,H., 1999,3D structure
below,/•vr6Islandfrom
high-resolutionreflectionseismicstudies,southeastern Sweden:
Geophysics,64, 662-667.
Juhlin,C., and Pedersen,L. B., 1987, Reflectionseismicinvestiga-
tionsof the Siljanimpactstructure,Sweden:J.Geophys.Res.,92,
14 113-14 122.
--1993, Further constraints on the formation of the Sil-
jan impact crater from seismicreflection studies:Geologiska
F6reningensi StockholmF6rhandlingar,115, 151-158.
Juhlin,C., Wahlgren,C.-H., and Stephens,M., 2000, Seismicimag-
ing in the frontal part of the Sveconorwegianorogen, south-
western Sweden:PrecambrianRes., 102, 135-154.
Larson,
S.•., Berglund,
J.,Stigh,J.,andTullborg,
E.-L.,1990,The
ProtogineZone, southwestSweden:A new model--an old issue,
in Gower,C. F., Rivers, T, and Ryan, B., Eds., Mid-proterozoic
Laurentia-Baltica.Geol. Assn. Can. Spec. Paper, 38, 317-
333.
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109
rocks in Mair, J. A., and Green,A. G., 1981, High-resolutionseismicreflec-
tionprofilesrevealfracturezoneswithina "homogeneous" granite
batholith: Nature, 294, 439-442.
Papasikas, N., andJuhlin,C., 1997,Interpretationof reflectionsfrom
thecentralpartofthe SiljanRing impactstructurebasedonresults
from the Stenberg-1borehole:Tectonophysics, 269, 237-245.
Riahi, M., and Juhlin, C., 1996, Reflectivitycharacteristicsof the
crustfrommodellingrefraction/wide-angle andnormal-incidence
reflectiondataon BABEL Line 1: Tectonophysics, 262, 173-193.
SKB, 1992, Projecton alternativesystemsstudy(PASS).Technical
ReportTR 93-04.
Swager,C. P., Goleby,B. R., Drummond,B. J., Rattenbury,M. S.,
andWilliams P.R., 1997, Crustalstructureof granite-greenstone
terranesin the easterngoldfields,Yilgarn Craton,as revealedby
seismicreflectionprofiling:PrecambrianRes., 83, 43-56.
Weihed, P., Bergman, J., and Bergstr6m,U., 1992, Metallogeny
and tectonicevolutionof the Early ProterozoicSkellefiedistrict,
northernSweden:PrecambrianRes., 58, 143-167.
Zaleski, E., et al., 1997, Seismicreflectionsfrom subverticaldiabase
dikesin an Archeanterrane:Geology,25, 707-710.
 Chapter 7
SeismicExploration of the Manitouwadge
GreenstoneBelt, Ontario: A Case History
Brian Roberts, Eva Zaleski, Gervais Perton, Erick Adam,
Larry Petrie, and Matt Salisbury
ABSTRACT
The Manitouwadgegreenstonebelt in the Archean
SuperiorProvinceof Northern Ontario, a highly de-
formed and metamorphosedremnant of supracrustal
rocks, has been a focus of mining activity since the
1950s.However,knowneconomicmineraldepositshave
beenfully exhausted, providingimpetusfor the applica-
tion of geophysicaltechniquesthat can guide further
explorationfor deeporebodies.A multidisciplinaryap-
proachwas adoptedin which the groundworkwas laid
for usingseismictechniques to imagekeyhorizonsofthe
major structure,the Manitouwadgesynform,at depth.
The use of seismic-reflection techniquesas an explo-
rationtoolin crystallinerockswith a complexgeological
settingis unconventional. Detailedgeologicalmapping
wasusedto generatea workingmodelof the subsurface
geometry.This was followedby physicalrock property
andboreholestudies,whichprovidedthe acousticprop-
erties of the main lithologicalunits. Three-D forward
modelingusingthe Born approximationconfirmedthat,
given the working geologicalmodel, reflectionsfrom
the main contactsshouldprovidea frameworkfor the
interpretationof the observeddata.
A seismicprogram consistingof three intersecting
2D, high-resolution,reflectionprofilessuccessfully im-
agedseveralimportanthorizons.The top of thevolcanic
sequence in whichtheknownmineraldepositsarehosted
canbe broadlyimagedthroughoutthe subsurface extent
of the Manitouwadgesynform,providingsomeguide-
linesfor exploration.There is alsoan indicationthatthe
Geco mine horizon, which is host to the known mineral
deposits,canbe imagedwith theseismicdata,thusdefin-
ing tighter guidelineson where further explorationis
warranted.Severaldeepholesweredrilledsubsequently
in orderto bothconfirmtheinterpretation
andinvestigate
a numberof high-amplitudeanomaliesobservedin the
seismicdata. The drilling confirmedthe interpretation
11o
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of the main cornactsimaged in the synform,but the
amplitudeanomalieswere found to correspondto am-
plitudefocusingartifactsalongseveralhigh-impedance
contacts, ratherthanmassivesulfidesashoped.Thiscase
history demonstrates that the use of seismic-reflection
technology, whereappropriateand logisticallyfeasible,
can be a significantaid in mineral exploration,both
for the delineationof key markerhorizonsand,poten-
tially, for direct detectionof massivesulfidedeposits.
INTRODUCTION
Beginningin 1995,the GeologicalSurveyof Canada,
in collaborationwith Noranda Inc., undertook an inte-
gratedgeophysicalstudyof the Manitouwadgegreen-
stonebelt (MGB). The broadgoalsof thisprogramwere
to advanceour understandingof the subsurfacegeo-
logyof theMGB andto establisha casehistoryto foster
the technologytransferof seismicmethodsfor mineral
exploration.Three seismicprofileshavebeenacquired
acrossthe major structure,the Manitouwadgesynform
(Lines 1, 2, and3; Figure1). Twolines(1 and3) provide
north-southprofiles of the synform and they are con-
nectedby an east-westline (line 2). Althoughseismic
line 1 extendswell north into the QueticoSubprovince
(Figure 1), this chapterwill concentrateon the seismic
data within the Manitouwadgesynform, the focus of
explorationactivity.The northernhalf of line 1 hasbeen
described previouslyby Zaleskiet al. (1997), wherethey
correlatednumeroussubhorizontaland dippingreflec-
tions to reflected refractions from subvertical diabase
dikes.
A number of factors in the MGB make it a favorable
environmentfor seismictechniquesaimed at regional
reconnaissance and direct detection of massive sulfide
bodies.The belt is host to major volcanogenicCu-Zn
deposits,includingNoranda'sGecomine, which had a
 Seismicexploration of the Manitouwadge greenstonebelt, Ontario 111

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112 Regional seismicreconnaissancestudies
total lifetime productionof nearly60 Mtonnes.All the
knowneconomicdepositswere foundin the 1950s,on
thebasisof surfaceexposure andgeophysical anomalies
(magneticand electromagnetic) associatedwith near-
surfacesources.The mappatternof the MGB is largely
determinedby a late fold, the Manitouwadgesynform,
that plungesshallowlytowardthe east (Zaleski and
Peterson,2002). Within the Manitouwadgesynform,
surfacemapping,down-plungeprojection,and drilling
data suggestthat the favorablehorizonfor mineraliza-
tion hasa considerable subsurface extentat depthsfeasi-
ble for present-day miningmethods,but out of reachof
conventionalgeophysicalmethods.However,the high
metamorphicgrade (upper amphibolitefacies) of the
MGB represented an additionalfactorof unknownsig-
nificance.
The multiphaseseismic-exploration programinclu-
ded subsurfaceprojectionof mappedsurfacegeology,
comprehensive physicalrock propertystudies,forward
modeling,designof an appropriateseismicsurveyto
image structuresand contactsat depth, acquisitionof
high-frequencyseismicprofiles acrossthe MGB, and
integrationof seismicwith drill-hole and geological
data. Interpretedresultsindicateseismicmethodsare
a valuabletool for imagingkey horizonsthroughoutthe
synformand for deepmineralexplorationin generalin
the Manitouwadgearea.
EXPLORATION OBJECTIVES
The Manitouwadgesynformplungestowardthe east-
northeastat approximately25ø. The volcanicsequence
andassociatedfavorablehorizon("Gecomine horizon")
lie at relativelyshallowdepths(< 3 km) overa consider-
ablearea.The objectivesof thepreliminaryphasesof the
programwere to determinewhetherthe geologicalset-
ting wasappropriatefor seismicmethods,giventhatthe
useof high-frequency, high-resolutionseismicreflection
profilingin high-grademetamorphicrockshada limited
andunproventrackrecordat the time. In one study,Wu
et al. (1992) demonstrated that,with carefulprocessing,
they were able to image a fault that separatesthe high-
graderocksof theKapuskasing zonefromthelow-grade
Abitibi greenstonebelt. However,the potentialuseful-
nessof the seismictechniquefor mineral exploration
was uncertain.
At Manitouwadge,detailedgeologicalmappingand
structuralanalysiswere used to constraina working
modelof thesubsurface geometry(ZaleskiandPeterson,
1995;PetersonandZaleski, 1999) andthephysicalrock
property,drillhole,andforwardmodelingresultsgaveus
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confidencethat key horizonsshouldbe detectablewith
seismictechniques.The objectivesof the seismicpro-
gram were to determinethe subsurfaceareal extentof
key marker horizonsthroughoutthe synform, provid-
ing depthcontrolon the subsurface extentof the Mani-
touwadgevolcanicrocksand,additionally,to searchfor
high-amplitudeeventsthat may indicatethe presence
of massivesulfides.The Geco orebodyhad an average
thicknessof 20 m anda strikelengthof 740 m. The core
of the orebodyconsistedof massivepyrite (10-60%),
pyrrhotite (5-30%), sphalerite(5-30%), chalcopyrite
(2-25%), and galena (trace), consistentwith high-
impedances(Friesenet al., 1982). The detectionof a
similarhigh-impedance orebodywithin theMGB, while
possibleand desirable,wouldbe unlikely with a broad
scale,2D seismicprogram.
GEOLOGICAL SETTING
The MGB is a highly deformedremnant of upper
amphibolite-faciessupracrustalrocks in the volcano-
plutonic Wawa Subprovinceof the Archean Supe-
rior Province,immediatelysouthof the major tectonic
boundarywith themetasedimentary-migmatitic Quetico
Subprovince(Figure 1, top left inset). The granulite-
facies,orthopyroxene-in isogradlies immediatelyto the
northof the subprovince boundary.The MGB comprises
a single mafic-to-felsicvolcanic succession,approxi-
mately2720 Ma in age,thatincludesa largesynvolcanic
trondhjemitebodyin the coreof the Manitouwadgesyn-
form (Zaleskiet al., 1999) (Figure1). The felsicvolcanic
rocks are intercalated with iron formation and associ-
ated volcanogenicmassivesulfidedeposits.A unit of
orthoamphibole-bearing
rocks,interpretedas the meta-
morphic equivalentof a zone of Fe-Mg synvolcanic
alteration, follows the contact between mafic and fel-
sic rocks and the margin of the trondhjemite(Zaleski
andPeterson,1995). The Fe-Mg alteredrockslie strati-
graphicallybeneath(structurallyabove)theknownmas-
sivesulfidesdepositsand,togetherwith theirassociated
rocks,are looselyreferredto asthe Gecomine horizon.
The volcanicrocksare overlainby greywackeswhich,
in thepresentconfiguration,lie in an earlyrefoldedfold
(D2 Agam Lake syncline)alongthe southernlimb of
the Manitouwadgesynform.Within the Manitouwadge
synform,additionalzonesof maficrocksknownas the
Dead Lake suite, comprisean enigmaticpackageof
interleavedfoliatedgabbro,diorite, and layeredmafic
to intermediaterocks,as well as magnetite-garnet-rich
rocks (Zaleski and Peterson,1995). The MGB is en-
velopedby foliatedmultiphasedioriticto graniticrocks
 Seismicexploration of the Manitouwadge greenstonebelt, Ontario
of the Black Pic batholith,alsoinvolvedin folding.The
relatedLokenLake plutonis outlinedby the Dead Lake
suiteandtrondhjemitein the coreof the Manitouwadge
synform.
The 2720 Ma volcanic rocks of the MGB
dergonehigh-grademetamorphism and four phasesof
ductiledeformation.The east-northeasterly
plungingD3
Manitouwadgesynformforms the major regionalfold
and dominates the MGB and Black Pic batholith. The
axial surfacedipsmoderatelytowardthe south(Zaleski
and Peterson,1995). Earlier D2 deformationproduced
foldsandthedominantregionalfoliationandminerallin-
eation(Zaleski et al., 1999). A schematiccross-section
acrossthe Manitouwadgesynform(Figure 1, top right
inset)showstheD2 Agam Lake synclineprojectedasan
isoclinalfold thatrepeatsthe correlativeinnerandouter
volcanicbelts aboutmetagreywackes alongthe south-
ern limb of the synform(Petersonand Zaleski, 1999).
The supracrustal sequenceis thickestin the hinge re-
gion of the Manitouwadgesynformand it is attenuated
towardsthe north as strainincreasesand the sequence
is invadedby intrusions(Zaleski and Peterson,1995).
Towardthe north, the structuralgrain is progressively
tightenedandtransposed into steeplydippingeast-west
trendstypical of the Wawa-Queticoboundaryand the
Queticosubprovince.
Metamorphic grade increasestoward the north
such that the Manitouwadge metagreywackeshave
sillimanite-biotite-garnetassemblages characteristic
of
upperamphibolitefacies,withoutevidenceof melting,
whereasthe Quetico metagreywackesare migmatitic.
The dominantD2 fabrics in the MGB are defined by
high-grademineralsand folded by D3 structures,in-
dicating that peak metamorphismwas broadly syn-
chronouswith D2 deformation(Zaleski and Peterson,
1995).
ROCK PROPERTY AND
DRILL-HOLE STUDIES
At theGeologicalSurveyof Canada,laboratorymea-
surements of compressional wavevelocity(Ve) andden-
sity weremadeat elevatedpressures(200 MPa, approx-
imately equivalentto 7-km depth) on a representative
suite of ore and host rock samplesin order to deter-
mine the impedancecontrastsand estimatedreflection
coefficientsat contactsbetweenmajor lithologicalunits
(Figure 2). With the exceptionof sulfidesamplesand
somesamplesfrom iron formationand the Dead Lake
suite,we seethat mostpointsclusteralongor near the
Nafe-Drake curve. However,thesesamplesdefine two
Downloaded 26 Jun 2012 to 95.28.162.50. Redistribution subject to SEG license or copyright; Terms of Use: http://segdl.org/
113
distinctgroups.The mafic-intermediatevolcanicsand
Fe-Mg alteredrocks,alongwith anymaficplutonicrocks
occupya region(groupA in Figure2) of distinctlyhigher
Ve-densitythanthat of the felsicvolcanicandplutonic
have un- rocksandmetagreywackes (groupB in Figure2).
Velocity and densitylogswere obtainedin two deep
drill holes to compare impedancesmeasuredin the
lab with in-situcontinuousobservationsat macroscopic
scale.Figure3 displaysthe densityandvelocitylogsfor
drill-hole GS93-1, locatedoff the southernend of line 1
(Figure 1). The hole intersecteda thick unit of subvol-
canictrondhjemite(•-1470 m) beforeenteringthe base
of the overturnedvolcanicsection,represented by mafic
andorthoamphibole-bearing (Fe-Mg altered)rocks.The
calculatedimpedanceandcorresponding syntheticseis-
mic tracesindicatethatthereis ajump in the impedance
at the top of the volcanicsequencewhereit is in contact
with trondhjemite.A compleximpedancefunctionbe-
low thatlevel is a consequence of the heterogeneousna-
tureof thisdeformedvolcanicsequence.Densityspikes
within the volcanics can be related to mineralized zones
and layersparticularlyenrichedin garnet and/or silli-
manite.Densitytroughstypicallycorrespondwith peg-
matites.The trondhjemiteandotherfelsicplutonicrocks
structurallyoverlyingthe volcanicunitsshouldbe seis-
mically transparentexceptfor low-impedancefracture
zones.
Sincereflectioncoefficientsof 0.06 andgreatershould
generateobservablereflections(e.g., Salisburyet al.,
1996), the physicalrock propertystudiesindicatethat
the MGB should be moderatelyto highly reflective
(Table 1). With the exceptionof contactsbetweenmafic
units and iron formation or Fe-rich Dead Lake suite
rocks(reflectioncoefficientof 0.02), contactsbetween
the major lithologicalunits presentin the MGB gen-
erate absolutereflectioncoefficientsof 0.06 or greater.
Mafic-felsic contactsshouldbe markedby strongsemi-
continuousreflections,making the Geco mine camp
andManitouwadgesynforma goodlocationfor seismic
mappingof stratigraphy andstructureat depth.However,
while the impedancecontrastis important,the seismic
responseof the volcanicsequenceis alsovery muchre-
latedto the thicknessof individuallithologicalunits,the
sharpness of their contacts,the presenceor absenceof
high-impedancemineralslike pyrite or magnetite,and
the lateralcontinuityof the deformedvolcanicstratigra-
phy(e.g.,PerronandCalvert,1998). Significantconcen-
trationsof massivesulfidesmay appearas bright spots
alongmafic-felsiccontacts;however,interferencewith
the seismicresponseof the contactmay preventtheir
detection.
114 Regional seismicreconnaissancestudies

Felsic-intermediate
plutonic
rocks ß Mafic-intermediate
volcanic
rocks
Metagreywacke ß Fe-Mgalteredrocks
Sil-Ms, Sil-Crdschists(alteredrocks) , Iron formation& DeadLake suite
Mafic plutonicrocks,Diabase + Massive& disseminatedsulfides
Felsicvolcanic/subvolcanic rocks(incl. trondhjemite)
I I
lO
[ • Silicate
mineral
data
(Christensen,
1982),
averaged
200 MPa • Sil © Sulfide
andoxide
mineral
data(Salisbury
etal.,1996)

/•11•:i".....
Grt;".....
Group
A
/.?
'i'-!-.•
)•'..
'"'...
'"".
,'•'©Cpx ....

"-.. Ccp

4
/'•'••'""'-.. '""--..........•.P
2 3 4 5 6
DENSITY(g/cm
3)
Fig. 2. Averagecompressional
wavevelocity(Vp) versusdensityfor Manitouwadge
samplesat 200 MPa,
withlinesof constant
acoustic
impedance
(Z) sup.
erimposed.
Alsoshown
aretheNafe-Drake
curveforcom-
mon silicatemineralsandvaluesfor commonsilicateandpure sulfideminerals.Minerals:An--anorthite,
Ccp---chalcop.
yrite,Hbl--hornblende,Cpx•augite,Grt•garnet(almandine-rich),Po•pyrrhotite,Mag--
magnetite,
Sd•silliminite, Sp---sphalerite,
Py--pyrite.SilicaterocksalongNafe-Drakecurve:SED-
se&ments,SERP•serpentinite, F•felsic, M•mafic, UM--ultramafic.

FORWARD MODELING is importantin understanding

In order to model the reflectivityof the MGB, syn-
thetic seismicreflectionmodelswere generated,based
onthelabmeasurements, loggingresults,andsubsurface
projectionof theknowngeology.The forwardmodeling
theseismicresponse of the
variouslithologicalcontacts,and the role of the struc-
tural geometryof the Manitouwadgesynform.The syn-
theticdataconstrainsthegeologicalinterpretationof the
observeddata, rather than attemptingto reproduceit.
On the otherhand,comparingthe syntheticdatawith the

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 Seismicexploration of the Manitouwadge greenstonebelt, Ontario 115

200

400
.

600 •

800

1ooo

1200

1400

16oo

1800

2.0 2.5 3.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 10 15 20 0 2 4 6

Density
(g/cm
3) Vp(km/s) Impedance Synthetic
traces
Fig. 3. Densityand sonicvelocitylogs for drillholeGS93-1, and calculatedimpedances
and synthetic
seismogram producedusinga centralfrequencyof 50 Hz.

observedseismicdata will help refine the geological
model. The 3D forward modelingis also very useful
for displayingthe apparentdip that one can expectto
observe on 2D seismicprofiles•ffectively, a slice
through3D structures.However,2D seismicprofiling
does not image complex 3D structuresproperly,and
there are many pitfalls associatedwith interpreting
eventsthat are actuallyreflectionsfrom contactsnot in
the planeof the 2D line.
For the purposeof modeling,the MGB was repre-
sentedas three layers,comprising;(1)the Black Pic
batholithand plutonicrocksinsidethe Manitouwadge

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116 Regional seismicreconnaissancestudies

Table 1. AveragereflectioncoefficientsbetweenManitouwadge lithologicalunits,

basedon lab measurements.Where applicable,the range of coefficientsfor each
contact is shown in brackets.

Iron formation
Felsic to & Fe-rich Dead
Lithology intermediate Mafic Lake suite
Massivesulfides 0.18 (.16-.20) 0.08 (.07-.09) 0.06
Iron formation 0.12 (.10-.14) 0.02 (.01-.03) -
Mafic rocks 0.10 (.07-.13) - -

0.0

la)l

1.5

(-3

Syntheticmodel
4.5

0.1
SP 2100 2000 1900 1800 1700 1600 1500 1400
Inner mafic contact

0.5

Outer mafic contact

1.0

Greywacke
contact
IIIIm" 0 0.5 1.0 1.5

1.5

Fig. 4. A 2D sectionthroughthe 3D model of the Manitouwadgesynformalong the southernhalf of

line 1 (a), andthe syntheticseismicsection(b) generatedby the programBMOD3D (Eaton, 1996) (vertical
exaggeration is 1'1, assuminga velocityof 6.0 km/s). Shotpointnumbersmatchthosefor line 1 in Figure6a.
Acoustic
impedance
contrast
(inunitsof gm-km-cm-3-s
-1) isindicated
foreachinterface.

synform(LokenLake pluton),(2) dominantlymaficvol- To perform the modeling, we used a Born scatter-

canic rocks (inner volcaniccontactwith trondhjemite ing algorithm(Eaton, 1996). This approximationtreats
andoutervolcaniccontactwith the Black Pic batholith), the earth as the superpositionof a smoothlyvarying
and (3) greywacke,tonalite and felsic volcanicrocks backgroundmedium and short-wavelengthperturba-
but omitting interlayerediron formation (Figure 4a). tions.The contactsof the geologicalmodelneedto be

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 Seismicexploration of the Manitouwadge greenstonebelt, Ontario 117

Table 2. Seismic-acquisitionparameters.
Line 1 Lines 2 & 3

Line length 20 km Line 2 - 22.5 km, line 3 - 12.5 km

Number of channels 480 360
Recordlength 3s 3s
Samplerate 1 ms 2 ms
Filters 160 Hz high cut 164 Hz high cut
Shot interval 40 m 80 m
Receiver interval 10 m 20 m
Nominal fold 60 30
Geophones/group 9 over9 m 6 over2m
Geophonetype Mark ProductsL 10 Spike(14 Hz) Mark productsUM2-A Spike(10 Hz)
Spreadtype Symmetricalsplit spread Symmetricalsplit spread
Outputformat SEGY SEGY
Sourcetype Dynamite,0.34 kg Dynamite,0.34 kg & conecharges

representedon a discrete3D grid,whichpresentedprob- affect the quality of the final section.The goal was to
lemsfor theManitouwadgemodelbecauseof the folded select parametersthat would make the survey more
overturnedcontacts.To producethe 3D griddeddata cost effective, but generateresults of similarly high
set,the contactswere split into segmentswithin which quality.The testsindicatedthat doublingthe shot and
contactdepthwas a single-valuedfunctionof surface receiverspacingand decreasingthe samplerate would
position,eachsegmentwasgriddedindependently, and not adverselyaffectthisprofile.Thus,lines2 and3 were
the results were recombined. A 2D seismic model was recorded with a 20-m receiver interval, an 80-m shot
generatedfor the southernpart of Line 1 usinga Ricker spacing(30 fold), and a samplerate of 2 ms (Table 2).
sourcewavelet(Figure4b). The syntheticmodel shows The drilling of shotholesin remoteareasis a significant
that the inner and outermafic contactsshouldappearas costin acquiringseismicdata for mineral exploration.
gently dipping synformalreflectionsthat surfacenear By increasingthe shotspacing,manymorekm couldbe
stations1480and 1350,respectively. The innervolcanic addedto a seismicprogramfor the samebudgetwithout
contactproducesa higheramplitudereflectionthenthe impairingdataqualityandtargetresolution.
outer contact. The contact between the metasedimen- For line 1, we useda dynamitesourcein drilled shot-
tary horizon(compositemetagreywacke-tonalite-felsic holes for the entire line. On the eastern and northern ends
unit) andadjacentmaficvolcanicsshowsup asa wedge- of lines2 and3, respectively, drillingwasnotfeasibledue
shapedzone with high-amplitudescatteredarrivalsat to swampyterrain. In theseareas,cone-shapedsurface
the nose of the recumbent fold structure. chargeswereused.The resultwasvery poor dataqual-
ity, dueto the reducedamountof energybeingfocussed
downwardsby the chargesandpoorgeophonecoupling
SEISMIC DATA ACQUISITION along theseparts of the lines. Data quality along the
line segments wheredrilledshotholes wereusedwasex-
The seismicdatawereacquiredin twophaseswith the cellent. It is clear that without shotholesdrilled, in or
secondphase(lines2 and3) designedto follow-upafter nearbedrock,seismicreflectionprofilingis not a viable
processing andanalysisof line 1 data.Line 1, acquired techniquefor mineral explorationin the hardrockenvi-
in 1995, crossesthe Manitouwadgesynformand the ronment.
Wawa-QueticoSubprovinceboundaryat a high angle
(Figure 1). Lines 2 and 3 were acquiredin the fall
of 1996. Line 2 follows the axial surface trace of the
SEISMIC DATA PROCESSING
synform,and line 3 is 9-km eastof line 1 and roughly
parallel to it. Table 2 summarizesthe acquisitionpa- Processingfollowed a conventionalsequencewith
rameters.Line 1 wasacquiredwith very high-resolution specialattentiongivento somekey stepswhicharecrit-
parametersto maximize the potential for imaging the ical to producinga high qualitystackedsectionin crys-
key horizons.Prior to the secondphaseof acquisition, talline rocks.The key processingstepswere; (1) refrac-
testswere performedon line 1 data to determinehow tion statics,(2) coherentnoiseremoval,(3) front mute,
decimatingthe data,both spatiallyand in time, would (4) velocityanalysis,(5) dipmoveoutcorrection(DMO),

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118 Regional seismicreconnaissancestudies

Table 3. Processingsequence-ManitouwadgeLine 1. Table 4. Processingsequence-Manitouwadge

Lines 2 and 3.
1) Geometryapplication,firstbreakpickingandtrace
,

editing. 1) Geometryapplication,firstbreakpickingandtrace
2) Refractionstatics - Fathom, Green Mountain editing.
Geophysics 2) Refractionstatics - GLI3D, Hampson-Russell
- 400 m datum, 5650 m/s - 340 m datum,1 layermodel,
replacement vel 5650 m/s replacementvel
3) Spectralbalancing - 35 to 165 Hz, 25 Hz window 3) 2D spatialfiltering - 7 samplemedianfilter at 3250 m/s
4) Front mute - mute 35 ms afterfirstbreakpick dip (shear-waveremoval)
5) CDP gather - nominal fold 60, maximum 4) Air blastattenuation
fold 115 5) Deconvolution - minimum-phasespikingdecon,
6) NMO correction - constantvelocity,55% stretchmute 100 ms operatorlength
Brute Stack 6) Band-passfilter - minimum-phaseOrmsby
band-pass,10-30-130-150 (Hz)
7) Velocityanalysis - Constantvelocitystacks
7) Frontmute - mute 35 ms after firstbreakpick
Conventional Stack - nominal fold 30
8) CDP gather
8) Residualstatics - Surface consistent,.2 to 1.3 s 9) NMO correction - constantvelocity,70% stretch
window mute
9) DMO - Dip moveoutcorrectionusinglog Brute Stack
stretchapproach 10) Velocityanalysis - Constantvelocitystacks
10) Velocityanalysis - Constantvelocitystacks and semblanceanalysis
DMO Stack Conventional Stack
11) F-X decon - Wiener Levinson(ProMAX) 11) Residualstatics - maximumpowerautostatics
12) DUO - Ensemble DMO in T-X domain
12) Migration - Kirchhoff depthmigration
(ProMAX), intervalvelocities 13) Velocityanalysis - Constantvelocitystacks
derivedfrom velocityfunction and semblanceanalysis
defined above. DMO Stack
14) Band-passfilter - minimum-phaseOrmsby
band-pass,10-30-110-120 (Hz)
15) F-X decon - Wiener Levinson,
15 traces, 500 ms window
and(6) migration(Tables3 and4). Althoughprocessed 16) Migration - Kirchhoffdepthmigration,
with differentsoftware(ProMAX for lines2 and3, IN- max dip 60ø, interval
SIGHT for line 1), the basicprocessing stepsweresim- velocitiesderivedfrom velocity
function defined above.
ilar; however,stricterquality controlon the input shot
gathers wererequiredfor lines2 and3 duetothedifficult
surfaceconditions.Processing flowswereattemptedthat
bothincludedandcompletelyremovedthe low S/N shot water table. Seismicwavestravel slowlythroughover-
gathers,but, in the end,the dataat the endsof lines2 burden,especiallydry overburden, and are consistently
(east)and3 (north)appearto containno usefulseismic fastin bedrock.Therefore,alongthe lengthof a receiver
signal. spread,a variationin the traveltimesto the receiversis
The processing of seismicdatafrom crystallineenvi- typical, and is relatedto the thicknessof the overbur-
ronmentsis a specializedtask,andthe differencesfrom den layer and water table at each location.This static
the processing strategyusedby contractors for seismic correctionis vital in obtaininga good seismicimage.
data acquiredin sedimentarysettingsfor hydrocarbon Staticswere calculatedusingthe Fathompackagefrom
explorationhavebeendocumented by a numberof case GreenMountainGeophysics for line 1 andGLI3D from
histories(e.g.,Wu et al., 1995;Adamet al., 1997;Perron Hampson-Russell for lines2 and3. Reliablefirstbreaks
andCalvert,1998) andsummarized nicelyby Milkereit are criticalto a goodstaticssolution,so the first-break
et al. (1996) and Milkereit and Eaton (1998). The dif- pickingwasdoneverycarefullyby examiningandtuning
ferencesare not so much in which stepsare used,but all the automaticallygeneratedpicks.The staticssolu-
in whereoneputsthe emphasisto achievethe bestpos- tion was calculatedusinga singlelayer model with a
sibleresults.Four suchprocessingstepsare described typicaloverburden velocityof 1800m/s, anda replace-
below. mentvelocityof 5650 m/s.

Refraction-Static Corrections Noise Removal

The Canadian Shield typically has ground condi- The eliminationof source-generated noiseis critical
tionsthatvary frombedrockexposedat surfaceto vari- becausein the crystallineenvironmentwe are dealing
ablythick overburden
andan unpredictable depthto the with low reflectioncoefficients(in the orderof 5%) and,

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 Seismicexploration of the Manitouwadge greenstonebelt, Ontario 119

Offset(m) Offset(m)
3521.0 2923.0 2328.0 1736.0 1154.0 580.0 41.0 3521.0 2923.0 2328.0 1736.0 1154.0 580.0 41.0

Fig. 5. Exampleof raw (a) andprocessed (b) partial shotgather(half of the receiverspread)from line 2
demonstrating the removalof varioussourcesof coherentnoisefollowingthe applicationof deconvolution,
band-pass filtering,andwindowedmedianfilter.The arrowsindicatenumerousreflectionson theprocessed
gather.

thus,a low S/N ratio (Milkereit and Eaton, 1998). In a
dynamitesurvey,the typical sourcesof coherentnoise
on the recordedshotgathersare air blast,groundroll,
and shear-waveenergy(Figure 5a). For line 1 we uti-
lized spectralbalancingwhich effectivelyreducedthe
contributionof the coherentsource-generated noiseand
improvedthe temporalresolutionof the databy com-
pressingthe sourcewavelet. A different strategywas
employedwith lines 2 and 3 becauseof unsatisfactory
resultswith the spectralbalancingavailablein ProMAX.
Deconvolutionandband-passfilteringremovedmostof
the groundroll and dispersiveenergyfrom the shear
wave,buttherestillremaineda relativelystrong,butdis-
crete,refracted shear-wavearrival. In order to remove as
much of this as possiblewe applieda windowedme-
dianfilterwhichselectivelyremovesarrivalswith a spe-
cificvelocity(4-3450m/s, asmeasuredon shotgathers).
Strongenergytravelingat that velocity shouldbe much
reduced(Figure 5b). This processremovedmostof the
noise,and it was anticipatedthat the DMO correction
would attenuate the remaining coherent shear-wave
energy.
Front Mute
In high-resolutiondatait is particularlyimportantto
removethe firstbreakenergy(labeledrefractedP-wave
on Figure 5a) while retainingall the wide angle near-
surfacereflectionsthat follow closely after the first
break.Also, if the firstbreakis improperlymutedat far
offsets,then artifactsmay be introducedinto the stack
sectionwell below the top 100 ms. We have used an
algorithmwhich appliesa top mute to the shotgathers
from 0 s to a predefinedtime after the firstbreakpick.
We selecteda time delay of 35 ms following the first
breakin orderto removejust the high-amplitudepart of
the refractedP-wave(Figure5a). Also importantis the
stretchmute that is appliedfollowingthe NMO correc-
tion. After testinga full rangeof valueson brute stacks,
a stretchfactorof 55% (anytracesegmentsstretchedby
more than 55% are muted) was selectedfor line 1 and
70% for lines 2 and 3.
DMO and Migration
At Manitouwadgethe complexgeologicalenviron-
ment generatesreflectionswith variousdips. The dip-
ping eventsare typically related to dipping contacts/
faults or diffractions from structural discontinuities
and high-impedancescatterers.In applyingthe normal
moveoutcorrectionthereis, in general,no velocityfunc-
tion that will simultaneously
optimizestackingof both
dippingand subhorizontalevents.The dippingevents
stackat anomalouslyhighvelocities.To circumventthis

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120 Regional seismicreconnaissance
studies
problem,
DMO isusedtocreateaneffectively
zero-offset
sectionin which dippingeventswill stackat realistic
velocities(Deregowski,1986). Prior to DMO a veloc-
ity functionis definedbasedon the optimalstacking
velocities for subhorizontalfeatures, then a full velo-
city analysisis performedfollowingthe applicationof
DMO. Finally,Kirchhoffdepthmigrationwas applied
usingintervalvelocitiesobtainedfromstacking-velocity the inner volcanicbelt, labeledon the syntheticsection
analysis.In additionto the well knownbenefitsof mi-
gration,this stepyieldeddepthsectionsthat couldbe
compareddirectlywith the drillingresultsandthe geo-
logicalmodel.However,as expected,scatteringbodies
within the sectionwere too smallto be well resolvedby
the migratedimages.
INTERPRETATION
A primeobjectiveof theManitouwadge seismicpro-
gramwasto improvethe geologicalmodelof the sub-
surfaceManitouwadgesynformby broadlymappingthe
majorhorizons.Controlby deepdrillingis only avail-
able alongthe westernpartsand southernlimb of the
synform,promptedby surfacemineraloccurrences. In
modelsof the 3D structureof the synformbasedon sur-
facemapping,the detailedshapeanddepthof the syn-
form, particularlythe volcanicsequence that is known
to hostsulfides,was only approximated. By accurately
constrainingthe depthto the prospectivemining hori-
zon, the seismicdatahavethe potentialto definewhere
furtherexplorationand drilling make economicsense.
The shallowlevels of the Manitouwadgesynform are
clearlyimagedby theseismicdata(Figures6 and7) and
confirmthispart of the geologicalmodel.Additionally,
the smallapparentdipsobservedalongline 2 (Figure7)
provideconfidence thatthe2D interpretation
isvalidand
structuresarebeingimagedin theplaneof theprofile.As
elaboratedbelow,we obtainedseismicimagesfor some
key geologicalunits.
Dead Lake Suite
Reflectionsfrom the Dead Lake suitedefinethe gen-
tly dippingnorthernlimb of theManitouwadgesynform
(reflectionD on Figure6a). The high-amplitudereflec-
tions and lateral extent of the Dead Lake suite make it a
seismicmarkerthroughoutthe westernpart of the syn-
form. Fartherto the east,aswe seein the data from lines
2 and 3, the reflectionsfrom the Dead Lake suitebecome
weakerand semicontinuous. We interpretthis changein
characterto layersthat are becomingtoo thin or being
disruptedby intrusions(Figures6b and7).
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Inner Volcanic Contact
Beneaththe Dead Lake suite,a gentlydippingreflec-
tivepackageprojectsto surfaceexposures ofmaficrocks
onthenorthernlimb of theManitouwadgesynformnear
station1450 on line 1 (reflectionV on Figures6 and7).
Frommappinganddrillholedatawe interpretthetop of
thispackageasthecontactbetweenthetrondhjemiteand
asthe InnerMafic Contact(Figure4). It appearsthatthe
dip of the northernlimb of the Manitouwadgesynform
isrelativelyuniform,sincethedipandextentof thiscon-
tactremainsuniform aswe moveeastalongthe synform
(Figures6a andb). On line 3 the dataqualitydecreases
to thenorth,but we suggestthatreflectionV mayproject
to the surfaceoutcropof the volcanicrocksnearstation
330 (Figure 1).
Volcanic Sequence
Once into the deformed volcanic and sedimentary
package,it is apparentfrom the geologicallogsof deep
drillholesthat the map unitsdefinedfrom surfacemap-
pingwill be very difficultto extrapolateacrossthe syn-
formusingthe seismicdata.The metavolcanic rocksof
the inner and outer volcanic belts have variable thick-
nesses of mafic and felsic units with considerable local
heterogeneityin the volcanicstratigraphy,
deformation,
degreeof alteration,andamountofinterlayeredironfor-
mation and/or minor sulfide mineralization. Consider-
able lateral variation in the units can be expected.In
additionto the strongreflectionsproducedby the con-
tactsdescribedabove,we alsoobservestrongreflections
at some of the mafic-felsic contacts within the volcanic
sequence,
aspredictedby the rockproperties.Drillhole
GS97-421 is located at the intersectionof lines 1 and 2,
andthemaficto felsictransitionatapproximately1800m
ismarkedby a reflectiononbothlines(reflectionmarked
F in Figure8). Also, at drillholeGS97-425alongline 2,
we observea strongreflectionat 1150m, generated at a
felsiclayerwithinmaficmetavolcanic rocks(Figure8).
However,it appearsthatthesereflectionsarenotlaterally
extensive,probablydueto variationsin the sharpnessof
the mafic to felsic contact and the local thickness varia-
tionsof thefelsicunits(reflectionF onFigures6a and7).
Geco Mine Horizon
Orthoamphibole-cordierite-gamet-gneiss,
part of the
Geco Mine horizon,lies strucmrallyabovethe known
mineraldeposits.Surfacemappingand drill datashow
 Seismicexplorationof the Manitouwadgegreenstonebelt, Ontario 121

LINE 2 N
GS97-420 GS97-421 GS97-423

0.0
SP O0 2000
I 1900 1800 1700 1600x•
1500 1400 I I
1300

0.5

1.0

2.5

3.0

3.5
0 0.5 1.0 1.5
i 1

A- Line 1
i i i

4.0

S LUr2 N
SP 783 759 734 709 684 660 635 604 581 557 533 507 482 457 433 407 381

• e . •'•' • 3""•'' •I '•"'•

•fi• -•;:• ' ' I•,• "9• • •)'•le •'•t,••:'• •, '•lt,•,i •'• ,.• • •;,•'•)•"•'•:•5•••• '•',•n• ., •t•' e c ,it .....•).'•,•,•z• •'l,•,0-%r• • "ß • •2 •
•t•5
,.•.•'•tz• .•,m'•,.,,.:2•,•,.•
.fi.•,.•:
• •, •x•tk.,•:•,.,•,•.•,.,.•>• ..,.:•,.o•2•
•,e•?'-•--,• .• t.•.•.
,•,,: • -.' • . ,.r:•- ": ' •:'-'- .,,'.•'•',
,,:'.',,I•,.•'
•'• •,,•7•,'
• ,'••;',. .,:½,•:•.-. •:•',?•.-•;',?.
?,,,•.,,'•L;•',,,•

•'•1•..,•t,;•2•,•",::½ "••••••••,,•...w.:',•. '*..J&},,

' a•3i:'•,;:,•.•',','•::.,•v
,. •,:•, :• 'x,•lt
"" ','•.•'½•;,>½•{1",',;'•:v-'•
.... A. •:"'/•,••••'•;'t'•p•: •....• '•,,..,:,.,:,,,
,•,, ,',.•.,•:;•;,•
•,.",•,t:.'•;•

,•,•..••sv:*_-•-lie....
..t '•.'.':-Fi ,,• ß•-'"",½':.:•;.,':.;m•.
•o,••. ,;•,r•;:,• :•3. ' :.,•':, '.w•,,
'a•s•r,•
•F' •':•'.•'•' ',v,,.::'.,':27,.'.•,;"•
,•y•-•.,,•;.e•'e•,•{ ....'•..•.,•.½.....
•;•;•'•,,• ,,x.)•,•,'?•,,•,,' ...• :rr•.•.

:• ',3•,•.•..W•'•:•4,, •,' •'•}"•"•.'•.

,.,•,•'•':•"i,g
'"'•,,',•'"'l•,,, r' '.. • •,*,u,.•.r%',,>l
.''• ' .-,".,•.' %!•:
,',0',,"'•'•..:,:' ',•"5• '.,,,,. ',.•,,'./a..
,u,•r; ',.•',;$, • "•,,* ,''., u•,•.' ",'•.'',o'.•,•.:.•.•:

'.•,,•.,,
..;•,..,,'..,,..,,,,,•
4.,,.,,'.:,.•.......
:,,•,-.
,=:,,'.
.......
•.•.
-,...........
'•.,:}'•
......
:',•
.....
• .........,•:,,
•,........ •.... .,.•,:•,
;•,•.,•:,
•.......• ......
'.:,•,, .• •,,.•.,.... . • ,, •,. •,•.,,•..,

""- 2 ......
•..... • 'g.,•
.... •.e,•,:
•,,•.' .• ....... %...... 'w•,
•'., •""•• ' •........ , ;•.•..... :.,.?•• "'•,'e•• ....
• ...... .•'."; .....

Fig.6. Cross-sections oftheManitouwadgesynform: depthmigrated seismicsections

forthesouthernhalf
of line1 (a) andline3 (b).Alsoshownarethelocations
of deepdrillholesandthecrossline
tiewitheast-west
strikingline2. SeeFigure8 forenlarged imagesof thedrillholelithologies
andthecorrespondingseismic
data.Reflections aremarked as;D•Dead Lakesuite,V•top of thevolcanic sequence, F•mafic-felsic
contact,G•Geco mine horizon,andare •rther describedin the text.

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122 Regional seismicreconnaissancestudies

LINE 1

w I GS97-421 E
SP 10331008 983 955 930 905 881 856 831 802 777 753 728 703 678
0.0

0.5

1.0 •'• ','•,-%

;,ntr
•>•-•
;••){•,..•.'
,,:,,
v-', "•%'
'........
•'•:•*•
•r',.,
,""•;•,•
•,•',r
,"•V'"•"h";,;"•
•"•",',•{•'•"'L"T"")"•"
'"'
•$½
)•••3
•"/•'i,•,.-•
',v•'),l,•
) "••'•u"""k.•;,
•';•',
'{";"•
i
:•;'• '•"'.•?;:• •5..'•?;•:•i'½',,t
[••;•`•;•••••••••••"...••.••.•`•:•:•:•;•:•;`•.•;•`.•`•.•.•i•:•*•...•`•i•`;••)`•.t•:•;•`•'•;•

•;½,:..'(,:•,
•;;',.•,,'
..?rh•.'½•,•,,,:,,•f•,•:,•;,•t•,,•,•,,.,•,',i,•,,,,,•(•)•r:',•'7.
•""
*•"•••"•••••••••fi..•,•,.•
"' ._ . •,,,•,,,½•.•:• ',,,,;xn
•,-,,,,'•'.?.,-..:,
::.•,• • :.•:•
......•.*..•;.-
3.0

3.5

i i •"½ ?'•'•.•'•'
, n•,.• i..'•:•"•'•:'
•i• •ff•..'c ....••½b•
,•"•½';:•'•'
'r•,•e•.',.•t• ,,)•,•',.*•',•=•'½•{•J/•,•
, ,½,,• •"½'/•=-
"'•;•'..•;•*•
•:• ,'.i:,)',
•* .,',•k',•."
;,•.•,,%'i•'.•':•,
'•"•']110•n• ,•,r•r,,½e,;.•o"'•-- %,,•>,•,•
,..t.,• ,.,•,.,,•,,•• ........
4O

W LINE3 GS97-425 E
SP 628 603 578 55 529 501 4-76 4-52 4-27 4-02 328 29,9 275

0.5

1.0

,•, 1.5

a= :2.0

• 2.5

3.0

3.5

4.0

Fig. 7. Depthmigratedseismicsectionfor line 2. The line is shownin two parts,displayedat the samescale
as Figure 6. The arrow indicateswhere the overlappingparts are joined. Also shownare the locationsof
deepdrillholesand the intersectionswith lines 1 and 3. See Figure 8 for enlargedimagesof the drillhole
lithologiesandthe corresponding seismicdata.Reflectionsare markedas in Figure6.

that this unit forms a semiconformable
stratigraphicbase(overturned)of the synvolcanictrond-
hjemite(Zaleski and Peterson,1995). The trondhjemite
contactis a complextransitionzoneof septaof variably
altered,mafic metavolcanicrocksand orthoamphibole-
bearing,Fe-Mg altered rocks interlayeredwith trond-
hiemite at a variety of scales.Deep drillholes along
line 1 (GS97-421 & GS97-423)intersectedcomparable
sheet near the rock types to the Geco mine horizon, but at variable
depths,both relative to the contactwith trondhjemite
and within the volcanic sequence.Matching the seis-
mic datato the geologicallog from drillholeGS97-421
indicatesthat a strongreflectionis generatedat or near
contacts between felsic volcanic rocks and the mafic and
Fe-Mg alteredrocks(Figure 8). The reflectivitymay be
enhancedby small amountsof pyrite as encounteredin

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 Seismicexploration of the Manitouwadge greenstonebelt, Ontario 123

N s w E
line 1 line 1 line 2 line 2

.[---,• Felsic
plutonic
(incl.trondjhemite)
• Hbl-BtGneiss
(mafic
metavolcanics)
[ ]Felsicgneiss
(metavolcanic)
[ ]Pegmatite
• Disseminated
orstringer
sulfides
.........Metasediments
(gneiss)
...........
Fe-Mgaltered
rocks
(Bt-OAm-Crd-Grt-Sil)

Fig.8. Summary
lithological
logsfordrillholes
GS97-423,421,and425 overlainonthemigrated
seismic
data.Lines 1 and2 areshghtlyshiftedwith respectto eachotherdueto the differentprocessing datumused
for eachline (400 m for line 1,330 m for line 2). G -- Gecomine horizon.F = mafic-felsiccontact.

drillholesGS97-421 and 423. Pyrite has an extremely 684; however,it cannotbe unambiguouslytraced far-
high impedance(Figure 2) and can affect the reflection ther to the north (Figure 6b). A possibleinterpretation
response evenwhenpresentin smallamounts(Salisbury for line 3 that would be consistentwith the geometry
et al., 1996). This reflection(G on Figures6 and 7), observedon line 1 is thatG shallowsrapidlyto thenorth
althoughnot alwaysstrong,canbe followedalongline 1 and is relatedto a weak south-dippingreflectionpack-
parallelto reflectionV asit approachesshallowerlevels agethatflattensnearstation381, wherewe observesome
(Figure6a). In drillholeGS97-423 thisunit is intersected strongreflectionspriorto the regionof poordataquality
at approximately900-m depth,so a reasonablecorrela- (Figure 6b).
tioncanbemadebetweenholesGS97-421and423 along
line 1.
Seismic Scatterers
As we tracereflectionG eastalongline 2 (Figure7)
it appearsto increasein depthsignificantlyandin drill- Drillholes GS97-423 and GS97-425 were drilled
hole GS97-425, it may be as deep as 2.5 km or ap- by Noranda at locationswhere anomalousamplitudes
proximately1.5 km belowthe structuraltop (abovethe occurredat or nearthe top of the interpretedinnermafic
stratigraphicbase as definedby the trondhjemitecon- contact.These anomaliescould potentiallybe caused
tact) of the volcanicsequence.On line 3, reflectionG is by significantamountsof disseminated or massivesul-
alsoclearlyobservedat depthbetweenstations557 and fides. However, in neither case were any significant

Downloaded 26 Jun 2012 to 95.28.162.50. Redistribution subject to SEG license or copyright; Terms of Use: http://segdl.org/
124 Regional seismicreconnaissancestudies

,_"Oh-Y;-•.*¾,,
,'-:,x--_'Y.",
•. > -'_--.
*a
'-'•,','-'
•:..:,':'.'
;;t;: ½?:':
*.:.7..•(-i
'*',• '

m- - ;CO.: -:: -' ': '.', .;;-

::-;"•'•; ,- >•;---L',_/¾:;/;:.':.;-
, :•i

• .7%'-
ke:.".-•.:i:,._
a,;-:-..'-:
;:,:.-
•_ 3..' ,.;Z½.'..'.t;.
:',.;.:-
-½
.:•7•:.•
s,.c,,';,
--'•._-4. *'VS.-'.;•
.4-, o .,:<
:,?::-:.?.•.•.•,.:5,•;½j:,,:•,;:..,,,
o o
C/• c/•
•, o o
o o
ø o o o

o o õ• o o

Downloaded 26 Jun 2012 to 95.28.162.50. Redistribution subject to SEG license or copyright; Terms of Use: http://segdl.org/
 Seismicexploration of the Manitouwadge greenstonebelt, Ontario
amounts of sulfides intersected.In drillhole GS97-423,
the trondhjemite-mafic volcaniccontactappearsto be
particularlysharpand, thus,well focusedseismically.
Also, somelocal occurrencesof pegmatitewithin the
maficrocksare addingto the generallyhigh-impedance
contrasts(Figure 8). Drillhole GS97-425 intersectsa
thick zone of the Dead Lake suite at 700 m causing
the first large reflectionresponse,and the other high-
amplitudereflectionsareat thetopof themaficvolcanic
sequencenear 1 km depthand at a felsic volcanicin-
terlayerat 1150m (Figure8). Numerousoccurrences of
pyriteandmagnetitebetweenthedepthsof 1 and 1.5km
contributeto the impedancecontrastsbetweenlayersin
drillhole GS97-425.
CONCLUSIONS
Integrated studiesin the MGB have shown that
high-resolutionseismic-reflection data, constrainedby
physicalrockproperties, modeling,andgeologicalanal-
ysis,cansubstantially increaseourunderstanding of the
MGB and its potentialfor subsurfacemassivesulfide
accumulations.By utilizing three intersecting2D seis-
mic lines and a limited numberof deep drillholes,we
have demonstrated that the subsurface structure of the
Manitouwadgesynformcanbe broadlyimaged,provid-
ing a frameworkfor deepmineralexplorationprograms.
The seismicdata can be effectively interpretedwithin
the constraintsof known surfacegeologyand drillhole
informationto yield a coherentpicture of key geolog-
ical units within the synform(Figure 9). Of particular
importanceis the inner volcaniccontactwhich forms
a structuralfloor to the plutonicrocks.Sincethis con-
tact definesthe uppermostlimit for potentialmineral
deposits,where it occursat depthsbelow which the
exploitationof an ore depositis uneconomical,no fu-
tureexplorationis warranted.Additionally,a packageof
reflectivity apparentlyassociatedwith the Geco mine
horizonappearsto be a regionalmarker,and is inter-
pretedto extendto shallowlevels(< ! km depth)near
much of the north limb of the synform.However,the
horizonappearsto deepensignificantlyto the eastalong
line 2 (Figure 9).
Interpretationof the seismicdatahasrefinedthe geo-
logicalmodelfor theManitouwadgesynform.The shal-
lowingof theprospective horizonto thenorthpreviously
wasnot well constrainedfrom surfacegeology,andthe
depthto the contactbetweentrondhjemiteandthe inner
volcanicbelt at the deepestpart of the synformis now
estimatedto be 1300m, whereasthemodelhadpredicted
Downloaded 26 Jun 2012 to 95.28.162.50. Redistribution subject to SEG license or copyright; Terms of Use: http://segdl.org/
125
1800 m. The seismicprofileswere able to contributea
degreeof precisionand accuracyto the positionof the
marker contactsthat was not attainableby the geolog-
ical model alone. These refinements are favorable for
explorationin that they indicatethe hostrocksfor min-
eralizationmay lie at accessibledepthsovera wider area
thanoriginallypredicted.
Severallocal amplitudeanomalieswere identifiedon
the seismicdatawhichprovidedinterestingdrilling tar-
gets in previouslyunknownregionsof the synform.
Unfortunately,where drilled, theseanomalieswere not
relatedto massivesulfides,but insteadappearto be gen-
eratedby particularlystrongfocusingof seismicenergy
alongsomehigh-impedance contacts,contributedto by
reflectivepegmatitelayers.In future studies,it may be
possibleto distinguishthesetypesof featuresfrom ore
depositson the basisof scatteringcharacteristics (see
Bohlen et al., this volume). With the depthresolution
andstructuralframeworkprovidedby the seismicdata,it
mayhavebeenpossibleto utilizeothergeophysical tech-
niquesto scanfor anomalies.In fact, a follow-uppro-
gram of magnetotelluric(MT) measurements was con-
sideredbut not completeddueto budgetaryconstraints.
The MT techniqueis a potentiallypowerfulexploration
tool for conductivebodies,but lacksdepthcontrol.With
a known depth to the prospectivehorizon, MT could
haveprovento be an effectivetechniqueto complement
resultsfrom the seismicprogram.
If a strategicseismicprogramwas to be attempted
at Manitouwadgefor mineral exploration,3D seismic
methodsshouldbe consideredin order to better image
the detailedstructuresin their true orientationand,po-
tentially,to directlydetectmassivesulfides.The chal-
lengesof acquiringhigh-qualityseismicdata in crys-
talline rock terranesare significant,however,and the
techniquecannotbe usedas an explorationtool in all
environments.A careful step-wiseapproach,as was
performedin this study,is recommended to maximize
the chances of success.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Bemd Milkereit was responsiblefor the multidisci-
plinary approachappliedto this studyand the concept
of utilizing seismicmethods.Virginia Peterson(North
Carolina University) contributedsignificantlyto the
structuralanalysisandsubsurface projectionduringand
afterhertenureasa post-doctoral
fellowattheGSC.Data
acquisition wasfundedby Noranda,Inc. andtheOntario
GeologicalSurvey.The seismicdatawere acquiredby
126 Regional seismicreconnaissancestudies

EnertecGeophysicalServicesInc., supervised by Larry Friesen,R. G., Pierce,G. A., and Weeks,R. M., 1982, Geologyof
Matthews(NorandaInc.) andthe boreholeloggingdata the Gecobasemetaldeposit:Geol.Assoc.Can., SpecialPaper25,
343-363.
by the Mineral ResourcesDivision of the GSC. This
Milkereit, B., et al., 1996, Seismicimagingof massivesulfidedepo-
report follows a confidentialityperiod, during which sits,Part2: Reflectionseismicprofiling:Econ.Geol.,91,829-834.
Norandahasbeengenerousin givingpermissionto dis- Milkereit, B., andEaton,D., 1998,Imagingandinterpretingtheshal-
playthedataatvariousforums.The 3D geological model low crystallinecrust:Tectonophysics, 286, 5-18.
was constructedby Lise Desjardins,and David Eaton Perron,G., andCalvert,A. J., 1998, Shallow,high-resolution seismic
generatedthe syntheticsections.Historicalinformation imagingat the Ansil miningcampin the Abitibi greenstone belt:
Geophysics,63,379-391.
on the discoveryandmineralogyof the Gecominewere Peterson,V. L., andZaleski,E., 1999, Structuralhistoryof the Mani-
obtainedfrom discussionswith Hugh Lockwood.Dave touwadgegreenstone beltanditsvolcanogenicCu-Zn massivesul-
Forsythprovidedvaluablesuggestions thatimprovedthe fidedeposits, Wawasubprovince, south-central
SuperiorProvince:
manuscript.DiannePaul(GSC) didmuchof the drafting Can. J. Earth Sci., 36, 605-625.
on Figure 1 andAzad Rafeek (GSC) provideddrafting Salisbury,M., Milkereit,B., andBleeker,W., 1996, Seismicimaging
of massivesulfidedeposits,Part 1: Physicalrockproperties:Econ.
supportfor a numberof the other figures.Geological
Geol., 91, 821-828.
Surveyof Canadacontributionnumber1999295. Wu, J., Mereu, R. F., andPercival,J. A., 1992, Seismicimageof the
IvanhoeLakefaultzonein theKapuskasing uplift of theCanadian
REFERENCES Shield:Geophys.Res. Lett., 19, 353-356.
Wu, J., Milkereit, B., andBoerner,D., 1995, Seismicimagingof the
Adam, E., et al., 1997, Seismic explorationfor VMS deposits, enigmaticSudburyStructure:J.Geophys.Res.,100, 4117-4130.
Matagami,Quebec,in Gubins,A. G., Ed., Proc.of Exploration97: Zaleski, E., et al., 1997, Seismicreflectionsfrom subverticaldiabase
4thDecennial
Internat.Conf.onMineralExpl.,Prosp.andDevel. dikesin an Archeanterrane:Geology,25, 707-710.
Assoc.of Can., GEO F/X, 433-438. Zaleski, E., and Peterson,V. I., 1995, Depositionalsettingand de-
Card,K. D., and Ciesielski,A., 1986, Subdivisionsof the Superior formationof massivesulfidedeposits,iron-formation,andasso-
Province of the Canadian Shield: GeoscienceCan., 13, 5-13. ciatedalterationin the Manitouwadgegreenstone belt, Superior
Christensen, N. I., 1982, Seismic velocities, in Carmichael, R. Province,Ontario: Econ. Geol., 90, 2244-2261.
S., Ed., Handbookof physicalpropertiesof rocks:CRC Press, -2002, Geology, Manitouwadgegreenstonebelt and the
1-228. Wawa-Queticosubprovince boundary,Ontario:Geol. Surv.Can.,
Deregowski,S.M., 1986,WhatisDMO?: FirstBreak,4, No. 7, 7-24. Map 1917A.
Eaton, D. W., 1996, BMOD3D: A programfor three-dimensional Zaleski,E., andPeterson, V. L., 2001, Geologyof theManitouwadge
seismicmodelingusingtheBornapproximation:
Geol.Surv.Can., greenstone belt and the Wawa-Queticosubprovince boundary,
Open File 3357. Ontario:Geol. Surv.Can., Map 1917A, scale1:25 000.

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Seismic-ReflectionImaging of the Environment
around the Mount lsa Orebodies, Northern
Australia: A Case Study
B. J. Drummond,A. J. Owen,J. C. Jackson,B. R. Goleby,and S. N. Sheard
ABSTRACT
The mineral-system concept,namely,thatoredeposi-
tion requiresa fluid source,a migrationpathway,and
a trap, providesa frameworkfor the strategicuse of
seismic-reflectionimaging in mineral exploration.A
casestudyinvolvingthe imagingof structuresthat are
believed to have controlled the location of orebodies
at the Mount Isa mine in northern Australia
stratedthe efficacy of seismictechniquesin imaging
the mineral trap stageof mineral systems.At Mount
Isa, silver-lead-zinc orebodies are strataboundwithin
the Urquhart Shale.Copperorebodieslie deeper,also
within the Urquhart Shale.Both typesof orebodieslie
abovethe Paroo Fault, which separatesthe Urquhart
Shalefrom the underlyingEasternCreekVolcanics.Be-
causeit represents the structurallowerlimit of mineral-
izationin thearea,theParooFaultwastheprimarytarget
for seismicimagingratherthatthe mineralizationitself.
The interpretationof the first line (line 2) was aidedby
theresultsfrom deepdrilling.The seismicdatamapthe
positionof the Paroo Fault at depth.In the west, the
ParooFaultis subverticalandtruncatesthe strongcon-
tinuousreflectionsfrom the Urquhart Shale.However,
at depth,the eastwarddip of the ParooFault decreases
andthe seismicdataappearto map a zone in which the
UrquhartShaleis altered.The top of the alterationhalo
may be as distinctivea reflectionmarker as the Paroo
Fault reflector marker. Seismic data were also recorded
fartherto the north (line 3), wherelittle deepdrill con-
trol exists.There,the seismicdatapredictthatthe inflec-
tion on the Paroo Fault from subvertical in the west to
moregentlyeast-dippingoccursat a greaterdepth.The
structurescontrollingthe lowerlimits of mineralization
appearto plunge to the north. In this casestudy,seis-
mic reflectionimaginghasbeenparticularlyeffectivefor
imagingthe structures aroundtheorebodies.Evenmore
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Chapter 8
encouraging,
thealterationhalosaroundthe copperore-
bodiesseemto be broadenoughto form a likely target.
INTRODUCTION
Golebyet al. (1997) usedthe conceptof mineralsys-
temsto simplifytheir approachto usingseismicimag-
demon- ing for mineraldeposits.This is becauseorebodiesoften
haveirregularshapes,with surfacesthat are smallcom-
pared to the diameterof the first Fresnelzone for the
frequencieslikely to be returnedfrom the uppercrest,
particularlyin regionswhere deep weatheringattenu-
ateshigherfrequencies. A mineralsystemcanbe defined
simplyin termsof the sourceof a mineralizingfluid,its
migrationpathway,and the mechanismthat causesthe
fluid to depositthe orebody.
Goleby et al. (1997) determinedthat fluid sourcere-
gionswouldbe difficultto differentiatein seismicdata.
However, they were able to use severalcase histories
to demonstratehow seismictechniquescould be used
for imaginglikely fluid pathwaysand the environment
aroundorebodies,i.e., elementsof thetrappingsystems.
One of their casestudiesshowedthe structuresimaged
near the Mount Isa mine in northern Australia. In this
chapter,that studyis developedfurtherto demonstrate
thatseismicimagingfor mineralexplorationcanbe suc-
cessfulif the imagingeffort is directedat the environ-
ment of the ore deposit,and particularlythe structures
that appearto controlthe mineralization,ratherthanthe
orebodyitself.
The Mount Isa Mine has been a major producerof
silver,lead,zinc and copperfor over70 years.The ore-
bodiesat the mine havebeenextensivelystudiedusing
a multitudeof geologicaland geophysicaltechniques.
Perkins(1984) summarizedearly ore genesismodels,
and a number of studies have described the surface and
127
128 Regional seismicreconnaissancestudies
downholegeophysicalresponseof the orebodies(e.g.,
Fallon and Busuttil, 1992; Fallon et al., 1996; Jackson
et al., 1996).
The mine lies on the east side of the north-south trend-
ingMountIsaFault.TheHilton andGeorgeFisherMines
(Ag-Pb-Zn) to the north lie in the samehostrocksand
are also adjacentto the Mount Isa Fault, as are several
prospectsboth southand north of the mine, suggest-
ing that they may be part of the samemineral system.
However,despitethe wealth of knowledgedefiningthe
mineral systemsin the area of the mines, only limited
quantitativeknowledgeexiststo depthelsewhere.Struc-
tures thoughtto control mineralization,suchas faults
andbasementramps,are not well definedawayfrom the
mines.
The Ag-Pb-Zn orebodiesat the Mount Isa Mine are
conformable with the steeply west-dippingUrquhart
Shale. Cu orebodiesare also hostedby the Urquhart
Shaleasa metasomaticreplacement,but occurat greater
depthsthantheAg-Pb-Zn orebodies.The dominantcon-
trol onorefluid focusingandalterationisthe"greenstone
contact"or Paroo Fault, which separatesthe Urquhart
Shale from the underlying Eastern Creek Volcanics.
The Eastern Creek Volcanics consist of metabasalts in-
terbeddedwith quartzitesand minor schists.The Paroo
Faultthereforerepresentsa first-orderdiscontinuitybe-
tweentwo formationswith probablecontrastingseismic
impedances. It thereforeappearedto representa suitable
targetfor seismicimagingand,if imagedwouldprovide
importantinformationfor future copperexplorationin
the region.
In 1994,theAustralianGeodynamicsCooperativeRe-
searchCentre (AGCRC), throughthe AustralianGeo-
logicalSurveyOrganisation(AGSO), undertooka mul-
tidisciplinaryprogramof studiesalong the Mount Isa
Transect.The transectcorridorboundeda 250 km long
deep seismicreflectionprofile orientedapproximately
east-west about 22 km to the south of the Mount
Mine (Drummondet al., 1997). M.I.M. ExplorationPty
Ltd, the explorationarm of the mine operator,Mount Isa
Mines, took the opportunityofferedby havingthe crew
in the regionto recorda seriesof high-resolutiontest
seismic lines north of the mine. The aims were to test
the efficacyof the seismicreflectiontechniquein the
mine environment,and to image and definebasement
structuresthat could be targetsfor exploration.In this
casestudy,we presenttheresultsof imagingfrom two of
theselines. In the first line, the interpretationwas con-
trolledby deepdrilling undertakenprior to the seismic
survey,andit waspossibleto interprettheseismicimage
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in terms of the structures that controlled the mineraliza-
tion. It also showedthat alterationzones(i.e., zonesof
secondarymineralsformedin countryrockasa resultof
hydrothermalprocesses) aroundtheorebodies(Heinrich
et al., 1995) andassociated faults(JonesandNur, 1984)
maybe suitabletargetsfor seismicimaging.Suchzones
of alteration tend to be much more voluminous than ore
depositsper se. The work also supportedpreviousob-
servations thatthe highreflectivityof a fault impliesthe
occurrenceof a fluid pathway.The interpretationwas
then extrapolatedto a secondline farther north, where
no deepdrilling hasbeenundertakento definethe struc-
ture at depth.
GEOLOGICAL SETTING
Stewartand Blake (1992) providean imroductionto
the extensiveliteratureon the geologyof the Mount Isa
Inlier. The inlier is a zoneof Proterozoicrocksthatcrop
out alongthe boundarybetweentwo mega-elements--
the North Australianmega-elementto the westand the
North Queenslandmega-elementto the east(Figure la;
Shawet al., 1996). Mega-elementsare regionsconsist-
ing of a numberof provincesthatamalgamated andthen
actedas a singletectonicunit. The inlier hasthreemain
elements(Figure lb). The Western and EasternFold
Belts,consistingof foldedandmetamorphosed volcanic
and sedimentaryrocks,are separatedby the Kalkadoon
LeichhardtBelt, believedto representthe basementto
the fold belts. Deformation within the fold belts was the
responseof the volcanicand sedimentaryrocksto rela-
tive lateralmotionof the mega-elements
to the eastand
west.
The Mount Isa orebodiesare in the WesternFold Belt,
on the westernsideof a strucmrallycontrolleddepocen-
ter calledtheLeichhardtRiver FaultTrough(Figurelb).
The UrquhartShale,which hoststhe orebodies,is part
Isa of the Mount Isa Group, which lies eastof the Mount
Isa Fault (Figure 1c). Its equivalentwest of the Mount
Isa Fault is calledthe McNamara Group.Thesegroups
lie stratigraphicallyabovethe HaslingdenGroup,which
contains the Eastern Creek Volcanics.
Seismicdata from the regional deep seismicline to
the southof the Mount Isa Mine providea regionalcon-
text (Figure 2; Drummond et al., 1997; see Figure lc
for location). They show the meta-sedimentaryand
volcanicrocks of the WesternFold Belt to be steeply
west-dipping,andprobablyextendingunderthe areally
extensiveSybellaGranitein the westof the region.The
regional seismicdata showthe Mount Isa Fault to be
 Seismic-reflectionimaging around the Mount Isa orebodies 129

139o20 ' 139ø30 ' 139ø40 '

[
139 ø 140" 141ø

0 50 km
! ................

+ + Mt Isa F au it
MOUNT ISA
4
INLIER
3

+++++-4-.

4- +- 4-. -..I- + +

E• WE•ERN
FOLD BELT Sybeila
granite (mostlyHastingtonGp)

P
[•] FOLD
E•TERN
BELT 'Younger
sequences,
mostly
Mt !sa Gp (east of Mt !sa Fault) and
McNamaraGp (West of Mt Isa Fault)
Kalkadoon
Leichhardt
Belt (basement)

................
Geological • Seismicreflection
profile • Mine
boundary O 10km
............ Fault • Refraction blast site ' ...... -•

Fig. 1. (a) The MountIsaregionformstheboundarybetweentheNorth Australian(NA) andNorth Queens-

land(NQ)mega-elements.
(b)Majorelements
oftheMountIsaInlier.(c)Simpli.fied
geology
neartheMount
Isa mine. Heavy linesshowthe positionof the regionaland four higherresolutionseismiclines.The solid
partof the regionalline showsthepositionof Figure2. M--Mount Isa Mine; D--Doolan's Hope Prospect,
H--Hilton Mine.

west-dipping,andto penetrateto at leastthe middlecrust zone of reflections between the Adelheid Fault and the
(Drummondet al., 1997). It hasno intrinsicreflectivity, Mount Isa Fault are interpretedto be S-wavesfrom the
and is interpretedfrom truncationsand changesin the Adelheid Fault.
trends of reflections from the Eastern Creek Volcanics. The Mount Isa mine has 28 known mineable silver-
The seismicdataimply a reversesenseof movementon lead-zincorebodiesextendingover a strike length of
the fault. In contrast,the AdelheidFaulthashigh intrin- 3.5 km and to a depth of 900 rn (Sims and Bartrop,
sic reflectivity,includingstrongshear-wavereflections. 1993). Perkins(1984) drewa numberof east-westcross-
From this, Drummond et al. (1997) inferred that the sectionsof the mine, and thesewere summarizedby
AdelheidFault,andnottheMountIsa Fault,wasa major Fallon et al. (1996). Figure 3 is basedon their sum-
pathwayfor fluid migrationwithin the LeichhardtRiver marized cross-section. Mineralization occurs in the
FaultTrough,and,therefore,a moreimportantstructural Urquhart Shale east of the Mount Isa Fault, and above
componentof the mineralsystem.The westerlydipping the ParooFault. The Urquhart Shale dips steeplywest

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130 Regional seismicreconnaissancestudies

MT ISA Fault

w
ADELHEID
t SYBELLA
FAULT • FAULT E

SYBELLA GRANITE

o 2krn
• • V/H = 1

Fig. 2. Unmigratedseismicdatafromtheregionalseismicprofilesouthof MountIsa, fromDrummondet al.

(1997). The interpretationis modifiedfrom MacCreadyet al. (1998) and showsthe structuralsettingof the
Western Fold Belt. ECV--Eastern Creek Volcanics.

at 600-70ø. It is pyritic and dolomitic, and the silver-
lead-zinc orebodiesoccurin the top 600 m of the unit.
They are stratiform,and occuras galenaand sphalerite
with associated pyriteandpyrrhotite(SimsandBarttop,
1993).
Copper mineralizationalso occursin the Urquhart
Shale, along a 4-km strike length and to depths of
1500 m. It was formed by a metasomaticreplacement
systemlocatedgenerallybelowthe lead-zincorebodies.
The contactbetweenthe Urquhart Shale and Eastern
Creek Volcanics, the Paroo Fault, is consideredthe mas-
ter fault thatcontrolledtheflow of copper-beatingfluids
andalterationin the area(SimsandBartrop, 1993). The
alterationsystembroadly consistsof an outer dolomi-
tized zone with an inner silicified core, with the richest
chalcopyritemineralizationabuttingthe EasternCreek
Volcanics and the Paroo Fault. The "silica-dolomite"
alteration and copper mineralizationare believed to
have formed during D3 deformation,the deformation
eventthat producedmost of the folds in the mine area
(Perkins, 1990). The geometry of the Paroo Fault is
complex,with a dip rangingfrom subverticalto hori-
zontal (Figure 3), from evidencewithin the mine itself
that this fault generallyappearsto plunge gently to the
north.
SURVEY PLANNING
Data were recordedusingan explosiveenergysource
shot into a 120-channelarray. The array interval was
40 m with the shotinterval nominally 240 m. Seismic
data were recordedover a 20-s recordinglength at a
2-ms samplerate. A conventionalprocessingsequence
wasusedwith additionalemphasisconcentrating on de-
terminingoptimumstaticcorrections(removalof near-
surfacevariation) and velocity corrections.Advanced
processingtechniqueswere also tried (e.g., DMO, f-k
filtering),howeverimprovementswere not significant.

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 Seismic-reflectionimaging around the Mount Isa orebodies 131

Distance(m) E
I•00 1500 2000 2500

• Siltstones
lId/i
•t•,ill
500

1ooo

-. l Ii
, ;;:." / t1 [:;• / t /Native Bee
Eastern
Creek.... L •/:• 5' ] -S•]}•tone
Volcanoes• • • i /.:'•t 67 ! -• 1500

Copper
ore
body Lead/zinc ore body

.Fig.3. Cross-section
through
theMountIsaMinearea,redrawn
fromFallonet al. (1996)sothatzerodepth
is now at the seismicdatum.Basedon Perkins(1984).

Dynamite was the preferred energy sourcefor the high dip where sourcearraysmight have introduceda
high-resolutionstudy conductedin the vicinity of the dip filter. Geophonestringswere also limited to short
mine. Groundroll in the shallowpart of the seismicsec- arraysfor this reason.
tion can be a problemwith shallowor surfacesources Figure 4 showsthe amplitudespectrumfor the first
in regionswith a thick weatheredzone,or regolith,asin secondof trace 6 of a 120-channelspreadfor a typical
the Mount Isa region.Experienceon the regionaltran- blast; i.e., it is an outer trace, which would have mini-
sectto the southhad shownthat chargesplacedat 40-m mum source-generated
noise.Velocitiesin theregionare
depthor greaterwereconsistently belowweathering,and approximately
6000ms-•, sothisrepresents
energy
re-
producedlittle groundroll. They also actedas a point flectedfrom above3000 m, well within the targetdepth.
source,an importantconsiderationin regionsof very A 16-Hz low-cutfilter in the recordingsystem,chosen

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132 Regional seismicreconnaissancestudies
I I
100
Frequency(Hz)
Fig. 4. Amplitudespectrumfrom a testblast.Energypeaksbelow50 Hz, reflectingattenuationin the thick
regolithcoverthroughoutthe region.
to suppress stronglow-velocitysource-generated noise,
definedthe low-frequencycutoff. Most of the useable
energyfalls in the range 16-70 Hz, althoughenergyis
consistently abovebackgroundnoiseto beyond150 Hz.
The backgroundnoiselevel is definedby the spectrum
beyondtherecordingsystemantialiashigh-cutfilternear
180 Hz. Higher frequenciesin the regionare attenuated
by the thick regolith,andan addedadvantageof usinga
buriedexplosivesourcewasthat the energyhad to pass
throughthe regolithonly once.
No robustforwardmodeling,suchas the calculation
of syntheticseismograms, was undertakenprior to the
survey,mainly becauseof uncertaintiesin the geologic
model and a lack of robustphysicalpropertymeasure-
mentsfor the rock typespresent.Consequently, mod-
eling was restrictedto estimatesof horizontal,vertical,
and dip resolutiononly.
Figure5 is a plot of the diameterof the first Fresnel
Zone for the frequencyrange20-160 Hz for targetsat
depthsupto themaximumlikely depthof theParooFault
in the region.For the worstcasescenario,at the lowest
frequenciesand targetsat a depthof 2000 m, Fresnel
zone diametersare of the order of 1000 m. The depth
of 2000 m was the greatestconceivabledepththat the
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I
200
ParooFaultmightreachalonglines3 and4 to the north.
Beyondtheinflectionin theParooFaultwhereit changes
from subverticalin the westto east-dipping,it extends
eastwards for a lateral distance of about 1000 m. The
Fresnel-zone calculationwasthereforeencouraging, and
althoughnot an indicationof resolution,providedconfi-
dencethat if an impedancecontrastexists,thenthe spa-
tial extentof thefault faceis sufficientto permitimaging
of the easternpart of the ParooFaultasa dippingreflec-
tion segment.It is understoodthat it wouldbe unlikely
to image detailedmorphologyof the ParooFault, par-
ticularlyif the expectedimpedancecontrastbetweenthe
Urquhart Shale and the EasternCreek Volcanicswere
present.At higherfrequencies andshallowertargets,for
example160 Hz and a depthof 1000 m aswouldbe ex-
pectedneartheminealongline 2, Fresnelzonediameters
are as small as 200 m. These estimatessuggestedthat
the seismicmethodcouldprobablydetectthe geometry
of the Paroo Fault.
Vertical resolution was not considered an issue in re-
solvingthe boundarybetweenthe UrquhartShaleand
the EasternCreekVolcanics,becausethiswasexpected
to be an abruptdiscontinuity.
The copperorebodiesand
the alteration halo around them were also considered a
 Seismic-reflectionimaging around the Mount lsa orebodies
70O
1½0
1900
11•! •
Depth
(m)
Fig. 5. Diameterin metersof the firstFresnelzonefor reflectorsat the rangeof depthslikely in this study,
andfor frequenciesobservedin the amplitudespectrumin Figure4.
possibletarget.Suchorebodies,if present,couldbe up
to 200 m thick, which is far greaterthan the minimum
thicknessrequiredfor detection(20-35 m for dominant
frequenciesup to 50-70 Hz andthe velocitieslikely to
be encountered).The strataformAg-Pb-Zn orebodies,
however,werenotprimarytargets,andwerenotconsid-
ered in vertical resolution terms.
Whenplanningthe survey,little wasknownaboutthe
seismicimpedancesof the mineralizedzones.Physical
propertymeasurements were availablefrom the mining
company,but the seismicvelocitieshadbeenmeasured
at zero or at elevateduniaxial pressure,and were not
thoughtto be as representative as measurements made
at elevatedhydrostaticconfiningpressures.Subsequent
to the seismicfieldwork, Salisburyet al. (1996) pub-
lishedphysicalpropertymeasurements for a numberof
minerals common in sulfide ores. Their results are sum-
marizedin Figure 6, which plotsthe velocity at which
seismicwavestravel in a numberof differentrock types
as a functionof rock density.The fieldsoutlinedin this
grapharethoseof Nafe andDrake for commonsilicate
rocks(Ludwig et al., 1971). The dashedlines connect
Downloaded 26 Jun 2012 to 95.28.162.50. Redistribution subject to SEG license or copyright; Terms of Use: http://segdl.org/
133
pointsof equalimpedance.Reflectionsarisewhenrocks
of differentimpedancesarejuxtaposed.Salisburyet al.
(1996) estimatedthat an impedancecontrastof at least
0.06 (the contrastbetween mafic and felsic igneous
rocks) would be requiredto createa reflectionwith a
sufficientsignal-to-noiseratio to be of use in a mining
setting.Hencea reflectionshouldbe recordedfrom sed-
imentaryrocksjuxtaposedagainstmaficrocks.
The resultsof Salisburyet al. (1996) showthat chal-
copyritehas an impedancesimilarto mafic rocks,and
that pyrite has an even greaterimpedance.We plotted
thevaluefor galenain Figure6 by adjustingthevaluefor
galenaat 600 MPa in Figure1 of Salisburyet al. (1996)
to 200 MPa using an estimateof OV•,/O P = 2.45 x
10-4 km.s-l.MPa-1 (whereVp = seismiccompres-
sional wave velocity and P = pressure)inferred for
massivesulfidesfromtheirFigure2. We addeddolomite
from the summarytables of Christensen(1989). The
additionof pyrite, chalcopyrite,and dolomiteto a host
sedimentaryrock can increaseits impedanceto values
similarto thosefor maficrocksif theyareaddedin suffi-
cientquanity.This meansthat,if the boundarybetween
134 Regional seismicreconnaissancestudies

2 3 4 5 õ 7 8

Density(g/cm3)
Fig. 6. Seismicvelocity/densityrelationsat 200 MPa confiningpressurefor rockstypicalof theMountIsa
environment,basedon Salisburyet al. (1996, Figures1 and 3). FieldslabeledSED--sediments,SERP
serpentinizedrocks,F--felsic igneousrocks,M--mafic rocks,andUM--ultramafics, definetheNafe-Drake
curveof Ludwiget al. (1971).Minerals:
py--pyrite;gal--g.alena,cpy•halcopyrite,sph--sphalerite
are
fromSalisburyet al. (1996);dol•dolomite is fromthecompilation
of Christensen
(1989).Dottedcurvesare
linesof equalacoustic
impedance.
Salisbury
etal.(1996)estimated
thata difference
in impedance
ofatleast
2.5.km.g.s-i.cm
-3 isrequired
toprovide
a reasonable
seismic
reflection
(R = .06)relative
tobackground
noise.

the Urquhart Shaleadjacentto the ParooFault contains
copperalteration,as in the mine to the south,then the
expected impedance contrast across the Paroo Fault
betweenthe UrquhartShaleandthe EasternCreek Vol-
canics
maybereduced
tozerofrom•5 km.g.s-l.cm
-3.
In addition, this expectedimpedancecontrastwill be
lower for raypathstraveling parallel to the foliation
within the Urquhart Shale becauseof the effects of
anisotropy.Vp is commonlymuchfaster(15%) parallel
to foliationin shalesthanit is normalto foliation(M. H.
Salisbury,personalcommunication).Alternatively,the
EasternCreek Volcanicscould have low impedances
if they are at greenschistfaciesand are rich in chlorite
(M. H. Salisbury,personalcommunication). The pyrite
and galenapresentin silver-lead-zincorebodieswould
causemineralizedUrquhartShaleto havea higherimpe-
dancethantheunmineralizedUrquhartShale.Therefore
the silver-lead-zincmineralizationmay have a notice-
ableeffecton the reflectivityof the UrquhartShale.
The positions of the seismic lines are shown in
Figure 1c. Four seismiclineswere recorded.Line 1 was
orientedalongstrike,andwaspositionedto determineif
basementstructureschangedepthalongstrikebetween
the Mount Isa Mine and the Hilton Mine. Lines 2, 3, and
4 werediplines.Fortheselines,therecordingspreadwas
extendedto the west of the targetzonesand the record-
ing timeswere extendedto accountfor the steepwest
dip of the shales.In this chapter,we presentthe results
of the two-dimensional data sets from lines 2 and 3.
RESULTS
Line 2
Figure7a showsa predictedgeologicalcross-section
basedon drillinganddownholeelectromagnetic sound-
ingwithin a 200-m wide corridorcenteredonline2. This
geologicalcross-section isbasedonJacksonetal. (1996,
Figure6). The positionof the ParooFaultat depth,as
well as zonesof anomalouscoppermineralizationand
itsassociatedalterationlying abovethe fault,aredefined
from surface drillholes. The dot shows where the bound-
ary betweenthe UrquhartShaleandthe SpearSiltstone
is definedin the cross-section by underground drilling
fromwithinthemine.Apartfromsurfaceoutcrop,thisis
theonlypositionwherethisboundaryis knownwith any
certainty.Drillhole RW794WD1 passedfrom Eastern
Creek Volcanicsthroughanhydriteinto the Urquhart
Shale, and therefore does not define the boundary
betweenthe UrquhartShaleandthe SpearSiltstonewith
anycertainty.Thus,theboundaryin Figure7a is inferred
at depth.Jacksonet al. (1996) projecteda numberof fea-
turesmappedundergroundin the mine north onto this
section. The Racecourse Shear is known in the mine

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 Seismic-reflectionimaging around the Mount lsa orebodies 135

A and also from surfacemapping, and is subvertical.A

D•ilho,'e fold is shown where the Racecourse Fault crosses the
0500 11000 11500 12000
boundarydrawn betweenthe Urquhart Shale and the
SpearSiltstone;this is alsoinferredfrom observations
in themine.Otherfeaturesprojectednorthfromthemine
includethe numbers8, 12, and 14 orebodyhorizons,in-
500 cludinga changein theirdipsfrom steeplywest-dipping
to less steeplywest-dippingwithin 200-300 m of the
Paroo Fault.

1000 The uninterpreteddataareshownin Figure7b andthe

interpretationis shownin Figure7c. The interpretedpo-
sitions of the Paroo Fault and boundaries between strati-
Native graphicunitsaremarkedin Figure7c asdots.The depth
• •" ß Bee 1500
Eastern•,•{• •/' Siltston axisfor the seismicsectionsin Figures7b andc hasbeen
scaledsothatthe deepestdrill intersection,on reflection
vo,a.,. P2, lies at the depth shownin Figure 7a. This implied
eu• Qu,r•z
Fmult
L ,• 8.maka.
wayl
anaverage
velocity
near6000ms-•, whichisconsistent
with that observedin the uppermostsecondof two-way
B Line 2
w E traveltimeon the regionaltransect.
Station number
2120 2110 2100 2090 2080 2070 2060 2050 2040 2030 2020 The interpretationis consistentwith the observations
o., ,I i . I ,,, I I I ,m { {, { { o made from drilling and surfaceoutcrops,but differsin
L.,• ,-'*,."4,'."'.'.,-..,:•....... ." ß
'* •-" I;':
"'*""'....
'•"' .....
.r,,
,'"....
' .... ,'
. ß "'
,,....
"'"'".,
' ,,,•,".
..... i a numberof ways from the predictedgeologicalcross-
I:'•a"'"q'
".':'."'' " :"' ' ',,,'"*''.,'•' ",.. I
I:: , ,,,'•* .,, '•,,
.' ...... .... *, ..... ø........'- •,....... ,,',.-.. ! sectionin Figure7a. The outcroppositionsof the three
i-,,,,,,,,,,,,•,,...,,•,
. ,•.,..,.,,.-..
.,.... / :. -:,., .,'.....,,
r.P ;,,'v,•,•,
.,,.-'
'"".,,.,,.'
,.',,
....' -•.:;,,"
•'.,' ßß/ ",•.
' •, ..•-i;2'..•,,"•-.
".,o.'".'*.'.:'.'<•,2
' '...,..'
'.,'., .'.' •/..,b•'-',' ..:','"'"'
ß1' J
,e#. ! sedimentformationsimmediatelyeastof the Parooand
[
I,,' ' "" .... '-.-",•"•,. .... .,.,,',, -,, ,.,•' ,••"., .....r' ,a'/'. ,. I•'"*"',• ...•,•i E Mount Isa Faultsare shownin Figure7c. The SpearSilt-
•' J-'•...... ,." ,"..,F'"'"' r .' ,*.,",'"'•', ,•'/,•', """ ,;•.N.. ' '', ----
stoneis mostlynonreflective.In contrast,the Urquhart
•. I
•• '.,"', {'l
l:"... :,.,
• I'"';
Shalehasstrong,parallelreflectionsthatareconsistently
west-dipping.The boundarybetweentheUrquhartShale
-'
a
and the SpearSiltstonecanbe projecteddowndip as a
strongreflectionthat passesthroughthe dot indicating
0.5H'"'•-. the positionof the boundarydefinedin Figure 7a by
F.,"::,•'"."'-
......
,..";:,,,,",,"
,,.,,'-"'½",,,,y'"'
.'•f".....,*.•'
..:'..
......
;;. '•,1 drillingand.interpolated
ontothesection.
Thedatado
I!•, ',"-,.-
4 .,-,,
,,., ' .•• • •,' . _', •....f*,' "., ,,..'1 notrequirethe fold shownonthisboundaryin Figure7a.
I-:"......• ..*".,.,"......• ;t'•'....,•'•t..• •";.-•. ,• ' .,, ,';
" ' ,'" ' ,,,'•.....
."• ,' , ,,.
,..'!
..•{•,•=,."'"l,.•
,•m
""'••ll("* '"• '" , •11• , 'iw ,F ii,,•
• ,, •, •" " d "" . •,'•,•)-
*'"" , .'•
[ ...........
..,- .'....,- .....
,...., ',.'.:-- ß,,. ',='.,d•ooo The uppermostpart of the seismicsectionwas heav-
Racecourse shear
ily mutedduringprocessing, but neverthelessshowsthe
C •t is.F.ulti j!........i_
,!,, i [ i i ! i 1_ i
o , ,., ' l
UrquhartShaledippingsteeplyaspredictedby Jackson
et al. (1996). The heavy muting removedmuch of the
ßtt' •'.,:•"?,,-,..-,**.".
!/ , Sh'al,'/." .,,';--.,. unwantedsurfacewavesbut retainedgood signalfrom
the dippingstructures.At depth,the dip becomesless
' Pl
steep.Thisoccursverticallybeneaththesurfaceposition
of the RacecourseShear,and is particularlyclear in the

Fig.7. (a) Predictedgeologicalcross-section alongLine2

basedonJackson et al. (1996); (b) uninterpreted
migrated
seismicreflectionsection;(c) interpretedsection Dots
showintersections of drillholeswith geologicalbound-
IJ'"'•."
..... .,.,,,,.,,.,,,.._,, , ........,.2.•.. ,.., ....,,,,,'"I ariesin the plane of the section,from (a). BQF•Buck
I '• '"'r',r . • ,,,,"?'
"'"-..,•/ . U',..,' '% ""/' '" '/' I QuartzFault.P1, P2, and P3 are interpretedParooFault
I .,.,..----
,•," '-.'". -,. _,••' , -,/ .-',.,*".p'•;, -"",,.,,,,.
r•..•' ",, ,. I reflections,A-A'•interpreted top of the alterationzone,
I......':,".....
,, *"' ..../ t,,;,.......'
'..•• .... .,'.'","1
•ooo R•west-dipping reflection,H•subhorizontal energy.
V/H = 1; (b) and(c) arethe samescaleas (a).

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136 Regional seismicreconnaissancestudies
reflectormarkingthe boundarybetweenthe SpearSilt-
stoneandtheUrquhartShale.The decreased dipat depth
is consistent
with thatinterpretedby Jacksonet al. (1996)
in the few hundredmeterslying abovethe ParooFault.
The seismicdatashowthat this inflectionpoint extends
to much shallowerdepths.
Reflections within the Native Bee Siltstone are less
continuous,of lower amplitude,and appearto dip less
steeplyto thewestthanthosein theUrquhartShale.The
boundarybetweenthe two unitsis difficultto interpret
with any certainty.It is drawnin Figure7c wherethe
steeperdipsof the UrquhartShaleabuta zoneof shal-
lowerwest-dippingreflections,typifiedby the reflector
R. The boundaryis thereforeinterpretedto be slightly
higherin thesectionthanshownin thepredictedsection
in Figure 7a.
The western, subverticalpart of the Paroo Fault is
interpretedin the seismicdata from the truncationsof
strongsubhorizontalenergy(labeledH) in the left of
the section, and from the lowermost extent of reflec-
tions from the Urquhart Shale,particularlyat andjust
below the boundarywith the SpearSiltstone.The east-
ern, lesssteeplyeast-dippingpart of the ParooFault is
not a clear,singlereflection,aswouldbe expectedfrom
an abruptdiscontinuity betweena shaleanda maficvol-
canic rock. With the advantageof drilling control,the
positioninferredin Figure7a canbe interpretedas two
offset,concave-upwards reflections,markedP 1 and P2
in Figure7c. WhereasFigure 7a showsthe ParooFault
traceto be continuousandsinuousthroughthiszone,the
seismicdata couldbe interpretedto showit to be dis-
continuous,and perhapsfaulted.However,suchdetail
maybe at thelimit of resolutionof thedata,asdiscussed
abovefor Figure5. Jacksonet al. (1996) inferredthatthe
ParooFaultwouldbe cutby theBuck QuartzFault,asin
the mine to the south,but the seismicdata suggestthat
it may extenddeeperand fartherto the east,as another
concave-upwards reflector(P3).
A zoneof weak reflectionswith severaldip directions
lies abovethe Paroo Fault, between the P 1 and P2 reflec-
tionsand anothereast-dippingreflectionlabeledA-A'.
In this zone, weak reflectionsthat appearto be down-
dip continuations of reflectionsfromtheUrquhartShale
interferewith reflectionsthat are east-dippingand sub-
parallel to A-A', P1, and P2, probablyas the result of
out-of-planeeffectsin the 2-D section.This regioncor-
respondsto the zonepredictedby Jacksonet al. (1996)
to contain dolomite alteration in the upper part and
alteration that is more silica-rich in the lower part. It
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would also containcoppermineralizationin the lower
partcloseto theParooFault.We attributethereflectivity
patternto a numberof factors.First,the top of the zone
(A-A') probablycorresponds the top of the dolomiteal-
teration,and the resultingimpedancecontrastwith the
UrquhartShale.The weakreflectivityinsidethezonein-
dicatesa lossof impedancecontrastbetweenpackages
of rockswithin theUrquhartShale,whichwe attributeto
alteration,possiblemineralization,anda subsequent loss
of reflectionamplitudewithin the UrquhartShale.The
weakerthananticipatedreflectionat thebaseof thezone
maybedueto thejuxtapositionofchalcopyriteandpyrite
mineralization across the Paroo Fault from the Eastern
Creek Volcanics. Reflections inside the zone, and sub-
parallel to A-A', P1, and P2, may indicateincreasing
levelsof alterationwith depth.
PREDICTIONS
Line 3
In Figure7, drilling controlwasusedto constrainthe
interpretationof the seismicdata for line 2. The inter-
pretationof the seismicdata was then usedto extend
and modify the inferred geologicalcrosssection.This
hasgivenusthe confidenceto interpretdatafromline 3,
whichhasonly limited drill control.
Uninterpreted data from line 3 are shown in
Figure 8a. The outcroppositionsof the Paroo Fault
and the four formations east of the fault are shown in
Figure8b. The positionsof the boundaries betweenthe
Magazine Shaleand the Kennedyand SpearSiltstones
wereprojecteddowndip, usingintersections in a shal-
low well for control.The positionsof the intersections
were projectedonto the time sectionand are shownas
dots.Apart fromveryhigh-amplitude reflectionsof lim-
ited lateralextent(S) in Figure8b, thereflectionswithin
the siltstonesare relativelyweak, aswouldbe expected
from the resultsfrom line 2 (Figure 7). The reflections
showdipsto the westconsistent with thoseobservedin
the limited surfaceoutcropand from expectations from
shallowdrilling,aswell asfromobservations withinthe
nearbymineandline 2. The strongreflectionsmarkedS
appearto be confinedto the SpearSiltstone;theircause
has not been resolved.
Reflectionsfrom within the UrquhartShaleare strong
at depth(e.g., near U, Figure 8b), but are disruptedin
theupperpartof the section(D, Figure8b). Thepoorre-
flectivitynearD may be dueto preferentialweathering
 Seismic-reflectionimaging around the Mount Isa orebodies 137

Line 3
w Line3
Station. number
w Paroo Fault
! Station
number
3100 3090 3080 3070 3060 3050 304.0 3030 ,3020 3010 3•00 30•0 :meo :m?o •060 30•0 •040 :m30 •0:20 .30•0

,,
' t, ,,', ,• ., ß

,;:::.';,i
....
'•

ß
3000 1 3000

Fig. 8. Uninterpreted(a) and (b) interpretedmigratedseismicreflectionsectionsfrom Line 3. Dots show

intersectionsof drillholeswith geologicalboundariesin the plane of the section.P4 and P5 are interpreted
Paroo Fault reflection.U--Urquhart Shale. S--high amplitudereflectionsof limited lateral extent, D--
disruptedreflectionswithin UrquhartShale.Vertical scale= horizontalscale.

and leachingof the Urquhart Shale. This has been ob-
servedby drilling and is consistentwith lower veloci-
ties determinedby first breaksin the shotgathersfrom
the reflectiondata. The dips of the Urquhart Shale are
less steep at depth (near U, Figure 8b), as observed
in the Mount Isa mine and along Line 2. The lower
boundaryof the UrquhartShaleis not clear in the shal-
lower part of the sectionwhere the shale displaysdis-
rupted reflections(D, Figure 8b). It is interpretedat
depth where the strongwest-dippingreflectionsof the
Urquhart Shale truncatemore gently east-dippingand
subhorizontal reflectionsfromunitsstratigraphicallybe-
neath and to the east of the Urquhart Shale (see also
Figure 7).
The positionof the ParooFault can be interpretedin
Figure8b fromtruncationsin thereflectionsfrom all four
sedimentarypackages,and particularly the Urquhart
Shale.It is subverticalfor at least500 ms two-waytime,
or approximately1500 m. It can then be interpretedto
dip eastastwo concave-upwards reflections(P4 andP5),
as in Figure 7, where it reacheddepthscloseto 2000 m
(700-800 ms TWT). This is deeperthan observedon
line 2, suggestingthat the ParooFault andthe boundary
with the EasternCreek Volcanicsmay plungeto greater
depthsnorth of the mine.
CONCLUSIONS
Seismicdata from line 2 can be usedto map the po-
sition of the Paroo Fault at depth, and suggestit may
extend deeper and farther to the east than predicted
by Jacksonet al. (1996). The Urquhart Shaleprovides
strongcontinuousreflectionsthat are clearly truncated
in the westby the ParooFault.

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138 Regional seismicreconnaissancestudies
At greaterdepths,wherethe UrquhartShaleis highly
altered,the top of the alterationhalo may be as distinc-
tive a reflection marker as the Paroo Fault, and if im-
aged,will definethe thicknessof the zone of alteration
abovethe ParooFault.The UrquhartShaledipssteeply
west,aspredictedby mappeddipsat the surfaceandob-
servedfarthersouthin the mine, but the dip shallowsto
the west,probablycontrolledby the RacecourseShear.
The shallowerdip in the west is consistentwith that
drawnin the stylizedcross-section of theorebodiesin the
mine within several hundred meters of the Paroo Fault
(Figure 3) and inferred in this regionby Jacksonet al.
(1996).
Similarreflectivitypatternsareobservedfarthernorth
on line 3. There, the inflection of the Paroo Fault from
subverticalin the west to more gently east-dippingin
the east is interpretedto occur at a greaterdepth.The
structurescontrollingthe lowerlimits of mineralization
thereforeappearto plungeto the north. Becauseof the
high electricalconductivityof the alterationminerals,
many of theseinterpretationsare testableby high reso-
lution magnetotelluricsounding.The ultimatetest will
comethroughdeepdrilling.
Nevertheless,the resultsfrom this case study con-
firm that seismic-reflection imaging can play a useful
part in mineral exploration.It has beenparticularlyef-
fective for imaging the structuresthat are believedto
havecontrolledthe migrationof the mineralizingfluids
that formed the copperdeposit.The stratigraphicunits
can be differentiated,even thoughthey are now meta-
morphosed.Evenmoreencouraging, thealterationhalos
aroundthe copperorebodiesseemto be broadenough
to form a likely target.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The fieldworkwasfundedby M.I.M. ExplorationPty
Ltd, the AustralianGeodynamicsCooperativeResearch
Centre (AGCRC), and Australian Geological Survey
Organisation(AGSO). We thankthem for their permis-
sionto publishthe results.The projectwas undertaken
as part of a broaderregional study of the Mount Isa
Inlier by the AGCRC. BJD, AO, andBRG publishwith
the permissionof the Chief ExecutiveOfficer of AGSO
and the Director of the AGCRC. We thank Joe Mifsud for
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draftingthe figures.We alsothank Matthew Salisbury
and Dave Eaton for criticallyreviewingthe manuscript
andfor offeringseveralvaluablesuggestions.
REFERENCES
Christensen, N. I., 1989, Section VI. Seismic velocities: in
Carmichael,R. S., Ed., Practicalhandbookof physicalproper-
ties of rocks and minerals:CRC Press,431-546.
Drummond, B. J., et al., 1997, Crustal-scalestructuresin the Protero-
zoic Mount Isa Inlier of northAustralia:Their seismicresponse
andinfluenceon mineralization:Tectonophysics, 288, 43-56.
Fallon,G. N., andBusuttil,S., 1992,An appraisalof thegeophysical
effectsof the MountIsa orebodies:Expl. Geophys.,23, 133-140.
Fallon,G. N., Andrews,P.,Jackson,J. K., andBartrop,S. B., 1996,
Drillhole electromagnetic
surveyingin the mine environment:
Expl. Geophys.,27, 67-75.
Goleby,B. R., et al., 1997, Recentcasehistories:Seismicprofiling
and structurallycontrolledmineralizationin Australia.How re-
gionalseismichelpsfind minerals,in Gubins,A. G., Ed., Proc.of
Exploration
97:4thDecennial
Internat.Conf.onMineralExpl.,
Prosp.and Devel. Assoc.of Can.,409-420.
Heinrich,C. A., Bain, J.H. C., Mernagh,T P.,andWyborn,L. A. I.,
1995, Fluid and masstransferduringmetabasaltalterationand
coppermineralizationat Mount Isa, Australia:Econ. Geol., 90,
705-730.
Jackson,J. C., Fallon,G. N., and Bishop,J. R., 1996,DHEM at Isa
Mine: Expl. Geophys.,27, 91-104.
Jones,T, and Nur, A., 1984. The nature of seismicreflectionsfrom
deepcrustalfault zones:J. Geophys.Res.,89, 3153-3171.
Ludwig, J., Nafe, J., and Drake, C., 1971, Seismicrefraction:in
Maxwell, A. E., Ed., The sea,Volume4: JohnWiley and Sons,
Inc., 53-84.
MacCready,T, et al., 1998,A frameworkfor overprintingorogens
basedon interpretationof the Mount Isa deepseismictransect:
Econ. Geol., 93, 1422-1434.
Perkins,W. G., 1984,Mount Isa silica-dolomiteandcopperorebod-
ies; The resultof a syntectonichydrothermalalterationsystem:
Econ. Geol., 79, 601-637.
--1990, Mount Isa copperorebodies:in Hughes,F. E., Ed.,
Geology of the mineral depositsof Australia and Papua New
Guinea: Austral. Inst. Min. Metall., 935-941.
Shaw,R. D., et al., 1996,Guideto usingtheAustralianCrustalEle-
mentsMap: Austral.Geol. Surv.Organ.,Record1996/30.
Sims,D. A., andBartrop,S.B., 1993,Explorationin a maturemine--
The Mount Isa Mine strategy:Internat.Min. Geol.Conf.,Austral.
Inst. Min. Metall., 25-29.
Salisbury,M. H., Milkereit,B., andBleeker,W., 1996,Seismicimag-
ing of massivesulfidedeposits:Part I. Rock properties:Econ.
Geol., 91, 821-828.
Stewart,A. J., and Blake D. H., 1992, Detailed studiesof the Mount
Isa Inlier: Bur. Min. Res. Austral. Bull. 243.
 Part IV

2D SeismicImaging of Mineral Deposits

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Downloaded 26 Jun 2012 to 95.28.162.50. Redistribution subject to SEG license or copyright; Terms of Use: http://segdl.org/
 Chapter 9
SeismicImaging of Preciousand Base-Metal
Deposits in Southern Africa
FrederickStevenson,
RichardM. A. Higgs,andRaymondJ. Durrheim
ABSTRACT
Reflectionseismologyhas beenwidely usedto ex-
plore for gold, platinum,and base-metaldepositsin
southernAfrica, and for mine planningpurposes.The
geologicalstructureof theWitwatersrandbasinhasbeen
mapped,enablingareaswheregold-bearing reefsoccur
at mineabledepthsto be identified.Within the Bushveld
Complex, seismicstratigraphictechniqueshave been
usedto distinguishareasof "pothole"reef, that may
present mining difficulties, from areas of "normal"
platinum-bearingMerensky Reef. The mine-seismic-
profiling (MSP) method,which makes use of sensors
deployedin boreholes drilledfrommineworkings,has
beendevelopedto delineatestructures thataretoo small
to be detectedfromthesurfacebutmaypresentmining
problems.Reflectionseismology hasalsobeenusedto
explorefor basemetal depositsassociatedwith buried
paleokarst featuresin northernNamibia.Lastly,reflec-
tion seismologyhas been used to map the downdip
extensionof massivesulfide"shoots"at OtjihaseMine
in the MatchlessAmphiboliteBelt of Namibia.
INTRODUCTION
SouthAfricais endowedwith greatmineralwealth.It
hastheworld'slargestreserves
of gold,platinumgroup
minerals,manganese,and chromium,while its reserves
of coal, diamonds,zinc, lead, and iron are rankedin the
top ten. Geophysical techniqueshavecontributedsig-
nificantlyto the discoveryof someof SouthAfrica's
majormineraldeposits.Gravityandmagneticmethods
wereusedin the 1930sand40sto tracethegold-bearing
horizonsof the Witwatersrand Basinbeneathyounger
strata.Basemetalexploration boomedin theearly1970s,
andwasfollowedby a coalboomin the late 1970sand
early 1980s.The reflectionseismicmethodwasfirstused
to explore for hydrocarbonson the continentalshelf
in the early 1980s,and shortlythereafterwas usedto
141
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explorefor gold,platinum,andbasemetaldepositsin
hard rock environments in southern Africa. The method
hasalsoprovenusefulformineplanningpurposes, such
asthepositioningof shaftsandtunnels.Theverticalseis-
micprofiling(VSP)methodhasbeenmodifiedto image
the rock aheadof miningusingboreholesdrilledfrom
mine galleries.Acquisitionandprocessing parameters
havehadtobeadaptedto thesenewapplications. Several
casehistoriesillustratetheuseof reflectionseismology
in the hard rock environment.
GOLD EXPLORATION,
WITWATERSRAND BASIN
Goldwasdiscovered in Archeanconglomeratesnear
Johannesburgin 1886,andsincethentheWitwatersrand
Basin(Figure1) hasproducedalmosthalf thegoldever
mined,worldwide.During the 1930s,the gravityand
magneticmethodsprovedvery successful
in locating
new gold-beatingstrataconcealedbeneathcoverrocks.
However,thesepotentialfieldmethods areunabletomap
thestructureof deeplyburiedstratain detail,andtheim-
plementationof reflectionseismicmethodsin 1982 ini-
tiateda newphaseof exploration(CampbellandPeace,
1984;Durrheim,1986;Pretoriuset al., 1989;Campbell,
1990;CampbellandCrotty,1990;Durrheimet al., 1991;
Campbell,1994;De WetandHall, 1994;Pretoriuset al.,
1994;Weder,1994;PretoriusandTrewick,1997).
The targetsof Witwatersrandbasinexplorationare
thegold-anduranium-beating
strataor "reefs
"1 which
crop out alongthe northernrim of the basin,but which
aremostlycovered unconformably bythepredominantly
volcanicVentersdorp Supergroup andby the dolomitic
rocks,shales,lavas,andquartzitesof the TransvaalSe-
quence.The reefsaregenerallylessthan 1-m thick,and
1Inthecontext
ofminingin South
Africaandenvirons,
the
term"reef" refersto gold-or platinum-beatingstrataand
isunrelated
to marinecarbonate reefsin bothcomposition
and form.
142 2D seismicimaging of mineral deposits

Tsumeb

© Kombat
*r"'
© Otjthase Bushyeld

NAMIBIA
Wltwatersrand,.'-'"
Basin
SOUTH AFRICA

.o.................................
s0o
km
Fig.1. Mapof southern
Africashowing
thelocations
oftheseismic
surveys
forgold(Witwatersrand
Basin),
platinum(Bushveld
Complex),andbasemetals(Tsumeb,Kombat,
andOtjihase)
described
in thispaper.

do not havea significantacousticimpendance contrast SincePretoriuset al. (thisvolume)providea detailed

relativeto the enclosingquartzites(with the exception description
of theuseof reflectionseismologytomapthe
of the Ventersdorp ContactReef, which lies immedi- Witwatersrand Basin,thisapplicationis onlybrieflydis-
atelybeneatha thick succession of basiclavas).Fortu- cussedhere.The seismicvelocities(>6 km/s) and den-
nately,reflections
arisefrommarkerhorizons aboveand sities
(>2.65g/cm
3)ofrocksintheWitwatersrand
basin
belowthereefs,allowingthe geologicalstructure to be arehigherthanthosecommonly encountered in conven-
mapped. Thereflectionseismicmethodisusedto search tionalseismicexplorationforhydrocarbons,andthishas
for horstsand anticlinesthat might bring the reefs to to be takenintoaccountduringacquisitionandprocess-
mineabledepths(miningcurrentlytakesplaceat depths ing. Reflectionsarereliablyobtained,
eventhoughthe
greaterthan3 km); grabens, synclines andthrustfaults reflectioncoefficientsare relatively low, becauseatten-
that mighthavepreservedthe reefsfrom erosion;and uationis alsogenerallylow.Very few multiplereflec-
subsidiary basinsor extensionsof thepresentlyknown tionsappearto bepresentontherecordsin spiteof clear
basin. primaryreflections.
Thisis probablydueto thelow re-
Seismic-reflection
surveyshavecontributed tothedis- flection coefficients,and the fact that there is no gen-
coveryof majornew depositssuchas SouthDeep,con- eral decreasein reflectioncoefficients,in contrastto the
tiguousto theWesternAreasGoldMine andreputedto situationgenerallyfoundin youngsedimentary basins.
be one of the largestknownunexploitedgold deposits The groundroll velocityis oftenhigh(about3000 m/s
on Earth (Haslett,1994),andthe SunProject,a major with a dominant frequency of 10-15 Hz) where
newgoldfieldin theBothavilleGap--a namegiventothe Precambrian stratacropout,andconsequently, vibrator
areaby earlierprospectors
whohadconcluded thatthere andgeophone arraysdonotalwayssuppress groundroll
was no "entrypoint" for gold into the Witwatersrand effectively.
Lastly,thenormalmoveout ontheCMP gath-
Basin in this region(Gray et al., 1994; Tuckeret al., ers is small due to the high velocities,restrictingthe
1994). sensitivityof velocityanalysis.

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 Seismicimaging of preciousand base-metaldepositsin southernAfrica 143

ß $

........ .• . ...,,. --• •-.,.• :-, --•. ,.,.• ,•..,.•-..-,....,•,•-,,,•-,_.r,.• •,,...... •.-,..,:'-.' .•:.•, .,, , :,....-• • ,.... •.-,.•. ,,,•.,,-,-. •.,...,,.,•.-• .,. -o• -., -.,.,-....•.,,-
ß•

ß':.',½..
-:;.,/"-"-,.•;.'-';.• ;•.•,-.--<.,"'-'W-'-•..•
•,.?'--.,. -.,:'-- .•-,--.... :-'--".•"•_ ,•-,,•_-.--•:*-".---.-'-
.... >•. '--,-: .?-_.-•.~.•'•..•:--c.2.:'•-
•.:;"::..-.
-_%-'•_'•.•,wc.•.-•.•--":_•..,- -- -,•,.,•;..• •. '.----..;-:%*:
•..,•' •

- -,•r,.•:½•_._
-.•._%-%•.'-:7.-:;.'.:.•:•".-,;•2•:••,•'.'•,•••.•½•
• • 2.,' •'-,.•
..%.-•,•_,•?'?=E'½•,.•.•• .,½'
.•' -.. '- _ .. ,'-•'-'.•.' :-%:.:'.,....: ,.:,. :7.... '"' .-'%%-,.,f-'.:.' ,.: .....
......
,,-••,•=..•,-'.:.•.:,:74.:'ti:•_-•""'½
'•.-"•
'------
.-..,
-•,..--•",-'"-,---'-,-
• --. ..-'•:=-..•-•...:-',.,,",•,,-:....:,
:.::-' ......:,,: :.z.:-,'.t::
::.....,:.-..::..': :.•.... . :..•.',::.
:':,.:..,,,:-'..,-'::t'-.:
........
'..
blW o km 10 SE

Fig. 2. Unmigratedseismicsectionacrossthenorthwestern
marginof theWitwatersrandBasin.X--reflectors
within the BasementComplex,W--base of Dominionor WestRandGroup,V--base of VentersdorpSuper-
group,T--base of TransvaalSequence.Vertical= horizontalscale.

A typical seismicsectionfrom the northwesternsec- Ventersdorplavas preservedgold-bearinggravel beds

tor of the WitwatersrandBasin is shownin Figure 2. up to 5 m thick that were depositedon the paleosurface.
The acquisitionand processingparametersare listed The TransvaalSequenceoverliesthe VentersdorpSuper-
in Table 1. The geologicallymappedcontactsbetween group.The dolomiticrocksat the baseof the Transvaal
formations were projected downdip to identify the Sequencegive rise to low-amplitudereflectionswith
reflectionsmarkingtheseinterfaces.Wherepossible,the poorcontinuity,althoughthecontactwith theunderlying
interpretationwasconstrained by drillholeinformation. Ventersdorplavasis markedby a strongreflection.The
The seismicstratigraphyof the Witwatersrandbasin is upperpart of the TransvaalSequencecomprisesa suc-
described from the basement to the surface. The base- cessionof quartziteand shaleformations,which give
ment granite is generally seismicallytransparent,al- rise to strongcontinuousreflections,dividedby a seis-
thoughcontinuouszonesof strongreflectionsoccurin mically transparentandesiticlava formation.
someareas.The alternatingshales,lavas,and quartzites
of the overlyingDominion andWestRand Grouprocks
MAPPING OF "POTHOLES" IN THE
giveriseto strongcontinuousreflections.The quartzites
of the Central Rand Group and the basaltic lavas of MERENSKY REEF, BUSHVELD
COMPLEX
the VentersdorpSupergroupare essentiallyseismically
transparent,although the unconformablecontact be- The 2.1 Ga BushveldComplexis a largeigneousin-
tweentheseunits is markedby a strongreflection.The trusion, roughly oval in shapewith an east-westaxis
gold-bearingconglomeratehorizonswithin the Central of about400 km (Figure 1). It is estimatedto contain
Rand Group cannotbe detecteddirectly,becausetheir about 70% of the world's reservesof platinum group
acousticimpedanceis similar to that of the enclosing elements(PGEs) and substantialreservesof chrome,
quartzites.The only orebodythat can be mapped di- copper,nickel, and vanadium.The ore mineralsoccur
rectly lies at the base of the VentersdorpSupergroup in bandswithin the layeredpyroxenites,anorthosites,
and is known as the VentersdorpContact Reef. The norites, and gabbrosthat constitutethe bulk of the

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144 2D seismicimaging of mineral deposits

Table 1. Witwatersrand basin reconnaissancesurvey (recorded in 1983).

Acquisition
Instrument Sercel SN338/B538HR HR
Channels 48
Filter Lo-cut out
Hi-cut 62.5 Hz, 24 dB/Octave; 125 Hz, 72 dB/Octave
Samplerate 4 ms
Recordlength 32 s (27-s sweep,5-s listen)
Station interval 50m
CDP interval 25m
Sourcearray 3 vibratorsin a line, 25-m spacing
8 sweepsper VP, 6.25 m move-upbetweensweeps
Sweepfrequency 11-48 Hz, VPs 100-466 and 570-713
11-70 Hz, VPs 467-569
Geophones GSC 20D 10 Hz
Receiverarray 4 stringsof 9 geophones
in two rowsover 100 m, geophoneintervalof 6 m
Spread End on: near offset -- 150 m, far offset = 2500 m
Processing
1. Demultiplex With crosscorrelation andspectralwhitening
2. Edit Noisy traceedit
3. Statics Weatheringstaticsapplied
4. f-k filter Full fan taperedf-k filter full on at 2000 m/s for CDPs 100-1099 and 3000 m/s for
CDPs 1100-1358.
5. Scale Sphericaldivergencecorrectionapplied
6. Statics Data correctedto floatingdatumusingelevationstatics
7. Deconvolution Minimum-phasepredictivedeconvolution
Operatorlength= 160 ms, gap= 24 ms
8. Scale Traceequalization,1000-mswindow and incrementof 1000 ms
9. Sort Crooked line sort
10. NMO Revisedvelocitiesderivedfrom functionstacksandgathers
11. Statics Data correctedfrom floatingdatumto regionaldatum
12. Autostatics Surfaceconsistentautomaticresidualstaticsapplied(Maximumstatici 20 ms)
13. NMO Revisedvelocitiesderivedfrom functionstacksandgathersappliedwith 130% stretchmute
14. Autostatics Surfaceconsistentautomaticresidualstaticsapplied(Maximum statici 20 ms)
15. Autostatics CDP consistent automaticresidualstaticsapplied(Maximum staticß 12 ms)
16. Stack Nominal 2400% stackwith 50% mute compensation
17. Filter Spacevariantband-passfilter applied0-5000 ms
CDPs 100-850 and 1058-1358, 8-14 45-50 Hz
CDPs 851-1057, 8-14-70-75 Hz

intrusion. The seismic-reflection method was introduced
followingthesuccess ofthe methodin theWitwatersrand
Basin, and has proved useful both for exploration
and for mine planning(Campbell, 1990; Durrheimand
Maccelari, 1991; Odgerset al., 1993; Campbell,1994;
Davisonand Chunnett,1999).
In thiscasehistory,we describetheuseof theseismic-
reflectionmethodto map slump structuresknown as
"potholes"that disruptthe main platinumorebody,the
Merensky Reef. Potholesoccur when the reef cross-
cuts its own unlithified footwall, with the result that
the reef occursunconformablyat a lowerhorizon.Pot-
holespresentminingdifficultiesdueto a suddenchange
in the dip of the strata,a changein the composition
of the hanging-and footwall strata,an increasednum-
bersof joints andfractureswhichmay be filled by talc,
serpentine,or chlorite,andthe appearanceof crosscut-
ting pegmatiteveins.Priorknowledgeof the locationof
the potholesis thus extremelyimportantfor effective
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mine planning.Potholesare roughlycircular in shape,
andmayvary from 1Osto 100sof metersin diameterwith
depthsof upto 100m. Thereis generallya closerelation-
shipbetweenreef thicknessand the abundanceof pot-
holes,with a pronouncedtendencyfor reefsto become
thinneradjacentto potholes(Viljoen, 1994). There has
been considerabletheorizingconcerningthe origin of
potholes.Oneview isthatpotholesdevelopedbecauseof
a densityinversionwherea heavypyroxeniteor chromi-
tite layer was positionedabove a lighter, partly con-
solidated,anorthositefootwall. The lighter rocks were
locally mobilizedand becamebuoyant,"floatingoff"
and mixing with the pyroxeniticliquid of the succeed-
ing unit (Hahn andOvendale,1994).
Northam Platinum Mine is situated in the north-
westernlimb of the BushveldComplex.The principal
orebody is the PGE-enrichedMerensky Reef, which
dipsto thesoutheastat20øat depthsbetween1400rnand
2500 m, andis disruptedby largepotholes.The totalPGE
 Seismicimaging of preciousand base-metal depositsin southernAfrica 145

reserveis estimatedto be481 Mt • 7.7 g/t. The "normal" Table 2. BushveldComplex high-resolutionsurvey
reef is a pegmatoidalfeldspathicpyroxenitesandwiched (recorded in 1987).
betweentwo thin chromititelayers,and variesin thick- Acquisition
nessfrom 2.5 rn to a few centimeterson the edgeof the Instrument Sercel 338 HR
Channels 96 + 5 aux
potholes.A "contact-type"reef, which is presenton the Tape format SEG-B 1600 BPI uncorrelated sum
peripheryof the potholesand representsthe transition Filter Hi-cut 125 Hz, 72 dB/Octave
Lo-cut 24 Hz, 12 dB/Octave
betweennormal and "pothole-type"reefs,truncatesthe 2 ms
Samplerate
footwall succession.In its typical form it is a silicate Recordlength 24 s (22 s sweep,2 s listen)
contactor a single chromitite layer a few centimeters Correlation Zero phase
Gain constant 42 dB
thick.A pothole-typereef commencesat thepointwhere
Energy source FailingY1100 vibrators
the contactreef settleson to a pseudomarkerlayer,and Sweep 30-120 Hz linearupsweep
is termed either "first-orderpotholereef" or "second- Sourcearray 4 vibrators,10-m spacing
8 sweepsper VP, 3.125-m moveup
orderpotholereef" dependingon the footwall rock. A betweensweeps
"lens-typereef" occurswheretherehasbeenincomplete Geophones SM4U 10 Hz
removalof the sequencebetweenthe normal Merensky Receiverarray 24 geophonesin threerows,center
weightedarray(12, 8, 4)
Reef andthe pseudomarkerlayer(Viljoen et al., 1986). 2.27-m in-line spacing,3-m
The first geophysicalsurveysto be conductedat crosslinespacing
Station interval 25m
the Northam PlatinumProject (in 1983) were a high- 1287.5 - 112.5 - 0 - 112.5 - 1287.5
Spreadsplit:
resolutionaeromagneticsurveyand a gravity survey.
Processing
The physicalpropertiesof boreholecoreweremeasured
1. Demultiplex With crosscorrelation
and spectral
to assistin the interpretationof the magneticand grav- whitening
2. Edit Noisy traceedit
ity surveys.The densitycontrastsbetweenthe principal
3. Statics Weatheringstaticsappliedto floating
unitsof the layeredigneouscomplexsuggested that the datum
reflectionseismicmethodcouldbe usedto map the ge- 4. f-k filter Full fan taperedfilter, full on at
2500 m/s
ologicalstructure.Reflectionseismicsurveyswere con- 5. Scale Whole traceequalizationand
ductedin 1985 and 1986. The quality of the seismic sphericaldivergence
imagewas foundto be stronglydependanton the near- 6. CDP Sort
7. NMO Velocities derived from function
surfacerocktype.It wasfoundthatthezonesurrounding stacksand gathers
the MerenskyReef (the explorationtarget)consistently 8. Statics First passsurfaceconsistent
residual statics
producedclearreflectionsbeneathareaswherethe Main
9. NMO Revisedvelocityfunctionapplied
Zone croppedout, while poorer resultswere obtained 10. Mute PickedT-X mute applied
in areaswhereNebo Granite or Upper Zone magnetite 11. Statics Staticsappliedto regionaldatum
12. Statics Secondpasssurfaceconsistent
gabbrocroppedout. It is thoughtthat the largenumber residual statics
of magnetitebandsoccurringin theUpperZone absorbs 13. Statics CDP consistentstaticsapplied
muchof the higherfrequencyenergy. 14. Stack Nominal 2400% stackwith root (N)
The objectiveof theseismicsurveydescribedherewas mute compensation
15. Migration f-k migration
to mapthedifferenttypesof MerenskyReef. The acqui-
sition and processingparametersare listed in Table 2.
Preliminarymodelingstudies(Figure3a) indicatedthat stationintervalto 25 m, andby shorteningthe lengthof
thedifferentreeftypescouldonlybe distinguished if the sourceand receiverarraysto approximatepoint sources
reflectionscontainedsignificantenergyat frequencies andreceiversascloselyaspossiblewhile still attenuating
above 100 Hz. Vibroseis was found to be a cost-effective groundroll througharrayfilteringeffects.The signal-to-
source for the field conditions and met the technical re- noiseratiowasimprovedby increasingthesweeptime to
quirementsfor the survey,includingthe ability to tai- 22 s (with 2-s listeningtime) andby usingan additional
lor the sourcefrequencies.Comparedto earliersurveys vibrator.Fiveprofilestotaling30 line-kmweresurveyed.
conducted for structuralmapping,theverticalresolution The processingsequencewas similar to that used for
wasimprovedby increasingthebandwidthof the sweep the earliersurveys,with the exceptionthat all processes
(to 30-120 Hz). The relativelyhigh frequency(30 Hz) that modify the shapeof the wavelet(e.g., spikingde-
usedat the startof the sweepwaschosento mitigatethe convolution)wereexcluded,and spectralbalancingwas
effectsof strongsource-generated noise (i.e., ground addedto enhancethe high-frequency contentof the sig-
roll). Lateral resolutionwas improvedby reducingthe nal, therebyassistingin the identificationof reef types.
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146 2D seismicimaging of mineral deposits

SYNTHETIC FIELD
RESULT

SYNTHETIC FIELD RESULT

Fig. 3 Syntheticseismograms andfield resultsfor (a) "normal"and(b) "pothole"MerenskyReef (M). The

singlesyntheticseismogram hasbeenreplicatedto yield a reflectorwith a dip similarto the field data.There
are subtledifferencesin the seismicsignatureof the normalandpotholereef zonesowingto differences
in the propertiesof the footwall rock. Normal reef givesrise to a set of severalparallel peaks,while the
signaturefrom potholereef is undulatingin characterandhasfewerprominentpeaks(compareFigure3b).

The geologymappedin severalboreholeswasof cru-
cial importancein determiningthe seismicsignatureof
the different reef types (Figure 3a). An example of a
seismicsectionis shownin Figure 3b. Normal, first-
orderand second-order potholereefswere successfully
identified.Lens and contactreefs were lessclearly im-
aged,butby combininggeologicalreasoningwith a close
inspectionof the seismiccharacterwithin areasof pot-
hole reefs, their existencecould be inferred. The inter-
pretationof the five seismiclines was combinedwith
boreholedatato producea map showingthe distribution
of the differentreef types.This informationwasusedto
improvethe estimatesof orereservesandto planmining
operations.
MINE-SEISMIC-PROFILING (MSP)
IN GOLD AND PLATINUM MINES
When mining the tabularreefs of the Witwatersrand
basin,dikesand faultswith throwsassmall astwo meters
may presentmining difficulties and may also be the
locusof mining-inducedseismicity.Abrupt variations
in the attitude of the reef are frequentlyencountered
whenminingthe VentersdorpContactReef. Thesevari-
ations are loosely termed "rolls." Rolls are the result
of topographicvariationsof the palaeosurface, marking
the transitionfrom terraceto slope,or from channelto
overbank.Thesefeaturesareparticularlyhazardousdur-
ing mining. Potholespresentsimilar difficultieswhen
mining the platinum-bearingreefs of the Bushveld
Complex. It is desirable,particularlywhen mining at
great depth,to have foreknowledgeof thesestructures,
and,where possible,to incorporatethem in stabilizing
pillars.
The seismic-reflectiontechniquehasbeenadaptedfor
usewithin minesto map the geologicalstructurewithin
a few hundredmetersof existingexcavations.The mine-
seismic-profiling(MSP) techniquemakesuseof a long
borehole(typically200 m) to deploythe receivers,plus
severalshortboreholes(typically 1.5 m) drilled into the

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 Seismicimaging of precious and base-metal depositsin southern Africa 147

NW SE
ORDER POTHOLE CONTACT NORMAL s

0 km 1

Fig. 3b. Seismicsectionfrom Northam PlatinumMine showingthe identificationof differenttypes of

Merensky Reef: First order potholereef, M1-M2; Contactreef, M2-M3; Normal reef, M3-M4. Vertical
scale = horizontal scale.

wall of a tunnelfor anarrayof pneumatichammerswhich
serveasenergysources(Figure 4). The receiverconsists
of a setof directionalaccelerometers in a Gal'perincon-
figuration.The receiverholesarenotnormallyfilledwith
water,soa retractablepneumaticpistonthat clampsthe
tool in the boreholeis usedto achievegood coupling
of the sensorsto the rock. A specialtool (the "borehole
crawler")was developedto aid the deploymentof trans-
ducers in boreholes inclined above the horizontal.
is deployedin a long borehole,the receiveris remote
from the most seriouseffectsof wavesscatteredby the
excavationand the severeattenuationcausedby stress-
fracturedrock aroundthe tunnelsand stopes.While it
is commonpracticein the petroleumindustryto use a
stringof sensorsfor VSP surveys,allowing simultane-
ous recordingat severalpoints, only a single receiver
has been used in MSP surveysto date in order to re-
ducethe weightof the tool andthe lossincurredshould
a probe get stuck in the hole. The probe is incremen-
tally shiftedalong the boreholeto simulatea stringof
receivers.Providedthat the boreholeis in good condi-
tion andthe probeis properlyclampedandorientatedat
eachstation,the recordeddataaccuratelyrepresentsthe
wavefieldalongtheborehole,andfull advantagemaybe
As it takenof vectoralprocessingtechniques.
The undergroundmining environmentpresentssig-
nificantchallenges:opportunities to deploysourcesand
receiversmaybe severelyrestricted,limiting the volume
that canbe imaged;the mining operationmay generate
high levelsof seismicnoise;the zone of stress-induced
fracturesthat surroundsdeepexcavationscausesdistor-
tion and attenuation of seismic wavefields and makes

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148 2D seismicimaging of mineral deposits

a)

Source •, Receiver

b)

25 - 200 m

Drive

Fig. 4. Diagramillustratingapplications
of the mine-seismic-profiling
(MSP) techniqueto imagereflectors
nearworkingsin deepmines.Sources arelocatedin theminegalleriesandreceiversin boreholes
drilledfrom
thegalleries.Raypathsareindicatedschematically; (a) two-dimensional
view,(b) three-dimensionalview.

it necessaryto drill boreholesfor both sourcesand
receivers;boreholediametersare generally48 mm or
less,limiting the size of geophysicaltools;difficulties
may be encounteredwhen drilling boreholesinto the
highly stressedabutmentsof excavations; andthe bore-
holesmaycloseasa resultof thestressbeforea geophys-
ical surveycanbe conducted.If the boreholeis roughly
perpendicularto the strata,the surveyconfigurationis
similarto that of a conventionalvertical seismicprofile
(VSP) conductedfrom a surfaceborehole,and similar
processingstrategiesmay be employed.This is often
not the case for MSP, becauseexplorationboreholes
drilledfrom mineworkingsto mapthe orebodyor detect
fluid-filledfissuresareoftenorientatedsubparallelto the
strata,anddifferentprocessingmethodsarerequired.
A surveyconductedin the DurbanRoodepoortDeep
Gold Mine, some 30 km west of Johannesburg, is an
example.The objectiveof the surveywasto delineate
a small fault believed to disrupt the Main Reef. The
receiversweredeployedin two existingexplorationbore-
holes,drilled from a tunnel situatedabout25 m beneath
the reef horizon.The reef has a local dip of 23ø to the
southeast. The boreholes,30 m and62 m in length,were
drilledupwardfromthe samepointin thetunnelandin

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 Seismic imaging of precious and base-metal depositsin southern Africa 149

5OO
5OO
s I i I i i J i t i I '

- s3 s4 -

600
\ 600 • I I i I I I I I
-20 0 +20 +40
\ -40
-"' S1s2 Horizontaldistance (m)
b!
+5O
o

a!
Horizontat
distance

Fig. 5. Ray-tracediagramshowingthe reflectionpointson the targethorizonsfor the far sourcesS1 and S4

in a 3D view (a) and a strikesection(b).

the sameverticalplane,approximatelyperpendicularto high amplitudeof the S-wavestendto obscurereflected

the reef plane,with the resultthat the surveyconfigura-
tion is essentiallyan upside-downVSP. The boreholes
intersectthe Main Reef, which occursin a sequenceof
predominantlyquartziticrocks.Minor amountsof dike
and fault material were also observed in the borehole
core.
Ray-tracemodelingwas carded out to determinethe
sourcelocationsthat wouldprovideoptimalcoverageof
thetargethorizon,takingintoaccountfactorssuchasthe
angle of incidenceon the targethorizon (a large value
causingadditionalcomplicationswith regardto reflec-
tion coefficients,wave-modeconversion,andgeneration
of headwaves),the interval betweenthe arrival at each
receiverof the P-wavereflectedfrom the targethorizon
and the direct S-wave (the complexwave motion and
P-waves),and the orientationof any reflectoror struc-
tureof interest.Foursourcepositionswereselected,with
the reflectionpointsforminga 50-m line, approximately
parallelto strike(Figure 5).
The wavefieldswere decomposedinto three compo-
nents:motionin the verticalplanethroughthe borehole
andperpendicularto the dip direction(the longitudinal
component),motion in the vertical plane throughthe
boreholeandparallelto the dip direction(firsttransverse
component),andmotionin thehorizontalplaneandpar-
allel to strike (secondtransversecomponent).The di-
rect P-wave energyis concentratedin the longitudinal
andsecondtransverse component.Modeledarrivaltimes
for the direct P- and S-waves, and P-wave reflections
from the Main Reef (M) and an interface(N) about8 m

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150 2D seismicimaging of mineral deposits

13

12

11

10

4
10 2o 3o 4o 5o

Receiver
Fig. 6a. Recordsectionfor sourceS2 showingthe transverse componentparallelto strikeof the filtered
returning(reflected)wavefield.The receiverspacingis 0.5 m.

abovethe Main Reef are superimposedfor reference
on the recordsectionsusingP- and S-wavevelocitiesof
5900m/s and3650m/s,respectively (Figure6). Velocity
andfrequencyfilteringwasappliedto reducethe S- and
tube-wave reflections and to enhance reflections
horizonswith a dip of 20ø to 50ø. Correlationwith the
boreholecorehasmadeit possibleto identifythe likely
originof thereflectionsobservedon eachrecordsection,
viz., a dike, the Main Reef horizon, and a fault zone. The
recordsectionsfor eachsourcelocationandcomponent
werejointly interpretedto establishthe positionof the
fault disruptingthe reef.
The reliable detectionof structuresthat disruptthe
reef (suchasdikes,rolls, andfaultswith throwsassmall
from as2 m) priorto thedevelopment of cross-cuts
andstopes
is critical for safe and profitablemining of the deep
gold-bearingreefsof theWitwatersrandbasin.Borehole
radarhasalsobeenappliedto the problemof detecting
geological structuresahead of mining, successfully
imagingtheVentersdorp ContactReefat a rangeof over

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 Seismicimaging of preciousand base-metal depositsin southernAfrica 151

13

12

11

10

4
10 2o 3o 4o 5o

Receiver
Fig.6b. Recordsectionfor sourceS2showingthelongitudinal
component
of thefilteredreturning(reflected)
wavefield.The receiverspacingis 0.5 m.

80 rn (Trickettet al., 2000). It is believedthat MSP and
boreholeradar will be complementarytools for map-
ping geologicalstructuresaheadof mining,the choice
oœmethod usedwill dependonthepropertiesof thetarget
horizon and hostrock, and the orientationofboreholes.
BASE-METAL EXPLORATION, NAMIBIA
activitiesin southernAfrica. Large parts of Namibia
arecoveredby recentsandsandcalcrete.Consequently,
geophysical techniquesare requiredfor mineralexplo-
ration.Two areaswith proveneconomicbasemetal de-
positsarethe Otavi MountainlandnearTsumebandthe
MatchlessAmphibolite Belt (Figure 1). The problem
of delineatingkarstfeatureson the contactbetweenthe
carbonate and elastic formations in the Otavi Mountain-

The successof reflectionseismologyin delineating land is analogousto the mappingof potholes.A trial
potholesin the Merensky Reef led to the conjecture surveywascarriedout to testthe viability of usingthe
that the method might be useful for other exploration reflectionseismicmethodto searchfor synsedimentary

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152 2D seismicimaging of mineral deposits

Table 3. Base-metalsurvey,Otjihase mine, Namibia (recorded 1988).

Acquisition Similarto the BushveldComplexhighresolutionsurvey(seeTable2)
Processing
1. Demultiplex With crosscorrelationand spectralwhitening
2. Edit Noisy traceedit
3. Scale Whole traceequalizationand sphericaldivergencecorrection
4. Statics Gardner-Leclercfield staticcorrectionsappliedto floatingdatum
5. f-k filter Fantaperwith 3500 m/s cutoff
6. NMO VelocityanalysisandNMO correctionappliedto shotrecords
7. Summation Weightedsumin ratio 1:2:1appliedtraceby traceto improveS/N
8. NMO removal
9. CDP sort
10. Deconvolution Minimum-phasepredictivedeconvolution: 160-msoperatorand 156-msgap
11. Scale Postdeconvolutiontraceequalizationapplied
12. NMO NMO correctionappliedto CDPs
13. Mute Mute appliedto removelong offsetNMO-stretcheddata
14. Statics: Tracescorrectedfrom floatingdatumto regionaldatum
15. Statics Surface-consistent
residualstaticsprovedineffectivedueto low S/N, but CDP consistentresidual
staticsgavesomeimprovement.
16. Stack Nominal 24-fold stackwith 50% mute compensation
17. Migration f-k waveequationmigrationwith intervalvelocityof 4500 m/s
18. Whitening Spectralbalancingof 25-120 Hz range
19. Coherency Enhancementof dipsin the range0.7 to 1.3 ms/trace

fracturesystemslinked to basementfaulting.A second and extendsto a depthin excessof 1500 m, narrowing

casehistorydescribestheuseof reflectionseismologyto
map the downdipextensionof mineralized"shoots"at
the OtjihaseMine in the MatchlessAmphibolite Belt.
The acquisition and processingparametersfor the
Otjihasemine survey are listed in Table 3. They are
typicalof theparametersusedfor basemetalexploration
in Namibia.
Tsumeb, Tschudi, and Kombat Surveys,
Otavi Mountainland
The Tsumeb and Kombat ore depositsare among
the most importantmineral depositsin Namibia. The
Tsumeb Pb-Cu-Zn orebody is a polymetallic pipe-
like depositlocatedwithin the moderatelyfolded,pre-
dominantlydolomitic successionof the Otavi Group
(Lombaard et al., 1986). The pipe is associatedwith
a paleokarstfeatureat the interfacebetweenthe clastic
Mulden Groupandthe dolomiticOtavi Group.Synsedi-
mentaryfracturesystemslinkedto basementfaultsacted
as conduitsfor mineral-richhydrothermalfluidswhich
chemicallyerodedthe limestonehostrock of the Otavi
Group and depositeda wide rangeof lead and copper
minerals.The body is roughlyelliptical in plan (about
150 rn x 70 m), with the long axis orientedeast-west
parallelto the strikeof the sedimentarystrata.In cross-
section,the pipe dips steeplysouthwardfrom the sur-
face,parallelto the dolomitestrata,to a depthof about
600 m. At thispointthe orebodybecomesnearlyvertical
with depthandtransgressingthe strata.Thepipeis filled
with feldspathicsandstoneoriginatingfrom the overly-
ingMuldenGroupanddolomitebrecciafromtheOtavi
Group.The high-gradeoreis generallyfoundaroundthe
peripheryof the pipe, with irregularveinsandpodsto-
wardsthecore.Tsumebmineis nearingtheendof itsre-
serves,whichtotaledsome22 Mt • 11.9%Pb,4.8% Cu,
and4.3% Zn (Lombaardet al., 1986). KombatMine is
situated further south near the southern limit of the Otavi
Mountainland.The KombatCu-Pb-Agorebodiesarelo-
catedbelowa monoclinalflexurein thecarbonates (Innes
and Chaplin, 1986). The orebodiesare discretepods,
with typical dimensionsof 100 rn x 100 rn x 50 rn and
totalsize,includingpastproduction,of 8 Mt • 2.5% Cu,
1.9% Pb, and 19 g/t Ag.
The Otavi Mountainlandhas been extensivelyex-
plored for orebodiessimilar to Tsumeb and Kombat.
Youngerclastic sedimentsof the Mulden Group con-
ceal the potentialhostrock, the dolomiticformationof
the Otavi Group, over a broad area making it attrac-
tive to use geophysicalmethodsto probe beneaththe
cover.Magneticandelectromagnetic methodshavebeen
usedto explorefor Kombat-typemineralization(Lubbe
et al., 1994) becauseremanentlymagnetizedpyrrhotite
within the Mulden Groupgivesrise to significantmag-
neticanomalies,andFe/Mn assemblages associatedwith
Kombat-typeorebodiesproducesmalldeviationsin the
magneticfield. Deep electromagneticsoundingswere

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 Seismicimaging of precious and base-metal depositsin southern Africa 153

o km 1

Fig. 7. Seismicsectionfrom the Tsumebarea. Mineralizationoccursin paleokarstfeatureswithin the

dolomiticrocksof the Otavi Group.In thisarea,thepotentialhostrock is concealedby clasticsedimentsof
the Mulden Group.The contactbetweenthe Otavi andMulden Groupswasmappedin an attemptto locate
these features. Vertical • horizontal scale.

then usedto locatethe positionof the monoclinalflex-
ure to siteexplorationboreholes.However,theability of
magnetic,electrical,andelectomagnetic methodsto ex-
plorebeneaththe Mulden Groupis consideredto be lim-
ited becausethe ore is generallynonmagnetic,substan-
tial oxidationhasoccurredfrom the surfaceto a depthof
400 m, and pyrite and pyrrhotiteare ubiquitouswithin
the Mulden Groupsediments.Fuller (1977) investigated
the use of the gravity methodto detecta Tsumeb-like
orebodyconcealedbeneathcoverrocks.The feldspathic
sandstoneand dolomitic brecciafilling the pipe has a
negativedensitycontrastcomparedto the dolomitichost
rock, while the metal sulfide depositshave a positive
densitycontrast.A Tsumeb-likepipe buried at depths
of 100 and 200 rn would give rise to gravity anomalies
with peak amplitudesof 0.10 and 0.076 mGal, respec-
tively.A 0.10 mGal anomalywasconsideredmarginally
detectablewith very careful observationsover flat ter-
rain with minimal geologicalnoise.Physicalproperty
measurements, however,indicatedthat the Otavi Group
rockshaveP-wavevelocitiesbetween3800 m/s (highly
fracturedandaltereddolomite)and5130 m/s (unaltered
dolomite), while the averagevelocity of the Mulden
Group sedimentsis 3360 m/s. The reflectioncoefficient
of the targethorizon(the Otavi/Muldencontact)is esti-
matedto be relativelyhigh,rangingfrom 0.1 to 0.2, sug-
gestingthatreflectionseismologycouldbe usedto map
the Otavi/Mulden contact and search for karst features.
Two profiles were surveyednear Tsumeb in June,
1988. The seismicsectionsshowa strongpersistentre-
flection at the Otavi/Mulden contact(Figure 7). Other
persistentreflectionswithin the Otavi Groupwere used
to mapfaultswhichcouldhaveactedasconduitsfor hy-
drothermalfluids. This trial surveydemonstratedthat
the reflection seismic method is capable of detect-
ing paleokarsttopographyalong the interfacebetween
the Mulden and Otavi Groups at depthsin excessof
300 m.
A trial surveywas also conductednear the Tschudi
deposit (25 km west of Tsumeb), and provided rea-
sonableevidencethat no pipe-like featurescomparable
to the Tsumeborebodyexist beneaththe surveyarea.
This surveyalsodetectedblockfaultsbelowtheMulden
Groupthatcouldhavebeentheconduitsfor mineralizing
fluids.
A trial seismic-reflection
surveywas alsoconducted
near the Kombat Mine where the dolomitic rocks of the
Otavi Group and the clastic sedimentsof the Mulden
Group are folded into a narrow,deep,doublyplunging
synclineapproximately50 km in length.This was the
leastsuccessfulof the trial surveys.The steeplydipping
sides of the syncline were not well imaged, but one
potentiallyusefulresultdid emerge:it appearsthat the
horizonformingthe trap for the mineralizingfluidsis at
a shallowerdepththanwaspreviouslythought,opening
up new areasfor exploration.It was recommendedthat

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154 2D seismicimaging of mineral deposits
existing gravity and magnetic data be reinterpreted
usingthe structuralconstraintsprovidedby the seismic
survey.
Otjihase Mine, Matchless Amphibolite Belt
The MatchlessAmphiboliteBelt is a 350 km long
northeast-trending belt in the centralNamibian Damara
Orogen consistingmainly of marie lavas and meta-
intrusiveswith associatedmassive sulfide deposits
(pyrite, pyrrhotite,chalcopyrite,and sphalerite)within
the schistsof theKuisibFormation(Smalley,1988).The
sulfidelayer is an excellenttargetfor electromagnetic
surveysdue to the high resistivitiesof the surrounding
Kuisib Formationschists,the lack of conductiveoverbur-
den,andthe integrityof the semimassive sulfidebodies.
A magnetitequartzitehorizonassociated with the sulfide
layeris usedto rank the conductivityanomalies(Lubbe
et al., 1994; CampbellandMason, 1979).
The Otjihasedeposit,which is situatedabout30 km
eastof Windhoek,consistsof four subparallelpencil-
shapedmineralizedshoots.Only the Main Shootis be-
ing mined. It is typically 250 m wide and 5 rn thick,
andhasa provendown-plungeextentin excessof 4 km,
reachingdepthsgreaterthan 1 km below the surface.
0 meters
Fig. 8. MigratedseismicsectionfromtheOtjihaseMine.TheMain Shootof themassive sulfideorebodyis
directlymapped(indicatedby "S"onthesection),
showing disruptions
dueto faulting.Verticalm horizontal
scale.
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Major normal faultinghas subdividedthe Main Shoot
intodiscreteorebodies.Surfacediamonddrillingis nor-
mallyusedto delineatetheoreshootsandto providein-
formationon major faultingand footwallelevations.In
certainareas,poorgroundconditions rendereddrilling
difficultandcausedsignificantdelaysto mining.A re-
flectionseismicsurveyto map the structureof the ore
shootswasproposed, becauseinformationwasurgently
neededfor planningpurposes.
Seismicmodelingwascarriedout aspart of the fea-
sibility study.The densitycontrastbetweenthe ore-
bodyandcountryrockwasestimatedto be greaterthan
0.35g/cm
3.It wasinferred
thattheorebody
wouldpro-
ducea significant reflection,andthatit wouldbepossible
to mapthebroadoutlineof thedepositandfaultswith a
throw greaterthan 15 m.
A reflection-seismic survey,consistingof four pro-
files totaling 10 line-km, was conductedin 1988. The
selectionof 24-foldcoverage provedto be optimisticas
thesignal-to-noise ratiowasreduced bynoiseemanating
from mining operationsandvibrationsinducedin a wa-
terpipe.Carefuleditingof noisytracesandweightedav-
eragingof adjacenttracesobtainedan optimumimage.
The Main Shootgaverise to a recognizablereflection
(Figure8). While faultingof the ore zonewas clearly
•oo
200
 Seismicimaging of preciousand base-metal depositsin southernAfrica
visible, it wasnot possibleto discriminatebetweendif-
ferent facies within the ore zone.
CONCLUSIONS
The gold-bearingreefs of the WitwatersrandBasin
are usuallylessthan two metersthick and, exceptfor
the VentersdorpContactReef that is situatedimmedi-
atelybeneatha thick lavaformation,cannotbe detected
directly by the reflection seismicmethod. Reflection
seismologyis usedto map markerhorizonsthat enable
the reef positionto be inferred,and to seek structures
that haveeitherpreservedthe reef from erosionor that
have broughtthe reef to mineabledepths.Indeed,re-
flectionseismologyhas been instrumentalin locating
severalimportantdeposits.The platinum-richMeren-
sky Reef of the BushveldComplexdoesgive rise to a
clear reflectionthat can be directlydetected.It is even
possibleto map different reef facies and the extent of
potholes,whichis importantfor theplanningof mining
operations.
Mine-seismic-profiling(MSP), an adaptationof the
VSP surveymethod,has been developedto delineate
structuresaheadof mining that are too small to be de-
tectedby surfaceseismicmethods.It is importantthat
faults,dikes,andpotholesare detectedsincethey may
causeminingproblems.MSP differsfrom conventional
VSP in thattheboreholein whichreceiversaredeployed
may intersectthe targetat any angle,and opportunities
to deploysources arelimitedto mineworkings.Surveys
have to be carefullyplannedto ensurethat the target
horizon is adequatelyimaged.MSP is still in the de-
velopmentalstage,but showspromiseparticularlyas a
methodto complementboreholeradarsurveys.
Base-metalores often have a significantacoustic
impedancecontrastwith their host rocks allowing
directdetection,but the orebodiesare oftenirregularin
shapeand relativelysmall in extent.However,the use
of reflection-seismic methods to search for orebodies
associatedwith paleokarstfeaturesconcealedbeneath
younger cover appearsviable. Seismic reflection has
also been used successfullyto map the faulting of a
massivesulfideorebody,providingvaluableinformation
for mine planning.
Case histories from southern Africa demonstrate that
thereflectionseismicmethodcanbe usedto explorefor
preciousand base minerals in the hard rock environ-
mentandto solvemine-planningproblems.Thousands
of line-kilometers of reflection seismic data have been
acquiredandprocessed
duringthepasttwo decadesand
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155
muchexperiencehasbeengainedregardingmethodsto
optimizethe imagingof the subsurface.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authorsthankthe management of Gold Fieldsof
SouthAfrica Ltd. and the sponsorsof the DEEPMINE
CollaborativeResearchProgrammefor permissionto
publishthe resultscontainedin thispaper.
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in Garland, G. D., Ed., Proc. Exploration 87, 3rd Decennial
Internat. Conf. on Geophys. and Geoch. Expl. for Minerals
and Groundwater:Spec. Publ., Ontario Geol. Surv., 3, 241-
253.
Pretorius, C. C., Steenkamp,W. H., and Smith, R. G., 1994,
Developments in dataacquisition,processing,
and interpretation
overten yearsof deepvibroseismicsurveyingin SouthAfrica, in
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Anhaeusser,C. R., Ed., Proc. XVth CMMI Congress:SAIMM
SymposiumSeriesS14, 3, 249-258.
Pretorius, C. C., and Trewick, W. F., 1997, Application of 3D
seismicsto mine planningat Vaal Reefs Gold Mine, number 10
shaft,Republicof SouthAfrica, in GubinsA. G., Ed., Proc. of
Exploration
97:4thDecennial
Internat.Conf.onMineralExpl.,
Prosp.andDevel. Assoc.of Can., 399-408.
Smalley,T J., 1988, A geneticmodel for part of the Matchless
Amphibolite Belt and its explorationsignificance:Extended
Abstract,Geocongress '88, Geol. Soc.S. Afr., 563-566.
Trickett,J. C., et al., 2000, Proc.8th Internat.Conf.on Ground
PenetratingRadar (GPR2000), 23-26.
Tucker,R. F., Schlegel,G. C.-J., Wagener,J. H. F., andGray,N. K.,
1994,The SunProject-II. Scientificandtechnological innovations
in a Witwatersrandexplorationventure, in Anhaeusser,C. R.,
Ed., Proc. XVth CMMI Congress:SAIMM SymposiumSeries
S14, 3, 103-116.
Weder, E. E. W., 1994, Structure of the area south of the Central
Rand Gold Mines as derivedfrom gravity and vibroseissurveys,
in Anhaeusser,C. R., Ed., Proc.XVth CMMI Congress:SAIMM
SymposiumSeriesS14, 3, 271-281.
Viljoen, M. J., 1994, A review of regionalvariationsin faciesand
grade distributionof the Merensky Reef, WesternBushveld
Complex,with somemining implications,in Anhaeusser,C. R.,
Ed., Proc. XVth CMMI Congress:SAIMM SymposiumSeries
S14, 3, 183-194.
Viljoen, M. J., et al., 1986, The Union Sectionof Rustenburg
Platinum Mines Limited with referenceto the Merensky Reef,
in Anhaeusser,C. R. and Maske, S., Eds., Mineral depositsof
southernAfrica: Geol. Soc. S. Afr., 2, 1061-1090.
 Chapter 10
Using Surface-SeismicReflection to Profile a Massive
Sulfide Deposit at Mount Morgan, Australia
B. d. Evans, M. Urosevic, and,4. Taube
ABSTRACT
The Mount Morgan mine, 36 km southwestof
Rockhampton,Queensland,Australia produced over
8 Moz of gold from 50 Mt of ore during its 109-year
life. A massivesulfide(MS) deposit,of potentialeco-
nomic proportions,exists600-m southof and beneath
the mined-outorebody.Drilling to datehas indicateda
complexnorth-southtruncatedellipsoidalshape,with
sedimentarydepositsand volcanicrocksoverlyingthe
mineralbody.Due to the substantialdepthof the deposit
(300 m at its shallowestpoint), and its relativeposition
within a major fault block, the applicationof conven-
tional potential-fieldmethodshas failed to adequately
describethe shapeandlocationof the deposit.A 500-m
long experimentalseismicline and five upholesurveys
wererecordedoverthe deposit.Line recordinginvolved
drillingindividualholesfor eachof thegeophonespikes
anduseof small charges.The processingsequencewas
standard,exceptthat extremestaticcorrectionswereap-
plied, and the data were imaged better using vertical
seismicprofiling and core-derivedvelocitiesin the mi-
gration. The result was a seismicsectionthat imaged
themineralbody,consistent with knowngeology.In ad-
dition, the seismicdata indicated that the extent of the
orebodyis greaterthanthat previouslypredicted.
INTRODUCTION
The Mount Morgan gold mine is situatedon the New
EnglandFoldBelt, 36 km southwestof Rockhampton,in
Queensland,Australia(Figure 1). The originallymined
mineralization occurred in the Middle Devonian Mount
Warner Volcanics, an acid volcanic-sedimentaryse-
quencewithin the Calliope VolcanicArc (Barker et al.,
1997). The open-cutmine was situatedwithin a roof
pendantof the aboverocks within the Late Devonian
Mount Morgan Tonalite.The orebodywas an irregular
157
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pipe-like mass consistingmainly of massivesulfides
(MS) and lesserassociatedstringermineralizationlo-
catednearthe surface(Taube,1986). Newly discovered
suboregrademineralizationconsistsof two horizonsof
strata-boundmassivesulfidesoverlyingstringerminer-
alization(Slag Heap andCar Parkbodies),600 m south
of, and beneaththe original deposit.The mineralized
stratigraphyis boundedby two major faults,the Invoka
Fault to the west and the Linda Fault to the east. The
original interpretationfrom drillhole data is shownin
Figure2, in which the shallowestsectionof the MS de-
positis shown.The depositappearsin a seriesof fault-
controlledsteps,with dikespassingthroughit. In order
to obtainan imageof the deposit,a 500-m long seismic
line wasrecordedoverthe deposit,asshownin Figure 1.
SEISMIC LINE SIGHTING
An initial site visit confirmed that to record a seismic
line overthe deposit,the only straightline of sightwas
throughbuildingsand over old workings.The mine is
classifiedby the AustralianNational Trust sinceit was
one of the original 1890 gold-rushminesin Australia,
so buildingscould not be disturbed.The line conse-
quentlypassedadjacentto an operatingpower substa-
tion, througha workshop(wherethe concreteslabfoun-
dationscausedconcernfor providinggood geophone
response),and eventuallyterminatedon the banksof
an openpit. The mine was operatedas a touristvenue
with occasionaltour busescomingand goingacrossthe
line. The minehadbeensopoorlyadministeredoverthe
yearsthat acidhad enteredthe mine-sitesoil and could
be seenfuming to the atmospherefrom opendrillholes
duringthe cool temperaturesof early morning.
The seismicline passedover terrain with strongto-
pography.Apart from the line traversingtwo 100-year
old mine slagheaps,it passedup the screeslopeof one
158 2D seismicimaging of mineral deposits

Rockhampton

Fig. 1. Locationmap for Mount Morgan.

Seismicreceiver line--appmx 600 m.

West Seismic section--500 m East

MV

100

Drill hole

MV
200

Sx

300

400 m

Fault Linda Fault

Invoka

Fig. 2. OriginalMS interpretation

fromdrillholedata;scale1'1.

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 Using surface-seismicreflectionto profile a massivesulfidedeposit 159

bare slagheapat an angleof 45 degreeswith a change the MS sequence,severalotherrockswill alsogive rise

in elevationof some 60 m. The other slag heap was
equallysteepbut coveredin vegetation.The line passed
acrossa sealedmineroadandalongthesideof aNational
Trust house.Drilling resultsand the resultinggeologi-
cal model of the depositshowthat severalsignificant
faultscutthroughthemassivesulfidedeposit(Figure2).
It is likely that the structuralcomplexityis far greater
thanthatproposed.The steepdip of theMS depositsug-
gestedthat shotsmight haveto be fired awayfrom the
location of the MS if reflections were to be received.
Consequently,ray tracing was required to confirm
this.
CORE ANALYSIS
Previouswork by Salisburyet al. (1997) has shown
that MS depositscan causeseismicreflectionsif the
acousticimpedancecontrastbetweenthe ores and the
host rocks is sufficientlylarge. This provideda per-
suasiveargumentfor initially testingwhole core from
five Mt. Morgan boreholes.The resultsof sonicveloc-
ity and densitytestingare shownin Figure 3. In Fig-
ure 3b, the acousticimpedances of the BMS, SMS, BIF,
and MS units showthat there is a strongacousticcon-
trast,with valuesof acousticimpedance(Z) changing
by asmuchas5000. Therefore,we expectedthereto be
goodreflections.In additionto the goodreflectivityof
to P-wavereflections.For example,the strongacoustic
impedancecontrastbetweenthe bandediron formation
(BIF) andthe MS suggests a strongreflectionshouldbe
observed at the BIF/MS contact.
RAY TRACING
Prior to the seismicrecording,in order to obtain a
betterunderstanding of anyraypathproblemsin areasof
steepdip, ray tracingwasperformedfor a reversedver-
tical seismicprofile (RVSP) surveywhichwasplanned
for the site.The geologicalmodelwas drawnusingthe
interpretationfrom recovereddrill whole core. It was
clear that the steepdip to the east of some45ø meant
that most of the receivers must be offset some distance
to the east of the mineralized zone in order to record re-
flectionsfrom the dippingbody.This situationis shown
in Figure4. The shotfired at the baseof the boreholeat
250 m is shownasshot1. Thisgenerates reflectedenergy
arrivingat locationsmarked1. In the caseof a shotfired
at a depthof 200 m (shot2), the reflectedeventswould
arriveat locationsmarked2, generallyto the eastof the
depositand the Linda Fault. Theseresultsindicatethat
the seismicline mustbe positionedaboveandto theeast
of the deposit,awayfrom the mine site. Consequently,
the seismic line was drilled and loaded some 100 m fur-
thereastthanwouldnormallybe expected.Thistookthe

5'5] xx•
o x• ••o MScp'
•1•
• 4'5] • • BIF• 1 •
• 4

• 3.5
• 3
........
.............................
........

3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000

Veloci• (m/s)

Fig. 3. Graphof densi• versuscompressional-wave

5 2
veloci•, determinedfrom wholecore.Contoursof
acoustic
impedance
(Z) inunitsof x 10 gm/cm.sshowthatt•e Mt. Morgan
MS deposits
(square
symbols)
differ•om thehostrocks(trianglesymbols)andsoshouldbe detectableusingseismic-reflection
methods.
BMS denotes bandedminesequence; SMSdenotes semimassivesulfide;BIF denotes
bandedironformation;
MSshdenotesmassivesulfidefromtheslagheapsite;an• MScp denotesmassivesulfidefromthecarpark
site.

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160 2D seismicimaging of mineral deposits

w E
21

lOO

2OO

300

MS
400 m

Linda Fault
Invoka Fault

Fig. 4. Ray tracingshowedif shot1 wasfired into the receiverline, the arrivingrayswouldbe sprayedto
the eastof the MS, with someexamplelocationsbeingshownwith receiversat positions1, with shot2 just
50 rn shallowin the sameboreholeproducinga similarresult.The ray tracingthereforeindicatedthat the
receiverline mustbe positionedto the easternside,ratherthanoverthe deposit.The rockunitsarethe same
as in Figure2, but havebeensimplifiedto assistin the clarity of the raypaths.

seismicline somedistanceawayfrom the deposit,into The shot-holedepthwasvariable,sincethefundamen-

vegetatedterrane.
SEISMIC DATA ACQUISITION
When drilling shotholescommenced,greatdifficul-
tieswereexperienced.Someof the slagheapslopeswere
far too steepfor drilling andconsequently
were missed.
When drilling into the car-parkslagheap,it was noted
that there was a very high downholeexotherm,which
was due to a continual near-surface chemical
Within metersof the surface,the groundhadthe form of
softtoffee,wherethe slagwouldin-fill shortlyafterdrill
rodremoval.Thereforeit wasdecidedto putPVC tubing
down eachhole in the slag,and to load the explosives
just prior to the time of recordingthe data.It was not
known whether the exotherm would melt the base of the
PVC pipe, but certainlya line of steamplumesgreeting
the crew on two mornings,was an eerie sight.
tal requirementwasto drill into freshrock. This resulted
in shotsbeingloadedasshallowas 1.9 rn andasdeepas
28.9 rn where the hole passedthroughthick slag. Shot
holeswere missedon screeslopesand insideone large
workshopdue to the inability of the rig to get inside
(plus the heritage nature of the buildings). Since core
measurements showedthe rock to be fairly competent,
it was decidedto use small 150-g primersin 2-inch di-
ameterholes.Sincetherewere large gapsin the line, it
reaction. was decidedto try to overcomelost coverageby double
loadingeachshothole. Shotswerethusdoubleloadedin
holesgreaterthan5 rn in depth,andthebottomshotwas
detonated first.Shotswereseparated by atleastonemetre
of stemmingandtheholeswerefilled to thesurfaceto en-
sureasmuchenergyaspossiblewasretaineddownhole.
The geophonestationsthatweresitedin theworkshop
concretepad amountedto about 10% of the line length.
The power substationwas shut down while recording

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 Using surface-seismicreflectionto profile a massivesulfidedeposit 161

Table 1. Surface-seismicrecording parameters. weatheringthickness,its constitution,and scattering.

Shot station interval: 10m Thesefactorsresultedin poor data quality,as shown
Shotdepthand chargesize: Variable, 1.9 to 29 m in Figure 5a). Shots in the slag heap producedlow
usingK-primers(150 g) frequencynoisy recordswhich were of poor quality.
Receiver station interval: 5m
Receiver station: Single28 Hz geophone Shotsin freshrock wereof the bestquality,while shots
No. of recordingchannels: 96
in virgin soil (off the mine site to the east)showedac-
Recordinginstrument: DAS- 1, 24-bit
Sampleinterval: 0.25 ms ceptablequality.The mostdifficultproblem(apartfrom
Recordlength: 400 ms thegapsin shotcoverage)wasto computeaccuratestatic
Averagefold: Variable 6 to 24
corrections.However,mostof the staticproblemswere
readilysolvedby carefulpickingof thefirstbreaks.Sub-
data,so a separategeneratormountedon the back of a sequentcomputationof therefractionstaticsproduceda
utility truck was usedfor powerwhen geophonespike satisfactorysolution(Figure 5b). However,after initial
holeswerehanddrilled alongthe seismicline. processing,the poorestquality shot recordsstill con-
The seismicrecordingparametersare summarizedin tained somereflectionenergy.An examplefor a shot
Table 1. The full receiverline was600 rn in length.The fired overthe slagheapafter high-passfiltering(above
recordingcommencedin the eastwith an off-endrecord- 200 Hz with a slopeof 24 dB) is shownin Figure5c).
ing spread,and the spreadwaspushedto the westuntil After recordingthe reflectiondata, four RVSP sur-
it cameto the end of the westernpart of the line. Then veyswere recordedin openholescloseto the shotline.
the shotswererolled-through,givingthe maximumfold In addition,a singleboreholesurveywas attemptedin
possibleafter allowing for shortgapscausedby scree one relativelydeepborehole.This requiredshotsto be
slopesandbuildings. placedbeneatha downholereceiverstringcontaining12
geophones,which would be retrieved after each shot.
After firing the first shot,the boreholecollapsedandthe
receiverstringwaslost.Similarly,duringtheotherRVSP
PRELIMINARY DATA ANALYSIS
recordings,only a few shotscouldbe fired in eachbore-
AND PROCESSING
hole beforethey collapsed.Nonetheless,boreholedata
Considerable elevationdifferencesoccurredalongthe wereanalyzedandusedlaterasa guidefor velocityanal-
line (see Figure 2), as well as extremevariationsin the ysisandmigration.

Time (s)

0.1

0.2

0.3

a) b) c)
Fig. 5. Shotrecordat variousstagesof processingwith (a) fielddata,(b) afterapplicationof refractionstatic
and(c) after200 Hz high-pass filtering.Receiverspreadlength480 rn dependent upontopography.

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162 2D seismicimaging of mineral deposits

Table 2. Data-processingparameters. Dikes

FI F2 F3 'Depth
(m)
1. Refractionstatics(datum260 m, DRM method) 0.0
2. Amplitudecompensation, filter, deconvolution,andf-k
tests
3. f-k fan filter application 100
4. Predictive deconvolution
5. Butterworthband-pass
6. Velocityanalysis
7. Residualreflectionstatics(surfaceconsistent) 200
8. Velocity analysis
9. ConstantvelocityDMO (V = 5000 m/s)
10. Stack 300
11. Depth migrationusingcoreand RVSP velocities
M'S?

Time (s)
20O 220 2gO 260 280 gO0 320 340 g60 g80
]28 0 252 ½ 37• 6 SO0 ß
0.0

0.1

Fig. 7. Depth-migratedsectionusingcoreandRVSP ve-

locities.Major faults(yellow)anddikes(blue)weretrans-
formedfrom the mine plan. A numberof'otherdikesand
faultsare suggested in the data.
0.2

provideda very simplemethodof depthmigrationand

an imageconsistent with expectations.
Severalprevious
runs basedon the stackingvelocitiesdid not produce
0.3 satisfactoryresultsor match the boreholeinformation.

INTERPRETATION

0.4 Figure 8 showsthe first (depth)derivativeof the data

from Figure 7. The derivativesare sometimesused in
Fig. 6. DMO-stack,500-m long,at thefinal stageof time
high-resolutiondata analysisto enhancestructuralde-
ß

processing.
tails. When a derivativeis performed,each trace in a
sectionis differentiatedfrom sampleto sample,andthe
The final processingflow is summarizedin Table 2. outputis a higher frequencysection.A secondderiva-
A relativelygoodqualitytime stackwasproducedusing tiveof a sectioncanalsobeperformedonhigh-resolution
thissequence (Figure6). Most of theimprovements were seismicdata, which resultsin the equivalentof a very
achievedby accuratestaticsandhigh-passfiltering.Sev- high-passfilter. It is clear that the seismicdepth sec-
eral prominentreflectionscanbe seento the left half of tion now resemblesthe mine interpretation,with reflec-
the figureanddeeperin the sectionto the right. tionssteppingfrom westto eastandbreaksbetweenre-
The acquisitiongeometryin this high-velocityenvi- flectionpackagesat the positionsof known faults and
ronment,togetherwith the low fold andrelativelypoor dikes.
signal-to-noise ratio,did not allowaccuratestackingve- The seismicsectionsof Figures7 and 8 suggestthat
locity estimates.Instead,we usedmeasuredcoresample shallow faults cut down throughthe upper sedimen-
velocities,calibratedagainstsparseRVSP data points tary sectionand into the top of the massivesulfideore-
to producethe final depthsectionusingpoststackdepth body. The two major faults•the Invoka (F1) and the
imaging(Figure7). Despiteitslimitations,thisapproach Linda (F3) faults•are reasonablywell positionedon

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 Using surface-seismicreflection to profile a massivesulfide deposit 163

West East heaps,whichoverliea massive-sulfide deposit.Coretest-

ing followedby ray tracingwas requiredto designthe
Linda
experimentbeforerecordingcommenced.The datawere
Invoka
Fault Fault Depth
(m) migrated using core and RVSP velocities.The result-
ß- o.................... i?-' _ •'• ß '•'"' * ...... •.... "' 0.0
ing depthsectionis consistentwith knowngeology.The
l-. strongreflectionsin the seismicdata suggestan exten-
sion of the massive sulfide to the east of Linda fault.
• - '- - "• .... 100
.....

Subsequent to this survey,drilling showedthat the cen-

tral orebodyto the southdippedand was thinnerthan
• ' .... ..
* "' 200 expected,and this reducedconfidencein the economic
significanceof the deposit.
300
When recordingover a steeplydippingcomplexge-
ological structuresuchas this, three-dimensionalseis-
mic recordingis required.Unfortunately,a 3D survey
400 would be very difficultto conductat this site,giventhat
buildingsand old workingspresentedseriousproblems
to evena simple2D experimentalline. However,good
5OO
seismicresponseof the MS body is certainlyencourag-
ing for the futureapplicationof seismicmethodsat this
.... 600 location.
The companycontinuesto explore along the Dee
mountainrangeandis planningfurtherseismicinvesti-
700
gationswhile waitingfor an improvementin commodity
Possible MS across the fault prices.
Fig. 8. Migrated(derivative)section,500-m depth,used
to enhancethe reflections.Labeling is the same as in
Figure 7. A continuationof the MS depositacrossthe
major fault is suggested
by the data.Red amplitudesin- ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
dicatepositivepeaks.
The authorswould like to thank Perilya Mines Pty.
the section. MS has been recovered from drill core in Ltd. for allowing the release of these data, and ac-
the samelocationas a high-amplitudereflectionshow- knowledgethe othermembersof the seismiccrew--Jon
ing a steppinganomalyto the westernhalf of the line. CockerandMiroslavBrajanovski--fortheirhelpduring
Figure8 indicatesa packageof high-amplituderefle- a trying survey.
ctionsbeneaththe locationof the MS, which couldsig-
nify thetopof theMS, with a blockofringy databeneath
it. Thisblockis apparentlycontinuous acrossthe section REFERENCES
to theLindaFaultwhereit dropsdown100 rn to a depth
Barker, R. M., et al., 1997, New insightsinto the geologyof the
of 400 m. The final interpretation,includinga possible northernNew Englandorogenin theRockhampton-Monto region,
extensionof theMS depositacrossthefault,is shownin CentralCoastalQueensland: Progress reportontheYarrolproject:
this figure. QueenslandGov't Min. J., 98, No. 1146.
Salisbury,M. H., et al., 1997,Physicalpropertiesandseismicimaging
of massivesulfides,in Gubins,A. G., Ed., Proc.of Exploration97:
CONCLUSIONS 4thDecennial
Internat.Conf.onMineralExpl.Prosp.andDevel.
Assoc. of Can., 383-390.
Surface-seismic
methodswere appliedin a mine en-
Taube,A., 1986. The Mourn Morgan gold-coppermine and envi-
vironmentin which old slagheapswere both an opera- ronment,Queensland:A volcanogeniemassivesulfidedeposit
tionalanda geophysical
problem.Smallshallowcharges associated
with penecontemporaneousfaulting.Econ.Geol., 81,
were usedto recorda shortsectionof line overthe slag 1322-1340.

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 Chapter 11
A Comparison of 2D SeismicLines Shot
over the Ansil
in the Abitibi
A.d. Calvert, G. Perron, and Y. Li
ABSTRACT
Volcanogenicmassivesulfidedepositshost a major
proportionof the mineralreservesof the Abitibi green-
stonebeltof OntarioandQuebec,andaretypicallyfound
at thecontactsofbimodalvolcanicsequences. A number
of shallowpenetration,high-resolution 2D seismiclines
wereshotacrossminingcampsin theAbitibi greenstone
beltbetween1990and 1993by theCanadianLithoprobe
programin collaboration with theminingindustryin or-
der to determinewhether it is possibleto image this
volcanicstratigraphy. Numerousboreholesare present
in mining campsandthey canprovideimportantlitho-
logicalconstraintson the originof the observedseismic
reflections,particularlywhengeophysical logsare also
available.Potentially,seismicreflectionsurveyscanhelp
optimizefuture explorationdrilling programsby map-
pingtheextensionof volcanicunitsbetweenandbeyond
existingboreholes,andby directdetectionof amplitude
anomalies associated with massive sulfide mineraliza-
tion. By comparing2D seismiclines shotover two of
the most importantmining campsof the Abitibi belt,
Ansil, andMatagami,we showthatreflectionsfromvol-
canichorizonswithin an Archeartgreenstoneterraincan
sometimes,but not always,be recorded.Interpretation
of synvolcanic faultingcanbe madewherethe volcanic
contactsareimaged,but the interpretationis oftencom-
plicatedby the pervasivepresenceof mafic sills. The
seismicline shotat Matagamirecordeda strongreflec-
tion from the top of the Bell Allard orebody,but it is
similarin amplitudeto reflectionsrecordedfrom nearby
mafic sills.The orebodyis locatedwherefaultinginter-
sectsa rhyolite-basaltcontact,and suggests that high-
amplitudereflectionslinked to faulting in the under-
lying rhyolitemay providesuitableexplorationdrilling
targets.
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and Bell Allard Mines
Greenstone Belt
INTRODUCTION
Archeart-agegreenstonebelts hosta significantpro-
portion of the world's mineral resourcesand, as a re-
suit,havebeensubjectto intensegeologicalstudy.The
ArcheartAbitibi greenstonebelt, which straddlesthe
borderof theCanadianprovincesof OntarioandQuebec
(Figure 1), is the world's largestgreenstonebelt, and
hasproducedmajor amountsof copper,zinc, lead,gold,
and silver.Most mineralproductionhasbeenfrom vol-
canogenicmassivesulfide(VMS) orebodies,which in
the Abitibi belt are usually found at the contactsof
bimodal volcanic sequences.A classicexampleis the
alternatinglayersof rhyoliteand andesitefoundin the
Ansil mining camp located in the southernpart of
the Abitibi belt. Traditionally,mineral explorationin
the Abitibi has employedelectromagnetic surveysand
extensivedrilling programsbasedon a probablegeo-
logicalmodel.This approachhassuccessfully identified
manyof the shallower(<1000 m) orebodiesandmapped
the volcanicstratigraphyof severalmining camps.In
a maturecamp,extensiveexploitationinfrastructureis
usuallypresent,and this can make the productionof
deepermineraldepositseconomicif the costof finding
themis not excessive.Denselyspaceddrillingbecomes
prohibitivelyexpensiveat large depths,and within the
Abitibi belt, surfaceelectromagneticsurveysareusually
consideredto yield useful informationonly at depths
shallowerthan 500 m. Thus an alternativegeophysical
approachthatwhich canmap targethorizonswithin the
volcanicstratigraphyat greaterdepthsand identifythe
likely locationsof orebodiesis necessary.
Over recentyearsinteresthas grown in the use of
seismic reflection methods in hard rock environments.
Much of this interesthas focusedon crustal-scalepro-
filing, but in Canadaa numberof shallowpenetration,
164

$6ø11
54ø m
, fice. The actual location of individual VMS lensesap-
46 ø ZYU._S•
90 ø 87 ø 84 ø 81 ø 78 ø 75 ø 72 ø
Fig. 1. Locationof theAnsilandBellAllardmineswithin
the Late ArcheanAbitibi greenstonebelt.
high-resolutionseismiclines, funded by Lithoprobe,
government agencies,
andtheminingindustry,havealso
been shotacrossmining camps.In mining camps,nu-
merous boreholes are available to constrain the seismic
interpretation,and they are particularlyuseful if geo-
physicallogshave also been recorded.In the Abitibi,
wheremuchmineral explorationfocuseson the identi-
ficationof massivesulfidedeposits,there is significant
interestin determiningwhetherseismicreflectionsur-
veyscanbeusedto mapthecontacts withinthebimodal
volcanicstratigraphywhichrepresentimportantexplo-
ration targets.Furthermore,physicalproperty studies
showthat massivesulfidesare characterizedby anoma-
lousP-wavevelocityanddensityvalues(Salisburyet al.,
1996), and it is possiblethat massivesulfide orebod-
ies canbe detecteddirectlyusingseismicmethods.The
objectiveof this chapteris to assessthe practicalityof
mineralexplorationin the Abitibi greenstone belt using
seismic-reflectionmethodsby comparingthe resultsof
high-resolution seismiclinesshotacrosstwo of themost
importantVMS miningcamps,bothcharacterized by a
bimodal volcanic succession. One seismic line was shot
over the now-abandoned subsurface Ansil mine work-
ings;anotheralmostdirectlyabovethe recentlydiscov-
ered6 million tonneBell Allard massive-sulfidedeposit
locatedin the Matagamiminingcamp.In particular,we
considerhoweasyit is to distinguishsuchsmallsubsur-
face targetsfrom otherseismicsignalsrecordedin this
hard-rock environment.
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Comparison of 2D seismiclines 165
VMS MINING CAMPS
IN THE ABITIBI BELT
Of nine essentiallysimilar bimodal volcanicsucces-
sionsfoundacrossthe Abitibi greenstonebelt, only four
host significantVMS deposits.Furthermore,within a
singlevolcanicsuccession, most of the VMS deposits
tend to occur at only one stratigraphichorizon, rep-
resentingonly a small part of the total volcanic edi-
pears to be structurallycontrolledby the underlying
horizon(Lydon, 1984). The Ansil and Matagami min-
ing camps are located in quite different parts of the
Abitibi greenstonebelt (Figure 1), and are separatedby
at leastone major collisionalsuturezone (Calvert and
Ludden,1999), suggesting thattheir respectivevolcanic
sequences originatedin quitedifferentgeographicloca-
69 ø 66 ø
tionsduringthe Late Archean.Althoughthe geologyof
the two mining campsis quite differentin detail, they
do possesssomeimportantfeaturesin common.Both
campsare coredby a major intrusion,which has been
interpretedasthe magmachamberfrom whichthe over-
lyingbimodalvolcanicsequences wereerupted.In both
camps,maficsills,whicharenowexposedatthesurface,
extensivelyintrudedthe volcanicstratigraphy.Litholo-
gies identifiedat Matagami are in generalmore mafic
than those found at Ansil.
The NorandaCentralVolcanicComplexis the largest
of the volcanic complexesin the southernpart of the
Abitibi greenstonebelt. Numerousvolcanogenicmas-
sive sulfides have been identified within the Central
VolcanicComplex, with most being found within the
bimodal andesite-rhyolite
Mine Seriessuccession.
The
Mine Series rocks, which are consideredto form a ho-
moclinalsequenceup to 3 km thick, lie to the east,and
stratigraphicallyabove,the 15-km-wide Flavrian plu-
ton (Figure 2). The pluton is contemporaneous with
the Mine Seriesrocks and is believedto representthe
magmachamberfrom whichthe Mine Seriesvolcanics
were erupted. U-Pb zircon dating suggeststhat the
15-20-km-wide, subaqueous Noranda shield volcano,
which is now represented by the Flavrianplutonandas-
sociatedvolcanics,may haveevolvedover only 3.5 Ma
between 2701.5 4-1 Ma and 2697.9 + 1.3/-0.7 Ma
(Mortensen, 1993a). Five cycles of volcanism have
beenrecognized(Spence,1967;deRosen-Spence,1976;
Kennedy,1984) with the third (the Mine Series)being
associatedwith a periodof subsidence that wasparticu-
larly conduciveto the formationof VMS deposits,per-
haps due to the creationof ring fracturesaroundthe
166 2D seismicimaging of mineral deposits

•+ -F -F

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volcano(GibsonandWatkinson,1990). Most of the ore-
bodiesare relatively shallow,being locatedat the con-
tacts of the Amulet and Waite Andesites with the Waite
Rhyolite.The deeperAnsil mine deposit,whichformed
duringa periodof volcanismandsubsidence, wasfound
later duringthe developmentof the area, and is located
in the northernpart of the Mine Series.The exploita-
tion of the Ansil mine is now complete,and the under-
groundworkings,whichhavebeenback-filled,are now
presumablypartially flooded,rubble-filledcavities.The
total Mine Seriessequencereachesa maximum thick-
nessof about2.5 km and has an easterlydip of 30-50
degrees,resultingin the surfaceexposureof the various
volcanicstrata(Figure2). The Lake Dufault plutonlies
to the southeastof the surfaceexposureof the Mine Se-
riesvolcanicsandis the secondlargestplutonwithin the
NorandaCentralVolcanicComplex;the plutonis inter-
pretedto be a postvolcanicunit that cross-cutsthe lo-
cal stratigraphy.
Numerousdikesandsillsof gabbroand
dioritearefoundwithin thevolcaniccomplex,represent-
ing about20% of the surfacerocks.The westernbound-
ary of the Flavrianpluton at its northernmostexposure
is definedby the Hunter Creekfault, oneof a numberof
faults that trend southwest to northeast across the area.
The Bell River intrusion(Freeman,1939), which un-
derlies the town of Matagami, is one of a number of
mafic-ultramaficlayeredcomplexesfound in the north-
ernmostpart of the Abitibi greenstonebelt (Figure 3).
Associated granophyric rocks have been dated at
2724.64-2.5 Ma using U-Pb methods (Mortensen,
1993b). The Bell River Complex stratigraphicallyun-
derliesa suite of bimodal volcanicrocks;the deepest
volcanicunit, the WatsonLake Group,is largelyfelsic,
andis overlainby the intermediateto mafic rocksof the
WabasseeGroup(Roberts,1975;BeaudryandGaucher,
1986). Rhyolitesof the WatsonLake group have been
shownto have an age similar to that of the Bell River
mafic intrusion,and it hasbeen suggestedthat the Bell
River intrusion representsthe magma chamber from
whichtheoverlyingvolcanicunitswereerupted(Sharpe,
1968; MacGeehan, 1978); however,a more complex
evolution,in which the Bell River units subsequently
intrudethe overlyingvolcanics,hasalsobeenproposed
(Maier et al., 1996). The Bell River Complex,together
with its associatedvolcanics,is consideredto have been
folded into the Galinbe anticline, whose southwestern
flank dipsat around45ø. On thisflank, the WatsonLake
groupcomprisesa daciteunit overlainby rhyolite,and
is separated from the overlyingbasalticWabassee group
by a 1-3 m thick cherty,tuffaceoushorizonknownasthe
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Comparison of 2D seismiclines 167
Key Tuffite(Jenney,1961). SeveralVMS depositshave
been locatedaroundthe southwestern edge of the Bell
River intrusion.Most of the depositsoccurat the strati-
graphiclevelof theKey Tuffitehorizon,andindicatethat
formationof the orebodiesis linked to the underlying
WatsonLake group.MacGeehanet al. (1981) andPichb
et al. (1990) havesuggested that metalsmay havebeen
leachedfrom submarinebasalts,and subsequently pre-
cipitatedat the overlyingsiliceousmffite, with the fluid
circulationdrivenby heatfrom the deeperBell River in-
tinsion.The Bell Allard depositwas locatedby drilling
andboreholeelectromagnetic surveys;it lies at a depth
of 900-1150 rn beneaththe main highwayto the town
of Matagami (Figure 3). With an estimatedsize of over
6 000 000 tonnes,the depositis the largestidentifiedon
the southern flank of the Galinbe anticline.
STRUCTURE OF A VMS DEPOSIT
ArcheanVMS depositsareconsideredto haveformed
in a subaqueous settingin muchthesamewaythatminer-
als areprecipitatedat hydrothermalventson mid-ocean
ridges today.The idealized VMS depositcomprisesa
concordantlensof massivesulfideconsistingof greater
than 60% sulfideminerals(Sangsterand Scott, 1976)
that overliesa stringerzone of vein-typesulfideminer-
alizationcontainedwithin a pipe of hydrothermallyal-
teredrock (Lydon, 1984). The uppercontactof themas-
sivesulfidelensis usuallyextremelysharp,butthelower
contactis usuallygradationalinto the stringerzone. A
single depositmay consistof severalmassivesulfide
lenses,and an examplefrom the Isle Dieu mine in the
Matagamicampis shownin Figure4. The Isle Dieu de-
positconsistsof two lenses,eachof whichoverliestwo or
more stringerzones.The stringerzone is consideredto
representthe conduitthroughwhichmineral-richfluids
circulated,and the sulfidelens itself representsthe ac-
cumulationof sulfidesprecipitatedfrom the fluidsonto
the sea floor aboveand aroundthe dischargevent as
cooleroceanwater was encountered.The sharpupper
contactobservedin manydepositsis presumablylinked
to burial of the depositin a subsequentphaseof volcan-
ism. In many instances,a thin exhalite or tuffite hori-
zon is foundat the samestratigraphic levelasthe sulfide
lenses,extendingawayfromthedepositasa stratigraphic
marker. This sedimentaryhorizon may have been cre-
atedby chemicalprecipitationin the waning stagesof
hydrothermalactivityduringvolcanicquiescence. Many
VMS depositsexperienceddeformationthatalteredtheir
 168 2D seismicimaging of mineral deposits

•: • • ....
•:- • vvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvv
vvvvvvvvvvvvvvv
• v

v•• .... • "• • • .......... -•

vvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvv • ii ß ß ß .. •
ß
_.'-- •11• • • + ¾.•,v •vv
ß•'..'-• +++++++++++
+ + + + + + + + + + + + ++++-
+
+ + + + + + + + +
+ + + + + + + + + + +
+ + + + +
vvvvvvvvvvv
+ + + + +

.....
+ + + + +
+ + + + + +

vvvvvvv

vvvvvvvvvvvvv

vvvvvvvvvvvvvvvv

vvvvvvvvvvvvvvv
v
vvvvvvvv
vvv

vvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvv

vvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvv

vvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvv

...................................... ..... '.-•.•...^•

vv
..........................................
Bell
Al•d•-,-..kOrchan•
vvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvv

vvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvv

vvvvvvvv
vvvvvvvvvvvv

Fault•v•v•vv•vvv•vvv•V•v• Bell Allard South

..

.....v•....•vavõ•!•vevvSvvUv!(ivdvvev,vDvvevpOSit
::v v...... . ..

vvvvvvvvv

........ v.... 2 km ...................... v......

......... •½•½½ 7vVV•vvvvVv••v• ...........
vvvvvv vvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvv
vvvvvvvvvvvvvvv •vvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvv

Wabassee Group Watson Lake Group

//• Bell
River
Complex
v;v•• Basalt
Mafic volcanics(Cavalier) 7::•
ß Rhyolite
Basalt (Allard River unit) Gabbro
dikes +• Olga
Lake
pluton
Basalt
Rhyolite(Dumagamiunit) O Peridotite
Fig. 3. Geologicalmapof theMatagamiminingcamp.High-resolution seismicprofile93-A wasshotalong
the north-southsectionof themainhighwayoverthe southflankof the Galin6eanticline,whichis coredby
theBell Rivermaficintrusion.The Bell AllardVMS depositliesalmostdirectlybeneaththehighway.Gabbro
sills,whichintrudethevolcanicunitsof theWabassee andWatsonLake groups,areexposedacrossthe area.

originalshape.In the caseof theIsle Dieu depositshown Pyrite is the most common sulfide mineral found
in Figure4, the regionaroundthe sulfidelenseswassub- in these sulfide lenses, and is present throughout;
ject to two stagesof postburialintrusion, which were pyrrhotite,chalcopyrite,sphalerite,and galenaare also
responsiblefor the presenceof the tonaliteand gabbro commonlypresent.Concentrations of chalcopyriteand
sills.In fact, thisis the only depositon the southernflank pyrrhotiteareusuallygreatestcloseto thealterationpipe,
of theMatagamistructuresoaffected.As with mostmas- whereassphaleriteand galenatendto be more common
sive sulfide depositsin the Abitibi greenstonebelt, the at largerdistances fromthepipe.As shownby Salisbury
orebodyis locatedat the contactof a bimodal volcanic et al. (1996), all of these minerals exhibit anomalous
sequence.So the top of the WatsonLake rhyoliteshown densityand seismicP-wavevelocityrelativeto the host
in Figure 3 representsthe former seaflooronto which rockstypical of the Abitibi greenstone belt. Excluding
sulfidemineralswereprecipitated. pyrrhotite,whichhasa relativelylow P-wavevelocity,a

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 Comparison of 2D seismiclines 169

+ ++++
+ + +

• •+ ++
+ +

lOO rn + +

+ +
+
+

+++

+ + + + +
BASALT
+

KEY TUFFITE
+ + + +

+ • + + + + + + + + +
RHYOLITE
+ + + + + +

TONALITE
+ + + + + + + + + +
+
+ + GABBRO
+ + + + + + + + + + +

+ + .• MASSIVE SULFIDE
SULFIDE STRINGER

SW NE
Fig. 4. Geologicalcross-section, with no vertical exaggeration,of the Isle Dieu depositlocatedto the
northeastof Bell Allard. With the exceptionof the tonaliticintrusion,this depositis typical of thosefound
on the southernflank of the Bell River complex,being locatedat the contactof the rhyoliticWatsonLake
andbasalticWabassee groups.Massivesulfidelensesarelocatedabovestringers of mineralization thatlikely
representconduitsalongwhichmineral-bearing fluidsonceflowed.

sulfidelenscomposedof a typicalmixture of the other geologicallogsto be madethroughoutthe lengthof the

sulfidemineralswouldhavea greaterP-waveimpedance borehole. The hard rock and small borehole diameter
than most common host rocks in this environment due to also permit accurategeophysicallogs to be recorded.
thepresence
ofpyrite,whichhasa densityof 5.0g/cm3 Boreholesin boththeAnsil andMatagamiminingcamps
andaP-wavevelocity
of8.1kms-1. Thisimpliesthatthe were loggedby the GeologicalSurveyof Canadawith
sharpcontactat thetop of a sulfideorebodywill strongly full waveformsonic,gamma-gammadensityandcaliper
reflectseismicwavesif thebodyis sufficientlylarge.The tools. These logs extendfrom closeto the total depth
more gradationalchangein sulfidegradeat the baseof (TD) of the boreholeto within a few metresof the sur-
a lenswouldtendto reducethe likelihoodof a strongre- face. Thus it is possibleto correlate accuratelysonic
flectionresponse.The actualseismicresponseof an ore- and densitylogswith lithologiclogsderivedfrom core
bodyis stronglydependenton its geometry,in particular descriptions.
itsthicknessandlateralextent,aswell asthefrequencyof BoreholesAN-71 from the Ansil camp and BAS-95-
seismicillumination.In the caseof the 100-200 rn long 41 from the Bell Allard area are presentedin Figures5
depositstypical of the Abitibi belt, the responsecannot and 6, respectively.Both setsof logs show the same
be predictedwithout detailedmodeling(Eaton, 1999). generalcharacter,with major changesin P-waveveloc-
ity anddensitybeingprimarilyassociated with changes
in lithology.The correlationbetweenincreasingmafic
BOREHOLE LOG RESULTS
mineralcontentandhigherP-wavevelocityand density
Unlike oil industry exploration wells, boreholes is well known for silicate rocks, and this seems to be
drilled in hard-rock mining camps are usually small the dominantcontrol on the variationspresentin the
diameter(<7.6 cm) and continuouslycored,allowing geophysicallogs. Exceptionsto this rule are a sharp

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170 2D seismicimaging of mineral deposits

200 1-- 200 --- 200 .--- 200

400 - - 400 --_

400 ..... 400

600 _.•- 600 •---

600 ._•- 600
•_ _

v
E v
E - v
E
800 • = 800 • = 800 • = 800

Tonalite
1000 %. 1000 ---- 1000 1000

1200 Rhyolite
• 1200 1200 1200
1400 •-- - 1400 1400 -- - 1400 Andesite

-- _

1600
Diorite
1600½i"'
....... ' 1600;............................
• --' 1600•,-
....................
-• - - -
2.4 2.8 3.2 5.5 6 6.5 7 15 20 0 5

Density(g/cm3) Velocity(km/s) Impedance Trace Number

Fig. 5. Sonicvelocity,density,and impedancelogsfrom boreholeAN-71 codedby lithology.The borehole

penetratesseveraldioritesillscloseto the surfacein additionto thebimodalandesite-basalt
volcanicstratig-
raphyof theMineSeries
rocks.Theborehole
terminates
withintheup.
perpartof theFlavrian
pluton.The
primaries-onlysyntheticseismogram
was calculatedfrom the logsusingan Ormsbywaveletwith comer
frequencies
of 30,38,75,and105Hz. Impedance
x 10s g/cm2 s.

reductionin velocityanddensityassociated
with a fault
zone intersected at the base of hole AN-71
tions within a massive andesite unit between 1020 m and
1420 m in AN-71. The former is presumablylinked to
the existenceof fractureporositywithin the fault zone,
while the latter is probablyattributableto unidentified
lithologicalvariationwithintheandesite.Fracturingalso
appearsto be presentat less than 400 m depth, caus-
ing somelarge variationsin the logs. There are a few
lithologiesthatdonotshowmajordifferences in physical
propertieswhen comparedwith adjacentunits, mainly
the diorite sills within andesite in AN-71.
contrastis to be expectedsincethe lithologicalcontrast
is an expressionof the intrusiveversusextrusivenature
of the rock rather than its mafic mineral content. Plane-
wave reflectioncoefficientsare generallyin the range
0.05-0.10 for contactswith the mafic sills,andperhaps
Downloaded 26 Jun 2012 to 95.28.162.50. Redistribution subject to SEG license or copyright; Terms of Use: http://segdl.org/
0.03-0.05 for lithologicalvariationsamongthevolcanic
and varia- units.Thus, on the basisof the boreholelogging,and
without any considerationfor nonplanargeometryor
interferingnoise,it wouldbe expectedthatthe mafic in-
trusionswould producethe most visible seismicreflec-
tions, and that most of the contactswithin the bimodal
volcanics would be visible as weaker reflection horizons.
SEISMIC-REFLECTION RESULTS
Seismicline 21-1 was shotacrossthe Ansil mining
This lack of camp in 1991, passingover the Ansil mine workings,
whichareno longeractive.Line 93-A wasshotthrough
the Matagamimining campin 1993, within 100-280 m
of therecentlydiscoveredBell Allard orebodyandprior
to any mine development.The two seismiclines were
acquiredusingsimilarparametersdesignedto optimize
 Comparison of 2D seismiclines 171

...

lOO lOO ...... _

lOO -.• ..... 100
_

200 200 200 200

3OO 300 .... 300 3OO

400 400 .•.--- ,•,400 -:_-

-- •,400

500 500 -- c3 500 ..... c3 500

. .
Rhyolite

6OO 600 .... 600 ..... 600 Felsic Tuff

Felsic Dyke
7OO 700 .... 700 --- 700
Andesite

Gabbro
8OO 800 ...... 800 ....... 800

Diorite Dyke
900 .......................... 900 900 ' 900
Basalt
2.5 3 5 6 7 15 20 0 5
Density
(g/cm
3) VP(km/s) Impedance Trace
Number
Fig. 6. Sonicvelocity,density,and impedancelogsfrom boreholeBAS-95-41codedby lithology.The
boreholeextendsthroughthe gabbrosillsandvolcanicstratigraphyof the Wabasseegroup,andterminates
within the uppermostpart of the rhyoliticWatsonLake group.The primaries-only
syntheticseismogram
wascalculatedfromthe logsusingan Ormsbywaveletwith cornerfrequencies of 25, 30, 100,and 110 Hz.
Impedance
x 105g/cm2 s.

imagingin thehard-rockenvironment.The seismiclines The shearwave was attenuatedby applyinga 15-trace

wererecordedwith a 240-channeltelemetryacquisition medianfilter alongthe sheararrivalin the shotdomain,
systemusing20 m (line 21-1) or 8 m (line 93-A) long and then subtractingthe resultfrom the originaldata.
linear arraysof nine 30-Hz geophones deployedevery Other prestackprocessingstepsincludedzero-phase
20 m. Two vibratorswere deployedin an eight sweep, spikingdeconvolution, two passesof stackingvelocity
20-m sourcearray;thevibrationpointspacingwas20 m. estimationplussurface-consistentresidualstatics,anda
In orderto obtainthe greatestpossibleresolution,but 200-ms automaticgain control (AGC), time-varying,
alsoto eliminateinterferinglow-frequencygroundroll, traceequalization.Becauseof thehighlyheterogeneous
a linear,high-frequency30-140 Hz, 12 s longupsweep natureof the subsurface,reflectionsand diffractionswith
was employed.The recordedvibroseisdatawere corre- conflictingapparentdipsarepresentonthestackedseis-
lated in the field. mic section.Thesearrivalswere imagedby applyinga
Bothline21-1 and93-A arecrookedprofilesandwere log-stretchdip moveout(DMO) correctionin the con-
processed in anidenticalfashionthroughto thefinalpre- stantoffsetdomain,followedby a zero-offsetStolt mi-
stackmigration.Firstbreakswerepickedandarefraction grationusinga constant
velocityof 6200 ms-j, also
staticssolutionderivedusinga generalizedlinearinver- in the constantoffsetdomain.A final velocityanalysis
sion approach.Althoughthe groundroll provedto be wascarriedout after sortingbackto commonmidpoint
negligiblewith the useof the high-frequency vibroseis (CMP) gathersin order to optimize the summationof
sweep,a strongS-wave arrival was usually recorded. the migratedconstantoffsetsections(Figures7 and 8).
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172 2D seismicimaging of mineral deposits

CDP 11oo lO5O lOOO 950 900 850 800 750 700 CDP
0.0
-0

- 5OO
0.25 -

- 1000 ,-

0.50 -
- 1500

- 2000
O.75 -

CDP 1100 1050 1000 950 900 850 800 750 700 CDP
IA•,51 A•.67 I I
-0

,
- 500
0.25

- 1000

0.50
- 1500

0.75
• •(© /
W
..,
I -

E
2000

Granodiorite Rhyolite Diorite Andesite Ansil orebody < 2% Na20

and tonalire Alteration zone

Fig. 7. Seismicsectionfrom line 21-1 over the Mine Seriesvolcanicsat Ansil (as indicatedby the thicker
line in Figure2). (a) Migrated seismicsection.The dataare displayedherewith a 0.3 s AGC. (b) Geological
cross-section derivedfrom boreholedata superimposed on the migratedsectionshownin (a). Synthetic
seismograms calculatedfrom estimatedlogsfor holesAN-51 andAN-67 havebeensplicedinto the section.
The boreholesusedto constrainthe geologicalcross-section are indicatedby verticallines. The deepestunit
is the Flavrianpluton,whichwasintersectedby the deepboreholes.As suggested by the surfacegeology,the
Mine Seriesrockscomprisea stratigraphicsuccession of alternatingrhyoliticand andesiticvolcanicunits,
intrudedby dioriticsills.

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 Comparison of 2D seismiclines 173

s N
SP 3OO 35O 400 450 5OO SP
I I I I
GL

5OO
0.2

1000 Q.

0.4

15oo

0.6
2000

SP 300 35O 400 450 5OO SP

I I I I
GL

Wabassee"
5OO
0.2 i

1000 Q.
Gabbr'-' sills
Lake"
0.4 --

1500
Bell River,
intrusion

0.6 i 1000 m

2000

Fig. 8. Seismicprofile93-A acrossthesouthernflankof theMatagamiminingcamp.(a) Prestackmigration.

(b) Interpretation.The strongestreflectionsvisible are likely associatedwith two gabbrosill complexes
whichconvergejust to the southof the Bell Allard Sulfidedeposit(BAS). The Key Tuffitecontactbetween
the primarilybasalticWabasseegroupandthe felsic WatsonLake groupis denotedby KT. DR marksthe
approximate positionofDumagamirhyolitewithintheWabassee group.Interpretedfaultingis shownin red.
The blue horizonmay be the top of the Bell River gabbro-anorthosite.

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174 2D seismicimaging of mineral deposits

Further details of the prestack migration processing
and detailsof the crooked-linebinning issuesare pre-
sentedin PerronandCalvert (1998). The highly anoma-
lous physical propertiesof massivesulfidessuggests
that sulfidemineral depositsmay be characterizedby
strongreflectionor diffractionamplitudes,which arenot
preservedby the time variantAGC. Thus, for line 93-A
over the Bell Allard deposit,the processingflow was
repeatedwith no AGC, but with a geometricspread-
ing correctionprior to deconvolutionand a whole-trace
equalizationbefore DMO correction(Figure 9). This
hadthe effectof betterpreservingtherelative-amplitude
character of the reflection data (Calvert and Li,
1999).

Bell Allard VMS Deposit

S 320
I 340 3•0 380
I I
400
I
N

- 500•
0.2

Top BAS
1000

Base BAS

1500

S 320 Daniel340 360 Main38O 4OO N

Splay I I Fault I I

500 m

"i,.
'••))p/
"t,).
"•'• •,. ' '•.•,','
..•
•'••,'
....•i)•,•
'•

,•,.t•l•i,•?t•,,m'.•,,,,:,"'•'".•:,..,
':;':'"
4•/,". .. ,

Gabbro Sill

Fig. 9. Prestackmigratedprofile over Bell Allard VMS depositafter relativeamplitudepreservationThe

arrowsin the upperpanel indicatethe reflectionfrom the top of the deposit.The horizontallines mark
the depthrangeof knownsulfidemineralizationestimatedfrom drill core.In the lowerpanel,a simplified
geological
section
through
theBellAllarddeposit
(afterAdamet al., 1997)andthesynthetic
seismogram
calculatedfrom the logsin boreholeBAS-95-41 are superimposed on the seismicdata.Blue, gabbro;green,
basalt;magenta,felsictuff or dike;red,sulfide;yellow,rhyolite;brown,mafic-intermediate dike.

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 Comparison of 2D seismiclines 175

GEOLOGICAL INTERPRETATION contrastbetweenthe competentrock andthe back-filled

cavities.
In a 2D seismicprofile,bothin-planeandout-of-plane
arrivalscan be accuratelyfocusedby prestackmigra- Line 93-A is characterizedby two strongconvergent
reflectivepackageswhichhavean apparentdip towards
tion processing; however,out-of-planereflectionscan
the southend of the line. Analysisof line 29-3, the first
onlybe migratedto their true subsurface positionwhen
seismicprofile shot at Matagami, suggestedthat the
crosslinedata is availableas part of a full 3D survey.
upperof thesetwo reflectivezonescorresponds to litho-
Despitethis limitation,it is possibleto makesomeim-
logical contactsbetweenbasalt, rhyolite, and gabbro
portantinferences aboutsubsurface structurein Abitibi
(Milkereit et al., 1992). The lower reflectionpackage
mining camps.Both lines 21-1 and 93-A are charac-
terizedby a backgroundof shortdiscontinuous reflec- occurswithin the rhyolitic Watson Lake group, and
tion segmentsthat are probablyattributableto coher- is interpretedas gabbrosills, which have occasionally
beenintersectedby boreholesat this stratigraphiclevel.
ent, mainly side-scattered arrivals.Many strong,more
continuousseismicreflectionsare superimposed on this Correlatingthe boreholelithologieswith the seismic
sectionleadsto the lithologicalidentificationsshownin
background, andunderstanding their originin detailre-
Figure 8b. The contactbetweenthe essentiallybasaltic
quirescorrelationof the seismicdatawith theborehole
WabasseeGroup and the largelyrhyoliticWatsonLake
logsandlithologies.
Line 21-1 is orientedin the dip directionof the vol- groupis locatedat the Key Tuffite (indicatedby KT in
Figure 8b), the chertyexhalitehorizon,at which many
canic stratigraphy, as definedby drilling, althoughthe
of the area'sVMS depositsare located.The overlying
top of theFlavrianplutonprobablydipsin a moreeast-
reflections (DR) appear to be associatedwith the
erly direction.Thus a geologicalsectionthroughthe
Mine Seriescanbe superimposed on the seismicsection Dumagamirhyoliteslocatedwithin the lowerWabassee
Group.The gabbrosillsin theupperWabasseegroupare
(Figure7b) with a reasonable degreeof accuracy. There
shallowerthan the strongreflectionsexceptfor the sill
are no laterally continuousreflectionswithin the seis-
mic data at the inferred location of the contacts within intersectedby hole BAS-95-41 at 420 m, which proba-
bly is the shallowestelementof thisreflectionsequence.
thebimodalvolcanicpile. If strongreflectionswerepro-
ducedby contactsin the volcanicstratigraphy, thenthey
Although the amplitudeof the shallowestreflections
would be observedin the seismicprofile betweenCDP couldbe affectedby the lower fold, it appearsthat the
900 and 1000, but no suchreflectionsare observedabove borehole logs poorly predict the relative amplitudes
observedin the field data; the weak reflectionsbetween
0.4 s. The only possiblecandidatefor a reflectionfrom
0.2 s and 0.3 s in the syntheticseismogramare the
sucha boundaryis the set of discontinuous reflections
within theFlavrianandesitejust abovethepluton.These strongest oneson the seismicprofile.In the caseof line
93-A, faulting can be identifiedfrom discontinuitiesin
reflectionspossesstoo small an apparentdip, possibly
the observedreflectionsandis represented in Figure8b.
explainableas geologicaldip out of the plane of the
seismicline, but the reflectionsalso seem to project There appearto be at leasttwo fault systemspresent.
The lower is associatedwith faultingof the underlying
into a diorite sill identifiedin an updip boreholesug-
WatsonLake Groupand,perhaps,the deeperBell River
gestingthat this is the probableexplanationfor these
intrusion,and doesnot appearto penetratefar into the
arrivals.The highestamplitudereflectionsoccurbelow
WabasseeGroup.The upperfaultingis largelyconfined
and to the eastof the geologicalsection,and they dip
to the WabasseeGroup, but probably cuts some of
more shallowlythanthe volcanicstratigraphydeduced
the deeperfaults; however,this is difficult to identify
from drilling.As discussed in moredetailby Perronand
Calvert (1998), many of theseobservedseismicreflec- clearlyon the seismicsectionasbothsetsof reflections
tionscorrelatewith diorite-gabbro sills,andwe inferthat originateoutof the verticalplaneof theprofile.It is also
almost all of the reflections in line 21-1 have this ori- possibleto discerna concentrationof faulting around
SP 350 wherethe Bell Allard orebodyis located.
gin, explainingthe complexcrosscutting relationships
that they exhibit.Becauseof the absenceof reflections
from the volcanicstratigraphyand the complexpattern
SEISMIC IMAGING OF THE
of the sills,we areunableto infer with any certaintythe
BELL ALLARD DEPOSIT
presenceof faulting.Reflectionsareobservedfrom the
locationof the Ansil mine galleries(0.45 s at CDP 900) The Bell Allard depositlies between900 and 1150 m
andarepresumablyattributableto a seismicimpedance deep,and dipsto the southat around50 (Adam et al.,

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176 2D seismicimaging of mineral deposits
1997). Sincethe depositdipsin the directionof the seis-
mic profile and is only 100-280 m from the profile,its
positionwithintheseismicdatacanbelocatedwith some
degreeof accuracy.Figure9a indicatesthe shortreflec-
tion segment,whichis interpretedasbeingfrom thetop
of theBell Allard VMS depositbecauseof itsappropriate
positionand dip. A geologicalsectionthroughthe de-
positis superimposed on the seismicdatain Figure9b.
No time-varyinggain other than geometricspreading
was used in the processingof this displayin order to
showmore clearly any amplitudeanomaly.The lateral
extentof the sulfidedepositis actuallylongerthan the
observedreflection, and the seismicresponseappears
to originatefrom the uppersurfaceof the lower,more
pyrite-richlobe of the orebody,perhapsdueto the very
highdensityandseismicvelocityvaluesassociated with
pyrite (Salisburyet al., 1996). No separatereflection
from the base of the depositcan be clearly identified,
andthismay be indicativeof the gradationalbasalcon-
tact inferredfrom geologicalstudies.
If the interpretedgabbro sills are acceptedas iso-
time markersat the time of emplacement,then the de-
formationof the lower sill complexsuggestsa normal
senseof motion alongthe fault that underliesthe Bell
Allard orebody.This fault, which lies in the Watson
Lake Group couldwell haveprovidedthe conduitnec-
essaryfor mineral-bearingfluids to reach the ancient
seafloor.As a result,the depositionof massivesulfide
mineralsduringthis periodcouldhavebeencontrolled
by fluid flow along this fault and its associatedfrac-
tures,asis commonlyincorporatedinto modelsof VMS
depositformation.The concentrationof faulting inter-
pretedaroundthe Bell Allard sulfidedepositis strongly
indicative of such a link.
CONCLUSIONS
Althoughthereareimportantdifferencesbetweenthe
Ansil and Matagami mining campsin termsof tectonic
history,the general geologicalmodel of formation is
similar in that orebodiesin both campsare locatedat
the contactsofbimodal, subaqueous volcanicsequences
eruptedfrom a magma chamber,which is believedto
be now representedby the underlyingintrusivecom-
plex. The intrusionproducesthe volcanics,andprovides
a sourceof heat to drive the hydrothermalcirculation
responsiblefor depositionof the VMS orebodies.The
intrusionalso is probablythe origin of many of the in-
termediateto mafic sills in the mining camp,because
the associatedreflectionsin the shallowcrestrarely ex-
tend far beyondthe limits of the camp,as indicatedby
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regionalprofiles(Calvert and Ludden, 1999). Sills are
oftenmoremaficthanthe overlyingvolcanics,andusu-
ally cut throughthem, creatingthe relatively smooth,
aerially extensivesurfacesnecessaryto causestrong
seismicreflections.Thus it is likely that most, if not
all, VMS mining campsin the Abitibi greenstonebelt
will be characterizedby strongreflectivityassociated
with sill intrusion.An importantdifferencein the seis-
mic reflectionprofiles from the two campsis the ease
with whichthe contactsof the volcanicstratigraphycan
be imaged.At Ansil, thereis no clearevidenceof seis-
mic reflectionsfrom the andesite-rhyolitecontacts.At
Matagami,however,the basalt-rhyolitecontactswithin
theLowerWabasseegroupgenerateclearseismicreflec-
tions, which are continuousand can be usedto infer the
presenceof faulting in somedetail. We can presentno
clear explanationfor this difference;it may be related
to more rugosecontactsat Ansil, or perhapsthe greater
mafic contentof the volcanicpile at Matagami,which
would tend to imply that the lavasflowedmore readily
creatingmorelaterallyextensivesurfaces.Nevertheless,
it is clear from the comparisonof the two seismiclines
that imaging the contactsof the volcanicstratigraphy
is necessaryto be able to map the synvolcanicfaulting
whichcontrolsorebodyformation.
We alsoidentify in line 93-A a strongseismicreflec-
tion,whichoriginatesfromnearthetop of the6-million-
tonneBell Allard deposit,but notethat its lateralextent
doesnot correlatepreciselywith the known size of the
orebody.The lack of a clearreflectionfrom the baseof
the depositis consistent with geologicalobservations of
a gradationallower contactinto the underlyingsulfide
stringerzones.The Bell Allard deposit,whichoccursat
the top of the WatsonLake group,appearsto be asso-
ciatedwith normalfaultingthat extendsto depthwithin
this unit, and may have providedthe conduitthrough
which hot mineral-rich fluids rose to the ancient sea
floor. Strongseismicreflectionsfrom mafic sillswithin
the mining camp, which are of comparableamplitude
to the reflectionfrom the top of the VMS deposit,are a
majorlimitationon the identificationof sulfidedeposits.
A faultedsegmentof a gabbrosill, 200 rn in length,will
appearvery similarto a massivesulfidedeposit,because
it will alsogeneratea high-amplitudeseismicresponse.
On the basisof the seismicdataaloneit wouldbe very
difficult to discriminatebetweenthe two, althoughthe
correlationof seismicamplitudeanomalieswith faulting
in theunderlingvolcanicunitsmayproveto be of value.
In short, these 2D seismicresults indicate that it is
possibleto imagemassivesulfideorebodies,but distin-
guishingore depositsfrom othershorthigh amplitude
 Comparison of 2D seismiclines 177

reflectors, or scatterers,in the subsurfaceis more diffi- Eaton,D. W., 1999,Weakelasticscatteringfrom massivesulfideore
cult in VMS mining camps.Accuratelylocatingshort, bodies:Geophysics,64, 289-299.
steeplydippingreflectorsin the subsurfacewith a 2D Freeman, B.C., 1939, The Bell River Complex, northwestern
Qu6bec:J.Geology,47, 27-46.
seismicline relieson the line beingorientedin the dip Gibson,H., andWatkinson, D., 1990,Volcanogenic
massivesulphide
direction,but thiswill not in generalbe true. Only a 3D depositsof the Norandacauldronandshieldvolcano,Qu6bec,in
seismicsurveycanensureaccurateandcompletesubsur- Rive,M., etal., Eds.,TheNorthwestern Qu6becPolymetallicBelt:
face imagingin complexgeologicalenvironmentssuch A summaryof 60 yearsof miningexploration:Can.Inst.Min. and
as the Abitibi greenstonebelt. Metall., Spec.Vol., 119-132.
Jenney,C. P., 1961, Geologyand ore depositsof Matagamiarea,
Qu6bec:Econ. Geol., 56, 740-758.
Kennedy,L., 1984, The geologyand geochemistryof the Archean
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Flavrianpluton,Noranda,Qu6bec:Ph.D.thesis,Univ. of Western
Ontario.
Line 21-1 was shot by JRS Exploration Ltd. of
Lydon,J. W., 1984,Volcanogenic massivesulphidedepositsPart 1:
Calgary and line 93-A by Enertec GeophysicalSer- A descriptivemodel: Geosci.Can., 11, 195-202.
vices (Calgary) as part of the Abitibi-GrenvilleLitho- MacGeehan,P.J., 1978,The geochemistry of alteredvolcanicrocks
probetransect.The dataacquisitionwasjointly funded at Matagami,Qu6bec'A geothermal modelfor massivesulphide
by Lithoprobe,the Geological Survey of Canada,the genesis:Can. J. Earth Sci., 15, 551-570.
Minist•re de l'Energie et des Ressourcesdu Quebec MacGeehan,P.J., MacLean, W. H., and Bonenfant,A. J., 1981, Ex-
plorationsignificanceof theemplacement andgenesisof massive
(line 21-1), and NorandaMining and ExplorationInc
sulphidesintheMainZoneattheNoritaMine,Matagami,Qu6bec'
(line 93-A). The boreholelogswere acquiredby AECL Can. Inst. Min. Bull., 74, 59-75.
undercontractto the GeologicalSurveyof Canada.In- Maier,W. D., Barnes,S.-J.,andPellet,T, 1996,Theeconomicsignif-
met kindly made availablestratigraphicsectionsand icanceof the Bell River Complex,Abitibi Subprovince,
Qu6bec:
boreholegeologicallogs from the Mine Series area. Can. J. Earth Sci., 33, 967-980.

ShirleyP61oquin providedmanyof thedetailsof thege- Milkereit,B., et al., 1992,An application

of reflectionseismology
to
mineralexplorationin the Matagamiarea,Abitibi Belt, Qu6bec,
ologicalcross-sectionandmuchhelpfuladvice.Figure3 in Currentresearch,Part C: Geol., Surv.Can., Paper92-1C, 13-
is basedon a guide to the Isle Dieu mine produced 18.
by Noranda. Discussionswith John Ludden, Pierre Mortensen,J. K., 1993a,U-Pb geochronology
of the easternAbitibi
Verpaelst,Larry Matthews,Brian Hoffe, Erick Adam, Subprovince. Part1:Chibougamau-Matagami-Joutel region:Can.
J. Earth Sci., 30, 11-28.
GrantArnold, and PeterKowlaczykwere also of great
--1993b, U-Pb geochronologyof the easternAbitibi Sub-
assistance.The reprocessingof the seismicdata was
province.Part 2: Noranda-KirklandLake area:Can. J. Earth Sci.,
fundedby Lithoprobe,the Natural Scienceand Engi- 30, 29-41.
neeringResearchCouncilof Canada,and CambiorInc. Perron,G., andCalvert,A. J., 1998,Shallow,highresolutionseismic
Lithoprobepublicationnumber1171. imagingat theAnsil miningcampin theAbitibi greenstone belt:
Geophysics,63, 379-391.
Pich6, M., et al., 1990, Les gisementsvolcanog•nesdu camp
REFERENCES minier de Matagami: Structure,stratigraphieet implications
m6tallog6niques,in Rive, M. et al., Eds., The northwestern
Adam, E., et al., 1997, Seismic explorationfor VMS deposits, Qu6becpolymetallicbelt: Can. Inst. Min. andMetallurgy,Spe-
Matagami,Qu6bec,in Gubins,A. G. Ed., Proc. of Exploration cial Volume 43,327-335.
97:4thDecennial
Internat.Conf.on MineralExpl.,Prosp.and Roberts,R. G., 1975,The geologicalsettingof theMattagamiLake
Devel. Assoc. of Can., 433-438. Mine, Qu6bec:A volcanogenic massivesulphidedeposit:Econ.
Beaudry,C., andGaucher,E., 1986,Cartographie
g6ologiquede la Geol., 70, 115-129.
r6gion
deMatagami:
Minist.l•ner.Res.Qu6bec,
report
MB 86- Salisbury,
M., Milkereit,B., andBleeker,W., 1996,Seismicimaging
32. of massivesulfidedeposits:PartI. Rockproperties:Econ.Geol.,
Calvert,A. J., and Li, Y., 1999, Seismicreflectionimagingover a 91, 821-828.
massivesulfidedepositat the Matagamiminingcamp,Qu6bec: Sangster,D. F., and Scott, S. D., 1976, Precambrianstrata-bound,
Geophysics,64, 24-32. massiveCu-Zn-Pbsulphideoresof NorthAmerica,in Wolf, K. H.,
Calvert,A. J.,andLudden,J.N., 1999,Archeancontinental assembly Ed.,Handbookofstratabound andstratiformoredeposits:Elsevier
in the southeastern SuperiorProvinceof Canada:Tectonics,18, SciencePubl. Co., Inc., 6, 130-221.
412-429. Sharpe,J., 1968,Geologyandsulfidedeposits
of theMatagamiarea,
de Rosen-Spence, A., 1976, Stratigraphy,
developmentandpetroge- Abitibi-Eastcounty:Qu6becDept.Nat. Res.,Geol.Rept. 137.
nesisof the centralvolcanicpile, Noranda,Qu6bec:Ph.D. thesis, Spence,C., 1967,The Norandaarea:Can. Inst. Mining, Centennial
Univ. of Toronto. field excursionguidebook.

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 Part V

Downhole SeismicImaging

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Downloaded 26 Jun 2012 to 95.28.162.50. Redistribution subject to SEG license or copyright; Terms of Use: http://segdl.org/

Vertical SeismicProfiling at the Bell Allard
Orebody, Matagami, Qu6bec
Erick naam,
' ' ••' nomas t•onten,
""
ABSTRACT
Twoverticalseismicprofile(VSP) surveyshavebeen
acquiredin the vicinity of a 1-km deep volcanogenic
massive sulfide (VMS) deposit in the Abitibi Sub-
provinceof northwesternQu6bec.The VSP data show
that the averageP-wavevelocityof the top 1 km of the
crust aroundthe orebodyis about 6300 m/s, whereas
S-wave velocities are estimated at about
The agreementbetweenthe averagevelocity derived
from VSP and sonicloggingdata confirmtheir accu-
racy.One VSP surveyintersectedmassivesulfidesand
recordedstrongP-wavesand convertedS-wavesscat-
tered from the ore deposit.The secondVSP survey,lo-
catedabout200 m to thenortheastof thedeposit,imaged
a basalt/rhyolitecontact;however,no prominentscat-
tered events from the ore zone were observed. Seismic
modelingshowsthattheVMS depositsof theMatagami
miningcampgeneratestrongscatteredP- andconverted
S-waves.However,theamplitudesdecrease rapidlywith
distanceandexhibitstrongvariationswith offsetandaz-
imuth.For orebodieswith complexshapes,the optimum
shot locationdependson the depth,dip, and strike of
the targetaswell asthe receiverlocation.Largeoffsets
betweenshotsand downholereceiversmay be neces-
saryto imagesuchcomplex,moderatelydippingVMS
deposits.
INTRODUCTION
An early applicationof VSP was to convertseismic
time to depth,to supportinterpretationof surfaceseis-
mic data (Hardage, 1985). VSP applicationsare now
quite diverse;for example,VSP techniqueshave been
usedfor imagingin areaswhereaccessfor surfaceseis-
mic surveysis restricted(GrasandCraven,1998), or to
map fault zonesin hardrockenvironments(Cosmaand
Heikkinen, 1996). Since1990,severalseismic-reflection
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Chapter 12
and Bernd Milkereit
studieshavetakenplacein thezinc-producing Matagami
miningcampof northwestern Qu6bec.The firstseismic
experiment(Adam et al., 1998) demonstrated that seis-
mic methodscould effectivelymap the deep volcanic
stratigraphy.Basedon theseresults,the GeologicalSur-
vey of CanadaandNorandaInc. decidedto investigate
the use of seismic-reflectionmethodsto locate deep
3600 m/s. massivesulfide bodiesdirectly.The discoveryof Bell
Allard, a 6-Mt depositat a depthof 1 km, providedthe
researchgroupwith an ideal targetfor testingseismic-
reflectionmethodsas a tool for deepexploration.Petro-
physicallaboratorymeasurements of commonsulfides
by Salisburyet al. (1996) demonstrated theirhighacous-
tic impedances.Similarmeasurements in the Matagami
mining camp confirmedthat the Bell Allard deposit
wouldcausestrongreflections(Adam et al., 1996)if the
geometrywasappropriate.The acquisitionof a 2D seis-
mic profile directly abovethe known deposit(Calvert
and Li, 1999) revealedan anomalybelievedto origi-
natefrom the sulfides.Becausethe complexgeologyin
thearea(faulting,moderatedip,maficintrusions)might
generateout-of-planereflections,it was decidedto use
a VSP surveyto confirmthe reflectivityof the orebody.
The VSP techniquehasthe uniqueadvantageof pro-
viding a direct link betweengeologicalfeaturesinter-
sectedby a boreholeand seismicdata. One VSP was
acquiredin a boreholethat penetratedthe easternpart
of the orebody (BAS-94-33f), whereasa secondwas
conductedabout200 rn away from the ore zone (BAS-
92-25). In theMatagamiminingcamp,mostoredeposits
are associatedwith an exhalitehorizon called the Key
Tuffite.The initial objectiveof the surveywas to com-
pare the reflectivity of the mineralizedzone with the
barren Key Tuffite. This objectivewas never met be-
causeboreholeBAS-92-25 wasblockedabovethe target
horizon.
This chapterpresentsan overview of the orebody
geologyand aspectsof the VSP data acquisitionand
181
182 Downhole seismicimaging

processingat Bell Allard. A first-orderinterpretation GEOLOGICAL SETTING

of the VSP data reveals the velocity structureof the
volcanicrocksfoundat Matagami. The processedVSP
section,togetherwith numericalmodelingof the orede-
posit,confirmeditshighreflectivityandprovidesinsight
into the use of VSP surveysas a mineral exploration
tool.
Bell Allard is typical of the VMS deposit in the
Matagami camp. It is locatedalong the Key Tuffite at
the Watson Lake (rhyolite/rhyodacite)-Wabassee
(basalt/andesite)interfaceatop a synvolcanicfracture
zone(Figure 1a). The depositis boundedto the southby

a)

ß-•' •Fersoveranc:
-.. •

Orchan

rchan•
' iNoranda,•
©Chibo
'••--••
BellOrchan
Allard
B•
e.,,: ßeVal
d,O•.•
I:\•L • Toronto
•ntreal
South I'•--..._ -•'- '

_ 3•)00 •
metres . 0 50km

.....
,•Oabbro • Perifiotite •' Previous
producer
•
• Dumagaml
Rhyollte
Wabaasee
Basalt Diabase I-I Producing
Mine
• Watson
Lake
Rhyolite • Key
Tuffire
Interface [] Development
Project
["''iBell
River
['-.] Granite
Complex 11r Undeveloped
Deposit

b) A A' _1•___
._ • Gabbro
Surface _ FelsicDyke
•- .. • ............ T-•--?'?'?:'?!•
'?''-'"'7'•.'.•'•'.•'•'.•'-•'?
.'..:'.'-.'.
'' • Mafic
and

ß •'"'•''. •/ '
,I,' . ;,• ' • ;.
• •.......
/ --'r•-•-•
/ Faultl
•
• Wabassee intermedi
Dyke
Formation

Tuffite
-500m " '.......
•i' ." i ' . / i / i •:•-•]Upper
Rhyolite
%% ..' ."' //. / ' -..... , •' •_.'--4•--
......L__.1000m
.........
] Watson
Lake
"," . / / l......... :' ' .. ß i
/ • ' ' .....
' ' ß • • Sulfides
D //,
Splay•
- x
/._•'•__
,,
_/'"_l_
•:', i
..,,,'
,,•.'.
't':' B r•er. ' i/
:. a I'..'
! . .._:Stringer
i
Zone
X :t• ' ,i" i Daniel
• .' ...... i i "' "Alteration
Zone
-1000m' , '-'•/;i Splay•,,'.""' io 500m
000m
•.i Ishikawa
>90%
'N-__L
...........................................
::-:::,_
.........................................
j ...............
.............
Fig. 1. (a) Geologyandmineraldepositsof theMatagamicamp.(b) VerticalsectionthroughtheBell Allard
depositshowingthe main geologicalstructuresfoundin its vicinity.

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 VSP at the Bell Allard orebody 183

theBorderFault,a synvolcanic fault systemoriented95ø attachedto a 1200 rn long, seven-conductor, steel-

relative to north (Figure lb). The orebodyconsistsof
two lenses,andis approximately370-m long and 165-m
wide down dip along the Key Tuffite, with an overall
east-westorientationin plan. Note that the orebodyis
not orientedin the samedirectionasthe regionalstrike.
The northlensis composed primarilyof high-gradeZn-
rich massivesulfides(i.e., sphalerite)while the southern
lensis of lowergradeandcomprises,in part, alteration
zone mineralization. The sulfide mineralization
of pyrite, Fe-rich sphalerite,minor chalcopyriteand
pyrrhotite.The thicknessaveragesabout30 m, but can
range up to 60 rn in portionsof the southlens. The
depositdips50øto 55øtowardthe southbetweendepths
of 900 and 1150 rn below the surface. A total resource
in excessof 6 Mt makesBell Allard the secondlargest
depositdiscoveredin the Matagamimining camp.
DATA ACQUISITION
The VSP shothole was located in an area of thick
(•40 m) glacial overburden.The sourceconsistedof
227 g pentoliteboosters
pushedabout0.3 m intotheclays
at the bottomof water-filledpits,providinggoodsource
coupling.The downholereceiverunit consistedof three
orthogonal14-Hz geophones anda wall-lockingdevice,
armoredcable.Three geophonegroupswere placedin
the vicinity of the boreholecollar and datacollectedat
these locations were used to correct for shot statics. The
samplingrate was set at 0.1 ms and the recordlength
was 0.5 s for BAS-94-33f and 0.6 s for BAS-92-25.
The borehole collar locations and traces for BAS-94-
33fand BAS-92-25 in relationto the orebodyare shown
in plan view in Figure2a andprojectedon an east-west
consists sectionin Figure 2b. The shotholelocationsused for
both VSP surveysare shownin Figure2a. In borehole
BAS-94-33fwhich intersected the deposit,a total of 154
recordingswere made at variousreceiverintervalsto a
depthof 1075 m. A receiverspacingof 10 rn was used
for the upper 808 m, 5 rn in the 808- to 908-m- depth
range,and2.5 rn from 908 to 1075rn depth.In borehole
BAS-92-25, the receiverspacingwas 10 rn between113
and 465- and 5 rn from 465 to 850 m. The 5-m receiver
spacingwas chosento obtain a high-resolutionimage
of the Key Tuffiteandthe orebody,whereasrecordings
usingthe smallreceiverspacing(2.5 m) at thebottomof
hole BAS-94-33f were necessarybecauseof the strong
electricalnoise.A blockagein BAS-92-25 at 850 rn pre-
venteddatacollectionat the Key Tuffitelevel (1021 m).
In addition,a syntheticVSP was calculatedfor bore-
hole BAS-90-22a located 700 rn to the southeast of the
deposit.

(b) BAS-9J-25BAS-•
?2a -94-33f

55O9000
NORTH
BAS-92-25
5508800
BELL ALLARD

5•o8•oo

Blockage
Shothole
BAS-92-25
5508400 BAS-94-33f

BELL ALLARD
5508200 Shothole
BAS-94-33f

--• EAST
5508OO0

BAS-90-22a
t i i i i

302600 302800 303000 303200 303400 303600 303800 302800 303000 303200 303400 303600 303800
UTM eastrag(m) UTM easting(m)

Fig. 2. (a) Locationmapshowingtheboreholesin whichVSP datawereacquiredor modeled.The outline

of theBell Allarddepositis indicated.(b) East-westsection,showingthedepthof Bell Allardandthetraces
of the boreholes.

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184 Downhole seismicimaging
DATA PROCESSING
The moststrikingfeatureof the MatagamiVSP data,
when comparedto similar surveysdonein sedimentary
basins,is the low amplitudeof the reflections.This is
largely due to the small reflectioncoefficientsbetween
the lithologicalcontacts.For thisreason,greatcaremust
be taken during data processingto preservethe weak
upgoingwavefield.Someof the processingchallenges
thatwereencountered includedthe eliminationof strong
electricalnoiseandremovalof thedominantdowngoing
energy.Tracesrecordedat the bottom of the borehole
wereparticularlyaffectedby 60 Hz anditsharmonics(up
to 660 Hz) from high-voltagepowerlinesand a nearby
transformerstation.The noiselevelwassohigh thatthe
first breaks could not be identified. Such noise cannot
be effectivelyremovedwith a conventionalnotchfilter
becauseof its high amplitudeandthe low Fast-Fourier-
Transformresolution(2 Hz), whichresultin leakageover
a large frequencyband (•20 Hz). To preventthe loss
of wide frequencybands,less destructiveapproaches
(Nyman andGaiser,1983) wereappliedto theVSP data.
The bandwidthof the signalwas determinedthrougha
seriesof band-limitedsectionsandtheoptimumseismic
image was obtainedby using frequenciesbetween30
and 180 Hz. Some of the filtered traces showed minor
delayson boththe surfacegeophones
andthe borehole
receivers.
To correctfor the shotdelay,first breaksrecordedat
the surfacegeophoneswere used to estimatethe shot
statics,which were then appliedto the downholedata.
StrongdowngoingP- and S-waves,which partly mask
upcomingevents,weresuppressed usinga medianfilter
(Hardage, 1985). Also testedweref-k filters, but they
were not as effectiveas a medianfilter in removingthe
downgoingwaves.After subtractionof the downgoing
waves,the upcomingwavefield is revealedand reflec-
tionscanbe clearlyidentified.A 30-180-Hz band-pass
filterandtraceenergybalancingbasedon theamplitude
of thedirectP- andS-wavearrivalswereappliedpriorto
theremovalof thedirectwaves.Hence,reflectionampli-
tudescanbe considered astrue amplitudes with respect
to the direct waves.
INTERPRETATION
The datacollectedat Bell Allard werefirstanalyzedto
obtaina P- and S-wavevelocitymodel.Processed data
from boreholeBAS-94-33f confirmthe reflectivityof
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massivesulfides,while the final processedVSP section
from BAS-92-25 showsonly a weak reflectionfrom a
basalt/rhyolitecontact.
Seismic-Wave Velocities
Velocityinformationis criticalfor the processing
of
surface seismic data. Velocities derived from a VSP
surveyare more usefulthan loggingor laboratoryde-
rived velocitiessincethey use the same sourcetypes
andhavethe samefrequencybandwidthassurfaceseis-
mic experiments. When plottedagainsttraveldistance,
P- andS-wavefirstbreaktimesshowa linearrelationship
(Figure 3). The linearregressionof the firstbreaktimes
yielded a P-wavevelocity of about 6300 m/s and an
S-wavevelocityof about3600 m/s. For boreholeBAS-
94-33f, the staticshift causedby the thick overburden
was estimated at 21 ms from both the P- and S-wave
data.Thisvalueis in goodagreementwith therefraction
staticsolutionobtainedfrom the analysisof the 3D sur-
faceseismicdatain thevicinity of the shot(Adam et al.,
thisvolume).The goodfit betweenthe linearregression
results(solid lines in Figure 3) and the first breakdata
(dots)showsthat the velocitiesare approximatelycon-
stantin the upper 1 km of the crust.
Full-waveform sonic data were collected in borehole
BAS-94-33fbetween47 and 1000m wirelinedepthus-
ing a 0.1 m spacing.Full-waveformsoniclogstypically
measurethe velocity within about 1 m of the borehole
(Ellis, 1987), whereasthe velocitiesderivedfrom an off-
setVSP surveyrepresentvelocity changesbetweenthe
shotandreceiverlocations.Nonetheless,a linearregres-
sionperformedon the cumulativesonictraveltimecurve
produceda velocityonly0.1% lower(6310 m/s) thanthe
averageVSP velocity,thusconfirmingthe accuracyof
the in-situvelocitymeasurements. The goodagreement
betweenthe VSP andthe averagesonicvelocitiesin the
twoboreholessuggests thatthelateralandverticalveloc-
ity variationswithin the Wabasseegroupare relatively
small.To comparethe full waveformsonicloggingve-
locities and the VSP data, the VSP velocities have been
derivedasa functionof depthusinga linearregression of
thefirstbreaktimesfrom a 15pointslidingwindow.The
sonicvelocities(grey line) areplottedtogetherwith the
VSP velocities(blackline) in Figure4. While thetwove-
locity estimatesarein agreementin the top 500 m, there
is a largerdiscrepancy at greaterdepths.Suchdiscrep-
ancieswere anticipatedgiventhe largesource/borehole
collar offset(•200 m) and the 45ø stratigraphicdip in
the surveyarea.
 VSP at the Bell Allard orebody 185

0.35

0.3

0.25
BAS-94-33f BAS-92-25
S-wave = 3621 m/s S-wave = 3489 m/s

Intercept- 21.0 ms Intercept= 3.3 ms

0.2

0.15

BAS-94-33f
P-wave = 6318 m/s
0.1
Intercept= 21.0 ms

BAS-92-25
0.05
P-wave = 6314 m/s
Intercept= 11.5 ms

0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200

Shot-receiverdistance(m)

Fig. 3. VSP P- and S-wavefirst-breakanalyses.The solidlinesshowthe linearregressionresultscomputed

from the first breakpicks (dots).

Modeling the Scattering Responsefrom Bell Allard
To understandthe seismicresponsefrom the Bell
Allard orebody,a simplenumericalmodelwasbuilt from
a set of geologicalcross-sections
throughthe deposit.
The surfaceof the orebodywas interpolatedontoa reg-
ular 5-m grid. It was assumedthat the orebodycan be
representedas an isolatedscattererembeddedin a ho-
mogeneouscrest with a P-wave velocity of 6300 m/s,
an S-wavevelocity of 3600 m/s (corresponding to the
averagedvelocitiesof the direct waves,and a density
of 2700kg/m3. BellAllarditselfwasassumed
to be a
homogeneous inclusion,consistingof sphalerite,which
has a P-wave velocity of approximately5500 m/s, an
S-wavevelocity of 2750 m/s and a relativelyhigh den-
sityof 4300kg/m3.
Syntheticsurveysusing the samegeometriesas the
field experimentswere simulatedby two differentmod-
eling programs:the fast program BMOD3D (Eaton,
1997),whichis basedontheBornapproximation(Eaton,
1999), and the more accurate, but computationally
expensive, 3D finite-difference (FD) method (see
Bohlen et al., this volume). Becauseof its efficiency,
we used BMOD3D to computethe P-wave scattering
responsewhen evaluatingdifferentacquisitiongeome-
tries with a large number of shot-receiverconfigura-
tions. The FD method was used for a direct compari-
sonof the syntheticandmeasuredscatteringresponsein
the nearfield(BAS-94-33f) and farfield (BAS-92-25).
The sourcewavelet used in the FD computationshas
a dominant frequencyof approximately50 Hz, and
was derived by averagingthe wavelets of the direct
P-waves.
Borehole BAS-94-33f
A direct comparisonof the vertical components
recordedin BAS-94-33f (Figure 5a) with the corre-
sponding3D FD seismograms(Figure 5b) allows the
first reliable identificationof strongreflectionevents
from the Bell Allard orebody(Figure5a).Thefirstevent
is a backwardscatteredP-wave which has an apparent

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186 Downhole seismicimaging

velocity of about 6300 m/s correspondingto the

crystallinebackgroundvelocity.The secondeventis a
lOO convertedS-wavepropagatingwith an apparentvelocity
of-,•3600 m/s, i.e., the backgroundS-velocity.The
200 convertedS-wave is mainly polarized in a plane or-
thogonalto thePP reflection.The PS andPP reflections
3oo
are both recordedby the vertical componentbecause
of the complexgeometryof the orebody.Figure 5c
showsthat the syntheticamplitudesdecreaseabruptly
400
in the nearfield of the ore (depth 950-1000 m) and
thendecrease upwardas 1/distance,dueto geometrical
500
spreadingof the scatteredwavefield.

600
Borehole BAS-92-25

7OO
The final processedsectionfor boreholeBAS-92-25
(Figure6a) showsone weak reflectionthat projectsto
a depthof about900 m. This eventis indicatedby the
800
symbolRB in Figure6a. This reflectioncorrelates with
a 40-m thick rhyolitehorizon in contactwith basalts;
900
rhyolite/basalt
contactsareknownto be reflectivein this
mining camp (Adam et al., 1998). The FD synthetic
5000 5500 6000 6500 7000 7500 response fromBell Allard is displayedin Figure6b.Ob-
Velocity(m/s)
viouslythe scatteringresponsefrom Bell Allard was
not detected in this borehole. The maximum absolute
Fig.4. Comparison of VSPintervalvelocities (solidline)
to full-waveformsonicvelocities(greyline) in borehole amplitudesof the syntheticresponse(Figure 6c) are
BAS-94-33f. much weaker (•16 times) than thoseencounteredin

Time (s) Time [s]

Max. amplitude
i

a) b) c)
Fig. 5. (a) FinalprocessedVSP sectionfromboreholeBAS-94-33f.(b) Tracenormalized synthetic
VSP
of Bell Allard calculatedusinga finite-difference
(FD) method.(c) Tracemaximumabsoluteamplitude
valuesof(b). Thescattered PP-andPS-waves canbeidentifiedclearlyin themeasured
seismograms.
Large
amplitudes areexpected in thenearfieldof theoredeposit, buttheyaremuchsmallerandrapidlydecay
above the ore zone.

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Time (s)
Fig. 6. (a) Final processed
VSP sectionfrom boreholeBAS-92-25. (b) SyntheticVSP calculatedusingan
FD methodandnormalizedusingthe maximumtraceamplitudes.(c) Tracemaximumabsoluteamplitude
valuesof (b). Dueto geometrical
Spreading,amplitudes
200 m awayfromtheorearemuchweakerthanthose
observeddirectlyabovethe ore in BAS-94-33f.
BAS-94-33f. This is partly due to geometricalspread-
ing effects.In addition,shapeand compositioneffects
may significantlydecreasethe scatteringresponsefor
this azimuth.Therefore,it appearsunlikelythat a strong
responsefrom the depositcouldbe recordedin thishole
given the weak amplitudesof the syntheticresponse.
Bohlenet al. (thisvolume)andEaton(1999) haveshown
that a dippinglenstendsto scatterenergypreferentially
downdip.Consequently, the observedresponsefrom a
dippinglens is strongerif the receiversare positioned
in the downdipdirectioninsteadof updip,asin the case
of the VSP in BAS-92-25. Other VSP geometrieswith
differentazimuthalcoverages maybe morefavorablefor
imagingmassivesulfides.Generally,theregionaldipand
strike of an orebodyneedto be consideredin both the
modelingand surveydesignfor a VSP survey.
OPTIMIZING THE SHOT POSITION
In the previoussections,the modelingand field re-
sultsfrom two VSPs acquiredin the vicinity of the Bell
Allard deposithavebeenshown.SinceoneVSP recorded
a scatteringresponsefrom Bell Allard, we have an in-
dicationof the detectionlimit of VSP surveys.Clearly,
the amplitudesrecordedin boreholeBAS-94-33f were
strongenoughto allow the detectionof the orebody,
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VSP at the Bell Allard orebody 187
Maximumamplitude
Time [s]
I I
__•
b) c)
while those recorded in borehole BAS-92-25 were too
low. The goodagreementbetweenthe field data andthe
syntheticseismicsection(Figure 5) confirmsthat the
numericalmodel, even if it is simplistic,is sufficient
to explainthe recordedwavefieldin the vicinity of Bell
Allard. The absenceof a responsefromBell Allard in the
VSP from hole BAS-92-25 raisesa questionaboutthe
optimumshotlocationto illuminatethe ore deposit:If
the sourcehasbeenplacedin a differentlocation,would
Bell Allard have been detected in that borehole? To bet-
ter understandthe seismicresponsefrom Bell Allard,
severaldifferent VSP geometrieshave been simulated.
A totalof 441shots
onan8-km2 gridhavebeenmod-
eledusingBMOD3D (Eaton,1997).The syntheticseis-
mic responses
containonly the P-wavereflectionsfrom
Bell Allard without direct P- and S-waves. A downhole
receiver spacingof 10 m has been used. Actual bore-
holes geometriesand locationshave been used in the
simulationsto facilitatefollow-upVSP studiesand cal-
ibrationof the modelingresults.
Sincethe ability of VSP techniquesto detecta scat-
terer stronglydependson the amplitudeof the seismic
response,VSP modelingresultsaresummarizedby their
maximumabsoluteamplitudes.Figure7 showsthe sur-
vey geometryin plan view and the modelingresultsin
terms of the maximum absoluteamplitudesof the full
VSP sectionsas a functionof the shotposition(stars
188 Downhole seismicimaging

a) 5511000
30

* * gel ß 1, •* * * * * * * *
5510000 25

BA'-92-2 * * * * * * * * *
'•5509000
20 •

5508000
8ho ole * * * * * * * * * *
. ß ß . ß ß ß ß ß ß ß ß

5507000

5506000 10 •,

5505000

5504000

300000 302000 304000 306000

UTM easting(m)

b) 5511000

5510000 - 8

,•5509000 . . . . . . . . . - • BeliAllard
. . . . . -

5508000 Sho '* * * * * * * * * * •

5507000

5506000

5505000

5504000

300000 302000 304000 306000

UTM easting(m)

Fig. 7. (a) Maximum absoluteamplitudesof forwardand backscattered

wavesversusshot locationfor
simulated
synthetic
VSP surveys
in borehole
BAS-92-25.Thestrongest
amplitudes
arerecorded
for a shot
locationdowndipfrom the orebody(southeast).
The receiverlocationsare indicatedby the white line, the
orebody
inwhite,andtheshotpoints
bystars.
(b) Maximumabsolute
amplitudes
of up.going
(backscattered)
P-wavesversusshotlocationfor syntheticVSP surveysin boreholeBAS-92-25.Note differencein amplitude
scales;forwardscatteredwaveshavemuchgreateramplitudes.

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 VSP at the Bell Allard orebody 189

36

24

12 ..............................................................

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5
200 500 700 900 1100 1300 200 500 700 900 1100 1300 200 500 700 900 1100 1300

Depth(m) Depth(m) Depth (m)

Fig. 8. (a) Syntheticresponse ofa VSP in boreholeBAS-92-25with theshotlocatedsoutheast ofthe borehole

where the absoluteamplitudeof the upgoing(backscattered) reflectionfrom Bell Allard is maximized.
(b) Syntheticresponse of a VSP withtheshotlocatednortheastof theboreholewheretheabsolute amplitude
ofthedowngoing (forwardscattered) reflection
fromBellAllardismaximized.(c) Syntheticupgoing response
of the actualVSP survey(calculatedat starnearestthe shothole).

in Figure7a) as recordedby the receiversplacedalong significantlyreduced('-,50%) for backscattered

boreholeBAS-92-25. Figure 7a showsthat the highest
amplitudesare expectedfrom a shotplacedabout1 km
to the southeastof the orebody.Figure8b showsa syn-
thetic VSP sectionmodeledusing a shotpointlocated
in thisregion.In this case,the strongestamplitudesare
expectedfor downgoing(forward)scatteredP-wavesbe-
low Bell Allard. Theseeventsare asymptoticto the di-
rect P-wavearrivals,and it may thereforebe difficultto
distinguishthe two wavetypeson actualVSP sections.
Furthermore,downgoingwaves can only be recorded
at depthsbelow the target and their identificationre-
quiresa boreholedeeperthan the target.On the other
hand,the upgoingseismicenergyscatteredtowardsthe
surfacewill dip in the oppositedirectionto the directP-
wave arrivals on VSP sections,and thus, the two events
can easilybe identified.Performingthe sameanalysis
aspresentedin Figure7a, but with upgoingreflections,
reveals that the shot location that maximizes
scatteredseismicenergyis different(Figure 7b). The
shot locationthat optimizesthe upgoing seismicen-
ergy is about500 rn north of Bell Allard. Whereasthe
offsetbetweenthe optimumsourceand the targetis
waves,
the amplitudesof the wavesscatteredupwardsare 60%
lessthan thosescattereddownwards.For comparison,
themodelingresultsfor theupgoingwavefieldusingthe
actualshotlocationare shownin Figure 8c. While the
amplitudesare slightlyweakerthanthosepredictedfor
the shotlocationthat maximizesthe amplitudesof the
upgoingP-waves(Figure8a),theyaresignificantlylower
thanthe maximumamplitudesof the downgoingwaves
(Figure 8b).
This studyshowsthattheshotlocationusedto acquire
theVSP datain boreholeBAS-92-25 wasnotoptimalfor
imagingBell Allard. It alsoshowsthat upgoingreflec-
tions,if they were strongenoughto be observedabove
ambientnoiselevels,shouldhavebeenrecordedby re-
ceiverslocatedin the upper900 rn of the borehole.No
such events were identified in the actual dataset. Whereas
strongdowngoingscatteredP-wavescould have been
the back- generatedusinga shotplaced 1 km to the southeastof
Bell Allard, the proximityof the forwardscatteredwave
to the downgoingP-wavemay havepreventedits identi-
fication.This hypothesis cannotbe easilyverified,how-
ever,becausethisboreholeisblockedata depthof 850m.

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190 Downhole seismicimaging
THE ROLE OF VSP TECHNOLOGY AS A
MINERAL EXPLORATION TOOL
Seismic-reflectionmethodsare suitedfor deepmin-
eral explorationbecauseof their high resolutionand
depthpenetrationcomparedto standardelectromagnetic
methods.Currently,in the Abitibi belt, the mineral ex-
plorationindustryrelies heavily on boreholeelectro-
magnetic(BHEM) methods(BoivinandLambert,1997)
to locate orebodies within a 150 rn distance around a
borehole.As the explorationdepth increases,the cost
of boreholesalsoincreases.Enlargingthe radiusof de-
tectionof ore depositsarounda boreholecouldreduce
explorationcostsand the time requiredto locatenew
ore reserves. Because the attenuation of seismic waves
in the hardrockenvironmentis unusuallylow,VSP tech-
nologypotentiallyhasa largerradiusof detectionthan
conventional BHEM if thetargethasa sufficientacoustic
impedancecontrastwith the countryrock.To determine
the detectionradius,a modelingstudysimilarto the one
performedin boreholeBAS-92-25 hasbeenundertaken
usingboreholeBAS-90-22a located700 rn to the south-
eastof Bell Allard (Figure2). If a VSP surveyconducted
in this boreholecould locate an orebodysuchas Bell
Allard, VSP couldbecomea valuableexplorationtool.
The receiversusedin the modelingstudywere placed
at 10-m intervalsbetweenwireline depthsof 100 and
1250 m. Figure9a showsthe maximumabsoluteampli-
tudesof the syntheticmodelingresultsfor the sameshot
locationusedin Figures7a andb andthesamenumerical
model for Bell Allard. Figure 9b showsthe maximum
absoluteamplitudesof theupgoingreflectionsfromBell
Allard. With thisgeometry,theoptimumshotpositionis
about 3 km southwest of Bell Allard and from the bore-
holecollar(Figure9). It is interestingto notethatevenif
the boreholewere 700 rn from Bell Allard, the maximum
absoluteamplitudewould be expectedto be only 50%
larger than that obtainedfrom the optimum geometry
usingboreholeBAS-92-25, which is only 200 rn from
the orebody.
Theseresultssuggestthat in the caseof an orebody
suchas Bell Allard the optimal shotlocationmay be as
far as 3 km from the targetto maximizethe seismicre-
sponseamplitude.Orebodieswith complexshapesuch
as Bell Allard can causestrongvariationsof the scat-
tered amplitudeswith offset and azimuth (see Clarke
and Eaton, this volume, and Bohlen et al., this volume).
Thus,the optimumshotlocationvariesas a functionof
the receiverlocationand is difficult to predictwithout
the useof forwardmodeling.
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DISCUSSION
The modelingresultsfrom a small numberof bore-
holesindicatethatto assess theazimuthalrangeof scat-
tering in VSP measurementsat Bell Allard requires
source/targetdistancesas high as 3 km. Such large
source/target offsetsarerequiredbecauseof the moder-
atedip (50 to 55ø) andthe depthof the orebody,whereas
the azimuthalvariationsare causedby the obliquityof
the targetto the shot.In regionswherethe hostrocksare
acousticallyhomogeneous, usinglarge source-receiver
offsetsmay facilitatedataprocessingby enhancingthe
signal-to-noise ratio:directwaveswill havereducedam-
plitudeswhereastheorebodyresponsewill beenhanced.
But, if the host geologyis too complexand reflective
suchas in the vicinity of the Bell Allard orebody,then
attenuationand scatteringof seismicwavesthat occurs
at reflectiveboundariesover large distancemay effec-
tivelymaskthe orebodyreflection.Our modelingstudy
suggests that a strongerback scatteredP-wavemay be
detectedin boreholeBAS-90-22a, located700 rn away
fromBell Allard, thancanbe expectedin boreholeBAS-
92-25, locatedonly 200 rn from the deposit(Figure 10b
andc). Our modeldoesnot includescatteringandatten-
uation that is likely to occurin the rocks found in the
vicinity of the Bell Allard deposit;however,a more re-
alisticmodel is not requiredherebecausethe synthetic
upgoingP-wavesin boreholesBAS-90-22a and BAS-
92-25 are much weaker than those modeled for BAS-
94-33f (Figure 10a). Becauseof the weak amplitudeof
the syntheticVSP fromboreholeBAS-90-22aandBAS-
92-25 andthe barelydetectablereflectionfrom the Bell
Allard orebodyin theVSP sectionof boreholeBAS-94-
33f (Figure 5a), VSP technologyis not recommended
as an explorationtool in the Matagami mining camp.
However,VSP technologymay be more appropriatein
miningcampswherethehoststratigraphy is acoustically
homogeneous and the orebodiesproducestrongreflec-
tions (i.e., where a large acousticimpedancecontrast
existsbetweenthe targetand its hostrock). Orebodies
containinglarge amountsof high acousticimpedance
mineralssuchaspyriteandmagnetiteare likely to gen-
erate strongreflections(Salisburyet al., 1996; Adam
et al., 1996) andcouldbe moreeasilydetectedthanthe
sphalerite-richdepositsof the Matagamimining camp.
In addition,if assumptions regardingthe dip, strike,and
depthof the targetcanbe made,thena simplemodeling
study,such as that presentedhere, can help in deter-
mining the optimumsurveydesignand facilitatethe
direct detectionof an orebody.In other cases,where
 VSP at the Bell Allard orebody 191

a) 14
5511000 -

5510000 12

5509000

5508000

507000

5506000

5505000

5504000

300000 302000 304000 306000

UTM easting(m)

b)
5511000

12

•'5509000

5508000

5507000

5506000

5505000

5504000

300000 302000 304000 306000

UTM easting(m)

Fig. 9. (a) Maximum absoluteamplitudesof upgoingand downgoingscatteredP-wavescalculatedfor

boreholeBAS-90-22a.The receiverlocationsareindicatedby thewhiteline, the orebodyin white,andthe
shotpoint locationsaremarkedwith stars.(b) Sameas(a) but limitedto upgoing(backscattered)
P-waves.

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192 Downhole seismicimaging

lOO

o i i i I i i i i i I i i i i I i i i i i

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5
100 400 700 900 1000 200 500 700 900 1100 1300100 400 7001100
Depth (m)
Fig. 10. Comparison
of the synthetic
amplitudesexpected
in boreholeBAS-94-33f(a) with the optimal
upgoing VSP response
calculatedforboreholes
BAS-92-25(b) andBAS-90-22a(c) at Bell Allard.Dueto
geometricalspreading,
the expectedamplitudesfromBAS-92-25andBAS-90-22aaremuchweakerthan
those from BAS-94-33f.

no a priori informationis available,the VSP survey
mayrequirea grid of shotswhichwouldmakethe VSP
surveylogisticallycomplicatedas well as more costly.
In sucha case,a 3D surveycouldbemorecosteffective.
CONCLUSIONS
The linear regressionsperformed on the P- and
S-wave first break times for holes BAS-94-33fand
92-25 indicatethat, in the upper 1 km of the crust,the
P-wavevelocityis about6300 m/s, whereasthe S-wave
velocityis estimatedto be about3600 m/s. The average
seismicvelocity estimatedfrom the VSP data is com-
parableto the velocityderivedfrom the full waveform
sonicloggingdata.The VSP datacollectedin borehole
BAS-94-33f confirmsthat the Bell Allard deposithas
an observableseismicresponsewith clear P-wave and
convertedS-wavereflections.Whereasthe main objec-
tive of the study,which was to test the reflectivityof
the mineralizedversusthe unmineralizedKey Tuffite
horizon, was not met becauseone of the boreholeswas
blocked,thesetwo VSP surveysprovideimportantin-
sightsintotheseismicsignature ofa sphalerite-richVMS
deposit.The relativelystrongamplitudeof the scattered
P-waveenergyobservedin boreholeBAS-94-33f is at-
tributedto thelargeimpedancecontrastbetweentheore-
BAS- bodyandthe surrounding volcanicrocks.Otherfactors
suchas the size, shapeof the depositand the Poisson's
ratio can also affect the reflectivity of an ore deposit.
Lithologiccontacts withinthevolcanicsequence areless
reflectivethan the ore-host-rockscontacts,as shownby
the weak reflection recorded in borehole BAS-92-25.
The modelingstudyusing boreholeBAS-92-25 has
shown that, even if the shot location used to acquire
the VSP datawasnot optimal,the upgoingP-waveam-
plitudesare not expectedto be muchhigherwith an

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 VSP at the Bell Allard orebody 193

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andboreholegeophysical
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Gras,R., andCraven,M. E., 1998,Interpreter'scorner--Integrated
vey of Canada(GSC) andNorandaInc. Full-waveform workstationinterpretationofmultiazimuthoffsetVSP data--West
sonicloggingwasperformedby the Mineral Resources Texascasestudy:The LeadingEdge,17, 306-310.
Division of the GSC. Acquisitionof the VSP in bore- Hardage,B. A., 1985,Verticalseismicprofiling,PartA: Principles:
hole BAS-92-25 was fundedthroughan NSERC oper- GeophysicalPress.
atinggrantawardedto Andy Calvert.The authorsthank Nyman, D.C., and Gaiser,J. E., 1983,Adaptiverejectionof high-
linecontamination:53rdAnn.Internat.Mtg., Soc.Expl.Geophys.,
NorandaInc. for their permissionto publishthe results ExpandedAbstracts,321-323.
from this researchproject.The finite differencemodel- Salisbury,
M. H., Milkereit,B., andBleeker,W., 1996,Seismicimag-
ing wasperformedon the CRAY SV 1 supercomputer at ing of massivesulfidedeposits,Part 1: Rock properties:Econ.
Kiel University.This is GSC contribution2000158. Geol., 91, 821-828.

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 Chapter 13
Application of Downhole SeismicImaging
to Map Near-Vertical Structures: Norm6tal
(Abitibi Greenstone Belt), Qu6bec
G. Perton, D. W.Eaton, B. Elliot, and D. Schmitt
ABSTRACT
The downholeseismicimaging(DSI) techniqueis a
recentlydevelopedapproachfor imagingthe subsurface
in the vicinity of an explorationborehole.The method
combines multioffset, multiazimuth vertical seismic
profiling (VSP) data acquisitionwith various3D seis-
mic imagingtechniques,and is particularlywell suited
to structuralsettingsin which featuresof interest(e.g.,
shearzones,lithologicalcontacts)are subvertical.This
is a typical characteristicof large parts of the Abitibi
greenstonebelt, the world's largestand most produc-
tive Archeangranite-greenstone terrane.As an illustra-
tion of this technique,we apply the DSI approachto
map the subsurfacearounda boreholenear the (aban-
doned)Norm6talZn-Cu mine in northwesternQu6bec.
The resultsof this studyillustratethe capabilityof the
DSI methodfor imagingsteeplydippingvolcanicunits
over distancesof >500 m, and for detectingout-of-
plane high-impedancebodies.In this case,thesehigh-
impedancebodiesare Archeandiabasedikes.
INTRODUCTION
The applicationof downholeseismicimaging (DSI)
methodsto base-metalexplorationis an ongoingre-
searchprojectat the GeologicalSurveyof Canada.The
DSI methodhas been adaptedfrom a well-established
techniqueknown as vertical seismicprofiling (VSP).
The VSP techniquewas initially developedby the hy-
drocarbonexplorationindustryto derivea detailedseis-
mic velocity profile of the subsurface,often for the
purposeof optimizingthe processingof more complex
2D seismicprofiles.Sincethen,the VSP techniquehas
evolvedinto a more sophisticated mappingtool, by in-
corporatingvariousmultioffsetacquisitionandprocess-
ing techniques(Hindset al., 1996). However,extending
194
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thispotentiallyvaluabletechniqueto the miningexplo-
ration industryis not straightforward, due to practical
differencesbetweensedimentarybasinsandbasemetal
explorationenvironments(Milkereit and Eaton, 1998).
For example,the rock types found in hard rock envi-
ronmentsand their associatedphysicalrock properties
typicallyresultin very smallreflectioncoefficients
(usu-
ally lessthan 5%). In addition,the boreholesused in
mineralexplorationalmostalwaysdeviatesubstantially
from the vertical, and the stratigraphyencounteredis
rarelyhorizontal.Consequently, 3D imagingof the sub-
surfaceis a fundamentalrequirementfor the hardrock
environment,and2D imagingalgorithmsarenot a real-
isticalternative(asis frequentlythe casein sedimentary
basins).
In principle,seismicreflectionsare generatedwhere
there is a significantand abrupt changein acoustic
impedance(theproductof velocityanddensity)between
two rock types.In volcanicsequences, impedancecon-
trastsoftenexistat lithologiccontactsbetweenmaficand
felsicunits.In addition,Salisburyet al. (1996) demon-
stratedthat a relativelylargeimpedancecontrastexists
between most massive sulfide ore bodies and their vol-
canichostrocks,suggesting thatmassivesulfidedeposits
mightalsobe a potentialdirecttargetfor seismicexplo-
ration.The ability to map lithologiccontacts,aswell as
to detectpotentialore depositsin the vicinity of a deep
borehole,representsa potentiallypowerfulexploration
tool. With thesebasic conceptsin mind, a DSI survey
was undertaken at the Norm6tal mine, in the Abitibi
greenstone belt of northwesternQu6bec,to assessthe
potentialof this techniquefor mappinglithologiccon-
tactsat depth.The volcanicstratigraphyin this region
is nearlyvertical in attitude,renderingsurfaceseismic
methodsineffectivefor thispurpose.By usingexplosive
sourcesat three locationsand 3-componentgeophones
 Applicationof DSI to near-verticalstructures 195

75uT
:: ROCKS

+!••GRANITOIDS
I 100 km I

ONTARIO QUEBEC
N
Abitibi
Greenstone
t

U.S.A.

Fig. 1. Generalizedlithotectonicmapof theAbitibi greenstone

belt (after SpoonerandBarrie, 1993), show-
ing distributionof granitoidplutonsandundividedsupracrustal rocks.Rectangleindicatesareacoveredin
Figure2. RB denotesRousseau batholith,LB denotesLac Abitibi BatholithandN denotesthe Normbtal
deposit.

lowered and clamped in an exploration borehole, are preferentiallyassociatedwith volcanic successions

direct, reflected, and scattered wave energy was
recorded.The objectiveof this casehistory is to doc-
umentthe acquisition,processing,and interpretationof
this surveyas an exampleof the potentialutility of the
DSI technique.
GEOLOGICAL SETTING
The Abitibi greenstonebelt is the world's largest
Archean
granite-greenstone
terrane(85 000km2),and
the most prolific greenstonebelt of any age in terms
of discoveredmassivesulfide deposits(Barrie et al.,
1993). Supracrustalrocks,primarily greenschist-grade
metavolcanic sequences,make up about 40% of
the terrane, with the balance dominatedby plutonic
rocks (Card, 1990). Large batholith complexes,with
amphibolite-grademetamorphicaureolesseveralkm
wide, occur in and around the metavolcanic belts
(Figure 1). Some plutons are believed to be the ex-
posedmagma chambersof the surroundingvolcanic
complexes(Calvert et al., this volume). Volcanogenic
massivesulfide(VMS) depositsare not uniformly dis-
tributed;regional studiesindicatethat VMS deposits
containing>150 rn thicknessof felsic volcanicrocks
(Barrie et al., 1993).
Norm•tal domain is situated in the central Abitibi
greenstone beltnear49øN, 79øW. It consists
of a roughly
20-km wide northwest-trendingbelt of supracrustal
rockspreservedbetweenthe latetectonic(2610 4- 1 Ma)
Lac Abitibi batholith (Mortensen, 1993) and the syn-
to late-tectonicRousseaubatholith(Rive et al., 1990).
Within the Norm•tal domain, stratigraphicsequences
are exposedwithin subvertical(>70 ø) panelsthat are
oftenoverturned(Bertrand,1969). Very steepdipssuch
as these are not favorable for surface seismic methods,
but are typical of most of the Abitibi Subprovincedue
to extensivepolyphaseisoclinal folding (Rive et al.,
1990). From north to south, this domain comprises:
(1) a belt of andesiticmetavolcanicrocks;(2) a bimodal
(felsic-mafic)tholeiitic volcanoclasticsequence;(3) a
belt of intermediatevolcanics(dacite), and (4) an epi-
clasticsedimentaryassemblagewith minor amountsof
iron formation (Bertrand, 1969; Simard et al., 1990;
Barrie et al., 1993). Throughoutthis belt, the metamor-
phicgradeisuppergreenschist to amphibolite(Bertrand,
1969). This metamorphicgradeis generallyhigherthan

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 Application of DSI to near-vertical structures 197

I
79ø2o, w

ORIGINAL
OREBODY
A

500 rn
vvvvvvvvv ß
vvvvvvvvvvv •
vvvvvvvvvvvvv
vvvvvvvvvvvvvvv
PIT 2
vvvvvvvvvvvvvvvv

••½
vvvvvvvvvvvvvv
...........
vvvvvvvvvvvv

vvvvvvvvvvvvvv
vvvvvvvvvvvvv
vvvvvvvvvvvvv
vvvvvvvvvvvv
vvvvvvvv
.PIT 3
vvvvvv
vvvvvv
vvvvvvv
vvvvvvv

v• ,, ,, NORMETAL
• ...... BOREHOLE PATH
vvvvvvvvvvv f vvvvvvv vvvvvvv
vvvvvvvvvvv• vvvvvvvvv•vvvvv, vv'•',•
.......... v• .......... x• .... •v .... •..• MINE SERIES
vvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvv•vvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvv•Ivvvvvvvvvvvv
vvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvv•vvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvv• vvvvvvvvvvv
vvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvv•vvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvv vvvvvvvvvvv
............... •F ........ vvvvvvvvv ...... vvvvvv .... v FELSICVOLC
•VVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVV VVVVVVVVVVV
•VVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVV VVVVVVVVVVV
vvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvv......
vvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvv
vvvvvvvvv
vvvvvvvvvvv

NORTH MINE • vvvvv............... vvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvv

•VVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVV
v.... vvvvvvvvv
vvvvvvvvvvv
VVVVVVVVVVV
INTERMED.
VOLC.
4 NORTH • ...................................
I • •vvvvvv .......................... vvv DIABASE DIKES
/ • •vvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvv vvvvvvvvvvv
/ / •vvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvv•,•-'-.,vvvvvvvvvv
II
/
•
/ / «vvvvvvvvvvv......v .... vvvvv
•vvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvv
• .........
v .... v ....
1• l•vvvvvvvvv
vvvvvvvvv
-v.......... SULFIDES
/ • •vvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvv vvvvvvvvvvv
I • •vvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvv vvvvvvvvvvv
|• •vvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvv vvvvvvvvvvv
I/
I/
••vvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvv
................................... vvvvvvvvvvv
METAGABBRO
• BVXX•7•vvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvv vvvvvvvvvvv

Fig. 3. Geologyof the Norm6tal mine area (after Bertrand,1969), showinglocationof the boreholes
(87054, 89099, and 95-28-05) and shootingpits used for this study.A and B indicatediabasedikes of
the 2600 Ma Matachewanswarm.Boreholes87054 and 89099 wereusedfor densityloggingandborehole
95-28-05 wasusedfor the seismicsurvey.

was located approximately400-m north of borehole receiverswereloweredto a maximumwireline depthof

95-28-05, forming a plane with the receiver nearly 570 m. Althoughthiswasnotthebottomof theborehole,
perpendicularto the strike of the steeplydippingvol- this depthwas sufficientto intersectthe Mine Horizon
canicstratigraphy(Figure4). Locatedabout500-m east (Figure4). Upon completionof the survey,the blasting
of the boreholecollar,pit 3 wasusedto imagea part of pits were backfilledwith material that had been exca-
the stratigraphyapproximately250-m eastof borehole vated earlier.
95-28-05 in whichanelectromagnetic anomalyhadbeen A Bison6-channelseismograph systemconnectedto
identified.Finally,pit 1 wasplacedcloseto the borehole a laptopcomputerwasusedto recordthe seismicdata.
collarto providebetterconstraints on the seismicveloc- Only four of the six availablechannelswereused,a sur-
ities of the rock formations,sinceacousticloggingdata face channel(a geophoneplacedin the groundnearthe
werenot available.Pit 3 waslocatedin swampyground, recorder)and three downholechannels.The downhole
and filled with water naturally.Pits 1 and 2 did not fill seismictool consistedof a Geosourcesonde,housing
with water of their own accord,so stepswere taken to a set of three mutually orthogonal,14-Hz geophones
ensurethat the water in the pits was sufficientlydeep (Figure 4). The sondewas held fixed to the wall of
for seismicblasting.For eachof thethreeshotlocations, the boreholeusinga singleclampingarm. The receiver

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 Application of DSI to near-vertical structures 199

a) Density b) Density
(g/cm
3) (g/cm
3)

Legend
• INTERMED.
VOLC.
• DIABASE
--•FELSIC
VOLC.
METAGABBRO

MUDSTONE-SILTSTONE

SULFIDES

Fig.5. Density
logsforboreholes
87054(a) and89099(b).High-density
measurements
(>3.0 g/cm3)
correspond
togabbroanddiabase.
A localhigh-density
spike
at65rninborehole
87054canb-•correlated
with a thin disseminated mineralized zone.

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198 Downhole seismicimaging

Pit 3
(projected)
Pit 1
BH 95-28-05 Pit 2
•..•Ove•urden
¾VVVV VVVVVVVVV
•VVVV VVVVVVVVV
VVVVV VVVVVVVVV
VVVVV VVVVVVVVV
VVVVV VVVVVVVVV
VVVVV VVV
VVVVV VVV
VVVVV VVV
VVVVV VVV
VVVVV
VVVVV
VV
200rn I
VVVVV
VVVVV
½VVVV
/VVVVV
'VVVVV Sonde 'North
VVVVV
VVVVV
VVVVV
VVVVV
VVVVV
½VVVV VVVVVVV
H2
VVVV VVVVVVVVV
VVVV VVVVVVVVVV
VVVV
VVVV
VVVV
VVVVVVVVV
VVVVVVVVV

VVVVVVVVV • V
+• FELSIC
VOLC.
VVVV VVVVVVVVV

i• INTERMED.
VOLC.
VVVVV
VVVVVVVVV -+x +++x +++
/VVVV
VVVVVVVVV *r+x•x • +x•x •
•VVVV VVVVVVVVV + y.+ + y.+ +
VVVVV
VVVVVVVVV -+x +++x +++x
VVVVV VVVVVVVVV •+x•x •+• •+

½VVVV
VVVVV
VVVVV
VVVVVVVVV
vvvvvvvvv
VVVVVVVVVV
-,,-
.•_•_½++
. +x
+ •+ + •+
-,,-
½++ -,,-
•.+x +,
•r xX •"CxX •+x x
•.
+ •.
GRAYWACKE
VVVVV VVVVVVVVVV + y.+ + y.+ +
VVVVVV vvvvvvvvvv •*½+ METAGABBRO
VVVVVV ,x. + ,x.++
VVVVVV vvvvvvvvvv
• MINE SERIES

Fig. 4. Cross-section
throughborehole95-28-05, showingnear-verticalattitudeof the Mine Seriesunits.

spacingfor pit 1 was 10 m, and5 rn for pits2 and3. The
seismicsourceconsistedof one(or two) 227 g pentolite
boostersdetonatedusingseismic(O-msdelay)blasting
caps.In pit 3, the initial 60 shots,corresponding
to the
deepestreceiverlevels,were fired using two boosters.
The remainingshotswere fired with a singleboosten
Accuratetiming of the shotswas achievedusing syn-
chronizedshootingboxes,which havevery precisein-
ternalclockstriggeringon everyminutemark. Raw un-
filtereddatafrom blastingpit 3 are shownin Figure6.
In general,the dataqualityin thisareawasexcellent,as
evidencedby the cleanfirstbreaksandlow noiselevels.
In particular,contaminationfrom 60-Hz noise is sig-
nificantlylower than in otherparts of the Abitibi Belt
(cf. Adam et al., this volume).
VELOCITY ANALYSIS
Accurateestimatesof seismicvelocitiesare impor-
tant for calibratingsubsequent
processingsteps,suchas
downgoing
waveremoval,
imagepoint,andCDPtrans'-
forms.A zero-offsetsurveywasconductedfrom shoot-
ingpit 1 with a downholereceiverspacingof 10m. Since
pit 1 is locatedcloseto the collarof borehole95-28-05
(about80 m), the raypathsfor that surveyare virtually
parallelto the borehole.Thus,the path differencefrom
the sourceto two adjacentreceiverscanbe regardedas
equalto the receiverspacing.On thisbasis,the average
velocitywas estimatedusingtwo differentapproaches.
First, a linear regressionthroughthe first-breakpicks
yieldeda P-wavevelocityof 5607 m/s (Figure7a). By
extrapolatingthesepicksto zerooffset,an intercepttime
of 5.5 ms was obtained.This nonzerointerceptrepre-
sentsa staticdelaytime at the shootinglocation,caused
by a low-velocitylayerin the nearsurface.If a replace-
ment velocity of 1500 m/s is used,the thicknessof the
low-velocitylayeris estimatedto be approximately8 m.
This value is in goodagreementwith the known thick-
ness of the overburden at the collar of borehole 95-28-05
wherethe casinglengthis 12 m. The averagevelocity
was also calculatedby taking the mean of all source-
to-receiveroffsetsdividedby their respectivefirst-break
pick times (Figure 7b). Using this method,an average
velocityof 5616 m/s wasobtained.
The zero-offsetconfiguration canalsobe usedto de-
rive an interval velocity log from the first break pick

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 Application of DSI to near-vertical structures 199

Density b) Density
(g/cm
3) (g/cm
3)

Legend
• INTERMED.
VOLC.
• DIABASE
• FELSIC
VOLC.
METAGABBRO

MUD STONE- SILT STONE

SULFIDES

Fig. 5. Densitylogsfor boreholes

87054(a) and89099(b). High-density
measurements
(>_3.0g/cm
3)
correspondto gabbroand diabase.A local high-densityspikeat 65 rn in borehole87054 can be correlated
with a thin disseminated mineralized zone.

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200 Downhole seismicimaging

to the gabbrointervalin the geologicallog (Figure5).

0.1 , ' a) Thisresultprovidesadditionalconstraints on thephysi-
cal rockpropertiesof the gabbrounit, andcorroborates
its potentialreflectivity.
0.15

DATA PROCESSING
0.2
Processing
of DSI datasetsisusuallyachievedin three
majorphases.All oftheprocessing stepsforthepit 3 data
setaresummarized in Table1.An equivalent-processing
0.25
102 148 198 249 299 350 400 451 501 552 schemewasusedforpit 2. All of theprocessingwasper-
Wireline depth (m) formedusingtheDSISoftpackage,a public-domainset
of modulesandinteractiveapplicationsdevelopedat the
' I i I GeologicalSurveyof Canada.Detailsof theprocessing
sequenceare givenin the next sections.

Preprocessing
First,all of theinformationregardingthegeometryof
•.,,I••,"•". , , the surveymustbe transferredfrom the field notesinto
the headers of each seismic trace. Information about the

',....
'1•[r••/•,
• ,,•I•'1
l,,,r
....."' , , ,,',,',,,' pit locations,the deviationof borehole 95-28-05 with
depth,and the wirelinedepth(depthalongthe path of
0.25 '" • ..........
the borehole)of each recordingstationwere used to
102 148 198 249 299 350 400 451 501 552 computethe coordinatesof eachreceiverlocation.The
Wireline depth (m) datawere then correctedfor the lossof high frequen-
ciesat increasingtraveltime,usinga procedureknown
asspectralbalancing.Thisprocessing algorithmhasthe
0.1 effectof flatteningthefrequencyspectrum,thusenhanc-
ing the high frequencieswith respectto the low fre-
quencies.Spectralbalancingalso acts as a band-pass
0.15 filter. The frequencyrangechosenfor this surveywas
55-250 Hz.

0.2
Down-Going Wave Removal
The next importantprocessing phaseis the elimina-
0.25 tion of the direct-waveenergy. Since the receiversare
102 148 198 249 299 350 400 451 501 552 locatedin the subsurface,they recordboth the direct
Wireline depth (m) (down-going)wavesas well as the reflectedand scat-
tered(up-going)waves.The observedamplitudesof the
Fig. 6. Raw datafrom pit 3 for the H1 (a), H2 (b), and
vertical(c) components (see Figure4). An increasein reflected/scatteredwavesareonlyabout5% of thedown-
amplitudefor the deeperlevelscorrelateswith theuseof going energy.Thus, the raw data is dominatedby the
two227gcharges, compared with one227gboosterat the directwavesthat obscurethe up-goingwavesof direct
shallower levels.
interest(Figure6). Thereareat leasttwocommonlyused
methodsfor down-goingwaveremoval.Whenthewave-
times. Interval velocitieswere estimatedusing a lo- form of the down-goingarrival (P-wavefirstbreaks)is
calized linear regressionon a nine-samplewindow similar from trace-to-trace,first breakscan be picked,
(Figure 7c). Althoughthe log is sparsebecauseof the aligned, and flattened.Then, a median filter can be
large receiverspacing(10 m), it neverthelessshowsa appliedwhich removesall energythat is not parallel
relativelyhigh-velocityzone(5.9 km/s) corresponding to the firstbreaks.The responsefrom that filter is then

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 Application of DSI to near-vertical structures 201

a) c)
0.12 150
! interpolate;:l
velocity:'5607
(m/,•) i
0.1 200

0.08
250

ß 0.06
E 300
!=

0.04 ....

350

0.02
4O0
, , ,

Shot
Siatic:
0.00•5
(s) .
0 I I

0 1O0 200 300 400 500 600 700 450

Source-receiver Offset(m)

b) 500
6000 Average'
P-wave
vel•0city:
5616
ira/s) 0.15
55O

6OO
4.8 5.0 5.2 5.4 5.6 5.8 6.0 6.2
•' 5800.... •'":................................
..•..•'.'•e,,•
........... 0.1
IntervalP-wave velocity(km/s)

n' 5600 ß-- velocity 0.05

5400 i , i i , 0
100 200 300 400 500 600 700

Source-receiver Offset (m)

Fig. 7. Velocityanalysisfrom the pit 1 data.(a) Linearregressionthroughthe first-breakpicks,givinga

velocityof 5607 rn/s.An intercepttime of 5.5 ms at zero offsetcorresponds to a shotstaticcausedby a
near-surface low-velocitylayer(LVL). (b) AverageP-wavevelocityof 5616rn/sasdetermined by dividingthe
observed timeby thecalculated distancefromthe shot.Thisresultis in goodagreement with theregression
results.(c) Intervalvelocitylog computedusinga localizedlinearregression and a nine-samplesliding
.window.
A high-velocity
zone(5.9km/s)centered
around
a wirelinedepthof 450m correlates
witha gabbro
intrusion.

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202 Downhole seismicimaging

Table 1. Processingflow for Norm6tal pit 3 data set.

Processingstep Description

Geometry Transferinformationinto headers(X, Y, Z locationfor eachsource-receiver pair)

1 Data rotation Rotationof horizontalcomponents to maximizethe P-waveenergyon the H1 component
2 Spectralbalancing Frequencyrange55-250 Hz to enhancethe contributionof the higherfrequencies
3 Top mute Mute data(setamplitudeto zero) abovefirstbreakarrivals.This portionof the datacontains
only the backgroundnoise
4 Data flattening Flat (align)firstbreakpickson time 0.05 s. This alignsall the firstbreakshorizontally
5 Energybalancing Energybalancingto compensate shotcoupling.Eachtraceof the recordis normalized
accordingto its firstbreakamplitude
6 Trim statics Apply residualstaticsto a maximumof 16 samples.Crosscorrelation is appliedbetweenfirst
break signatures from traceto traceandthenalignedwith a time shiftno greaterthan 16
samples
7 Median filteringP-waves Nine-tracemedianfilteringfor P wavesbasedon first-breakinformation.A running-median is
appliedhorizontallyon the dataset.The computedmediansectionis thensubtracted from
the originaldatasetleavingthe contributionof nonhorizontal events
8 Median filteringS-waves Nine-tracemedianfilteringfor S-wavesbasedon velocityanalysis(3250 m/s). This processis
the sameas for the P-wavesexceptthat the dataare alignedusinga linearvelocitymove-out
insteadof flatteningfirstbreakpicks
9 f-k-filtering f-k-filteringin subtraction
modewitha five-sample
taperaround
polygon.
Thisfiltering
process•s performedin 2D Fouriertransformspace
10 Low-passfrequencyfiltering Low-passfrequencyfilteringin time domain
11 Energybalancing Energybalancingof up-goingwavefield
12 Tracemixing Tracemixingusinga three-tracewindowallowingonly 12% mixingfrom neighboringtraces

subtractedfrom the raw data, and the tracesare restored
to their originalpositionby applyinga time shift. The
resultof this removalprocessis a DSI profile showing
only reflectedenergy.This methodwas appliedto the
Norm6talraw datafrom pits 2 and3.
The approachdescribedabovewassubsequently used
to removethe down-goingshearwaves.In many other
cases,however,shearwavestypicallyhavea morecom-
plexwaveform,andpickingS-wavefirstarrivalstendsto
be difficult. Under suchcircumstances,a different tech-
niquecanbe usedto alignthearrivalsbasedonvelocity
information. A linear moveout, based on a theoretical
S-wavevelocity,is appliedto theraw datato alignshear-
wave first arrivals. After moveout correction, the same
medianfilter processappliedto P-wavesis usedfor S-
waves.
Figure 8b showsthe output from median filtering,
comparedto theraw datafrom pit 3 (Figure8a). Evenaf-
ter medianfiltering,someresidualdown-goingwaveen-
ergyremainson the DSI profile.We attributethisresid-
ual energyto the fact that the median filter is effective
only for a narrowrangeof slownessvalues,while other
typesof energybesideP- and S-wavescancontaminate
DSI recordings(for exampletube-waves).To eliminate
theseothertypesof wavesthatcontaminatethedataover
a broaderrangeof slowness,an f-k filter was applied.
This filter worksin the frequency-wavenumber domain,
whereup-goinganddown-goingenergyis naturallysep-
arated.The downgoingenergywasselectivelyenhanced
by applying a suitablef-k filter, and then subtracted
from the unfiltereddata. The parametersfor this filter
(i.e., the rangeof slownesses
to use)were derivedfrom
multiple runs of forwardmodelingto definethe limits
of physicallypossibledipsandvelocitiesconsistentwith
the surveygeometry.The resultof this processingstep
is a sectionthat emphasizesreflectionsfrom the major
lithologicunitsat Norm6tal(Figure8c).
Postprocessing
The last stagesof DSI data processinginvolve am-
plitude recovery,frequencyanalysis,and trace mixing
to enhancethe continuityof the reflectionsthroughout
the final section.Energybalancingon a shortwindow
around the first-break arrival times ensures consistent
relativeamplitudesfrom traceto trace.Analysisof the
frequencyspectrumshowedthatthe signalwaslimited
to a frequencybandof 55-250 Hz. A time-domainband-
passfilter was thereforeused to isolatethe dominant
frequencies.Finally, a mild trace-mixing algorithm,
usinga 3-tracewindowand allowingonly 12% mixing
from eachneighboringtrace,wasappliedto the data.
SPECIALIZED PROCESSING
The Image-Point Transform
Sincethereis onlyoneraypaththatilluminatesa point
in the subsurfacein typical DSI data sets(i.e., single

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 Application of DSI to near-vertical structures 203

fold data), the signal-to-noiseratio is sometimesvery

0.1
a) low and reflectedeventslack coherency.This is espe-
cially true for data collectedin a crystallinerock envi-
ronment,wherethe averagereflectioncoefficientis only
0.15
about5%. The imagepointtransform(IPT) (Cosmaand
•1•I •I' I•' ,,11)II Ill! I
Heikkinen, 1996) is a techniqueusedfor both filtering
Illll, I I
iiii i 'l iiill' IIII1! andinterpretationof DSI datasets.Basedon the theory
0.2
of theRadontransform,theIPT involvesstackingtraces
II'!• i III,', acrossa section.In the caseof the IPT, the path along
which the data is stackedis curved in order to align
0.25 ! !

102 148 198 249 299 350 400 451 501 552 reflectioneventsproducedby a planar reflector.In the
Wireline depth (m) transformspace,the reflectingplaneis characterized by
the mirror imageof the sourcewith respectto theplane.
Thus, the stackingpath collapsesto a point (the mirror
image of the source)in the transformspace.In apply-
ing the IPT, wave energyis summedalongpathscorre-
........
spondingto all possiblereflectordipsanddepths.If the
observeddata containan event from an existingplane

0.2 .-,.-,•.•
0.1 .a)

0.25
102 153 208 264 314 365 415 466 516 567 0.15
Wireline depth (m)

0.1
-c) 0.2

0.15 0.25
) i,• ,; ,

.,,• , p• p •P r- • j• . p P•PPpt. • I •P• I PP I --,

[- 0.2

_b)
0.25
102 153 208 264 314 365 415 466 516 567
Wireline depth (m) 0.15 ..........
";',,,,-,";;'
;'-,,,
...... TOP- -
,,';;
.....,,,....... ...........
,.,_;;;
....,,,,,•-•' BASEI
Fig. 8. Data from pit 3 at differentprocessingstages.
illll .......'"':';;,,,;':'""•,;•'• ...... i,,,' .......::; .... .I
(a) Raw data;(b) intermediate
processed dataafterdown- '', •..
)})' ,)iI))I).NF•)) }})11'l'111i1' "l')l ,1 }•}• I)111
goingwaveremoval;
and(c).finalprocessed
section
after ....... .......•.••;•"..,,,, ....,.........
lPnOStprocessing
includinggain recovery,frequencyfilter- ,, ,,,' :,,,2,;........ "'" ..•.,),,,,•,,,,•)'":; ...... ,,,'" ...... :; ;I
g, andtracemixing. Note the residualdown-goingen- ' ))) -- )•,,,)) i,,,,

ergy (robewaves)at shallowdepthson the intermediate 0.25 '•:....." " '......... '.................
processedsection(b). The final section(c) showsgood 102 153 208 264 314 365 415 466 516 567
coherencyalongprominentreflections.
Wireline depth (m)

Fig. 9. Data from pit 3 (a) before,and (b) after image-

pointtransformprocessing. Note the enhancedsignal-to-
noiseratio in the IPT processed section.The threemain
reflections(top andbottomof the gabbroandthe diabase
dike) are clearlyidentifiableon this section.

Downloaded 26 Jun 2012 to 95.28.162.50. Redistribution subject to SEG license or copyright; Terms of Use: http://segdl.org/
204 Downhole seismicimaging
in the subsurface,this summationwill producea coher-
ent outputwaveform,but for all othertheoreticalplanes
stackingwill resultin destructiveinterference.Thus,the
IPT enhancesthe signal-to-noiseratio, providesa direct
measureof the strengthof the reflectors,and indicates
their positionin space.
To apply the IPT, a good knowledgeof the average
velocityof therockmassis needed.The averageP-wave
velocity of 5607 m/s derivedfrom the first break infor-
mation from the pit 1 data was used.Figure 9a shows
the databeforethe IPT process,and the enhancedsec-
tion obtainedthroughthe inversetransformis shownin
Figure 9b. This enhancedsectionwill be used as the
inputfor the next specializedprocessingstep.
The 3D Common-Depth-Point Transform
The conventionaldisplay for DSI data as a time-
depth section(Figure 9) is not necessarilyintuitive to
the interpreter.Interpretationof sucha sectioncan lead
to aninaccurateview of the subsurface,unlessaccompa-
niedby forwardmodelingto providefurtherconstraints.
An alternativeto this is to reconstructan image that
showsthe data as a depth-offsetsectionthrough the
crust.This canbe achievedby usingthe common-depth-
point (CDP) transform (Dillon and Thomson, 1984).
The CDP transform is a mapping processin which
each time samplein a time-depthsectionis relocated
to its estimatedposition in the subsurface.This esti-
mated location in x-z coordinates is the CDP
ated with each shot-receiverpair. In one of its sim-
pler forms, this techniqueassumesa uniform back-
ground velocity, with horizontal layering. In the case
of the Norm•tal survey,the constantvelocity assump-
tion is a goodapproximation,becausecrystallinerocks
typically display small velocity variations.The sec-
ond condition is not met at Norm•tal, however, as lo-
cal dips range from 65 to 85ø. Hence, the approach
of Dillon and Thomson(1984) had to be modified to
include the effects of a regional strike and steep lo-
cal dips. Rather than rewriting their code to include
strike and dip parameters,a combinationof two ro-
tations of the survey coordinatesystem(one for the
strike and anotherfor the dip) convertsthe complex
3D caseinto the original flat-layeredearth case.Once
the CDP location has been computedin its distorted
referencesystem,the inversecombinationof rotations
will put the CDP in its correct subsurfaceposition.
This generalizedCDP transformapproachhasbeenap-
plied to the data from pit 3, using a regional strike
angle (in mine coordinates)of N90øE and a dip of
Downloaded 26 Jun 2012 to 95.28.162.50. Redistribution subject to SEG license or copyright; Terms of Use: http://segdl.org/
70ø. The resultingsectionis a depth-offsetsectionthat
can be positioned next to the trace of the borehole
(Figure 10).
INTERPRETATION
The image obtainedfrom the 3D CDP transformex-
tends more than one kilometer south of the borehole col-
lar. Figure10 only showsthe first500 m, corresponding
to the areawherewe havea goodknowledgeof thelocal
geologyto constrainthe interpretation.The imagealso
extendsto a depthof about450 m, the depthof the last
receiver.Threemain reflectorsare evidentin Figure 10.
Workingourway downfrom theboreholecollar,thefirst
strongreflectioncorresponds to thetop of a gabbrounit.
In borehole95-28-05, the top of the gabbrounit is in
contactwith a rhyolite horizon. As predictedfrom the
physicalrockproperties(Figures5 and7), thisis oneof
the strongestacousticimpedancecontrastsencountered
in theNorm•talminingcamp.Thiscontactisfairlylinear
up to a depthof 200 rnwhereit appearsto be offsetto the
southby a fault. This fault alsooffsetsone of the inter-
nal reflectionsof the gabbro.At its lowerboundary,this
100-mthick gabbrolayeris in contactwith a graywacke
unit. The prominentreflectionassociatedwith this con-
tact can be followed away from the boreholefor more
than 200 rn towardsthe surface.This concordantgab-
bro unit is interpretedto be locally juxtaposedagainst
associ- the favorableMine Horizon (Figure3)(Bertrand, 1969).
Thus,theabilityto mapthismaficunithasa considerable
mining explorationvalue. The expectedresponsefrom
a small (relative to the seismicwavelength)massive-
sulfideorebody,suchasmighthaveeludedpreviousex-
plorationdrilling programs,wouldbe a high-amplitude
diffractionoff thiscontact.Unfortunately,sucha feature
wasnot observedon this final section,or at the previous
stagesof the processing.
Also presenton this final sectionis a strongcurved
event located towards the bottom of borehole 95-28-05.
The geologicalsection(Figure 4) showsthe beginning
of a thick sequenceof intermediatevolcanicrocks.This
is a homogeneous stratigraphichorizonand shouldnot
be reflective. A more reasonable alternative is that this
reflectorcorrespondsto an off-holefeature,suchasone
of thenumerousdiabasedikesthatfollow a trendparallel
to borehole95-28-05 (Figure 3 dike B). Physicalrock
propertystudiesat Norm•tal showthat diabasedikes
also have elevateddensities(Figure 5b). A curvedre-
sponseis anticipatedfrom the southerntip of the trun-
cated dike marked B in Figure 3 becausetravel paths
 Application of DSI to near-vertical structures 205

Borehole
95-28-05

I
100 I

2OO

Limits of
imagingarea

4OO ......................Top-of-gabbro.....

Bottom of gabbro

5OO
500 375 250 125 0

• • Distance
from
borehole
collar
(m)
Fig. 10. Final depth-offsetsectionfor Norm6tal.Dottedlinesindicatethe upperandlowerlimits of the area
imagedwith the 3D CDP transform.The full image(not shown)extendssouthfor aboutonekilometer.Note
the fault cross-cutting
the reflectorfrom the top of the gabbrounit. The reflectionfrom the bottomof the
gabbro
canbetraced
morethan200m towards
thesurface.
Thediabase
dikeshows
a curved
response,
which
is typical for a reflectororientedparallelto the recordingborehole.

to the dike are longerfor the shallowand deepreceiver spondingto suchreflectionspropagateeitherdownward

levels and somewhat shorter for the middle
potential to image high-impedancebodies away from
the borehole,illustratedby this exampleof a truncated
diabasedike, is another useful characteristicof the DSI
technique.
CONCLUSIONS
The useof the DSI techniquefor mineral exploration
is still at the experimentalstage.The Norm6tal survey
has shownthat this approachis well suited to image
the Archeanvolcaniclayeringof the Abitibi greenstone
belt. Mainly composedof bimodal flows (rhyolite and
andesite),thesesuitesareoftenfoldedandcharacterized
by localsteepdips.Havingreceiverslocatedin boreholes
permits reflectionsfrom steeplydipping or overturned
featuresto be recordedand analyzed.The rays corre-
levels. The or almostparallel to the surface,and are generallynot
recordedusingsurfaceseismicmethods.
The surveyat Norm6tal was designedto image the
stratigraphy of theMine Series.Thismultioffset/azimuth
designproducedan accurateimage of the subsurface
using data from pit 3. Essentialinformationaboutthe
velocity field was obtainedusinga sourcelocatednear
thecollarof theborehole(pit 1). It shouldbe emphasized
that physicalrock propertystudiesare also essentialto
identify potentiallyreflectiveunits at the mining camp
scale.Specializedprocessingtechniquessuchas the IP
transform and the 3D CDP transform, illustratedin this
study,providethe interpreterwith an accurateimage of
the subsurface.
The main lithologicalunits of the Mines Seriesat
Norm6tal have been mapped as far as 500 m away
from borehole95-28-05. A gabbrointrusion,associated

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206 Downhole seismicimaging
with massivesulfideorebodiesin the mining camp,was
imagedfor morethan200 m fromtheboreholeintersec-
tion towardthe surface.The resultsdid not point to any
new deposit,but the seismicsignaturefrom the tip of
a diabaseintrusion300 m awayfrom the receiverswas
recorded.Bothhigh-impedance orebodies andtruncated
intrusionsappearto have a similar seismicresponse.
This suggeststhat the DSI methodhasthe potentialto
imageorebodiesnot intersected
by the boreholebeing
surveyed.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Three major Canadianmining companies(Noranda,
FalconbridgeLtd., and Inco Ltd.) along with scien-
tists from the GSC and Canadian and international
universities have combined their resources to form the
DSI Consortium,a five-year project to develop new
tools for deepmineral exploration.The authorswould
like to acknowledgeparticularlythe participationof
Falconbridge Ltd. to the Norm6talproject.This study
was made possiblethroughthe Industry Partnership
Programof the GeologicalSurveyof Canada.David
Forsythand Bob Schieman(GSC-Continental Geo-
scienceDivision) and the VSP crew from the Univer-
sityof Albertaassistedwith the dataacquisition.Patrick
Killeen (GSC-Mineral ResourcesDivision) was re-
sponsiblefor the geophysicalboreholedata collected
in boreholes 87054 and 89099.
REFERENCES
Barrie,C. T., Ludden,J.N., andGreen,T. H., 1993,Geochemistryof
volcanicrocksassociatedwith Cu-Zn andNi-Cu depositsin the
Abitibi Subprovince.Econ.Geol. 88, 1341-1358.
Downloaded 26 Jun 2012 to 95.28.162.50. Redistribution subject to SEG license or copyright; Terms of Use: http://segdl.org/
Bertrand,C., 1969,Metamorphismat theNormetalMine, northwest-
ern Quebec.Ph.D. thesis,Univ. of WesternOntario.
Card,K. D., 1990,A reviewof the SuperiorProvinceof the Canadian
Shield,A productof Archeanaccretion.PrecambrianRes., 48,
99-156.
Chartrand,E, and Cattalani, S., 1990, Massive sulfide depositsin
northwesternQuebec,in Rive, M., et al., Eds., The northwestern
Quebec PolymetallicBelt: A summary of 60 years of min-
ing exploration:Can. Inst. Min. Metallurg., SpecialVolume43,
77-92.
Cosma,C., and Heikkinen,P., 1996, Seismicinvestigations for the
final disposalof spentnuclearfuel in Finland:J.Appl. Geophys.,
5, 151-157.
Dillon, P.B., and Thomson,R. C., 1984, Offset sourceVSP surveys
andtheir imagereconstruction: Geophys.Prosp.32, 790-811.
Fahrig,W. E, and West,T. D., 1984, Diabasedike swarmsof the
CanadianShield:Geol. Surv.Can., Map 1677A.
Hinds, R. C., Anderson, N. L., and Kuzmiski, R. D., 1996, VSP
interpretiveprocessing:Theoryandpractice:Soc.Expl. Geophys.
Milkereit,B., andEaton,D., 1998,Imagingandinterpretingtheshal-
low crust:Tectonophysics, 286, 5-18.
Mortensen,J. K., 1993. U-Pb geochronologyof the easternAbitibi
Subprovince. Part2: Noranda-KirklandLake area:Can. J. Earth
Sci. 30, 29-41.
Rive, M., Pintson,H., and Ludden, J. N., 1990, Characteristicsof
late Archaeanplutonicrocksfrom the Abitibi and PontiacSub-
provinces,SuperiorProvince,Canada,in Rive, M., et al., Eds.,
The northwesternQuebecPolymetallicBelt: A summaryof 60
yearsof miningexploration:Can. Inst. Min. Metallurg.Special
Volume 43, 65-76.
Salisbury,M., Milkereit,B., andBleeker,W., 1996,Seismicimaging
of massivesulfidedeposits:Part I. Rock properties:Econ.Geol.
91, 821-829.
Simard, A., et al., 1990, Relationshipbetween mineral deposits
and geologicdomainsof the Abitibi volcano-plutonic belt of
NorthwesternQuebec,in Rive, M., et al., Eds., The northwest-
ern QuebecPolymetallicBelt: A summaryof 60 yearsof mining
exploration:CanadianInstituteof MiningandMetallurgySpecial
Volume 43, 1-16.
Spooner,
E. T. C., andBarfie,C. T., 1993,Prefaceto thespecialissue
devotedto Abitibi oredepositsin a moderncontext:Econ.Geol.,
88, 1307-1312.
 Chapter 14
Multiazimuth VSP for Rock Characterization
Deep Nuclear Waste Disposal Sitesin Finland
Calin Cosma, Pekka Heikkinen, and dukka Keskinen
ABSTRACT
Multiazimuth VSP surveyshave been a part of the
FinnishSiteInvestigationProgramfor theFinalDisposal
of SpentNuclearFuel sincethe mid 1980s.The main
objectiveof the surveyshasbeento detecthydraulically
transmissive zones(normallyfracturezonesand faults)
andto determinetheir geometry.
The receiver tool used in these surveyscomprised
eightthree-component geophones clampedto the bore-
hole.Dynamitechargeswereusedassources. The high-
frequencycontentof the data allowedthe mappingof
fracturezoneslessthanone-meterthick.The imagepoint
(IP) transformformsthe coreof theprocessing scheme
for enhancingweak reflectedwavefieldsand for sepa-
ratinginterferingreflectionsfrom boundariesof vary-
ing orientations.Polarizationanalysisappliedin image
pointspacelargelyavoidsproblemscausedby theinter-
ference.The VSP layout demonstratedan outstanding
capabilityof imagingboth gently and steeplydipping
features.Coverageanalysismethodshavebeenusedto
predictandidentifypossibleblind zones.
Examples are given from two sites: Kuhmo-
Romuvaarain easternFinland and Eurajoki-Olkiluoto
in the southwest. The orientations of the fracture zones
at Kuhmo-Romuvaaraare diverse, resulting in a rel-
atively complex case of seismicimaging. The major
fracturezonesat Eurajoki-Olkiluotofollow directional
trendsanda goodcorrelationhasbeennoticedbetween
more pronouncedseismicreflectorsand hydrogeolog-
ically significantzones,at both the local and the site
scale.
As a resultof the seismicwork performedas part of
the Finnishsite-characterization
programfor final dis-
posalof spentnuclearfuel, conducted by Teollisuuden
Voima Oy (TVO) and lately by POSIVA Oy, the VSP
method,intendedoriginally as a supportingtechnique
for surfaceinvestigationsof sedimentaryformations,
207
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of
becamean establishedtool for investigatingcrystalline
rocksat depth.
INTRODUCTION
The Finnish Investigation Program
The FinnishSite InvestigationProgramfor the Final
Disposalof SpentNuclearFuelstartedin 1983.Fivesites
wereselectedfroma shortlistofpotentialcandidateareas
andpreliminaryinvestigations were conductedat these
sites during 1986-92. Subsequently, three areaswere
selected for detailed characterization, which was con-
cludedin 1999.The spentnuclearfuel is to be emplaced
in the bedrock at a depth of 300-700 m, in canisters
made of cast iron, enclosedin stainlesscoppershells
(PosivaOy, 1999).The bedrockis meantto actasoneof
severalbarrierspreventingthe migrationof radioactive
nuclidesto thebiosphereandprovidinga chemicallysta-
ble environmentaroundthe disposalcanisters.Both of
thesefunctionsare relatedto the groundwaterflowing
throughrock fractures.
The preliminaryinvestigationswere focusedon rock
featuresthat couldpossiblyjeopardizethe useof a site
for disposalpurposes.Thesefeatureswouldincludeex-
tensivezonesof crushedrock, fracturezones,and faults.
The objectiveof the detailedinvestigations was alsoto
detect smaller scale, hydraulicallytransmissivezones
(normallyfracturezonesand faults) and to determine
their geometry.
Multiazimuth VSP (vertical seismicprofiling) sur-
veys have been a part oœthe site investigationpro-
gram sinceits beginningin the mid 1980s. To date,
more than 200 VSP surveyshave been carried out to
depthsapproachingor exceeding1000 m. Examples
of VSP surveysare given from Kuhmo-Romuvaara in
easternFinland(Anttilaetal., 1999b)andfromEurajoki-
Olkiluoto,in thesouthwest (Anttila et al., 1999a),where
208 Downhole seismicimaging

Tonafire Gneiss
Leucotonafite
Gneiss
Mica Gneiss
Granodiorite
,•' KR8 KR9
Metadiabase
L5
O

KR7

oL3 •L7 O
L6
R2,
OPA2

o
L22 •)

KR11
.

Fig. 1. The Kuhmo-Romuvaaratest site in easternFinland.The positionsof the sevenshotpointsusedfor

boreholeKR2 are shownas opencircles.Contoursin meters.

both preliminaryand detailedinvestigationshavebeen depth,for mappingfracturezonesand lithologicalcon-

conducted.The rock types at Kuhmo-Romuvaaraare
tonalitesandgneisses(Figure 1) andthe orientationsof
rock features are diverse at the site. The bedrock at the
Eurajoki-Olkiluotositeconsistsprimarilyof migmatitic
mica gneisses(Figure2).
Vertical Seismic Profiling in Crystalline Rocks
The VSP methodusessurveyconfigurations consist-
ing of an array of detectorsin a boreholeand one or
severalsourcepositionslocatedawayfrom theborehole,
at various distances from the borehole collar. VSP has
beenwidelyusedasa meansof improvingthedepthcon-
versionof surfacereflectionsurveysin sedimentaryfor-
mations.Many of theprocessingtechniquesusedin this
contextrely on the separationof the directandreflected
wavefieldsby their slopes,which is relatively easy to
achieve in the case of semihorizontal reflectors and near
shotoffsets.VSP hasalsobeenappliedfor studyingcrys-
tallinerock, for obtainingaccuratevelocityestimatesin
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tacts,and for determiningrock anisotropy(e.g., Rector,
1988;Leary et al., 1988; S611neret al., 1992;Miao et al.,
1995). In most cases,the VSP methodhasbeenusedas
an extensionof the soniclogsor as a meansof improv-
ing the interpretationof the surfacereflectionsurveys.
In crystallinerocks,inclinedreflectorsarethe rule rather
thanthe exceptionandlargeshotoffsetsare neededfor
accuratelydeterminingthegeometryof featureswith di-
verse orientations. Therefore, VSP has evolved into an
independenttool for the 3D mappingof structures.The
basic reasonsfor favoring VSP as a method for deep
seismicimagingin crystallinerocksare the following:
1. With VSP, both the sourceand the detectorscan be
placedwithin the bedrock.Thusthe lossof resolu-
tion dueto near-surface
signalabsorptionis largely
avoided.Typically,frequenciesof 500 Hz andmore
canbe recordedat a kilometerscale,allowingfea-
tureslessthanmeterthickto be mappedthroughout
rockvolumes
exceeding
1 km3.
 Multiazimuth VSP for rock characterization 209

' - LEGEN
.• M•c Gne•,•/Vetned Gneis

. m 'ticGram
o ,-:L22 ' • Diabase
9 L21
L20OL23
0 Shotpoint
0E7 ,. L24

> ..

A KR9
OL25

500 m

Fig. 2. The Eurajoki-Olkiluototestsitein southwest

Finland.The positionsof the sevenshotpoints
usedfor
boreholeKR4 andthe six shotpoints usedfor KR6 are shownas opencircles.

2. Arrays of receiversplaced in vertical or steeply frequencyband,three-component directionalsensitivity,

inclined boreholes and multioffset, multiazimuth
shotsprovide a favorablegeometryfor mapping
bothsteeplyandgentlydippingfeatures.
3. Three-componentboreholedetectorsallow wave
polarizationto be usedas an indicationof the ori-
entationof the reflectors.With detectorsplacedon
thesurface,thepolarizationinformationtendsto be
lost due to near-surfacerefraction, which causesall
signalsto arriveat the detectorson nearlyvertical
paths.
DATA ACQUISITION
Equipment
The basic requirementsthat a VSP receiver tool
mustmeet for crystallinerock applicationsare a wide-
and a relativelylarge operationaldepthcombinedwith
a small diameter.Practicalaspects,suchas portability
in ruggedterrain,high dataproduction,andlow costare
alsoto be considered.An eight-level,three-component
receiverchain,with a diameterof 43 mm and an opera-
tionaldepthexceeding2 km hasbeenbuilt to meetthese
requirements. The receiversareequippedwith sidearms
for clamping,whichareactivatedby dcmotors,asshown
in Figure3. The distancebetweenlevelshasbeensetto
5 m, whichpermitsP-wavefrequenciesof up to 500 Hz
and S-wavefrequenciesof up to 300 Hz to be recorded
without spatialaliasing.Occasionally,higher frequen-
cies were recorded,in which case interlacedreadings
were taken, amountingto a level separationof 2.5 m.
The frequencyresponseof thetool equippedwith 40-Hz
miniaturegeophonesis linear in the band 60-800 Hz.

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210 Downhole seismicimaging
Fig. 3. Multilevelboreholeseismicreceiverchainfor deepVSP surveyscontainingeight 3-component
modules.Eachmoduleis clampedto the boreholeby a sidearm.
An accelerometerversionof the tool hasalsobeenbuilt,
with a frequencybandof 60-4000 Hz.
Dynamite chargesof 35-225 g were detonatedin
water-filledpercussion-drilled
holesat depthsvarying
between 5 and 25 m. The boreholes were filled with wa-
ter beforeeachshot.A full roundof shotswasnormally
recordedbeforechangingthe depthof the receivers,in
orderto maintainsimilarcouplingconditions.Seismo-
graphswith 21-bit and 24-bit resolutionwere usedfor
data recording.The trigger signalwas transmittedby
radio and/orcableto the recordingstation,which was
placedcloseto the boreholecollar.
The Coverageof VSP Surveys
Coverageanalysisprovidesa meansfor choosinga
layoutthat will coverthe sitevolumeas evenlyas pos-
sible.The followingquestionsdefinethe scopeof the
coverageanalysis:
ß Can a volume be defined in which a structure would
be detectedwith reasonablecertainty,if it exists?
ß Can unfavorablepositionsbe predicted?
ß How shoulda group of surveysbe configuredso
that the regionof reasonablecertaintycoversmost
of the investigationvolume?
ß What can be known aboutstructuresthat escape
detectiondueto an unfavorablesurveygeometry?
The primarypurposeof the coverageanalysisis to de-
limit the regionsof spacethat cannotbe probedwith
a given surveylayout.This is essentiallya geometrical
Downloaded 26 Jun 2012 to 95.28.162.50. Redistribution subject to SEG license or copyright; Terms of Use: http://segdl.org/
problem,which can be formulatedas follows: Given a
linearreceiverarrayanda pointsource,cana reflection
occurat a point P(x, y, z) if the reflectinginterfaceis a
plane(D, 0, •)) containingP? In this formulation,D is
the distancefrom the origin of the coordinates,0 is the
dip andq>is the dip directionor azimuth.
On a plane reflector,the reflectionpoints are dis-
tributedalonga straightsegmentlimitedbythereflection
pointscorresponding to the first andthe lastdetectorsin
the arrayor, if the reflectionplaneintersectsthereceiver
array,by one of thesepointsand the intersectionof the
planewith the array.If the azimuth•) is left to vary,the
reflectionsegmentsgeneratea surfacelike the one in
Figure4a. If the distanceD alsovaries,the locusof the
reflectionpointsis a volume.The shapeandsizeof this
volumedependon the dip. The coveragevolume for a
dip of 60ø is presentedin Figure4b and c. The region
betweenthe sourceandthe receiversappearsas a blind
zone, becausereflections are not defined if the source
and the receiversare on oppositesidesof a reflecting
plane. The outer boundaryof the coveragevolume is
determinedby the recordingtime.
Figure 4d illustrateshow a site can be coveredby
ten offsets.The geometryof the shotpointspreaddoes
not needto be exactlyregular,and locationswith easy
access,thinoverburden, andcompetentbedrockarepre-
ferred. Note that someregionsremain uncoveredeven
with ten shotpoints.To resolvethis problem,VSP sur-
veys are normally conductedin severalboreholes,with
eachsubsequent surveypartlyoverlapping theprevious
onesbut also contributingnew informationfrom other
 Multiazimuth VSP for rock characterization 211

Fig. 4. (a) Locusof the reflectionsegmentswhenonly the azimuth4)varies.The dip 0 andthe distancefrom
the origin D are fixed.The sourcepoint is markedwith a black dot andthe receiverarraywith a thick line.
(b) The volumecoveredfrom one shotpointwhen 4) and D vary and the dip 0 is fixed at 60ø. (c) Cut view
of the coveragevolume.The light greyregionbetweenthe shotpointandthe receiverarraydepictsthe blind
zone.(d) Volumecoveredby 10 shotpointswhen4) and D vary andthe dip 0 is fixedto 60ø.

regionsof the site,until a quasi-completeanditeratively Z-component poims upwardsalong the borehole, the
validatedcoverageis obtained. radial R-componentis perpendicularto Z pointing to
the shotpointand the transverseT-componentis per-
pendicularto both.
PROCESSING OF VSP DATA The time-depth function of the wavefield propagat-
The VSP survey at the Kuhmo-Romuvaarasite ing with the velocity c is given by the hyperbola
(Figure1) in boreholeKR2 wascarriedoutin 1995using t2(•)c2_ • 2_ re2,with(re, 0,ze)being
thecoordinates
sevenshotpoints(Cosmaet al., 1995). KR2 was drilled of theshotpoint,
[ = z - ze andthez-axisrunningalong
to a depth of 1100 rn in 1994 (Anttila et al., 1999b) theborehole.The slopeV = dz/dt is the apparentveloc-
usingstandard56-mm core drilling. The receiverinter- ity andIV[ _•c, with IV[ = c forre = 0. Reflected
wave-
val was 5 m, between40 rn and 1075 m, amountingto fieldsgeneratesimilarhyperbolictime-depthfunctions,
208 receiverstations.The surveylayoutwas optimized exceptthat the sourceis virtual, as explainedbelow.
by performinganalysesof the coverageobtainablewith As canbe seenin both Z- and R-componentprofiles
variouslayoutcombinations. in Figures 5 and 6, the direct P-wave onsetsfollow
closelythe time-depthfunctionfor c = 5850 m/s, which
indicatesthatthe velocityvariationsthroughoutthepro-
Preliminary Examination of the Data file are small. The direct P-wave onsets are weak in the
The three-component
raw datashownin Figures5, 6, T-component(Figure 7), becausethe P-wave is polar-
and 7 were obtained at Kuhmo-Romuvaara in bore- ized in the T = 0 plane.
hole KR2 from shotpointL22 (Figure 1) (Cosmaet al., A slopebreak can be seenat 440-460 m, associated
1995). The boreholedips 75ø to the west and shotpoint with threeup-goingevents,markedA, B, and C. Event
L22 has a south-southeast offset of about 200 m. The A cannotbe a P-wave reflection,becauseits apparent

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212 Downhole seismicimaging

Traveltime (ms)
200.00 250.00 300.00 350.00

140.00

P-WAVE

.Fig.5. Z-component
rawdatafromKuhmo-Romuvaara
borehole
KR2,shotpoint
L22.Reflections
discussed
in text.

velocity is smallerin absolutevaluethan c = 5850 m/s. The absenceof tubewavesin Figures5-7 is largely
In fact, it correspondsto an S-wavetravelingwith a ve- dueto the clampedthree-component
receivers.The rel-
locity V• = 3350 m/s, which was convertedon the same ative scarceness of the direct S-wave field can be also
interfacethat generateseventC. AlthougheventB has noted.This has to do with the shotbeing fired suffi-
no apparentassociatedS-waveconversion,it can be in- cientlydeepin the bedrock.
terpretedas a P-wavereflection.As B has an apparent
velocity closeto the limit I VI = c, the reflectionoccurs Data Preconditioning
closeto normalincidenceandlittle or no energyis con-
As the very first stageof processing,
a precondition-
vertedto S-waves. Furthersupportfor thisinterpretation
ing schemeconsistingof the following steps--typical
can be found in the R-componentprofile in Figure 6,
to anyVSP processingsequence (Hardage,1983)--was
whereeventsA andC originateat the samedepth,while
applied:
eventB is slightly shallower.ForwardconvertedS en-
ergy (eventD) originatingat the samedepthas events 1. Band-passfilteringwasappliedto eliminatespec-
A and C is also noticeable. Traces of eventsA, B, and tral componentsoriginatingwith instrumentaland
C can alsobe observedin the T-componentas virtual environmentnoise,including50/60-Hz powerline
sources associated with reflectors that are not confined contamination.Filtering in the same band (or
to the T = 0 plane. This will be discussedin more de- slightlywider) was repeatedafter eachpossibly
tail below in the sectionon polarizationanalysisin IP noise-generatingoperation,e.g., medianfiltering,
space. deconvolution.

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0.00 50.00
.5
.
• 540.00
Fig. 6. R-componentraw datafrom Kuhmo-RomuvaaraboreholeKR2, shotpointL22. Seetext.
2. Medianfilters were usedto removedirect P- and
S-wavesand tube waves.The pathsalong which
the medianfilters were performedare determined
wheneverpossibleby time picking.In othercases,
time-depthfunctionswere computedby assuming
a velocity model.
3. Deconvolutionwas performedwhen deemednec-
essary,mainly to removeringing.
4. Traceequalizationwasperformedat the endof the
preprocessing sequenceto compensatefor ampli-
tudelossby geometricalspreadingandattenuation.
This was doneeitherby TAR (true amplitudere-
covery)orby AGC (automaticgaincontrol).Inboth
casesthe equalizationwasdoneby the sameoper-
ator for all threecomponents,to conservethe po-
larization information.
A thoroughcheck of the data was performeddur-
ing this stageand,whereneeded,othermeansof signal
Downloaded 26 Jun 2012 to 95.28.162.50. Redistribution subject to SEG license or copyright; Terms of Use: http://segdl.org/
Multiazimuth VSP for rock characterization 213
Traveltime (ms)
150.00 200.00 250.00 300.00 350.00
-WAVE D
conditioningwere applied,e.g., staticcorrectionsbased
on heterogeneous and/oranisotropicvelocitymodels.
Theeffectof thepreconditioning sequence canbe seen
by comparingthe Z-componentdatain Figures5 and8.
The preconditioningoperations did not makesecondary
wavefieldsemergeconvincinglyfrom the background
noise,consistingmainly of noncoherentscattering.The
noncoherentappearanceis furthermore increasedby
the fractureshaving very diverseorientations,which
causeseventhe fairly coherenteventsto intersectand
interfere.
Thetaskof retrievingsecondary wavefieldsfrom seis-
mic profiles in crystallinerocks can thereforebe ap-
proachedby either increasingtheir amplitude or by
enhancingtheir coherency.Attemptingto increasethe
amplitudeby increasingthe energyof the sourcemay
meetwith onlymoderatesuccess, becausethe scattering
noiseis shot-generated andthereforelikely to increase
proportionallywith the coherentsignal. Emphasizing
214 Downhole seismicimaging

Traveltime (ms)
0.00 50.00 lOO.OO 150.00 200.00 250.00 300.00 350.00

40.00

140.00

240.00-

340.00

440.00

540.00

640.00

740.00

940.00

1040.00

Fig. 7. T-componentraw datafromKuhmo-Romuvaara

boreholeKR2, shotpointL22. Seetext.

coherencyis likely to be a more rewardingapproach. of stackingpaths,the coherencycanbe usedeffectively

Multichannelfilters based on the image point trans-
form have been developedand are currentlyused for
enhancingweakreflectionsand for separatinginterfer-
ing events.
The Image-Point Transform
The IP (image-point) transform is a version of the
Radon transformand forms the core of the technique
thatwe havedevelopedfor filteringcrystallinerockVSP
data.Radontransformshavebeenappliedto seismicdata
in many ways.In most cases,a slantstack'r-p trans-
form is used,the apparentvelocitylimits beingvaried
accordingto the predictedtraveltimesof the reflections.
Radon transformsin which stackingpathsare not lin-
earhavealsobeenused(Miller et al., 1987). Unlike the
'r-p transform,the IP transformstacksthe data along
hyperbolicpathscorresponding to the time-depthfunc-
tionsof possiblereflectors.Due to this "natural"choice
to enhancetheweakreflections.Otheradvantages of the
IP transformincludethe efficientseparationof interfer-
ing reflectionsand the possibilityof directlyusingthe
IP transformedprofilesas interpretationtools.
In a constant-velocity
medium, a reflectionplane is
completelydefinedby the mirror imageof the source$
with respectto thatplane,i.e., the imagepoint,asshown
in Figure9. Therefore,any time-depthfunctionassoci-
atedwith a planarreflectorcanbe generated by comput-
ing the distancefrom the imagepoint to eachdetector
anddividingby thevelocity.Therefore,theIP transform
turns the hyperbolicreflectionpatternsof time-depth
spaceinto pointsin IP space.
A cylindricalcoordinatesystem((, [, q•) has been
usedin Figure9 in whichthe [-axis lies alongthebore-
hole (assumedto be straight),the (-axis containsthe
source$, and the angle q•is the azimuthrelativeto the
I-axis. All image sourceswith the same((, [) coordi-
natesproduceidenticaltime-depthfunctions,because

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 Multiazimuth VSP for rock characterization 215

Traveltime (ms)
150.00 200.00 250.00 300.00 350.00

'--•-i[,
: -'*[:2

• 540.00

640.00 -

740.00-

840.00 ..................................... •..........................................................

940.00

Fig. 8. Z-component,preprocessed
datafrom Kuhmo-Romuvaara
boreholeKR2, shotpointL22.

the distancesfrom the imagesourceto all receiversare by replacingthe variable• with

independentof the relativeazimuthq0.This propertyal-
lows most of the computationsto be performedin two p __4•2 q_• 2. (3)
dimensions.The third dimensionis regainedat a later If the distancep from the origin is usedinsteadof
stage,when the polarizationof the data is examined.It the offset•, the transformedrepresentation will not be
shouldbe notedthattherelativeazimuthq0in (•, [, q0)is stretchedand is easier to use as an interpretivetool.
differentfrom the dip direction<bin (D, 0, <b)-Bothrep- The traveltimedoesnot dependon the relativeazimuth
resentationsuniquelydefinea plane and canbe derived <b,i.e., the locus of possibleimage pointsforms a cir-
from eachother.The time-depthfunctionof a reflected cle centeredon the borehole.The image-pointtrans-
event is
formed profile F(p, •) is obtainedby stackingin the
time-depthprofileg(z, t) alongpathscorresponding to
tr--4(•2-I-(Z
--[)2)/C-
4•2-I-[2_l_z
2--2Z[/c, all (p, •) pairswithin a selecteddomainPmin< P < [}max,
[min•< [ _<[max-Thus, all possiblepositionsand orienta-
(1)
tionsare coveredthat a reflectingplanemay have:
wheretr isthetraveltimeto thereceiverplacedat depthz,
c is the constantpropagationvelocity,and (•, [) are the r(•, p) fZmi
: ,JZmax
n
dz g(z, t -- tr(t•, p; z)), (4)
coordinatesof the imagesource.Equation(1) becomes
wheret•(•, p; z) is the arrivaltime corresponding
to the
planar reflectorspecifiedby p and • to the detectorat
tr--V/p
2--I'-
z2--2z[/c (2) depthz.

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216 Downhole seismicimaging
.... .. Rec
Fig. 9. Cylindricalcoordinatessystemusedin the image-pointalgorithm.
The inversetransformis constructedby integrating
alongeachpaththat receivedthe contributionof g(z, t)
in the direct transform:
g(z, t)- •Ht d?•r([.p- pr(z t; [))
2,rc2t • • '
where
Pr-- V/c2t2
--z2+ 2z[.
The Hilbert transformH andthe derivativewith respect
to time are used to restorethe original signal shape,
similarlyaswith the -r-p transform.
The envelope,i.e., instantaneousamplitude,of the IP
transformedZ-componentprofilefrom Figure8 is pre-
sentedin Figure 10. The triangularshapeis due to the
(p, [) representation,becauseI p I< •. As can be seen
in this figure, the amplitudeis concentratedin certain
regionsof the IP space.Higher amplitudesin IP space
canbe generated by higheramplitudes and/orhigherco-
herencyalongthe integrationpath.Bothphenomenaare
indicativeof the probablepresenceof a true reflector.
The inversetransform does not reproduceexactly
the original profile. The coherentP-wave reflections
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d Sou'e
Image source
-"
are enhancedwith respectto the original profile, and
noncoherent noise as well as coherent events corre-
spondingto other wave types are suppressed because
of their lack of coherencyalong the integrationpaths
computedfor c = 5850 m/s. The two-waytransformed
, , Z-componentprofileispresentedin Figure11.The con-
(5)
vertedS-wave(eventA) hasdisappeared andseveralup-
goingeventsappear,followingthe sametrendaseventB,
(6) alongwith othercoherentpatternswith differentorienta-
tions.
Nonlinear Enhancement of Reflectors
The generalfilteringeffectof the image-pointtrans-
form resultsfrom the useof the actualpropagationve-
locity in the computationof the integralpaths.The fil-
tering effectcanbe increasedby following a nonlinear
approachinsteadof the linear integral in the inverse
transform. For example, the amplitudesalong each
stackingpath can be orderedand the sum performed
only for a chosensubset.A less computationallyde-
mandingmethodis to computethe envelopesin the IP
transformedspaceandweightthe sumby the maximum

IC) [x 1000m]
Fig. 10. The amplitudeenvelopeof the IP transformedZ-componentprofile from Figure 8.
of the envelopealong each integrationpath. The opti-
mum weightto be usedwith the filter dependson cer-
tain characteristics
of the data and is decidedupon on
a case-by-casebasis.Heavy weightingof the envelope
maxima would result in well-defined, but fewer, events,
the fainter reflectionsbeing filtered out along with the
noise.Light weightingwould let throughmore events
but the coherencywould improveonly slightly.A fairly
safe procedurefor preventingover-processing consists
of randomlyrearrangingpartsof theIP transformedpro-
file so that causalcoherencyis destroyed.The dummy
profileis thenrun throughthe sameprocessingscheme
as the real profile. Coherenteventsseemingto emerge
in the dummyprofileindicatethatthepowerof the filter
must be turned down.
The methoddescribedabovehasbeenappliedto en-
hancethecoherency
of theprofilepresented
in Figure11.
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Multiazimuth VSP for rock characterization 217
The upperpart of the profile is displayedin Figure 12a.
It canbe seenthat eventB hasbecomeoverwhelmingly
clear, while event C has diminished. Other events seem-
ingly parallel to B also becameclearer,togetherwith
severaldown-goingeventswith oppositeslopes.Note
thatwavefrontswith low apparentvelocities(in absolute
values)would be reflectedat nearly normal incidence.
The relativelysmalloffsetof shotpointL22 wouldmake
them subhorizontaland appearpreponderantlyin the
Z-component.EventE is interpretedasa secondarysur-
facereflectionof C (wereit a real reflection,thereflector
would haveto be abovethe ground.
Dip Filtering in IP Space
The IP transform can also be used to enhance certain
subsetsof reflectedevents,e.g.,by formingdip classes.
218 Downhole seismicimaging

Traveltime (ms)
0.00 50.00 100.00 J 150.00 200.00 250.00 350.00
!

:',.:
':-,, • •:-'>
• ._...
:"
.............. .:..
..:,..::•
,.•
•:,._..
.................... :i._
•,--._
::--_•:-•
.:-,..
:- ,::•._.,
_.:..-:
.,•-._,--,,•.,
,.'.:.>•.. ::. :: ,, :-'.:..• .... ...... .
::- --•.?,.-_'/:::,,"-':.
:'..•,'-..;- •.: ,
44o.oo .: :'-':

...... •.- .............................. F ...................................

Fig. 11. Two-waytransformedZ-componentprofile.The originalProfile . beforethe transformis presented

in Figure8. The envelopeof the sameprofile in IP spaceis shown•n F•gure10. Seetext.

The relative dip in IP spaceis definedas [/p. The IP Polarization Analysis in IP Space
transformgathersthe time-depthhyperbolicreflection
The (p, [) coordinatesof the image-pointspacede-
patternsinto localized events,and reflectorswith dif-
fine two of the threeparametersneededto determinethe
ferentorientationsareimagedin differentregionsof the 3D positionof a reflector(as notedabove,the azimuthq>
transformspace.Filteringis achievedbymutingselected
relativeto the I-axis playsno role in the IP transform).
areasof the IP transformspace.For example,secondary
A straightforwardmethod for estimatingthe azimuth
surfacereflections,suchaseventE in Figure6, havetheir
is to rotateincrementallythe R and T componentsand
imagepointsabovethe[ = 0 axis(negative[ values)and
observeat whichanglereflectionpatternsdisappear. As-
canbe suppressed by blankingtheregion[ < 0. This dip-
sumingthatthe eventis a P-wave,the anglewouldgive
filteredversionof the profilein Figure 12a is presented
theperpendiculardirectionto the actualsignalpolariza-
in Figure 12b.
tion. A more elaboratetechniquerelies on solvingthe
Another example of simple IP filtering is the sup-
eigenvectorproblemto determinethe directionand de-
pressionof the up-goingsubhorizontal events,allowing
gree of polarizationwithin a time window.A filtering
a clearerview of the inclined features.The profile in
effect is achievedby projectingthe instantaneous par-
Figure 12c hasbeen obtainedfor 0 < [/p < 0.71. More
ticle motion at the time t on the averagepolarization
elaboratefilters,e.g.,with foldedboundaries,canbe ap- direction determined in a time window centered on t.
plied with similar easeto emphasizeor suppressindi-
Multiplying the projectedcomponents
by the factor
vidual or classesof reflectionevents.The intuitiverep-
resentationofferedby the IP transformgreatlyhelpsin
designingthe filters. L(t)--1- (Xl(t))
•,h2(t)2
' (7)
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 Multiazimuth VSP for rock characterization 219

Fig. 12. (a)Nonlinearinverse of theimage-point transform presented in Figure10.(b) Dip-filtered

versionof
theprofilein Figure12(a) in whichall events with• < 0 in theIP representationfromFigure10weremuted.
(c) Dip-filtered
versionof theprofilein (a) whereall eventswith0 < •/p < 0.71in theIP representationfrom
Figure10 weremuted.(d) Polarization-filtered Z-component profile.Seetext.

where hl(t) and h2(t) are the largestand the second-
largesteigenvalues determinedin therespective window,
wouldenhancethelinearlypolarizedevents,becausethe
factorL(t) isclosetounitywhentherectilinearity ishigh
(Kanasewich,1975).
A problemencountered whenattemptingto applypo-
larization analysisto crystallinerock VSP data is the
intermingling andcriss-crossing of eventsarrivingfrom
differentdirections.In fact,therewouldbe very few, if
any,time windowsin a time-depthprofile in which a
reflectedarrivalis unaffectedby interferencewith other
arrivalsandnoise.The resultis thatthepolarizationes-
timatedin time-depthspaceis generallyextremelyun-
stable.Polarizationanalysisperformedin image-point
spacelargely avoidssuchproblems,becausethe hy-
perbolicpatternsfrom the time-depthprofilescollapse
to separatelocationsin IP space.However,the polar-
izationis not conserved if nonlinearfilteringhasbeen
performedindependently on eachcomponent,as noted
in the section,Nonlinear Enhancementof Reflectors.If
nonlinearfilteringis to be applied,it hasto be doneafter
polarizationanalysis.Dip filtering appliedsimultane-
ouslyto thethreecomponents doesnotaltertheirrelative
amplitudes
andcanthereforebeappliedbeforepolariza-
tion analysis.
Figure 12d is the polarization-filteredZ-component
profile.The polarizationfilteringwasperformedin IP
spaceby solvingthe eigenvectorproblemin a window
slidingalongp and multiplyingthe projectedcompo-
nentsby L(p) [seeequation(7)]. Thelinearinversetrans-
formdescribed earlierwasthenappliedanddipfiltering
wasperformedto suppress the surfacemultiples.
Figures 12b and 12d depict the resultsof two fil-
tering techniques,one basedon nonlinearcoherency
enhancement, the other on polarization.Both figures
presentthe Z-component.The nonlinearfilteredpro-
file in Figure 12b displaysa higherlevel of continu-
ity of the strongereventsat the expenseof the weaker
events.Thepolarization-filtered profilein Figure12dap-
pearsas lessresolved,but the ratiobetweenstrongand
weak eventsis betterpreserved.Furthermore,the am-
plituderatio of the threecomponents is alsoconserved
by the polarizationfilter, which allowsreflectionsarriv-
ing from specificazimuthsto be enhanced by looking
for theirmaximumamplitudewhilerotatingthecompo-
nents.However,theamplitudesarerelativelyinsensitive

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220 Downhole seismicimaging

Traveltlme (ms)
150.00 200.00 250.00 300.00 350.00
rF

40.00
......
140.00 .

.•..
240.00

•0.00 -

540.00-

740.00 -

840.00

1040.00 .......

Fig. 13. Polarization-filteredR-componentprofile.

to simplerotation,e.g.,at 4-30øoff-target,the amplitude thatthe azimuthcanbe estimatedwith a precisionclearly

of an event would still be 0.87 of its maximum.
fore difficult to estimatewith sufficientprecisionthe
azimuthat which a giveneventattainsits maximum.To
avoidthis difficulty,azimuthslicesaretakenin IP space
and back-transformedindependentlyto time-depth
space.
To demonstrate
the merit of polarizationfiltering,we
shall focus on a reflection event, which is difficult to
identifydueto its low amplitudeand interferencewith
strongerevents.Sucha barelyvisibleeventis markedas
F in Figure 13 (the R-component).The azimuth-slicing
procedureis exemplifiedin Figures14.
The horizontalcomponents wererotatedthrough10ø
increments anda cosinebell wasappliedwith anaperture
of 4-30ø. The amplitudeof eventsarrivingfrom other
azimuths,asdeterminedbypolarizationanalysis,wasre-
ducedto 20%. The eventF displaysmaximumamplitude
in Figure 14a at 150ø. Comparisonwith the profile ro-
tatedto the directionon 170ø (Figure 14b)demonstrates
It is there- better than 4-20 ø.
INTERPRETATION
Combining the Information of Several Shotpoints
The azimuthestimateobtainedfor eachreflectorby
polarizationanalysiscanbefurtherimprovedby compar-
ing profilesfrom severalshotpoints.To fully determine
the positionand orientationof a plane,three indepen-
dent parametersare needed,e.g., the triplet (D, 0, {•).
One planarreflectormust thereforebe identifiedusing
three noncoplanarprofiles. Theoretically,seven shot-
pointsforming noncollineartripletsare neededto en-
surethata planarreflectordoesnot fall in theblindzone
of at leastthreeprofiles.The numberof shotpointscan
be reducedto five if the caseof a shotpointbeingcon-
tained in a reflectorplane is dismissedas improbable.
However,a surveywith a reducednumberof shotpoints

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 Multiazimuth VSP for rock characterization 221

a) Traveltime
(ms)
0.00 50.00 100.00 150.00 200.00 250.00 300.00

40.00-
•:•.•••.] • ......-•
.-i•
•/ -,:::-::•:.:•4•t:.:•:....:
.•;
..;/:.•.•
t.• C• -:/•.••:• •-••½.>.::
:.-:•
•_::•:F•• •-•....ß-.. .......•_•:• ::.,•..--.•
:._:•.......-• ,:....
• ,•:-: •- ._.-•:
.....
._.....-:•:
..:•:
........

• l•.• ") •-e •' •i•{:•:;iZ: --•L•-•:½•-•X•-.'-L - •: •; ' •-•-•;: .. • .._ •. - -.. t• .•. . :- ,. ß• •.. : ..,..•_.• - ...,.:.' .- .• ,-....., • ß. ' .: ß -' :.•.. : :

........ : :•:•::::::•5:•'•?••-*•:••••• :5::•:•L•t:t'

:-.•fi :••••••••.
....
•*c '• • ::-'-•.::•:.:": -•'•-;::::
? :' -?:•-":•"-/::'•':.-..5--%-
::'& •

Traveltime (ms)

) 0.00 50.00100.00
'----•-•'-•:•'-'•'•
.•-
150.00
' ".•,-:•'
200.00 r•"50'00
' •-:':-"::-'-•
700.00
: -"'.x, '•';•-.:'
• • '-.• :-"•--".'-.:' ',....
•'• •t:': _'---•.•'
:",:•: ,':.....
_,:v"'
140.00-

940.00.•::•.•v•::::.•.•:::;:>•:;;•:•..•:`.•.•.•:•.•.•:•::•::.•:f•?•:•:.•:m.:.;•..•.:•:•`•..•.•.?:•.•:.•..:
:--.....,
............. >•.-•- :.....
......: :.:•-.: - •..-:--
-:-...

Fig. 14. (a) Polarization-filtered

profile;azimuth150ø.(b) Polarization-filtered
profile;azimuth170ø.Seetext.

may fall shortof correctlydeterminingthe geometryof graduallymodifiedwhile examiningthe simultaneous

the site, becauseit is also necessaryto insurethat the fit betweenthe time-depthfunctionsand candidatere-
three determinations refer actuallyto the sameplane, flectioneventsin all profiles.If recognizedassuch,con-
which becomesincreasinglydifficult as the numberof' verted(P-to-SV) eventsare alsoused.Conversionshave
reflectorsincreases.A practicalapproachto resolving a differentvariationwith dip and azimuththan P-wave
the site geometryby a multioffset,multiazimuthVSP reflectionsandthereforeaddindependentinformation.
surveyrelieson simultaneous interactivefitting among The structurespresented in Figure15wereinferredby
severalprofiles. the procedureoutlinedabove.The reflectorswere clas-
The procedureconsistsof fitting a time-depthfunc- sifiedintothreecategories: certain(I), probable(II), and
tion with an observedreflector,e.g., in profile P•. Each possible(III). Three classI featureswere found,one in-
time-depthfunctionis pairedwith a (p, •) point in IP tersectingtheboreholeat 425 m, thesecondintersecting
space,which in turn determinesthe coordinatesof the theboreholeat 1015m, andthethirdintersecting theex-
corresponding reflectionplaneexceptfor therelativeaz- tensionof the boreholeat 1380 m. The dipsof all three
imuth q•. are between35ø and45ø andthe dip directionsbetween
An estimatevalue for q• is promptedby the polar- 240ø and 260ø. Reflectorswith slightlydifferentorien-
ization analysis,thus defining the reflector plane as tationsand observedapproximatelyat the samedepths
(p, •, q•). Subsequently,time-depth functionsare de- were interpretedas substructures of the samemain œea-
rived for profiles P1, P2..... P,. Note that the coordi- tures.

nates(p, •, q•)arerelativeto theshotpoint,andthetrans- In Figure 15 the reflectorsseemto convergetoward

ferbetweenprofilesmustbedonethroughamoregeneral theborehole.This is an effectof the limitedcoverageof
coordinatesystem,e.g.,(D, 0, •). The azimuthq•is then theVSP layout.The limitedcoverage problemis avoided

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222 Downhole seismicimaging

Romuvaara, KR2

2OO

=200 -

-400 -

-600-..-

-800

-1000
3500

4000
-1200
7800 45ooy- North (m)
7600 7400 7200
7000 6800 6600 6400
X: East (m)

Fig. 15. Thereflecting

elements
mappedby VSP in boreholeKR2 at Kuhmo-Romuvaara.
Boreholein red,
shotsshownin opencircles.

by conducting surveysin severalboreholes.In the case setdippingin the oppositedirectionappearsat shallow

of interpretations
usingmultipleboreholes,thetendency depthsin thevicinityof KR8 buthasnotbeendetected in
is for class I reflectors to become more obvious, at the the rest of the site. Five seismic structures meet the class I
expense of classII andclassIII reflectors.
Theinterpreta-criteria,all belongingto oneof thetwo main sets.Their
tion is doneby a simultaneous fittingprocedure,similarmeanorientationsare outlinedin Figure 16. Basedon an
to the one presentedabovefor multiple offsetprofiles independent analysisof the datafor eachborehole,the
measured in' the same hole. A site area on the order of otherreflectorspresentedin Figure 16 wereinterpreted
10km2 is usuallycovered withfiveto nineboreholes, asclassII, but their consistency with the generalmodel
arrangedso that groupsof threeor four boreholesfall tendsto increasethe reliabilityof their interpretation.
roughlyin thesameplane.Theaveragedistance between
the boreholes is 500 m.
Comparison of VSP Resultswith
The example from Figure 16 is from Eurajoki- HydrogeologicalModels
Olkiluoto(Figure2) (Anttilaet al., 1999a)andcombines
the resultsfrom two deepholes,KR4 andKR2, and two A 3D modelofthe total saltcontentofthe groundwater
shallowboreholes,KR8 and KR6 (Cosmaet al., 1996). at the Olkiluoto-Eurajokisitewasconstructed aspart of
The measurementswere done in 1995. The deep holes the detailedinvestigationof the area(PosivaOy, 1996).
weremeasuredat 5.0-m intervalsto 900-1000 m depth. The model has been basedon the electrical resistivity
The shallowholeswere drilled to a depthof 300 m and of the rock andgroundwaterinferredfrom electricand
weremainlyusedto validatetheorientationof the struc- electromagnetic surveys,thesalinecontentof theground
turespredictedby the longholes.Sevenshotpoints were watermeasuredin watersamples,andtheporosityof the
usedfor eachlongholeandsix for the shortones. rock determinedfrom logging.
Two setsof reflectorsdominatethe site, one dipping Beneaththe meteoric and sweet-waterlayers, three
south-southeast with dipsof 20 to 30ø andanotherdip- regionswereidentifiedwith increasing
TDS (totaldis-
ping more to the southeast with dips of 45 to 60ø. A solved solids) content.A sectionroughly following
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 Olkiluoto - Eurajoki

KR8 • • ......
•-KR2

-500 -

-1000 -

-500

-1500
5O0
oX:East(m)
-500 0
500 1000 1500
Y: North (m)
Fig. 16. The reflectingelementsmappedby VSP from boreholesKR2, KR4, KR6, and KR8 at Eurajoki-
Olkiluoto. Boreholesin darkblue, shotslight blue.

C KR4 KR10 KR2 KR6 C'

TDS< I ga
R17B 1 g/l< TDS< 3 g/l
.:

R20A 3 g/l< TDS< 10g/I

10.g/l< TDS< 30g/I
R20B :' 30ga< TDS< 100g•
R14
-500 .... ' TDS> 100g/l

R3

15
-1000

Fig. 17. Salinitymodelfor Eurajoki-Olkiluotosite.ThesectionC-C' (seeFigure2) roughlyfollowsboreholes

KR8, KR4, KR2, and KR6. TDS, total dissolvedsalt. Reflections(R) correspondto fracturesobservedin
boreholes.

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224 Downhole seismicimaging
boreholesKR8, KR4, KR2, and KR6 is presentedin
Figure 17. The depth of the layers varies strongly
throughoutthe section,but the generaltrendfollowsthe
directionof the fracturezones.The positionsandorien-
tationsof the rock featuressuperimposed on the salinity
modelin Figure17havebeendeterminedmainlyby VSP
andcross-checked by examiningtheirmatchwith zones
of increasedfracturingobservedin boreholesacrossthe
site. The fracturezonescontrollingthe salinity model
appearto correlatewith the moreextensiveand contin-
uousseismicreflectorsfrom Figure 16.
A direct validation of the model inferred by VSP
has been obtainedfrom pumping testsundertakenin
the openholesKR7 and KR8 (PosivaOy, 1996). Good
hydraulicconnectionshavebeen observedbetweenthe
deeperpart of KR8 andthe upperpart of KR4 andbe-
tween the deeperpart of KR7 and KR4 at a depth of
350-400 m, asshownin Figure 18. The samedirectional
trend continuestowardsKR2 and KR6, with a downward
KR4
•8 KRI
SE
500
Fig. 18. Inferred hydraulicconnectionsbetweenboreholesKR1-KR10 at Eurajoki-Olkiluotosite T,
hydraulictransmissivity.
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step, as predictedby the VSP model of Figure 17. A
deepertransmissive featurewith a slightlylargerdip has
also been identified,again, as predictedby VSP. The
deepestfeaturespresentedin Figure 16 do not intersect
the boreholesand thus cannotbe validateddirectly by
hydraulicmeasurements.
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS
The VSP geometry is suitable for mapping both
steeplyandgentlydippingstructures in therock.Within
the FinnishSite InvestigationProgram,VSP was orig-
inally plannedto be used as a methodto confirm the
resultsof boreholelogsandgeologicalcorrelation.How-
ever, soon VSP turned out to be main tool for determin-
ing the locationand orientationof the fracturezones.
The main drawback of VSP is the existence of blind
zonesthat can preventthe detectionof significantfea-
tures close to the sources and receivers. The extent and
NW
,/ I T> IE-5 m2/s
I IE-6 < T < IE-5 m2/s
• 1E-7 < T < I E -6 m2/s

shapeof the blind zonesdependnot only on the layout
of the surveybut also on the geometryof the feature
itself.The surveylayoutcanbe optimizedby performing
analysesof the coverageobtainablewith variouslayout
combinations.
The initial surveysof the site characterizationpro-
gram were performedwith hydrophones, sincehigh-
frequencydata can also be obtainedwith borehole
hydrophone strings,whicharealsoeasierto deployand
providea higherdataproductionratethan3-component
clampedgeophones. However,thesesurveyslackeddi-
rectionalsensitivity,whichmadeimpossiblethe useof
polarizationasa filteringandinterpretation
tool.Thehy-
drophonedataalsocontaineddisturbinglyhighamounts
of tube waves. To avoid spatial aliasing, the low ve-
locity of the robewavesrequiredsmall receiverinter-
vals, which negatedthe benefitof high productivity.A
3-componentmultilevelreceiverchainwasbuilt to meet
boththeneedsof processing andinterpretation,in terms
of frequencyand directionalsensitivity,and the practi-
cal requirementsof operatingin slim deepholes,with
a small surveycrew,in locationswith difficult access.
The nearabsenceof robewavesfrom the datapresented
hereis largelydue to the useof clamped3-component
receivers.
The main difficulties to overcome have been the di-
versity of the orientationsof the targetsand the low
S/N ratio displayedby the reflectedevents.The rea-
son for the low S/N ratio is the low contrast in acous-
tic impedancebetweenthe fracturesand fracturezones
versusthe relatively competentcrystallinerock. Frac-
turesin crystallinerock appearasrepetitionsof similar
patternsat variousscales.Featureswith dimensionssig-
nificantlylargerthan the meanwavelengthwill gener-
ate coherentevents,while featuressignificantlysmaller
thanthe wavelengthwill producean integratednull re-
sponse.However,networksof fracturesandjoints with
dimensionscomparableto the wavelengthare likely to
producenoncoherent scattering.
Conversely,thetaskhas
beenalleviatedby the nearlyconstantseismicvelocity
throughoutthe rockmassandby the planarnatureof the
targets.
Severalwell-establishedtechniquesusedfor VSP in
sedimentary formations,e.g.,corridorstacking,f-k and
'r-p filtering,were droppedasunsuitablefor enhancing
reflectorswith a wide varietyof orientations.In general,
commonVSP processingroutineswere deemedinsuf-
ficient for mappingfracturezonesin crystallinerocks,
becausethey did not succeedin makingwavefieldsre-
flectedon suchfeaturesemergeconvincinglyfrom the
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Multiazimuth VSP for rock characterization 225
backgroundnoise.The image-point(IP) transformbe-
camethe core of the processingschemefor enhancing
weak reflectedwavefieldsand for separatinginterfer-
ing reflectionsfrom boundariesof varyingorientations.
With the IP transform,the stackingis donealongtime-
depth functionscorrespondingto wavefieldstraveling
with a givenvelocity.The IP transformturnshyperbolic
reflectionpatternsinto pointsin IP space.Noncoherent
noiseand coherenteventscorresponding to wave types
travelingwith othervelocitiesaresuppressed, whichpro-
ducesa filtering effect even when the two-way linear
transformis applied.The filteringeffectcanbe increased
by following a nonlinearapproachinsteadof the linear
integral.The IP transformcan alsobe usedto enhance
certainsubsetsof reflectedevents,e.g., by forming dip
classes.The intuitive representationoffered by the IP
transform,i.e., the fact that the reflectedenergyis con-
centratedin a small area,greatlyhelpsin designingthe
filters.
The main reasonfor using 3-componentreceiversis
the possibilityof using polarizationanalysisto deter-
mine the azimuth of the reflectors.A problemencoun-
teredwhen attemptingto applypolarizationanalysisto
datafromcrystallinerocksistheinterminglingandcriss-
crossingof eventsarrivingfrom differentdirections.Po-
larization analysisapplied in IP spacelargely avoids
suchproblems,allowingthe reflectorazimuthsto be es-
timatedwith a precisionof approximately4-15ø.
The reflector location determinations based on az-
imuth estimateswere furtherimprovedby simultaneous
interactivefitting of data from severalprofiles.The fi-
nal interpretationhasthen beendoneby combiningall
of the data collected in different boreholes at the site.
This resultedin a comprehensivegeometricalmodelof
the fracturezonesthroughoutthe site.The structuresin-
terpretedfrom individualVSP surveyshavebeenfound
consistent with each other.
The continuityand consistencyof featuresinferred
independentlyfrom severalVSP surveysconstitutean
internal verification of the model. However, the final
proof of the relevanceof our VSP resultscanbe found
in the goodcorrelationof the morepronouncedseismic
reflectorsand the hydrogeologicallysignificantzones
andgeochemicalmodelsdeterminedfor eacharea.The
VSP methodhas been found effectivefor identifying
and locating those featuresthat control groundwater
flow and for predictingthe distributionof groundwater
salinity.
Basedon the largenumberof surveysperformedand
the ample direct and indirect verificationsof results
226 Downhole seismicimaging

within theFinnishSiteInvestigationProgram,themulti- Cosma,C., Heikkinen,E, Honkanen,S., andKeskinen,J., 1995,VSP-

azimuth, multioffset VSP can be consideredan effective surveyat Romuvaarain Kuhmo,boreholesRO-KR8 andRO-KR9
methodfor determiningthepositionsandorientationsof andextendedpart of boreholeRO-KR2: PosivaOy, Workreport
PATU-95-72e.
fracturezonesin crystallinerock. The fracturemodels --1996, VSP-surveyat Olkiluoto in Eurajoki,boreholeOL-
inferred by the VSP surveysare relevantfor predict- KR8 and extendedparts of boreholesOL-KR2 and OL-KR4:
ing thepossiblepathsof radionuclidemigrationwithin PosivaOy, Work reportPATU-96-11e.
the groundwaterand the geochemicalconditionsin the Hardage,R. A., 1983,Verticalseismicprofiling,PartA: Principles:
vicinity of a plannedrepository,thushelpingto find at GeophysicalPress.
Kanasewich,E. R., 1975, Time sequenceanalysisin geophysics:
the site the rock volumesmost suitablefor locating a Univ. of Alberta Press.
repository.The mainobjectivesof theVSP surveyscon- Leary, E C., Henyey,T. L., and Li, Y-G., 1988, Fracturerelatedre-
ductedaspart of the FinnishSite InvestigationProgram flectorsin basementrockfrom verticalseismicprofilingat Cajon
for the Final Disposalof SpentNuclearFuel canbe thus Pass:Geophys.Res.Lett., 15, 1057-1060.
considered fulfilled. Miao, X. G., Moon, W. M., and Milkereit, B., 1995, A multioffset
three-component VSP studyin the SudburyBasin:Geophysics,
60, 341-353.
Miller, D., Oristaglio,M., and Beylkin, G., 1987, A new slanton
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS seismicimaging--Migrationandintegralgeometry:Geophysics,
52, 943-964.
The authorsexpresstheir gratitudeto POSIVA Oy for Posiva Oy, 1996, Kfiytetyn polttoaineenloppusijoitusSuomen
the long-termsustainedsupportof the development that Kallioperfifin.Yksityiskohtaiset
sijoituspaikkatutkimukset
1993-
led to the resultspresentedin thispaper.We are grateful 1996(in Finnish):PosivaOy, report96-19.
to Matt Salisbury,Dave Eaton,and BerndMilkereit for --1999, The final disposalfacility for spent nuclear fuel.
Environmentalimpact assessment report: PosivaOy, report,
valuableandconstructivecommentson the manuscript.
May.
Rector,J. W., 1988, Acquisitionand preliminaryanalysisof ori-
entedmulti-componentmultioffsetVSP data: DOSECC Cajon
REFERENCES PassDeep ScientificDrillhole: Geophys.Res. Lett., 15, 1061-
1064.

Anttila, P.et al., 1999a,Final disposalof spentnuclearfuel in Finnish S611ner,W., et al., 1992,VSP- A link betweenreflectionseismicpro-
bedrock--Olkiluotositereport:POSIVA Oy report99-10. filing andlithology,in Duerbaum,H.-J., Reichert,Ch., Sadowiak,
--1999b, Final disposal of spent nuclear fuel in Finnish E, andBram, K., Eds.,Integratedseismicsoberpfalz1989:KTB
bedrock--Romuvaarasitereport:PosivaOy, report99-11. Report92-5, Niedersfichsishes Landesamtfuer Bodenforschung.

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 Part VI

3D SeismicImaging

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Downloaded 26 Jun 2012 to 95.28.162.50. Redistribution subject to SEG license or copyright; Terms of Use: http://segdl.org/
 Chapter 15
3D Seismic Imaging for VMS Deposit Exploration,
Matagami, Quebec
Erick Adam, GervaisPerton, GrantArnold, Larry Matthews,and BerndMilkereit
ABSTRACT
Detectingdeep mineral resourcesin the vicinity of
existingmining campsis expensiveand time consum-
ing. The 3D seismicmethodis usedroutinelyin oil and
gasexplorationto map deepstratigraphiccontactsand
structuralfeatures.Its ability to map volcaniccontacts
andthe 1-kmdeepBell Allard volcanogenic massivesul-
fide (VMS) depositwastestedrecentlyin theMatagami
miningcamp.The surveyobjectiveswereto identifythe
seismicresponseof a VMS ore depositand to map the
mainlithologicalcontacts.The Bell Allard VMS deposit
appearsas a 100 m wide zone of high seismicampli-
tudes.The depositis underlainby a larger amplitude
anomalythat we attributeto a gabbrosill, or possibly
to the alterationzone of the deposit.We showthat the
depthof the main explorationtarget (the Key Tuffite)
canbe identifiedon a largeportionof the seismicsurvey
area and that its southwest limit defines the location of
a regionalfault (the Daniel fault). The azimuthand dip
of a synvolcanicfault was determinedfrom amplitude
analysisof a largegabbrosill. The Matagami3D seismic
experimentshowsthatseismicmethodscanimagea deep
VMS depositand map importantlithologicalcontacts
at a regionalscaleat a cost comparableto two 800-m
deepboreholesper squarekilometer.When appliedin
the appropriategeologicalcontext,a 3D seismicsurvey
hasthe potentialto assistdeepmineralexplorationand
increasethe chancesof making cost-effectivediscov-
eries.
INTRODUCTION
The Matagami mining camp was selectedfor this
study becauseit is an important Canadian zinc pro-
ducer [Canadawas the world leader in productionof
this metal in 1996 (NRCan statistics)].The zinc-rich
ore depositsof the Matagami mining campare typical
229
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of the primitive Archeanvolcanogenicmassivesulfide
(VMS) deposits(Franklin et al., 1981) which account
for almost50% of the total Canadianzinc production
(Singer, 1995). This is in contrastwith other countries
becauseonly 22% of the total world productionof zinc
comes from VMS deposits(Singer, 1995). Thus, ex-
plorationfor CanadianVMS depositsis importantfor
the Canadianeconomyandto maintainworld zinc sup-
plies.BecauseVMS depositsare generallysmallin ton-
nage(mediansize is 1.25 Mt), mostnew depositsmust
be locatedin the vicinity of existinginfrastructureto
be economic(Riverin, 1999). Since the initial discov-
ery at Matagami (Mattagami Lake Mine) in 1963, ex-
plorationfor satellitedepositshasprogressedfrom the
surfaceto depthsexceeding1000m. Until now,the min-
eral industryhasrelied heavily on deepdrilling to test
prospectivestratigraphysinceconventionalsurfacegeo-
physicalmethods(i.e., EM and magneticsurveys)are
generallyonly effectiveto depthsof a few hundredme-
tersandare affectedby the thick overburden.Giventhe
small size of the depositsand the high cost of explo-
rationfor deepmassivesulfidedeposits,alternatemeth-
odsof prospectingfavorablehorizonsare required.The
SeismicTechnologyResearchProjectwas initiated by
the GeologicalSurvey of Canadaand Noranda Inc. in
1990 in responseto this need and to take advantage
of multidisciplinarystudiesof the Abitibi Subprovince
of the CanadianSuperiorProvincebeing conductedby
Lithoprobe.
The 3D seismic-reflectionexperimentin the Mata-
gami districtof northernQuebecrepresentsthe culmi-
nationof a 1O-yearresearchprojectleadby the Geologi-
cal Surveyof Canada,with supportfrom three major
Canadianmining companiesand severaluniversities.
The experiencegainedby conductingseismicsurveysin
severalminingcampsandin variousgeologicalsettings
resultedin a preferred strategyto implementseismic
methodsin supportof mineralexploration.The favored
230 3D seismicimaging
approachconsistsof threedistinctphases.The objective
of the first phaseis to estimatethe acousticimpedance
(the productof densityand velocity) of the targetand
its host rocksby in-situ boreholeand laboratorymea-
surementson core samples.Reflectionamplitudesare
directly related to the acousticimpedancecontrastat
lithologicalcontacts.A minimum contrastof 10% ap-
pearsnecessaryto reflectseismicwaveswith sufficient
intensityto be observedat the surface.In the second
phase,the estimatedtargetreflectivityis verifiedby ac-
quiringa vertical seismicprofile (VSP). In a VSP ex-
periment,a shotis placed at the surfaceand the seis-
mic wavefieldis recordedat regulardepthintervalsin a
borehole.Reflectionsobservedusingthis surveygeom-
etry can be directlycorrelatedwith geologicalfeatures
intersectedby the borehole.If the targetreflectivityis
confirmed,a seismicline is acquiredin the third phase
to ensurethatthetargetcanbemappedfromthe surface,
to estimateits continuity,andto determinethe optimum
acquisitionparameters(suchasfrequencycontent,fold,
chargesize, etc.). Only after the successfulcompletion
of the threepreliminaryphasesis a 3D surveyplanned
using the acquisitionparametersdeterminedfrom the
2D seismicsurvey.The 3D seismicsurveyhasthe capa-
bility of mappingcomplexgeologicalstructuresin their
correctposition.High-probabilitydrill targetscanthen
be established.
Twohigh-resolutionseismicprofilesacrossthe South
Flank of the Matagami volcaniccomplex acquiredin
1990 and 1993 showed that surface seismic methods
could effectivelymap the moderatelydipping (<45ø)
SouthFlank stratigraphy(Adam et al., 1998; Calvert
andLi, 1999). Theseinitial surveyswere followedby a
numberof complementarystudies:(1) to definephysi-
cal rock propertiesin the area from in-situ and labora-
tory measurements (Cinq-Mars et al., 1995; Salisbury
et al., 1996); (2) to computethe theoretical3D seismic
responseof known structures(Adam et al., 1996); and
(3) to establishoptimalseismicacquisitionparameters.
A decision
wasthenmadetocarryouta20-km23D seis-
mic-reflectionsurveyto coveranareaof the SouthFlank
overlyingthe newly discovered Bell Allard deposit.The
primary surveyobjectiveswere(1) to useBell Allard as
a benchmarksurveyfor theseismicdectectionanddelin-
eationof VMS deposits;(2) to locateotherdepositswith
similar seismicsignatureswithin the surveyarea;and
(3) to provide operationalmodels for costingfuture
surveys.Here we detail the processingand interpre-
tation of the 3D seismicsurveyin Matagami and the
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implicationsfor VMS explorationin this campand in
similargeologicalsettings.
GEOLOGICAL SETTING
The Matagami volcaniccomplexis locatedin the
easternpart of the Harricana-Turgeon belt of the north-
ern Abitibi Subprovince(Lacroixet al., 1990) andwas
formedby two majorphasesofpredominamlytholeiitic
volcanism.The earlyphaseproduceddacitesandrhyo-
litesof the WatsonLake Group(Figure1), whereasthe
youngerphase,which producedthe WabasseeGroup,
was dominatedby basalticvolcanismwith subordinate
felsicactivityandwasaccompanied bymafic-dominated
subconcordant intrusions(BeaudryandGaucher,1986;
Pich• et al., 1993).A cherty,sulfidicchemicalsediment
known as the Key Tuffite marks the contactand hiatus
betweenthe two formationsand is traceablefor many
kilometresalongstrikeanddown-dipontheSouthFlank
of the mining camp(Sharpe,1968). This thin horizon
(0.6-6 m) was depositedduringa periodof intensehy-
drothermalcirculationand represents the primary ex-
plorationtargetin the campbecauseit is hostto mostof
the orebodiesdiscoveredto date (Pich6 et al., 1993).
The Matagami volcaniccomplexis boundedon the
southby immaturevolcanic-derivedclasticsediments
and iron-formationof the Taibi Group acrossan im-
portantstructuraldiscontinuity, andon the northby the
Matagami Group sedimentscomposedmainly of silt-
stoneand argillite with subordinategranitoid-pebble
conglomerate (BeaudryandGaucher,1986).
The volcanicand sedimentaryrockswere intruded
duringseveralepisodes. The Bell Rivercomplex,which
underliesand intrudesthe WatsonLake Group, is a
tholeiiticcomplexconsistingof a layeredsequenceof
gabbrowith stratiformmagmaticoxideconcentrations,
capped by a felsic granophyricunit (Beaudry and
Gaucher,1986; Maier et al., 1996). This intrusionis
thoughtto be synvolcanicin age and may have been
the heat sourcefor the hydrothermalactivityobserved
withintheoverlyingvolcanicsuccession (Sharpe,1968;
MacGeehan,1978; Maier et al., 1996).
The volcanic rocks of the Matagami complex are
foldedintoanopen,gentlynorthwest plungingstructure
known as the Galin6eanticline(Sharpe,1968). Rocks
on the southlimb of the anticline,wherethe studyarea
is located,are weakly deformedand metamorphosed,
anddip approximately 45øto the southwest (Pich• et al.,
1993). The north limb stratigraphyis subverticaland
 3D seismicimaging for VMS deposit exploration 231

•.•.- -..-,•
1...r•'---
•.•.
,.•-.'l
.'•,._-
•-.-'.'•.,::•,•
Z•.g;•.•
,.'.• '

• - - ,•'LacMaffagami
'' •rchan Wes• • ' ";• ............ •

• .•"•- •t{• • Ch•bouamau•

I Line29-3 %/ ,' ', •'orcfi• Noranda • / •
I ß I BellAllard. • I l
3D5URV ' ValdOr
GRID•--M• --•0,t•-• • ,. •
o _

Gabbro
• Peridotlte • Previous producer
I--'-! Dumagami Rhyolite
Diabase I'-I Producing Mine
!----I Wabassee Basalt
• Key Tuffite Interface 1
!'---I watsonLakeRhyolite Development Project
• BellRiverComplex liiiil 2Dseismic "k Undeveloped Deposit
• Granite

Fig. 1. Geologyand mineral depositsof the Matagamicamp showinglocationof 2D seismicprofilesand

3D seismicsurveyarea.

has been segmentedinto a numberof distinctlozenge- overliesa discordantpipe, or conduit,hostingmassive

shapeddomainsseparatedby zonesof coalescingdefor-
mation(Pich• et al., 1993).On thesouthlimb,theDaniel
reversefault,a family of northwesttrending,moderately
to steeplynortheastdipping structures,has thrust the
southlimb stratigraphyandthe Bell River Complexover
the WabasseeGroupvolcanics(Pich6et al., 1993). Es-
timatesof vertical displacementacrossthe structureare
variable,but rangeto more than 1000 m (unpublished
Norandainternalreports).
General Deposit Geology
Bell Allard is a typical Matagami camp SouthFlank
VMS deposit.It is locatedat theWatsonLake-Wabassee
interface atop a synvolcanicfracture zone character-
ized by classichydrothermalalteration.A weaklytrans-
posedconcordantlensof sulfidemineralizationdirectly
to stringer mineralization (Figure 2). The deposit is
boundedto the south by a synvolcanicfault system
(Border Fault) oriented095ø relative to north. The ore-
body consistsof two lensesandis approximately370 m
long and 165-m wide down dip along the Key Tuffite
interface,with an overalleast-westorientationin plan.
Note that the depositorientationis quite differentfrom
the regional strike of the lithologicalunits. The north
lens is composedprimarily of high-gradeZn-rich mas-
sive sulfideswhile the southernlens is of lower grade
and composed,in part, of conduit-typemineralization.
Sulfide mineralizationconsistsof pyrite, Fe-rich spha-
lerite, minor chalcopyrite,and pyrrhotite. The thick-
nessesaverageabout 30 m, but can range up to 60 m
in portionsof the southlens.The depositdips 50 to 55ø
towardsthe southbetweendepthsof 900 and 1150 m
below the surface.A global resourcein excessof 6 Mt

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 SW Gabbro
NE
Surface BAS-94-32 BAS-93-30 BAS-94-39 OR-88-7 Felsicdike
I
Mafic and
intermediate dikes

Wabassee
Main Formation
fault Tuffite
-500m Upper
Rhyolite
- 1000m WatsonLake
Rhyolite
Sulfides
Stringer
zone
Daniel
Alteration
zone
-1000m Ishikawa >90%
splay 500m
-1250m
I
meters

Fig. 2. Verticalsection(section62) throughthe Bell Allard depositshowingthe main geologicalstructures

found in its vicinity.

-. ß
-. i -. ß
i . .
i i i
ß

ß .

- ß
• ß

..
'" .
" -.

...
Z'=32
..
Pyrite
' • .
-.
"'. "-. 30 -.
-.
-.
ß
-..

-. \ " '--. 28 "'.... ß

ß. -.... '... '-. -..
'""- • '"'-. 26 -- "--.. Magnetite
.. " • "'• • ß - -... '- -.
x 24 " ß-..•.. .;.-. -.. ß .

'..•.x+x
+ ß '.. .... • .. -

Bas
Rhyolite'
ß
ß

a:
i18••
'-. 0•:'•
2•2'. , -•..',.,...,
, . ....
-.
-.

•
-. •
'• •
• %
•• • '"'*• '•'
•, "/ •"'
• • '•.."• '"'•,?
. '"
.....
ß
.
"-.. _
'"'-...... '"-.
-..
. .
.

.... '16
.. ß '"-.
.. ß"•"'"
'Ch • •Sp'hal
-•...
e•
erite '"
.......
..... ""'-...... ""
'-... ß -.
'-
..... , .
..,

.. -..
14ß-.. '- ... ....... alcopyrit •, .....-.. ... .. .
ß

. ... ..

4
Laborator
2.5
ymeasurements
In-Situ
measurements
I • ....
ß Massive
xRhyolite
Basalt • -
sulfides

3
•
3.5
ß Massive
O Lithological
sulfides
units
4
,'
-Pyrrhotite•
I
......
4.5
...... ..... •
t
5
•
ß---
'"
'"",r
5.5

Density
(g/cm
3)
Fig. 3. In-situP-wavevelocitiesanddensitiesfrom logginghole 94-33fand massivesulfidesin hole 94-26a;
ellipsesshowrangeof loggingvalueslying within one standarddeviationof the mean for eachhostrock
lithology.
Laboratorydatafromdrillcoreandhandsamples fromBellAllardandIsle-Dieuorebodies.
Most
volcanic unitshaveacousticimpedancesof lessthan22 Gg/m2s(heavydashed line)whilesulfides
have
acousticimpedancesabove22 Gg/m2s. Densities
andP-wave velocities
forcommon minerals
foundinVMS
deposits2
are shownfor referenceby largedots(Salisburyet al., 1996). Isoimpedancecontourlines(in units
of Gg/m s) are
2
overlainto helpestimatereflectioncoefficients
betweenrockunits.An impedancedifference
of 2.5 Gg/m s is sufficientto causea strongreflection.

232
Downloaded 26 Jun 2012 to 95.28.162.50. Redistribution subject to SEG license or copyright; Terms of Use: http://segdl.org/

makes Bell Allard the secondlargest depositdiscov-
ered in the Matagamimining camp.The 1994 produc-
tion decision was based on a drill-indicated
of 3.2 Mt grading 13.77% Zn, 1.50% Cu, 43.45 g/t
Ag and 0.76 g/t Au (unpublishedNoranda internal
reports).
PHYSICAL ROCK PROPERTIES
The physicalrock propertiesof the main lithologi-
cal units are summarizedin Figure 3, where ellipses
are centeredon the median densityand P-wave veloc-
ity values for a particular host rock type. Salisbury
et al. (1996) suggestthat somesulfidescommonlyas-
sociatedwith VMS deposits(e.g., pyrite) have high
acousticimpedances.In-situ and laboratory measure-
mentswere conductedto verify if thesefindingswere
applicableto the sulfidesof theMatagamiminingcamp.
P-wave velocities and densities were obtained
host rocks from full waveform sonic and densitylog-
ging in hole 94-33f and velocity logs were obtained
through100 m of massivesulfidesin borehole94-26a.
The densities of the ores were determined
oratory measurementson split core samples.Labora-
tory densityand P-wave velocity measurementswere
also determinedfor selectedcore and hand samplesof
massive and disseminated sulfides and host rocks from
the Bell Allard depositand the neighboringIsle-Dieu
mine. Reflectionamplitudesare proportionalto the re-
flection coefficient, which in turn is a function of the
impedancecontrastbetweenlithologies.As a rule, an
impedance
difference
of 2.5 Gg/m2sis generallysuf-
ficient to causea strongreflection.Thus for example,
rhyolitein contactwith a gabbroor a sulfide/magnetite-
rich lenswill generatestrongreflections.Figure3 clearly
shows that the P-wave velocities and densities of the Bell
Allard orebodycontrastwith thoseof the surrounding
volcanicunits.The highestimpedancevaluesare found
for pyrite-rich sampleswhile most (95%) of the vol-
canicrockshaveimpedances
below22 Gg/m2s.This
study suggeststhat a strongacousticimpedancecon-
trastexistsat the contactbetweenthe Bell Allard deposit
andits hostrocks.Pyriteandmagnetitehavethe highest
acousticimpedancevalues; hence, these two noneco-
nomicmarkermineralsprobablycontrolthe reflectivity
of Bell Allard. While size and shapealso affect the re-
flectionamplitude,theexistenceof a significantacoustic
impedancecontrastat the targetis absolutelynecessary
for its detection.
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3D seismicimaging for VMS depositexploration 233
SEISMIC DATA ACQUISITION
Oncethe seismicgrid wascutandthe shotshavebeen
reserve
preloadedat Matagami, the seismiccrew layed out the
receivers,acquiredthe seismicdata, and removedthe
equipmentover a period of 10 days in April 1996. A
total of 956 shots(Figure4) were recordedwith a 2048
channel capacity seismographin less than 36 hours.
A state-of-the-art,24-bit acquisitionsystemwas used
in anticipationof a relativelylow signal-to-noise(S/N)
ratio comparedto thosetypical of oil and gas environ-
ments. Significantefforts were made to achievegood
shotandreceivercoupling:(1) shotchargeswereplaced
ascloseaspossibleto the overburden/bedrock interface
(15-m averagedepth)to maximizeseismicenergypene-
trationand minimize source-generated noiseand,(2) at
each receiver station, about 1 to 1.5 m of snow had to be
removedto allow the placementof geophonesdirectly
on the groundsurface.The surveytookplaceduringthe
for the springthaw and temperatureswere below the freezing
point at night but well abovefreezing during the day;
thus,the geophoneswere frozeninto the groundin the
morning,providingexcellentreceivercoupling.In gen-
from lab- eral,the topographyof the 3D grid wasgentlewith bogs
in someareasand a densespruceforestand clear-cutin
others.The maximumelevationon the gridwas296.8 m
above sea level and the maximum elevation difference
was only 40 m.
Intotal,20km2(4 x 5km)of3D seismic
datawereac-
quiredaboveandaroundtheBell Allard deposit(Figures
1 and 4). The seismicgrid was positionedto providea
good image of the Key Tuffite, to record the seismic
responseof Bell Allard, and to identify other possible
drill targetsto the southeastof Bell Allard. The sur-
vey is a typical full-range 3D seismic survey as de-
scribed by Stone (1994). The receiver lines are ori-
entedperpendicularto the regionalstrike and the shot
lines are layed out in the oppositedirection.The dy-
namite shots(0.34 kg of pentolite)were recordedby
up to 1900 receiverslocated along 19 receiver lines.
The 50-m shotspacingand 40-m receiverspacingused
for the survey yielded a 25- by 20-m subsurfacebin
size. The shot- and receiver-linespacingcontrolsthe
fold and the offset distribution in each common mid-
point location.Use of a large numberof receiversin-
creases the fold and the shot-receiver offset. Record-
ings at large source-receiveroffsetscan be particularly
useful to image steepdips in complex geologicalset-
tings or where the velocity gradientis weak or absent,
as well as in areaswhere source-generated noise is a
234 3D seismicimaging

5510000

,BAS-92-26a
5509000

5508000

5507000

5506000

5505000

300000 302000 304000 306000

UTM easting (m)

Fig. 4. Shot(largedots)andreceiver(smalldots)positions of the 3D surveywith inlineandcrossline

locations.
Thelocationsof geologicalsectionsandthedifferentseismic traverses
through theseismic
data
volumeare indicated.The outlineof the orebodyis indicatedin black.The collarandtraceof borehole
BAS-94-33f in whichloggingwasperformedare alsoshown.

Table 1. Data acquisition parameters. of a typicalshotgather(Figure5b,shotat station14125)

Source Information clearlyindicatesthat frequenciesas high as 160 Hz
Energysource 0.34 Kg of Pentoliteat 15 m average wererecorded, andalsoshowsthedominance of a high-
depth
Source interval 50 m amplitude,low-frequency (<30 Hz) component mostly
Sourceline spacing 400 m associated with groundroll and S-waves.Fourmajor
Receiver Information sources of ambient noise were identified on the seismic
Geophonetype 10-Hz Mark ProductsUM-2-A grid duringdataacquisition: (1) drillingandblasting
Groupinterval 40 m
Geophonelayout 6 in a 1-mlineararray in the Bell Allard shaft;(2) trafficalongHighway109
Line spacing 250 m (Figure1); (3) electrical
noisearoundahigh-voltage sub-
Acquisition System stationandpowerlineslocatedwithin the surveyarea;
Instrumentation GEO-X Aram 24
and (4) mining activitiesat neighboringinstallations
Pre-ampgain 36 dB
Fieldfilter 164-HzHigh-cut (Isle Dieu mine and concentrator at MattagamiLake
Recordlength 3s mine). The productionshaft,which was being exca-
Samplerate 2 ms
vatedto extractthe ore from the Bell Allard deposit,
wasin progressat a depthof 60 rn by mid-April, 1996.
Mining activitiesassociatedwith the Bell Allard shaft
problem.The acquisitionparametersare summarizedin wereintermittent--sometimes unnoticed (e.g.,whilece-
Table 1. menting),sometimesaffectingabout 100 receiversta-
Analysisof the raw shotgathersin the field showed tionsaroundtheshaft(e.g.,duringthedrilling).Receiver
thatthe datawereof goodqualitywith clearreflections, line 29 waslocatedvery closeto the shaft,and,on some
despitethepresence of highlevelsof source-generated occasions, more than 50 receiversalongthis line were
and culturalnoise(Figure5). The amplitudespectrum affectedby activitiesin themineshaft.As an example,

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 3D seismicimaging for VMS depositexploration 235

a)
NE
29101 29126 29151 29176 31101 31126 31151
Receiver
31176
station
33101 33126 33151 33176 35101 35126 35151 35176
sw

0.4
•:,'.Z.,•i'
".:"':!•,•;"•;•;'11•
•;4•!'•'•,"-t,J
--'
•,•
t•l'11."
';,,i,•i•i:l,l•(:;•.
i::iJ',•.•;
'.,.!i
']i',i..ltl
i:ii!ii•.•l''
I;',.!•,•i•!r•!,':•
,'?':
•',.
•'li•'•(,;:,,ji•t•
J;
j..'
?'•
,•'.,'
•I•.•',];•i•,1{•'•'•
"j:J•.3•
•'•.,•i;
"'•:•,•
'•]'
'"1•:
?0.4 ": .:•;•:,"t::•,d';•',
' ' •,'½"
'•4•"-,•,
:.i•, ] ' '
•'• ........ , , •. ß':•, ' ,, ....;•-:,' ........ -, '- •.,).,r
'," •"'-• . . 0.6
.,,......',.... ..... ,,.. ,,... - .4.

Line 29 Line 31 Line 33 Line 35

1 km

b)
C) Bell
Allard Bell
Allard
NE
•• Receiver
............
station
SW
d) NE •.,•-
• Receiver
........
station
SW
29101 2•I:•261:29151 29176 29101 29t•_/•_•...._,•
29151 29176
-10 - I ,,,•:,•:J',,-•,;•
• • 0.4
,.......:•'•'•
...... •,'4',,','$:,
•''•'.
-20 -
0.4
.•:•;.•i•""
•"
•.,•,'•,•?';;:,r"
•,';•.•'•
F•
•''}j'•,•;
•'i
•;•)}•'•
•;
'.,I
•I'J•
"•;',
I•E:•;I
,, '•••••••;;,
-30 -

-40 -

-50 -

-60 I I I I I I I I I
0 50 1 O0 150 200 250
,,. t• :;.',t,,
";[•'.:•......
•':";• ' ...• .....,.;•
•.I,,,.,•.,.•
•,-....
Frequency (Hz)

Raw • km Filtered
Fig.5. (a) Receiverlines29, 31, 33, and35 fromrawshotgather14125.TheBell Allardorebody is located
directlybeneathreceiverline29. (b) Amplitudespectrum of tracesshownin (a). (c) Receiverline 29 from
raw shotgather8109is affectedby electricalnoiseandminingactivitiesin theBell Allardmineshaft.(d)
Sameas(c) afterapplyinga 30-Hzhigh-pass filterandremoving60-Hz noisewith anadaptivefilter.

duringthe shotat station8109 (Figure5c) receiverline receiver stations were used. A minimum of 1700 re-
29 wascontaminated by drillingandelectricalnoise.Af- ceiversper shotwas considerednecessaryto obtaina
tertheapplicationof 30-Hz high-pass andadaptivefilters high-qualityseismicimage.
(Figure 5d), most of the coherentnoise was removed
from the shot gather.Traffic along Highway 109 was
3D SEISMIC DATA PROCESSING
intermittentand only affecteda few tracesat a time; it
did not necessitatetrace editing.A high-voltagepow- It is now widely acceptedthat data acquiredin
erline and substation are located within the 3D seismic hardrockenvironments posedifferentchallengesfrom
grid andelectricalnoise(60, 120, and 180 Hz) affected datacollectedin sedimentaryenvironments (Milkereit
receivergroupsthat were locatedcloseto theseinstal- and Eaton, 1998), largely becauseof the high veloc-
lations,but wasremovedwith an adaptivefilter (Adam ities and relatively low reflectivities encounteredin
andLanglois,1996)(Figure5d).A nearbymine(•2 km crystallinerocks.Thethicklow-velocityoverburden that
from the surveygrid) andthe concentrator locatedabout is in contactwith unweathered high-velocitybasement
1 km awayfrom the surveyareadid not stopproduc- rock is responsiblefor large staticcorrections,severe
tionduringthe seismicexperiment.To helpcompensate high-frequency attenuation,and multiplewaveconver-
for the high levelsof culturalnoise,a largenumberof sions.Imagingthe high-velocitybasementitself with a

Downloaded 26 Jun 2012 to 95.28.162.50. Redistribution subject to SEG license or copyright; Terms of Use: http://segdl.org/
236 3D seismicimaging

resolutioncomparableto that of oil and gasexploration Table 2. Processingsequence.

surveysrequiresthe useof high frequencies(> 100 Hz). Electrical noise removal Adaptivetime domainfilter
Crystalline rocks are also generally characterizedby Geometry 25 x 20 m subsurface bins
Trace editing Bad shots are excluded
a smoothlyvarying, low-amplitudevelocity gradient; A=A,t
True amplituderecovery
hence,seismicraypathsare almoststraight.Thus, for a Spikingdeconvolution Minimum phase,100 ms
single sourceposition,a significantlygreater segment window, 1% noise
of the reflector is illuminated if the receivers extend out Band-pass Ormsbyminimumphase
10-20-130-150 Hz
to long offsets.Consequently, to image steeplydipping Gain AGC 3000 ms
First break mute Linear ramp between30 and
structures,recordingsat largesource-receiver
offsetsare 50 ms below first breaks
useful.Another complicationis causedby the generally Refraction statics
low reflection coefficients encountered in hardrock -First break picks Automatic (neuralnetwork
algorithm)
environments(< 10%) comparedto thosein sedimentary -Datum 300 m above sea level
basins.To compensatefor the low-reflectivity,high-fold -Correction GLI3D (Hampson-Russell)
Surface consistent Method: Maximum stack
and high-fidelity recording systems must be used. residual static power
Nonetheless,somedataprocessingstepsare simplified corrections Maximum shift: 10 ms
in the hardrockenvironment.Becausethe velocity field Window: 0.1-1.2 s

does not vary significantly,detailed velocity analysis Unmigrated Stack

DMO corrections
is not as importantas it is for processingof data from
Stackingvelocity Constantvelocity stacks
sedimentarystrata. The applicationof imaging algo- analysis
NMO corrections 6100 m/s 50% stretch allowed
rithms [dip moveout(DMO) and migration] is greatly
Scaling 500 ms (AGC)
simplified.While the differencesin the velocity fields Stack 0.0-2.0 s, 150 ms (AGC)
betweencrystallineand sedimentaryrockshavea direct Band-pass Butterworth25 (40 dB slope)
impact on data acquisition,they have an even more -80 Hz (20 dB slope)
profound impact on data processing.Ignoring these
Migrated stack
fundamentaldifferenceswhendesigningseismicsurveys Prestackmigration Equivalentoffset,full aperture,
and whenprocessingdata can only lead to failure. In 20-m bin size, maximum
offset 10 km
processingseismicdata from the crystallinecrust, the Stackingvelocity analysis Semblance and constant
most important step is the determinationof accurate velocity stacks
refraction-basedweathering static corrections,while Scaling 500 ms (AGC)
Stack 0.0-2.0 s, 150 ms (AGC)
detailedvelocity analysisandresidualstaticcorrections Band-pass Butterworth25(40 dB slope)
generallyprovide minor improvements.As is the case -80 Hz (20 dB slope)
for data acquiredin any structurallycomplex sedimen-
tary setting,the focusingsteps(DMO, migrations)are
On the migratedstack,circularanomalies(diffractions)
crucialto imagingdippinglithologicalcontacts.
are collapsedto a small arealocatedat the apexof the
Data processingof the 3D Matagamidatasethasben-
diffractionhyperbolaand the anomaliesare smallerin
efitedfrom the experienceof processing2D seismicdata
size than on the unmigratedstack.On the otherhand,
in the area since 1990 (Milkereit et al., 1992; Adam et
the migratedstackprovidesthe best3D imageof litho-
al., 1998; Calvert and Li, 1999). The processingflow
logical contactsand faults at their true subsurfacelo-
(Table 2) used for the 3D seismicdata is very similar
cation.In the following section,emphasisis placedon
to the one appliedto the 2D data. The exceptionis the
the staticcorrectionproblemand the imagingof dip-
lack of cross-dipcorrections,a key processingstepfor
ping contacts.Inline 161 was chosento illustratethe
crooked2D lines,but not requiredhere.
effect of thesemost importantprocessingstepsbecause
The unmigratedstackis usedto identify the scatter-
it exhibitsshallow,deep,dipping,and subhorizontal re-
ing responsefrom local high acousticimpedancebodies
flectivity.
suchas ore depositsor faulted gabbrointrusions.The
circular anomalies observed on time slices that are asso-
Refraction-Static Corrections
ciatedwith thistype of targetaremostdistinctiveon the
unmigratedstack,while reflectionsfrom other targets The computationof an accuraterefractionweathering
are unfocusedand do not appearat their true positions. staticsolutionis by far the most importantprocessing

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 3D seismicimaging for VMS deposit exploration 237

SW Crossline NE sw Crossline NE
1 20 40 60 80 1 O0 120 140 160 180 I 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180
0.0 I

0,1-

0,2 I
I I•.fl.•/l•l•,.•.•.•!/•
I I / I I iI
• "•:•;:½3;;•:•
',:•,.•.--•'•:'
',.*•,.•"i½;,•;:-'•'•'•.',,•'•':•,•..•,•'•;
....,.•'.'•'•
0.3-

,•, 0.4-

E
• 0.5-
ii.....• •.'!?'i,
I'i;•;-,.:';?'.,-'
'-;:,.."-
,x-'.•!•,,:
•',1:•:,,.•.,
0,6 I 't•,,-.,,".-,
......
:•-•""•
Ii•'•
.....:,.•!'•
..........
r•.... •-'-

0,7-
,.;I
i,•,,;,'e::'
-"v-:(,
•,:•'i""'•!
":'""
.....
'"•'"'"
•'""•'•'•
"'":':•,"":'i,!½l•..•'•i' ß •:, ;i
0,8-
t:.:'I
'•;;";""::"5
,'. •,I.•,'(.::•'
'.l,,c.•.,
,-•.,.: '"•i•

0.9-

1.0-- J With
refraction
and
residual static corrections

a) 1km b)
Fig. 6. (a) Inline 161 without refractionstaticcorrectionsapplied. (b) Inline 161 with GLI3D refraction
staticcorrectionsapplied.

step.Processingof 2D seismicdatafrom the Matagami
area (Adam et al., 1998; Calvert and Li, 1999) has
shown that static correctionsobtainedfrom the gen-
eralized linear inversemethod(Hampsonand Russell,
1984) improvedsignalcontinuityandthesignal-to-noise
ratio.The refraction-static
correctioncomputedwith this
methodresultedin accuratelong and shortwavelength
solutions.About 35 500 first break picks, or 4.7% of
the total, were automaticallyrejected by the software
after the first iteration because the times were inaccu-
rate. Overburdenvelocitieswere extractedfrom uphole
times and the overburden velocities derived from these
values resulted in a better static solution than when a con-
stantvelocitywasused.After five inversionsand short-
wavelengthstatic calculations,the averageerror was
3.55 ms, which is quite acceptableconsideringthat the
samplerateis 2 ms. The maximumtotal refractionstatic
correctionwas 88 ms in the northernportionof the grid
wherethereis a thick layerof dry sand.In comparison,
themaximumelevationcorrectionwasonly 14 ms,more
than six timessmaller.Figure 6 showsthe effect of re-
fraction statics on the stacked section ofinline 161. With-
out staticcorrections,the sectionexhibits little reflectiv-
ity and the only noticeablereflectionis at 0.75 s below
crossline60. After applyingrefractionstaticcorrections,
reflectionsbecome visible at depth (between 0.7 and
0.8 s on Figure6b), as do weak reflectionsfrom 0.2 s.
Imaging
In areaswhere lithologicalcontactsare dipping,the
imaging step (e.g., DMO, migration) is crucial for ob-
taining enhancedreflectionsfrom thesecontacts(com-
pareFigures6b and 7a). For thesetwo sections,the pro-
cessingflow and stackingvelocity are the same,apart
from the imaging operator(DMO). When the seismic
dataarestackedusingthecorrectintervalvelocity,there-
sultingseismicsectionsemphasizethe reflectivityfrom
subhorizontalgeologicalstructures(Figure 6b). Higher
stackingvelocitiesare necessaryto allow dipping re-
flectionsto stackcorrectly.DMO correctionsallow both
dippingandsubhorizontal eventsto stackusingtheback-
groundintervalvelocity(Figure7a). After correctingfor
DMO, reflectionsare imagedmore clearly,but they are
not at their true subsurfacelocations. Hence, DMO is a
partialmigrationprocessthateventuallyproducesa zero
offset section.A migrationcan later be appliedon the
DMO stackto collapsediffractionhyperbolasandmove
reflectionsto their true subsurfacepositions.In theory,
for a constantbackgroundvelocity,DMO followedby

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238 3D seismicimaging

Crossline
poststack migrationshouldproducethe sameresultsas
a) 0.0
20 40 60 80 1O0 120 140 160 180 200
a prestackmigration.Importantdifferencesin the final
0.1

0.2
'.I /,l,
iil
••,• migratedstacks(Figures7b and 7c) are probablydue
to the implementationof eachalgorithm:the commer-
cial DMO implementation(Figure 7b) usedgavelittle
0.3
controlon the choiceof parameters(i.e., operatoraper-
ture, bin size, offset range),while the in-houseimple-
0.4 mentationof theprestackmigration(Figure7c) allowed
0.5
muchmore flexibility.The key differencebetweenthe
unmigratedandmigratedsectionsis the appearance of
0.6
diffractionhyperbolas andthedetectionof pointscatter-
0.7 ers(e.g., orebodies).
The diffractionfrom a dippinglenshastwo character-
0.8
istic features:(1) an amplitudeanomalydown-dipand
0,9- (2) a polarityreversal(with respectto the polarity of
1.0
With DMO co•ectJons the normal-incidence polarity)that dependson the lens
Crossline
shapeandcomposition (seeBohlenet al., thisvolume).
Detectingthis complexdiffractionresponseis a pro-
b) 20 40 60 80 1 O0 120 140 160 180 200
0.0
cessingchallenge.A full prestackmigrationeffectively
0.1
collapsesthe diffractedenergy,but thesecharacteristic
,• ' '•,'•"-;•l ' '•.• ' • r•,,• ";.•, '
variationsof amplitudewith azimuthare lost. In addi-
0.2
tion, migrationof a diffractionresponse thatcontainsa
0.3 polarityreversaloverawell-definedazimuthalrangewill
'•,,,½•
,,;•
,,•ff',' •'•1,•'•• '• ••'• producea seismicamplitudeanomalythatisweakerthan
0.4 one obtainedfrom migrationof a diffractorof equiva-
0.5 lent absoluteamplitudethat doesnot exhibita polarity
reversal.Sincethe amplitudeanomalyis necessarilyre-
0.6
strictedto a relativelysmallrangeof offsetandazimuth,
0.7 migrationof thediffractionhyperbolacaneffectivelyav-
0,8-
eragethestrongamplitudeanomalyof theDMO section,
andthushinderdetectionof the anomalyin themigrated
0,9- ,.';•,.%,;.
•.,
'•;;•
;•,•...................... seismicvolume. Therefore,partial prestackmigration
1.0
posmtackmigration techniques, suchasDMO, arebestsuitedto preservethe
Crossline
diffractionhyperbolagenerated by anorebody.Fromthe
c) 20 40 60 80 1O0 120 140 160 180 200 explorationpoint of view, the zero-offsetstackedsec-
0.0
tion is more appropriatefor detectingmassive-sulfide
0,1- depositsbecause(1) the diffractionpatternis larger,
(2) the amplitudesare often stronger,and (3) the
0,2-
amplitudevariationwith azimuthanomalycanprovide
0,3- someinformationaboutthe lens geometry.
Whereasfull prestackmigrationmight not help in
the directdetectionof ore deposits,it imagesstructures
andstratigraphy thatdefinethehostgeologicalenviron-
0,6-
ment.Prestackmigrationby equivalentoffset(Bancroft
etal., 1998)wasapplied
ona 10-km
2 subset
of the3D
0,7-

0.8
Fig. 7. (a) Inline 161with dip-moveout corrections.
(b)
0.9
Sameas (a) but with poststack phaseshiftmigrationfol-
lowedbyFX deconvolution. (c) Inline 161afterequivalent
1.0 With
p•estack offsetprestackmigration.

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surveythat includesthe Bell Allard deposit.Whereas
the DMO seismicsection(Figure7b) hasamplereflec-
tivity in the depthof interest(0.2-0.4 s), the reflection
characteris homogeneous and horizonsare difficult to
follow acrossthe section.In sucha heavilyfaultedarea,
this stackedvolume is quite difficult to interpret.The
prestackmigratedversionof inline 161 (Figure 7c) is
superiorto the poststackmigratedsection;it has more
detail and reflections can be correlated across the sec-
tion. From this improvedsection,severalfaultscan be
inferred by locating small offsetsalong the main re-
flections.These resultsdemonstratethat full prestack
migrationcan be a valuableprocessingtool, with the
potentialto greatlyimproveand facilitatestratigraphic
and structuraldatainterpretationin crystallinerocks.
INTERPRETATION
Reflectionsfrom Regional-Scale
Lithological Contacts
Within the seismicdata volume, some continuousre-
flectorssuchasthe gabbrosandthe upperrhyolitehave
been imagedlaterallyfor severalkilometers.Mapping
thesehorizonswas straightforwardand could even be
551O5OO
o% oE--,'
5509500
5508500
55O75OO
Daniel fault
5506500
301500 302500
Fig. 8. Interpreteddepthto Key Tuffitefrom the 3D depth-migrated
the positionsof shotsandreceiverswhile thewhite dotsareboreholelocations.
Downloaded 26 Jun 2012 to 95.28.162.50. Redistribution subject to SEG license or copyright; Terms of Use: http://segdl.org/
3D seismicimaging for VMS deposit exploration 239
automated.Other important contactsand structures,
suchastheKey TuftiteandtheDaniel Fault,couldnotbe
directly associatedwith a reflectionand requiredmore
detailedinterpretationin orderto identify them. Locat-
ing the depthandlateralextentof the Key Tuffitewasan
importantobjectiveof the 3D seismicproject.In partic-
ular,theDaniel fault intersects
the Key Tuffiteat a depth
of about 1.4 km and the sequencedeepenssignificantly
to the west of the fault. The location of where the Daniel
Fault intersectsthe Key Tuffite is a key elementwhen
planninga deepexplorationprogram.During the inter-
pretationprocess,the boreholeinformationwasusedto
validatetheinterpretation,to identifyreflectivecontacts,
andto refinethe accuracyof the interpretation.
Gabbrosills are reflectivein the WatsonLake Group
where they are juxtaposedwith rhyolites and rhyo-
dacites;howeverthesegabbrosarepoorreflectorsin the
basalt-dominated WabasseeGroup. Hence, the seismic
responseof a gabbrosill cuttingthroughthe Key Tuffite
will appearasa strongreflectionstoppingabruptlyat the
Key Tuftite,just like anunconformity.Rhyolitehorizons
do not crossthe Key Tuffiteandare alwaysconcordant.
Thesecriteria,in conjunctionwith availableboreholein-
formation(whitedotsonFigure8), wereusedto interpret
and pick the Key Tuftite (Figure 8) from the migrated
•-'* o
o o
¸ ¸
200
4OO
600
800
1000
•,-,•.•-•,.:..
-1200
--• 1400
303500 304500 305500
UTM easting
seismicdataset.The blackdotsindicate
240 3D seismicimaging
3D seismicvolume.The southwestern limit of the Key
Tuffite marks the interpretedlocation of the Daniel
Fault within the 3D surveyregion. The black dots on
Figure 8 indicatethe sourceand receiverlocationsof
the seismicsurvey.The Key Tuffitecouldnot be picked
reliably on the southeastern
and northwesternedge of
the surveybecauseof the low fold, but the Key Tuffite
wassuccesfully
pickedoveranareaof6.6km2,between
depthsrangingfrom 130to 1440m. SincetheKey Tuffite
is not characterized
by a singlereflector,the Key Tuffite
depthuncertaintyis about 100 m and probablylarger
near the edgesof the surveyarea. The locationof the
Daniel fault is well defined due to the clear truncation
of reflectors.
Imaging the Bell Allard Deposit
Unmigratedimage.--The Bell Allard ore depositis
located between 900 and 1150 rn from the surface and
boreholecontrolexistsin the vicinity of the depositto
depthsof about 1250 m. At an early stageof datapro-
cessing(brute stack with refraction static corrections
applied),a zone of anomalousamplitudein the vicin-
ity of the known ore depositwas identifiedat 400 ms
(• 1200 m). This anomalywas still presentafterthe ap-
plicationof DMO correctionsbut was lessobviousbe-
causeof the enhancedreflectivityfrom dippingreflec-
tions.The anomalyhasa lateralextentthat corresponds
well with the areaoccupiedby Bell Allard andwith the
baseof the low-grademassivesulfidelens.However,it
is also only tensof metersaway from a knowngabbro
intrusion.
In orderto interpretthe seismicdatabetter,a compar-
ison betweenthe 3D seismicdata and the syntheticre-
sponseof a Bell Allard modelwasmade.In time slice,the
modeledBell Allard seismicresponseappearsas a dis-
tinctivecircularanomalywith amplitudevariationwith
azimuthvariations(Figure9a). The positionof Bell A1-
lard corresponds with the centerof the circularanomaly.
Figure9b showsanunmigratedsyntheticsectionthrough
a 3D cube structuralstackalong a north-southtraverse
(markedA-A • onFigure10a)throughtheBell Allardde-
posit. The correspondingseismicsectionshowssouth-
dippingreflections(markedR on Figure9d) originating
from rhyolite/gabbro andrhyolite/basaltcontactswithin
theLowerWabasseeGroup,aswell asa distinctdiffrac-
tion hyperbola(D on Figure 9d) at the Bell Allard lo-
cation. Note that the highestamplitudesoccur on the
southernflank of the hyperbolaand that the sameam-
plitudevariationsare observedon the syntheticsection
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generatedusing the Born approximation(compare
Figures9b and d) (Eaton, 1996). The goodmatch be-
tweenthe sectionssuggests that the seismicresponseis
generatedat the base of the Bell Allard deposit.Be-
causethe upper part of the depositis sphalerite-rich
(low impedance), it may not be reflective and only
the deep pyrite and magnetite-richzones appear to
be reliably imaged. This observationis in agreement
with physicalrock propertystudieswhich predictthat
pyriteandmagnetite-richoreshavethe highestacoustic
impedances(Adam et al., 1996; Salisburyet al., 1996).
Migrated image.--To comparethe seismicsignature
with borehole-derivedgeologicalsections,a matching
geological section (marked section 69 on Figure 4)
throughthe depositwas superimposedon the seismic
datain the vicinity of the deposit(Figure 10b). To pro-
vide the context for the detailed section, a seismic tra-
versethroughthedepositwhichextendsacrossthewhole
seismicvolume (Figure 10a) was extractedfrom the
3D seismicvolume.On this section,the alterationpipe
doesnot underlie the massivesulfidesand the stratig-
raphyis simple.This sectionalsoexhibitsthe strongest
seismicresponseassociated with the top of the massive
sulfides(on crossline144 at 0.31 s on Figure 10b). The
maximum amplitudeof the reflectoralong the Upper
Rhyolite (Figure 10b) is 30% lower than the one asso-
ciatedwith Bell Allard. The amplitudeanomaly50 ms
belowBell Allard is 43% higher.The compositionof the
massivesulfidesat Bell Allard (largely sphalerite)and
the smallsizeof the depositcomparedto theunderlying
anomalycanperhapsexplainthis difference.
Discontinuitiesin the basalt/rhyolitesequenceabove
the massivesulfidesindicatethe presenceof faults.The
high-amplitudeanomalylocatedbeneaththeBell Allard
depositappearsto be fault-boundedandmaycorrespond
to the alterationpipe of the Bell Allard depositor it
may correspond to theregionalscalegabbrointrusionin
Figure 11. The Daniel Faultis interpretedto lie wherea
suddenbreak in reflectivityoccurs(Figure 10a). Using
the availableboreholeand geologicalinformation,the
seismicdata appearsto be properlycalibrated,and the
prestackmigrationperformedwith a constantvelocity
of 6.1 km/s producesa reliableseismicimagethat cor-
relateswell with the availablegeologicaldata.Discrep-
anciesbetweenthe dip of reflectors,the fault locations,
and the contactsinterpretedon the geologicalsection
are attributed to the limited number ofboreholes used to
derivethe geologicalsection(red lines on Figure 10b).
Usinga differentmigrationvelocitymay alsoaffectthe
dip and locationof the reflections,but a more detailed
 3D seismicimaging for VMS deposit exploration 241

1 km Bell Allard
Crossline

i
80
i i
120 160 200
_• 200
b)A ,I, 0.0

160
Top
160
1200

E bottom
120 120

3000 1.0

45OO 1.5

1500 m

C) 1km Crossline d) Bell

Allard
1 120 160 2OO
!
200 0.0 •

160 160

120 • 120

40 "•

1.5 • • 4500

1500 m

Fig. 9. (a) Unmigratedsyntheticresponseof the Bell Allard depositin plan view at 410 ms and (b) along
a north-southtraversecoincidentwith Highway 109 and directlyabovethe Bell Allard deposit.(c) DMO
resultsfrom the Matagami3D datafor the sametime sliceas (a) and (d) the corresponding traverseshown
in (b).

velocityanalysisandupdatedgeologicalcross-sections compositionof the alterationzone is still largely un-

will be requiredto establishtheresolutionof the method
in this environment.
The Bell Allard depositconsistsof two distinctlenses
underlain by an alteration zone. The mineralogy and
gradevary significantlythroughoutthe orebodyandthe
known.Our observations of the 3D seismicdatasuggest
that sphalerite-richmassivesulfidezonesdo not gener-
atethe strongestreflectionsin the Matagami3D stacked
volume, probablybecauseof their small size and low
acousticimpedancecontrastrelativeto their hostrocks.

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242 3D seismicimaging

SW Crossline NE
100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180 190 200
0.0 I I I I I I I I I 0

0,1.,. - 300

0.2 m - 600

0.3 E
- 900

0.4_ 1200
0.5.,, - 1500

0.6. - 1800

0.7_ 2100

•
135 140
Crossline
145
• 150 155

E .;•..::::.:•..
,•::::..:.:::..:•....
........
:•:•:::.:•.•?..•:.,...•:
900K
•.•.......
• ..•-•..•. ......
;..............
.-¾............
•.•

1200

ß
.-'
......
-•:"-•,,•.":7...=•,•
• ....
*;;•-'"•t•
..................
0.5 .... 1500
100 m

Fig. 10. (a) Seismicsectioncoincidentwith geologicalsection69 throughthe Bell Allard depositwhich

hasbeenextendedto the limits of the 3D stackedvolume.(b) Geologicalsectionsuperimposed on the
seismicdata.Anomalous highamplitudes arefoundat themassivesulfidelens.Discrepancies betweenthe
dip of reflectorsandthe contactsinterpretedon the geologicalsectionare attributedto the limitednumber
ofboreholes(red lines).

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0 L•
C• I'--L•
• Bell A!lard
m •- al' ra'i
Gabbro
' or •M' fault
m Tuffite
0
o
o
North
Fig. 11. Amplitudemapof a timesliceat 400 ms(• 1200m). The locationof theinterpreted
indicated
bythedotedline.Highamplitudes
(darkareas)
areassociated
theKey Tuffiteovera largearea.
Local pyrite-richzonesappearto be more reflective,as
observedon Figure 10b, but they are not as reflective
asthe gabbrointrusions.The originof the largeampli-
tudeanomalybelowBell Allard is still unexplainedand
possibleexplanationsare givenbelow.
DISCUSSION
Alteration Zone or Gabbro Sills below Bell Allard?
Strong seismic amplitudesare locatedbeneaththe
Bell Allard massivesulfides.This amplitudeanomaly
appearsto be fault-bounded,but boreholecontrolat this
depthis limited and the causeof the anomalyis still
unknown.We speculate thatthe strongreflectionscould
originatefrom a magneticgabbrointrusionor from the
alterationzone. A gabbrosill hasbeenintersectedbe-
low Bell Allard by a few boreholes,but it is described
asa porphyriticgabbrothatis generallynotasreflective
as the tholeiiticmagnetictype. Also, if the anomalyis
causedby a gabbrosill, it not clear why the enhanced
reflectivityis restricted
to thevicinityof theoredeposit.
Another hypothesisis that the alterationzone is caus-
ing the anomaly.Severalgeologicalsettingsand min-
eralogicalassemblages couldexplainthe presenceof a
strongseismicreflectionpackagein the alterationpipe
of a VMS deposit.Possibleexplanationsare: enrich-
mentin pyriteandmagnetite(Lavalli•reet al., 1994)or
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3D seismicimaging for VMS depositexploration 243
Inline
0 L• 0
• C• L• C•
Key Tuffiteis
witha gabbro
intrusion
thatunderlies
lower acousticimpedancescausedby fracturesand al-
terationthat enhancethe reflectivityat the contactwith
late mafic intrusions.Typical alterationzonesof VMS
depositsmay be largerin volumethanthe massivesul-
fidezones.This characteristic potentiallymakesthema
bettertargetfor explorationprograms(Lavalli•re et al.,
1994). If the alterationzone has a significantacoustic
impedancecontrastwith its host rock, then it is more
likelyto be imagedby a seismicsurveythansphalerite-
rich massive sulfide zone.
To resolvethe ambiguityregardingthe originof the
amplitudeanomalyunderlyingBell Allard, a compre-
hensivepetrophysicalstudyof the alterationzone, its
host rocks and intrusionsmust be conducted,because
physicalrockproperties arethelink betweengeological
and seismic data and are the key to seismic data
interpretation.At present,the limited boreholecontrol
in the alterationzonehaspreventedthe completionof
sucha petrophysical study.As underground accessand
drillingresultsbecomesavailable,it will be possibleto
explainbetterthe seismicsignatureof the Bell Allard
alterationpipe.
Is 3D SeismicExploration Cost-Effective?
The impactof 3D seismictechnologyon oil andgas
explorationsincethe early 1980shasbeenmonumental
244 3D seismicimaging
(Nestvol& 1992). The extra costof acquiring3D seis-
mic datacomparedto 2D datahasbeenlargelyoffsetby
the resultingimproveddrilling successrate (Greenlee
et al., 1994). The gradual adoption of 3D seismic
technologyby the oil and gas industrycan be illus-
trated by the annualexplorationbudgetof Shell Oil;
from 1981 to 1990, Shell's 3D seismicexpenditures
increasedfrom 5 to 65% of its total seismicbudget
(Nestvol&1992). In comparison, the conventionalelec-
tromagneticmethodsused by the mineral industryto
locate deep (>500 m) ore depositshave been much
less productivein the Abitibi belt. For example, in
the Abitibi belt, only four depositsat depthsgreater
than 500 m had been discovered before 1990. On the
other hand, more than 150 depositshave been found
at the surfaceor at summit depthsless than 500 m
(Lulin, 1990). While thesenumbersdepicta grim por-
trait of themineralexplorationindustry,it is importantto
rememberthat, to justify undergroundproductionat
largedepths,thetonnageor gradeof thedepositmustbe
largerthanat shallowdepths.Consequently, thechances
of finding an economicdepositdecreaseas the depth
increases.The currentexplorationtechniquefor locat-
ing deepVMS ore depositsrelieson a goodgeological
model,drilling, and downholeelectromagnetic surveys
to locateconductivedepositswithin a 100-150 m radius
aroundthe borehole(Lavalli•re et al., 1994;Boivin and
Lambert, 1997). However,this techniqueprovidesno
drill targetbeyondthegeologicmodelof theexperienced
explorationist.Near-surfaceexplorationbenefitsfrom
inexpensivemagneticand electromagneticsurveying
(airborne, surface,or borehole) to locate conductive
bodies.In deep exploration,thesetypesof surveysare
often limited by their small depthof penetration,poor
resolutionat depth,or to areaswheredeepboreholesare
available.Thus a methodthat can fill the role of mag-
neticandelectromagnetic surveysandexploreat depths
greaterthan500 m in existingminingcampsis required.
3D seismicsurveyscanpotentiallyfulfill this role.
However,their costis well abovethat of the geophys-
ical surveysthe mineral industryroutinelyemploys.In
1996, the total costof the Matagami 3D surveywas es-
timatedat $50000/km
2 (costs
arereported
in Canadian
dollars).And if we consideronlythe areawherethe Key
Tuffitewasmapped(6.6km2),thenthecostwasabout
$180000/km2.Nevertheless,
3Dseismic surveys
areless
expensivewhere the host-rockstratigraphyis subhori-
zontalbecausethe imagedareais maximized;the bud-
getincreases
with theregionaldip,however,becausethe
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surveyareaneedsto be largerto achievea comparable
subsurfaceimage.In 1996, the averagecostof drilling
in Canadawas $83 000/km (statisticsfrom NaturalRe-
sourcesCanada,1997). Thus,in the Matagamiarea,the
costof the 3D surveywas equivalentto more than two
boreholes
to theKeyTuffiteperkm2 assuming
an av-
eragedepthof 780 m. The 3D surveyhasrevealedone
strongdistinctiveanomalythat correlateswith the Bell
Allard VMS deposit.This anomalywouldhavebeenthe
primary drill target and is unique in the data volume.
Thus, if we assumedthat no prior drilling had been
done within the grid, then the total cost of discover-
ing Bell Allard would have been •$6 M (the costof
the 3D seismicsurvey and 42 boreholesto delineate
the ore). This value comparesadvantageously with the
averagecostof $38 M (statisticsfromNaturalResources
Canada)to find and delineatean economicbase-metal
depositin Canada.
The useof 3D seismicsurveysbeforedeepdiamond
drillinghasseveraladvantages. It canimageflatto mod-
erately dipping (<45ø) strata at depthsranging from
•250 m to severalkilometers and can help establish
prospectivegeologyand drilling targets.It canhelp de-
fine the regional geologicframeworkand thus reduce
the numberof boreholesrequiredto establishstratigra-
phy.Finally,the drillholestargetedat seismicanomalies
will maximizethe success of downholeelectromagnetic
surveys.If the boreholemissesthe seismicanomaly,it
may still be close enoughto be detectedusing down-
holeelectromagnetic surveyssincetheyhavea radiusof
investigationof about 150 m. Despitetheseadvantages,
thecostof 3D seismicsurveyingfor mineralexploration
is still expectedto be higherthanit is for oil andgasex-
ploration.The requirementfor high fold to compensate
for the low reflection coefficients in hardrock environ-
mentstranslatesinto higheracquisitioncosts.Also, the
costof mobilizing a large 3D seismiccrew to a remote
miningcampis significant.Thesecostsbecomelesssig-
nificant,however,if reliabledeepdrilling targetscanbe
identifiedor evenif groundcanbe excludedand shown
to haveno drilling targets.
CONCLUSIONS
Seismicmethodsare effectivein mappingsubsurface
stratigraphy
in the Matagamiminingcampandcanpro-
vide direct detection of even small massive sulfide de-
positswhen conditionsare optimal.The seismicsigna-
ture of an orebodydependson severalfactors:(1) the

seismicsurveyacquisitionparameters,(2) the geometry
and size of the deposit,(3) ore zoning (distributionof
pyrite,magnetite,and otherhigh-impedance minerals),
and (4) the impedancecontrastbetweenthe ore andthe
hostrock. In our case,the physicalrock-propertystudy
at Matagami concludedthat a strongimpedancecon-
trastexistsbetweenthe depositandthe hostrocks.For-
ward seismicmodellingof a syntheticBell Allard ore
depositpredicteda characteristicseismicresponsethat
was confirmedby 3D seismicsurveying.Resultsfrom
the Matagami 3D survey suggestthat partial prestack
migration techniques,such as DMO, are best suited
to preservethe diffractionhyperbolageneratedby an
orebody.The DMO stackappearsto displaythe most
characteristicresponseof the Bell Allard ore deposit
in termsof signalamplitudesand shape.On the south
flank of the mining camp,unitswith contrastingacous-
tic impedancesdip moderatelyto the southwest.Both
the relativelylarge impedancecontrastand the moder-
atedip of theseunitsallowedthemto be mappedat great
depthsusingseismic-reflection methods.Althoughfull
prestackmigrationdoesnot help as much in the direct
detectionof ore deposits,it imagesthe structuresand
stratigraphy that definethe geologicalenvironment.
Three-D seismic surveys are relatively expensive
(> $50000/km2),
yettheycanbeaneffective
alternative
to deepstratigraphic-grid
drillingto exploreprospective
horizonsatdepthwithin existingminingcamps.Three-D
seismic
surveys
arelessexpensive
(•50 000/km
2)where
the stratigraphyis flat-lying and groundsurfacecondi-
tionsare favorable.The costincreaseswith the regional
dip,however,becausethesurveyareahasto be increased
to achievea comparablesubsurfaceimage. More re-
searchis requiredto distinguishthe acousticsignatureof
massive sulfide bodies and their alteration
othernon-VMS-relatedfeaturesoutlinedby 3D surveys.
With progressin this areaandthe subsequent discovery
of new mineralresources,seismicreflectiontechnology
couldbecomea routineexplorationmethodfor looking
for deeporebodiesin VMS mining camps.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Thisresearchwaspartlyfundedthroughan Industrial
Partnershipprogrambetweenthe GeologicalSurveyof
CanadaandNorandaInc. Laboratoryrockpropertyanal-
yseswereconducted by Matt Salisburyat theGeological
Surveyof Canada/Dalhousie UniversityHigh Pressure
Laboratory.Constructivecommentsprovidedby Matt
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3D seismicimaging for VMS deposit exploration 245
Salisbury,TuckerBarrie,Alex Brown,andDave Snyder
havegreatlyimprovedthispaper.The authorsthankNo-
randaInc. for supportin the developmentof the seismic
projectfrom its beginningin Matagamiin 1990through
the on-goingefforts to apply 3D seismicmethodsto
VMS environments presentedin thispaper.Seismic-data
acquisitionwasperformedby EnertecGeophysicalSer-
vicesLtd. of Calgary.Boreholeloggingwasperformed
by the Mineral ResourcesDivision of the Geological
Surveyof Canada.GeologicalSurveyof Canadacontri-
bution 2000157.
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Geol., 91, 821-828.
Sharpe,J.L., 1968, Geologyand sulphidedepositsof the Matagami
area,Quebec:QuebecDepartmentof Natural Resources, Report
137.
Singer,D. A., 1995,Worldclassbaseandpreciousmetaldeposits--A
quantitativeanalysis:Econ.Geol., 90, 88-104.
Stone,D. G., 1994, Designingsurveysin two andthreedimensions:
Societyof ExplorationGeophysicists.
 Chapter 16
A Review of 16 Years of Hardrock
on the Kaapvaal Craton
C. C. Pretorius,3/1.R. Muller, 3/1.Larroque,and C. Willa'ns
ABSTRACT
The Gold Division of the Anglo AmericanCorpora-
tion (AAC) commencedvibroseissurveysoverthegold-
fieldsof theWitwatersrandBasinin 1983.In theensuing
16 yearsthey completedapproximately16 000 km of
2D seismicreflectionsurveyson the KaapvaalCraton,
followedby seven3D seismicsurveysto assistgoldmine
planningand development.This is one of the most ex-
tensiveseismicprogramsconductedin thehistoryof the
mineralindustry.The GeophysicalServicesDepartment
of AAC weretechnicalmanagerson all of theseprojects,
and were responsiblefor quality controlin surveyde-
sign, data acquisition,data processing,and integrated
interpretation.
The main trend in data acquisitionhas been a mas-
sive reduction in the level of effort in the field, lead-
ing to improvedproductivityandreducedcosts.The use
of real-time quality controlsystemsand diligent bird-
doggingin the field,haveplayedan importantrole in the
dynamicmonitoringof data quality at lower levels of
effort. The Ongkiehonghands-offapproachto arrayde-
signwas adoptedin 1989 and the long sourceand re-
ceiverarraysthat characterizedacquisitionin the early
1980s were abandoned. Good static corrections
emergedas one of the mostimportantfactorsinfluenc-
ing final dataquality,and increasedemphasishasbeen
placedon field statics.
The emphasisin new seismicprocessingrouteshas
been on betterf-k filter design,improvementsin static
solutions,routineapplicationof dip move-outanddepth
migration.The cumbersome,multiple iterationsof de-
convolutionthat were the voguein the mid 1980shave
beenabandonedin favor of simplersurface-consistent
aleconvolution.Interactivefront-endprocessingis now
a key componentof the batchprocessingsystem.Pro-
cessingcostshavedeclinedrapidlyas a resultof gener-
ally simplerprocessingroutesand reducedcomputing
costs.
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Seismics
The availabilityof powerful3D graphicworkstations
with surfaceand voxel visualizationcapabilitieshas
done much to enhancethe interpretationof hard-rock
seismicdata. Geoquest/Geovizworkstationshavebeen
installedat all mine siteswith 3D seismiccoverage.The
emphasisis on multidisciplinary,integratedinterpreta-
tion of thewide varietyof datasetsrequiredto imagethe
orebodyand its hoststratigraphywith appropriateres-
olution. These datasetsinclude seismic,magneticand
gravity data, surfaceand undergroundstructuralgeo-
logicalmaps,downholegeophysicallogs,oregradeand
sedimentological data.
The costof seismicallyimaginga Witwatersrandgold
orebodyamountsto lessthan 1% of the directmining
costs.This is phenomenalvalue and 3D seismicreflec-
tion is now acceptedasan essential,costeffective,plan-
ning andrisk managementtool to be usedaheadof any
majornew developments ona deepWitwatersrandmine.
Despitethe favorableeconomics,the initial capitalout-
lay is still dauntingto a minemanagerwhohastojustify
this expenditureto his board,knowingthat the returns
will accrueovera 20-yearlife of themine andwill notre-
flect on the current balance sheet. There is a continuous
have drive to reducethe acquisitioncostsof mineralseismic
surveys,particularlyfor shallowtargetsin the 100 rn to
1000 rn depthrange,where most of the future mining
clients(baseand preciousmetals,coal, and diamonds)
will be operating.
INTRODUCTION
The Witwatersrand Basin is located in the center of
the Kaapvaal Craton in the Republic of SouthAfrica
(Figure 1). Auriferousconglomeratesof the Witwater-
srandSupergrouphaveprovidedabout20% of historic
global gold production.The Gold Division of the An-
glo AmericanCorporation(AAC) commencedvibroseis
surveysover the goldfieldsof the WitwatersrandBasin
247
248 3D seismicimaging

. -- . , .......... .. -....•--. '•:,• ,

r

.• • - - .-.-.-.-.-.-.-,- .-.-.-.-. •- • . ......... Bushveld Igneous

• •.; .... -.-.'..'.-.-.-.'.-.-,-.-. Complex
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
'-' ;:•Central
RandGroup
West
Rand
Group
[•Granite Domes
Alluvialfanentry
28' points

/• - . •-/ - ! \ ,. •,ZIMBABWE.,
•'-• • •. •-=. i • ;' • •

,...,III
j i t •!t WIT-
29'

..............................................................
j• -.• • ///Z• ,
...................................
j Oj• /' •m-Bl•mfo.l•i.
• J o ••'• m-ca• Tow.

Fig. 1. Surfaceand subsurfacegeologyof the WitwatersrandBasin (modifiedafter Pretorius,1986). Insert

showsregionallocationin SouthAfrica.

in 1983, usingthe seismicreflectiontechniqueto map velopment.This is one of the most extensiveseismic

the basin structureand to determinethe depthsto po-
tential gold-beatingstratabeneathgreat thicknessesof
youngercoverrocks(Pretoriuset al., 1987). In the ensu-
ing 16 years,they completedapproximately16 000 km
of 2D seismicreflectionsurveys,followedby seven3D
seismicsurveysto assistgold mine planningand de-
programsin the historyof the mineralindustry.
The GeophysicalServicesDepartment(GSD) of AAC
weretechnicalmanagerson all of theseprojects,respon-
sible for quality controlin surveydesign,data acquisi-
tion, dataprocessing, andintegratedinterpretation.Dur-
ing thisprogram,the GSD, their seismiccontractors and

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 16 years of hardrock seismicson the Kaapvaal Craton
consultantshave seenthe reflectionseismictechnique
developfrom a reconnaissance mappingtool in the Wit-
watersrandBasin to a precisionaid for long-termmine
planning.This chaptersummarizessome of the main
lessonslearnedduringthe seismicprogram,drawingon
pastcasehistoriesfor illustration,and speculateson fu-
ture usesof seismicreflectionin the mineralindustry.
GEOLOGICAL/GEOPHYSICAL
OVERVIEW
The WitwatersrandBasin is an early Archeanbasin
withanarealextentof approximately
50 000km2,con-
tainingup to 7000 m of sedimentsof the Witwatersrand
Supergroup. This supergroup is subdividedintothe pre-
dominantlyargillaceous,basal West Rand Group and
the overlyingarenaceousCentral Rand Group (Figure
2). The WitwatersrandSupergroupis exposedon por-
tionsof thenorthernandwesternbasinmarginsandasa
collararoundthe VredefortDome (Figure 1). Elsewhere
it is overlainby volcanics,sediments,and intrusivesof
the VentersdorpSupergroup,the TransvaalSupergroup,
andthe Karoo Sequence,with the total coverthickness
exceeding6000 m in the middle of the basin.
Most of the goldminedfrom thebasinis containedin
auriferous,paleoplacerconglomerates (termed"reefs")
in the2000-m thick CentralRandGroup(age2800 Ma).
Since 1886, 150 gold mines have yielded more than
40 000 t of gold and 120 000 t of U308 at averagegrades
of 10g/t and0.23 kg/t respectively. Thesereefshavebeen
mined at depthsof up to 3500 m at the WesternUltra-
DeepLevels(WUDLS) mine,currentlythedeepestgold
mine in the world.
Earlygeophysicalexplorationreliedupongravityand
magneticmethodsto definedrill targetsin coveredareas.
These methodswere responsiblefor the discoveryof
severalnew goldfieldsand extensionsto mined areasin
theperiod 1930 to 1967 (Krahmann,1936; Roux, 1967).
The magneticmethodis usedto map severaldistinctive
magneticmarkersin the West Rand Group (Figure 2).
Gravitylowsoccuroverlow densityCentralRandGroup
rocksundercoverand can be usedto infer the presence
of thisprospectiveunit abovethe moredense,magnetic,
West Rand Group. Integratedinterpretationof gravity,
magnetic,andseismicresultswill be discussed in a later
casehistory.
Practical investigationof seismictechniquescom-
mencedin 1981 with vertical seismicprofiling (VSP)
surveyssupplementedby acousticand density logs
in numerous exploration drillholes. An example of
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249
geophysicallogs from the West Wits area is displayed
in Figure3. The acousticimpedancelog, syntheticseis-
mogram,and VSP resultsshowstrongreflectionsat the
baseof the Malmani Subgroupand at the base of the
KlipriviersbergGroup of the VentersdorpSupergroup.
The latter reflectorcan be usedto map the Ventersdorp
ContactReef (VCR) auriferousconglomerate,which is
mined extensivelyin the WitwatersrandBasin.
It is importantto note that the VCR itself is not re-
flective, but fortuitouslyoccursat a reflective contact
betweenhigh-velocity,dense andesiticlavas and un-
derlyinglow-velocity,lessdensequartzitesof the Cen-
tral Rand Group. Figure 3 illustratesthe generalprin-
ciple that the seismic method is used to image the
host stratigraphyand structurein the Witwatersrand
Basin. The presenceof the (acousticallytransparent)
auriferousreefs is then inferred from the geological
model.
A total of 24 deep drillholes were geophysically
loggedto establishthe feasibilityof the reflectionseis-
mic method before the first vibroseis crew was mobilized
to the Witwatersrand Basin. Since that time, acoustic
logsand/orVSPshavebeenconsidered mandatoryin all
explorationdrillholes,to facilitate drillhole-to-seismic
stratigraphic correlations.A seismicstratigraphic corre-
lation chart compiledfrom type sectionsin and around
the WitwatersrandBasin is presentedin Figure 4 (Pre-
toriuset al., 1994).
TRENDS IN SEISMIC DATA
ACQUISITION
2D Vibroseis Surveys
Seismic-reflectiontechniques occupy an unusual
nichein the mineralexplorationindustry.Many mineral
explorationmanagersstill considerthis "oilfield" tech-
nologyto be too "expensive"for reconnaissance map-
pingpurposes,andtoorestrictivein termsof thetypesof
mineralizationopento seismicimaging.Witwatersrand
(Wits) gold explorationis an exceptionto this general
rule. The orebodiesare tabular, and the host sediments
are reflective,with low to moderatedips.This provides
a suitablegeometry for seismicimaging. Exploration
drillholesare deeperthanthe norm (often>3000 m) and
costlyto drill. Seismicimagingof structureand stratig-
raphypriorto sitingdrillholesbecomesa practical,cost-
effectiveoption.There are many analogiesbetweenthe
use of seismic reflection in the Witwatersrand Basin and
oilfield applications.
 NORTH

(Meters) GROUP SUBGROUP FORMATION WEST /

/

KARO0 SEQUENCE
11 000
Pretoria
Hekpoort
Timeball Hill
10
Chuniespoort Malmani /
/
/ /
/
9OOO Pniel /

Platberg
8000

Klipriviersberg
7000

R
Turfontein
6OOO CENTRAL Booysens__
RAND Shale
ohannesburg
5OOO R

4OOO
Jeppestown
Crown Lava.

M
3000
Government
Bonanza
WEST
RAND
2OOO
M M
M M
IOO0
Hospital
Hill M
M
+
M +
+
+
DOMINION +
+
BASEMENT

v•
v
vvvv•VVVVVvl
• Shales vvvvvv,
Lavas
M Magnetichorizons • Dolomite
R- Auriferous reefs
I I Arenites
Fig. 2. Lithostratigraphic
columnsin the WitwatersrandBasin.The "West"columnrefersto the WestRand
area of the basin, while "North" refersto the Central Rand area.

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 16 years of hardrock seismicson the Kaapvaal Craton 251

a) SYNTHETIC b) ACOUSTIC IMPEDANCE c) TRANSPOSED

SEISMOGRAM (IN SI UNITS) VSP
0 25
-o

:: :G.R.
qU.P.
::
ß:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:
- 1000

2000

MVVVVVMV•
KLIPRIVIERSBERG
.vv GROUP
vv
!vvv v vv 3OOO
[v v M_• v v vv M

CENTRAL
GROUPRAND

BLACK
REEF
FORMATION

Fig. 3. Geophysicalwell logsfromtheWestWits areain comparison with thegeologicalcolumn,showing

theseismicresponse of thetargetVentersdorpContactReef(VCR). (a) Syntheticseismogram,(b) acoustic
impedancelog in SI unitsand(c) transposed
VSP.

The WitwatersrandBasinwasripe for theintroduction reducedby 60% between1983and 1993.Totalvibration

ofvibroseissurveysduringthegoldexplorationboomof
the early 1980s.The composition andpricetagsof Wits
seismiccrewswere similarto their oilfield counterparts.
Client geophysicists tendedto err on the conservative
side and use both high effort levels,comparablewith
the oil industry,and stateof the art field techniquesfor
this new seismicapplication,rather than risk bad data
quality.However,the downwardtrend in the price of
gold sincethe late 1980splacedconsiderable pressure
on miningclientsto reduceexplorationcosts.A coinci-
dent reductionin oil explorationactivity inducedseis-
mic contractorsto reduce costsas well, and contractors
andclientsbegananurgentreviewof seismicrecording
strategiesin the WitwatersrandBasin.
Many of the changesin seismicrecordingsince1983
have thus been oriented toward improving field pro-
time at anyVP (vibrationpoint)wasreducedfrom 208 s
to 72 s. At the sametime, the sweepwas tailoredto put
thisreducedenergyintothemostusefulfrequencyband
(10 to 61 Hz). The reducedparametershad a negligible
effect on dataquality.Note alsothat effort levelswere
differentiatedon an applicationsbasis, with the more
stringenttechniquesreservedfor detailed2D surveys
[e.g.,on or closeto mines(Table 1c)].
Symmetrical split-straddlerecording spreadshave
beenroutinelyemployedsincethe mid 1980s,particu-
larly onreconnaissance surveyswherethe dip directions
are unknownandvary alongthe surveyline. The offset
parametersshownin Table1 optimizevelocityanalysis,
resolution,and fold-of-stackin the 0 to 6000 rn depth
interval, which is the main interval of interestin the Wits
Basin.

ductivityandreducingcosts,while maintainingaccept- The other main advancein data acquisitionmetho-

able data quality.Table 1 indicatesthat reconnaisance dologysince1983wasthe adoptionof the Ongkiehong
2D seismicproductionrates doubledand costswere "hands-off"approachto arraydesign(Ongkiehongand

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252 3D seismicimaging

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 16 yearsof hardrockseismics
on the KaapvaalCraton 253

Table1. 2D seismicacquisition
parameters,1983-93(Pretoriuset al., 1994).
Instruments,
recording a) 1983 b) 1993 c) 1993
Detailed
parameters Reconnaissance Reconnaissance
Instruments
Vibrators 4x FailingBBV 4x FailingYl100 2x MertzM18
27 000 lb each 27 000 lb each 40 000 lb each
Recording
instruments SN338 SN368/I/0CS SN368/CS
2502
Number of channels 96 120 120
Geophones Sensor
SM4 SM4 Sensor
SM4
10 Hz 10 Hz 10 Hz
Vibrator
QCsystem Vigil/Valid Pelton
Advance
2
Sweep parameters
Sweep length 26 s 24 s 18s
Sweeps perVP 8 3 4
Frequencies 10-91Hz linearup 10-61Hz linearup 20-120Hz linearup
Listeningperiod 6s 6s 6s
Sample rate 4 ms 2 ms 2 ms
Geometric parameters
Fieldspread End-on Splitstraddle Splitstraddle
x-175-4925 m 2975-25-x-25-2975 m 743.75-6.25-x-6.25-743.75 m
Stationinterval 50 m 50 m 12.5 m
VP interval 50 m 50 m 12.5 m
CMP interval 25 m 25 m 6.25 m
Vibpattern 150m linear 50m linear 12.5m linear
Receiver
pattern 100m linear 50m linear 12.5m linear
Fold of cover 48 30 60
Costsand production
rates

Meanproduction
(km/day) 4 8 2.5
Cost/km
(1993USS) •$2500 •$1000 •$ 2000

Askin,1988;Ongkiehong, 1988).The longsourceand Thusthe opportunityfor generatinga longerrecord

receiver
patterns of 1983wereabandoned in favorof lin- by recorrelating againsta truncatedsweepis lostfor-
ear sourceandreceiverarraysequalin lengthto the sta- ever. In certain instances,suchrecorrelationexercises
tionspacing arandom-noise-attenuationon earlier data have revealedinterestingdeep crustal
(i.e.,effectively
"stackingarray"ratherthana patterndesigned for co- data that could be relevant to the basin evolutionary
herentnoiseattenuation). model.

Obviouslytherewere severaladvances in field in- The introductionof real-time GPS vibrator-position-

strumentation
duringthose16 years.The main change ing systems
andfieldQC systems
suchasVigil/Valid
from 1983 to 1993 was a switch to telemetric record- andPeltonAdvance2 assisted
the geophysicists
in mon-
ing (SercelSN 368 or equivalent)
withfieldcorrelator itoringandmaintaining
dataqualityat highproduction
stackers
(CS2502or equivalent).
Thetelemetricsystems rates.

havetheadvantage of beinglighterandlesssensitive to
noise.The seismicdataare digitizedat eachgeophone
groupand relayedbetweenstationunitsby repeater
circuits.Signalattenuation is thereforelimitedto the
traceinterval.Fieldcorrelationgreatlyreducestheload
on the processing center,as well as reducingdown-
timedueto tapechanges in therecording truck.Dump-
ing a 6-s correlatedrecordto taperatherthana 32-s
uncorrelatedrecordreducedfield tape costsand tape
changingtimesby a factorof five. Onceagainthe
emphasis wason improvedproductivity. However,one
disadvantage of field correlationis that the maxi-
mum recordlengthis limitedto the listeningperiod.
3D Vibroseis Surveys
The demandfor 2D seismicsurveysin the Witwa-
tersrandBasinhasdroppedsince1993andmostof the
subsequent demandhasbeenfor 3D seismicsurveys
to assistgoldmineplanninganddevelopment (De Wet
etal., 1994;Campbell,1994;Pretorius etal., 1997).Even
for mine planning,wherethe seismicmethodis now
firmly entrenched andin somecasesmandatory(e.g.,
prior,to sitinga new shaft),it is clearthatthistech-
niqueis stillperceivedasrelativelyexpensive andonly
applicableto deepgoldmines.

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254 3D seismicimaging

Table 2. Comparisonof Vaal ReefsNo. 10 shaft and Weltevreden3D seismicsurveys

Data acquisition parameters.
Vaal Reefs No. 10 shaft Weltevreden

Field crew Geoseis CGG

Instrumenttype SN368/CS2502 SN368/CS260
No. of channels 240 600
Recordlength 3s 2s
Samplerate 2 ms 2 ms
Fold 2000% 5000%

Nominal vibroseissourceparameters
Vibratortype Mertz M18 Mertz M22
Pattern 4 Vibs inline 1 Vibrator
VP interval 40 m 15 m
Array length 30 m
Sweeplength 3 x 16 s 1 x 12 s
Sweepfrequency 10-90 Hz 30-160 Hz
Grain 6 dB/octave boost 6 dB/octave boost
Taper 0.3 s 0.3 s
Nominal receiverarray parameters
Geophonetype SensorSM4 SensorSM4
Geophonefrequency 10 Hz 10 Hz
Station interval 40 m 15 m
Pattern Inline Inline
Spread 4 linesof 60 receivers 10 linesof 60 receivers

The authorshadthe opportunityto try alternative3D rock 3D survey,but more will be saidon thistopic in a
vibroseisdata acquisitionstrategiesfor relatively shal- later section.

low golddeposits(260 rn to 1200m) at the Weltevreden

gold mine in the Klerksdorpareaof the Witwatersrand
TRENDS IN SEISMIC DATA
Basin.The targetherewastheVentersdorp ContactReef
PROCESSING
(VCR) whereit represents the shallowequivalentof the
VCR imagedat Vaal ReefsNo. 10 shaft,some2 km to the 2D Vibroseis Surveys
northwest(Trewick, 1994; Pretoriuset al., 1997). Field Advancesin seismicdataprocessingsince1983 can
testsshowedthat the vibroseiseffort levelsemployedat bebroadlydividedintofourcategories: improvements in
Vaal Reefs 10 shaftcouldbe reducedby a phenomenal hardwareandsoftware;improvements in qualitycontrol
90% atWeltevredenandstillproducesuperbqualitydata procedures;improvements in the actualdataprocessing
(Table2). routes;andreductionin processing costs.
Figure5 showspartof theinterpreted3D seismiccube
at Weltevreden.This is a screen-dump from Geoquest's
Hardware and Software
3D geovisualizationmodule,Geoviz. The seismicdata
cubehasbeen"peeled"backandstrippeddownfromthe At the outset, the Gold Division's seismic team was
surfaceto revealthe imbeddedVCR surface.The strong committedto usingan in-houseprocessing facility.This
reflectionat the VCR can be clearly seenin the upper promotedcommunicationbetweenearth scientistsand
time sliceandfrontaldip sectiononthe datacube.(Note contractprocessing staffandensuredbetterqualitycon-
alsothe imagingof steeplydippingdikesin the west.) trol. In March 1983 the KlerksdorpSeismicData Pro-
Faultsas small as 8 rn couldbe detectedat depthsin cessingUnit wascommissioned, employinga PhoenixI
excessof 500 m. It is worthnotingherethatsourceeffort computerandSeismograph ServiceCorporation's(SSC)
levels at Weltevreden could be sacrificed,but shallow batch processingsoftware.This computercould pro-
fold of covercouldnot.An adequatefold of coverwith cessapproximately3 line-km of 6-s TWT (two-way-
a goodrange of azimuthsand offsetsis crucial to the time) data per day, with the acquisitionparameters
successof shallow3D seismicsurveys.This improves shownin Table 1 and the 1983 processingrouteshown
thesignal-to-noise ratioaswell asthequalityof thestatic in Table 3.
solutions.In the authors'opinion,goodstaticsolutions By 1993 the hardwarehadbeenreplacedtwice, first
arethe mostimportantingredientfor a successful hard- by VAX/MAP systemsin 1985 andthenby an IBM RS
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 16 years of hardrock seismicson the Kaapvaal Craton 255

Surface •rid Reference

1 Drillhole wirefIame
I VCR
reflector

•50m Fault
•Sm Fault
VCR surface

Seismic
cube

0 Ill I I ,.... • ._JOOOm

•'-• I I

Fig. 5. Three-Dseismicdepthcubeat Weltevredenshownwith interpretedVentersdorp ContactReef (VCR)

surface(greensurface,with sunshadingfrom the left-handsideof the figure).At its shallowestdepth,the
interpretedVCR surfaceshownis about200 rn belowthe surface,andat its greatestdepthabout800 rn below
surface.Faultsare shownasbrownsurfacesoffsettingthe VCR. A compositefault of about50 rn totalthrow
is the largestfault in the surveyarea.Eight-meterfaultsidentifiedon the sun-shaded
VCR surfaceare close
to the detectionlimit of the survey.

6000 computerin March 1992.The SSCPhoenixfamily trials, and selectingoptimal processingparametersfor

batchprocessingsystemwasreplacedby PhoenixVec-
tor softwareand the processingcapacityquadrupledto
12 km of 6-s dataper day.Anotherextremelyimportant
developmentwas the addition of a small, high-speed,
interactivePromaxprocessingsystemas a front end to
the batch processingmachine.The currentbatch pro-
cessingsystemcomprisesSchlumberger/Geco-Prakla's
Seismossoftwarerunningon an IBM RS 6000. Due to
cheap,large-capacitydiscs,mostprocessingis carried
out discto disc.This meansthat computeroperatorsare
largelyredundant,and thatjobs can be run unattended
overnightand over weekends.Due to the increasedre-
liability of the computers,and the reduceduse of mov-
ing partsin peripherals,a permanentcomputerengineer
is no longerrequired.All of thesefactorshave further
reducedthe cost and increasedthe efficiency of data
processing.
Quality Control
The Promax software is most commonly used for
checking seismic records and geometry, conducting
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submissionto the batch processingstream.Important
areasof applicationare editingof field records,check-
ing of geometryandfield statics,velocityanalyses,f-k
filter trials, andresidualstaticanalyses.
Figure6 illustratestheadvantageof incorporatingsev-
eral stackingvelocity analyticaltechniquesinto one in-
teractivedisplayon Promax.A constantvelocitygather
of a selectedCMP (Figure6a), is appendedto the left of
a monovelocitystack(6000 m/s "brutestack")of a seis-
mic line while a 4054 m/s constantvelocitystack(CVS)
of the samerecordand 10 neighborsis splicedinto the
centerof the seismicsection(Figure6b). To the right of
the stackis the semblancepowerdisplay(Figure6c).
The seismologistis able to selectany velocity/time
pair on the semblancedisplayand monitor coincident
changesin the stack,the gather,andthe velocitymodel.
Thesetechniquesareparticularlyusefulin areasof thick,
low-velocityKaroo sedimentsexhibitinga large varia-
tion in stackingvelocities.This is the casein Figure6b,
wherethe stackingvelocitiesof the intra-Karooreflec-
tors have been overestimatedon the brute stack(hence
the absence of reflectors between 500 and 1500 ms on the
256 3D seismicimaging

Table 3. 2D seismicprocessingroutesand costs,1983-93.

1983/84Processing
route 1993Processing
route
Demultiplex(Includingcrosscorrelation,
gain removaland Demultiplex(Includinggain removaland
minimum-phaseconversion) minimum-phase conversion)
Edit/mute,floatingdatumstatics,andsourcedomainf-kfilter Edit/mute,floatingdatumstatics,andsourcedomainf-k
(restorableAGC) filter (restorable
AGC)
Amplituderecovery Amplituderecovery(programmed
gain)
Source-domain deconvolution Source-domain deconvolution
Frequencyfilter andnormalization
Receiver-domainsort,f-k filter and deconvolution Receiver-domain
sort,f-k filter anddeconvolution
Frequencyfilter
Trace normalization and sort into source domain Trace normalization and sort into source domain
Sourcedeconvolution,filter and normalization,receiver sort
anddeconvolution,
filter andequalization(2nd iteration)
Dip moveout
Commonmidpointsort,NMO/mute, staticsto regionaldatum Commonmidpointsort,NMO/mute,staticsto regional
andresidualstatics(surfaceconsistent) datumandresidualstatics(surfaceconsistent)
Residualstatics(commonmidpointconsistent)
Stack Stack
Omega-x(randomnoiseattenuation),
frequency
filtering
Migration and frequencyfilter Migrationandfrequencyfilter
Productionratefor 6 s TWT data:3 km/day Production
ratefor 6 s TWT data:12 km/day
Cost: USS 500/km Cost: USS 120/km

a) CONSTANTVELOCITY
b) CONSTANT
VELOCITY C) SEMBLANCE
DISPLAY
GATHER STACKS

VELOCITY m/s
4054 m/s 6000
m/s 4054
m/s 6000
m/s 3000 4000 5000 6000

SEMBLANCE
KAROO
CONTOURS
SEQUENCE

VELOCITY

lOO
WITWATERSRAND
SUPERGROUP

Fig. 6. Interactive
velocityanalysis
panelsshowingtypical2D surveydata.Simplifiedgeologicalcolumnis
shownontheright-hand side.(a) Constant
velocitygatherof a selected
CMP.(b) Monovelocitystackpanels
(7 CMPswide).Twopanelsof 6000m/sstacking velocitystraddle apanelof 4500m/s (c) Semblance
power
display.

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6000 m/s panels).Note especiallythe improvementof
the reflector at 400 ms when stacked at 4054 m/s rather
than the brute stack estimate of 6000 m/s.
Interval velocitiesprovide one of the major distin-
guishingfactorswhen comparingthe seismicresponse
of the Witwatersrand "hard" rock environment
the "soft" rock sedimentaryenvironmentsnormallyen-
counteredin oil exploration.Averagepre-Karoo inter-
val velocities for rocks in the Witwatersrand
6000 m/s comparedwith 2500 m/s in soft rock sedi-
mentarybasins.Reflectioncoefficients arealsogenerally
lowerin theWits, hencethe amplituderatiobetweenpri-
mary andmultiplereflectionsis relativelyhigh.This re-
suitsin low amplitudeandgenerallyunobservable mul-
tiples in the Wits Basin.This is particularlyfortuitous
sincemultiple attenuationusingtraditionaltechniques
employingdifferentialnormalmoveout (NMO) would
not be applicablein this situation.
Improvements in Data ProcessingRoutes
A comparisonof 1983 and 1993 processingflowsin
Table3 indicatesthatrecentprocessing routeshavebeen
simplifiedto removemethodsthat requireexcessiveef-
fort to produceonly moderatedata improvements.In
particular,the iterativeapplicationsof deconvolution
in
the source and receiver domain have been removed in the
latterroute.The multiple interdomainsorts,deconvolu-
tion passes,and frequencyfiltering exercisesbetween
eachpass,jointly contributedan additional20% to the
1983 processingroute, while providingonly marginal
data improvement.The emphasisin the new route has
been on betterf-k filter design,improvementsin field
andresidualstatics,routineapplicationof dip moveout
(DMO) andtheuseof programmedgainfor betterstrati-
graphicresolution.
F-k filteringhas alwaysbeen an essentialingredient
of Witwatersrandseismicdata processingroutes.The
f-k filter is used as a velocity filter set to protect the
signaland attenuatenoise.In early processingroutes,
complicatedlozenge-shaped f-k filters were employed
to remove specificnoise trains. These were soon re-
placedby simpler,fan-shapedfilterswhichoptimizethe
attenuationof both randomnoiseand low-velocityco-
herentnoise(e.g., ground-roll).Occasionally,the filter
may be usedto attenuaterefractors,but thesehavegen-
erallyhigherapparentvelocitiesandcaremustbe taken
notto damagethesignal.Thisisparticularlyimportantat
longeroffsetson the downdipsideof the spread,where
the apparentvelocitiesof the signalmay be as low as
those of the refractors.
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16 years of hardrock seismicson the Kaapvaal Craton 257
As a rule of thumb, a conservativecut-off velocity
(Vc-Max) is chosenwhich representsthe apparentve-
locity of the shallowestevent of interestat its largest
anticipateddip andmaximumstackableoffset.The ac-
tual Vc is alwayskept lower than this value and gentle
with filter tapersare appliedto preventringing. Figure 7 il-
lustratesa typicalf-k filtering exercise.The left panel
showsa split-straddleseismicrecordbeforef-k filtering.
Basin are The refractors,groundroll, andreflectorsare indicated
on this panel. The centralpanel illustratesthe process
off-k filter analysisand design.The upperdiagram(a)
showshow dataandnoisetrainsseparatein thef-k plane
beforefiltering.Reflectorsexhibithigh apparentveloc-
ities and form a "cloud" in the centerof the diagram.
The coherent,high-velocityrefractorsstandout clearly
on the flanksof this cloud,while the groundroll sepa-
ratesclearlyin the upperpart of the plot. Randomnoise
forms a scattered haze around the coherent noise sources
(aswell aswithin the centralzoneof reflectiondata).The
lower panel (b) illustratesthef-k filter chosenfor this
record.It rejectsthe groundroll, refractors,and a com-
ponentof randomnoiseand gentlytapersinto the pass
zoneto protectthedata.The seismicrecordafterfiltering
is shownon the right. Refractorsand groundroll have
been attenuated and the reflectors show better definition.
Figure 8 illustratesthe benefitsof iterativepassesof
residual staticsand velocity analyses.The target here
is the VentersdorpContactReef (VCR) auriferouscon-
glomeratewhich occursat depthsof between3800 m
and4800 m on the displaypanels.The datadisplayedin
Figure8a wereprocessed in 1983with onepassof veloc-
ity analysisanda poorlyderivedresidualstaticsolution.
Figure 8b includedtwo iterationsof residualstatics
application,with a velocityanalysisfollowingeachap-
plication.Note the improvementsin the quality of the
VCR andthe Black Reef (BR) on Figure8b.
Reduction in ProcessingCosts
Referringto Table3, theprocessingcostsfor equiva-
lent datadroppedby a factorof four between1983 and
1993. In 1993 money,the 1983 processingroute cost
approximatelyUSS 500 per line-km of 6-s TWT data.
The 1993routecostapproximately USS120/linekm. The
greatlyreducedprocessing costswerea combinedresult
of increasedcomputingpoweranda simpler,more effi-
cientprocessingroute.
3D Vibroseis Surveys
Many of the factorsapplicableto the processingof
2D seismic reflection data in the hardrock environment
258 3D seismicimaging

PRE- f-k f-k FILTER ANALYSIS AND DESIGN POST- f-k

I a)
TWO-WAY I TWO-WAY
TIME o TIME
I
(s)
ß 30 60 90 !_20 I AgAS Q DC Q ALIAS
o
30 60 90 (lS?0v
LOW•LOCI• GROU• 'ROLL: ...... :- --'-,•- .... • • 0 REFRACTORS
lO

----:7.
,•:----T
....
ATTENUATED
REFRACTORS 20 GROUND ROLL
_.•... •.•.•_-:..
GROUND ROLL ATTENUATED

40---
ß, ', ;•'1• BETTER DE-
1
REFLECTORS 5O FINITION OF
REFLECTORS
6O
HIGH VELOCITYREFRACTORS
.... . . . ...............
7O

b)
2- © oc © ^,,^s
o

REJECT
TAPER ZONE 20
ZONE
.

40 •
3-
50
PASS
ZONE 60 I
I
70
I
...... J
Fig. 7. F-k filteringexercisein anareawith high-velocityrefractors.Left panelshowsa split-straddle
seismic
recordbeforef-k filtering.Refractors,groundroll, and reflectorsare indicatedon this panel. Centralpanel
illustratesthe processoff-k filter analysisand design.Upper diagram(a) showsseparationof the dataand
noisetrainsin thef-k planebeforefiltering.Reflectorsexhibithigh apparentvelocitiesand form a "cloud"
in the centerof the diagram.Coherent,high-velocityrefractorsandgroundroll (as labeled)standout from
the reflectors.Randomnoiseforms a scatteredhaze aroundthe coherentnoisesources(as well aswithin the
centralzoneof reflectiondata).Lowerpanel (b) illustratesthef-k filter chosenfor this record.Black shows
the passzone,andwhite the rejectzone,with a gentletaperbetweenthe two zones.The seismicrecordafter
filteringis shownon the right.

areequallyapplicableto 3D processing.
Dataprocessing GLI (or equivalent)staticsolutionis alsoderivedin the
operationson a typical3D surveycanbe dividedintotwo field from Vibroseisrecords,ensuringa final checkon
phases: thecruciallyimportantaspectof staticcontrolbeforethe
seismic,LVL and surveycrewsare demobilized.
1) Field QC processingconductedon siteusinga sys-
A typical, final 3D processingroute is summarized
tem such as CGG's Geovectoror Schlumberger/
in Table4. The crucial factorsare onceagainf-k filter-
Geco-Prakla'sVoyagerSoftware
ing, dip moveout(DMO), staticsand depthmigration.
2) Full 3D processingin a central data processing
center
Figure9 showsthe relativeimprovementof a testpanel
asit passesfrom a brutestackwith basicrefractionstat-
The emphasis in the field is on producing two- ics to a DMO-stack with full field and residual statics
dimensionalbrute stacksfor quality-controlpurposes, applied.Note the markedimprovementin sectionqual-
within a dayof completionof eachswath.Linearmove- ity after the applicationof DMO and residualstatics
out plotsare alsoproducedon a daily basisto providea (Figure 9b). The economictarget is the VCR at about
convenientQC check on shot and receiverplacement. 1.2 s TWT (approx3600 m below surface).
These proceduresensurethat potential data acquisi- Accurate3D depthmigrationis absolutelyessentialif
tion problems(e.g., geometry,statics)can be detected 3D seismicsurveysareto be appropriatelyusedfor mine
quicklyandrectifiedbeforethe crewleavesthe site.The planningand development.The benefitsof 3D depth

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 16 yearsof hardrockseismics
ontheKaapvaalCraton 259

km km

0123 0123
0 O .i . I......... ! .............................
L

4
q

a) b)
Fig.8. Seismic
sections
showingtheimpro¾½mcnt indataquality
withitcrati¾½
passesofresidual
statics
and
velocityanalysis.
Target
hereistheVentersdorpContact
Reef(VCR)auriferousconglomerate
which occurs
atdepths ofbetween3800mand4800monthedisplay panels.
BR,BlackReef.(a)Dataprocessedin 1983
withonepassofvelocity analysisanda poorlyderivedresidual
static
solution.
(b)Laterdataprocessing
result
includingtwoiterations
of residual
statics,
witha velocity
analysis
followingeachresioual
statics
application.

migrationareillustrated
in Figure10.Figure10ashows picktheexactpositionof thisfaultthroughout
thesec-
a portionof a 2D seismiclineshotovertheVaalReefs tion,because
certainWestRandGroupreflectors
appear
10 Shaft area in 1984. Note how a large, pre-Platberg topassthrough it undisturbed.
Thisphenomenonisdue
normalfault suchasfl (2000-mthrow)is not only im- to out-of-plane
events("side-swipe")
beingimagedon
agedwhereit displacestheVCR (Horizon3) butalso the section.Anotherexcellentexampleof side-swipe
whereit displaces
thereflective
WestRandGroup(e.g., is thesteeplydippingfaultplanereflector,
fpr,labeled
betweenHorizons4 and 5). Howeverit is not easyto justabovetheinterpretedpositionof fl. Thisreflector

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260 3D seismicimaging

Table 4. Typical 3-D seismicdata processingroute.

Demultiplex SEG D 6250 bpi 9-trackreelsproducedby field crew.
Geometry SEGD Reelscopiedto PhoenixVectorformat3480 cartridges. Line geometry
andfield staticsappendedto traceheaders.Tracesdroppedoutside35-1064 m
offset.
Statics Hampson-RussellGLI staticsapplied.
Airwave ProMAX Air Blast Attenuation 331 m/s.
Gain T** 1.0 sphericaldivergencecorrection.
f-k filter Full on 0-5200 m/s, fan taper 5200-9360 m/s, 500 ms recoverableAGC.
D.B.S. Predictive180-msoperator2-m/s gap.
Equalization Window near # 300-1100 ms, far # 400-1200 ms
Sort To CMP order. 20-m bin width.
Autostatics Surfaceconsistentresidualstatics.Derivedfrom 1stroundNMO correctedgathers.
NMO Velocitiespickedfrom constantvelocitystacksafterresidualstaticsandDMO.
Mute 120% stretch mute.
Equalization 500-msslidingwindow250-msmove-up.
DMO 8-ms/tracedip limits.
Stack Squareroot compensation20 fold nominal.
Phase Zero phaseconversion.
Migration One passdepthmigration.
Filter 10-20-80-90Hz band-passfilter (time domain).

a) b)
0.0

1.0

2.0

0 5km
I I

Fig. 9. Seismicsectionsillustratingthepositiveeffectsof DMO andresidualstaticscorrectionsEconomic

targetis the VCR at about1.2 s TWT (approximately 3600 rn belowsurface).(a) Brute-stack
with basic
refractionstatics.(b) DMOstackwith full fieldandresidualstaticsapplied.TheVCR is nowclearlyimaged.

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 16 years of hardrock seismicson the Kaapvaal Craton 261

a) b)
CDP NOS 900 1000

Legend
..... ---
.,. :.: i
1 Base Pniel Group •i':..•""'....•; '•'"'""?"'•-.•
'•.? ":.."'-
"•- •¾• i--.•---""
......"'•.
......
:..--......•:.'.•-"
2 Base PlatbergGroup 0 500 1000 1500m
3 Base Klipriviersberg
Group I I I I LEGEND
4 Base Central Rand Group
5 Top BonanzaFormation APPROXIMATE
SCALE / FAULT
6 Base Bonanza Formation - = VCR REFLECTOR
fl Fault

0 I 2 3km
1:50 000

Fig. 10. (a) 2D seismicline OG-54 in the vicinityof Vaal Reef No. 10 shaftshowingdisplacementof the
VCR (horizon3) alongfault fl, and an out-of-planereflection(fpr) from the extensionof the samefault.
(b) Post-migrationdip line from 3D seismicdatacubein the samearea.Note the absenceof out-of-plane
reflections from the faults.

appearsto originatefrom a strikeextensionof fl several to this, an integrated,multidisciplinaryapproachwas

hundred meters north of the 2D section line. adoptedin the late 1980s and early 1990s. A typical
Figure10bshowsan equivalentseismicdip-linefrom 1993projectteamincludeda seismicinterpreter,poten-
a depth-migrated3D seismiccube producedclose to tial field geophysicist,
structuralgeologist,sedimentol-
seismicline OG-54 some10 yearslater (Pretoriuset al., ogist,and a geophysicalwireline log interpreter.This
1997). The VCR is well imagedand thereare no indi- specialistteam liaisedcloselywith the regionalexplo-
cationsof residualsideswipesuchas featurefpr. A3D ration office which requestedthe survey.Geologistsin
spatialresolutionof 20 m, asdemandedandspecifiedby the regionaloffice then appliedtheir expertknowledge
the miningclients,hasbeenachievedwithin the seismic of localexplorationtargetsto theinterpretationexercise.
data cube. Althoughthe formationof a projectteam addedto the
costof surveys,theseadditionalcostsweresmallin rela-
tionto thesavingsin acquisitionandprocessing costsand
ADVANCES IN INTERPRETATION
are morethanjustifiedby the improvementin interpre-
TECHNIQUES tation.The importanceof this approachis demonstrated
2D Seismic Surveys by the followingcasehistory.
The mostimportantadvancessince1983havebeenin
thefield of seismicinterpretation.During 1983,interpre- Case History- Detailed Structural Investigation
of a Witwatersrand Basin Margin
tationof seismicdatawasmainlyundertakenby contrac-
torsandin-housegeophysicists, with occasionaltechni- The followingstudyillustratesthe integrateduseof a
cal interactionwith their geologicalclients.In contrast varietyof geophysical
surveytechniquesduringseveral

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262 3D seismicimaging

a) c) d)
S N S

Karoo
Sequence
Pretoria
Group
C•huniespoort p++ ' •+++++++++•+++•
•roup
K•lipriviersberg 3.•.,.i.++++,++++;++•
0 2 4
•'++••;;+++++;;+++..•
6 8 10 12
•roup Disa• (•)
Central Rand
Group ;•Karoo(2.60) • West
Rand
Group(2.75)
.'•Klipriviem•rg(2.90)
• We•Rand
Group(2.•)
• •2.70)• Basement(2.71)
WestRandGroup
e)
.....W.R:'• ...................................................
Maganomaly .
./.•.;............. '
•50
0,5

Basement
Gravitylow
ßø"= Observed --= Calculated
-60

km R KimberleyReef ]
V Volcanic
Marker ]
M Magnetic
markers ]
inWest
Rand
Group]
Fig. 11. Composite
chartshowing
anintegrated,
multidisciplinary
structural
interpretation
aimedat defining
thebasinmarginstructure
adjacent
toaproducing
goldfield
intheWitwatersrand
Basin.(a)Regional
seismic
survey.(b) Detailedseismicsurvey.(c) Typeseismicstratigraphiccolumnandsimplifiedgeological column.
The targetis the CentralRandGroup.(d) Structuralinterpretationderivedfrom seismicdata.BH1 referred
to in Figure12. (e) Gravitymodelcorresponding to structuralinterpretation
shownin (d). Positionof the
magneticanomalyassociated with the WestRandGroup(WRG) is alsoshown.

phasesof investigationfor definingthe basin margin WestRandGroup.This containsseveralmagnetichori-

structureadjacentto a producinggoldfield.The primary
purposeof the surveyswas to delineateadditionalore
reservesand map those structuresthat would influence
futuremine planning.A compositechart(Figure 11) is
used to discussthe relationshipbetweenthe different
methodsemployedin the study.The main targetin the
areais the KimberleyReef (R), which occursin an ab-
breviatedCentral Rand Group successionoverlyinga
volcanicmarker(V).
The situation is summarized on the central strati-
graphiccolumnin Figure11c. The factthatthe volcanic
marker is a prominentreflector is important because
the Kimberley Reef is seismicallytransparent(i.e., it
exhibitsno acousticimpedancecontrastwith the host
rocks).Faultson the reef can only be mappedby mon-
itoring the throw on the volcanicmarker. The Central
Rand Group sedimentsare unconformablyoverlainby
andesiticlavasof theKlipriviersbergGroupwhicharein
turn overlainby sedimentsof the Chuniespoort Group,
PretoriaGroup,andKarooSequence.Beneaththe Cen-
tral Rand Group is the predominantlyargillaceous
zons (magnetite-rich shales and slates-labeledM on
Figure 1l c) which are importantfor mappingWitwa-
tersrandsedimentsbeneathyoungercoverrocks.
A reconnaissance 2D seismicsurvey,conductedwith
the parametersshownin Table 1, producedthe section
shownin Figure 1l a. The geologicalinterpretationof
this section,employingthe seismicstratigraphiccol-
umn of Figure 11c andtying this to existingdrillholes,
is presentedas Figure 11d. This sectionoccursbeyond
the edge of the TransvaalBasin, so the Pretoria and
ChuniespoortGroupsof the type sectionare not pre-
servedand the Karoo Sequencerestsdirectly on the
KlipriviersbergGroup.It is to be notedhow well the re-
connaissance line hasdelineatedthe majorborderfault
located at 5 km on the horizontal axis which has a down-
throw to the north of 900 m. This borderfault repre-
sentsthe prospectivelimit of the KimberleyReef andit
wasvery successfully mappedonthecompany's mineral
holdingson this and adjacentseismiclines.
The reconnaissance surveydid not offer sufficientde-
tail on smaller faults to the north of the border fault.

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 16 years of hardrock seismicson the Kaapvaal Craton 263

Thesewereaddedduringa secondphaseof 2D surveying Group shales.This is a typicalWitwatersrandsignature

which employedthe parametersshownin Table 1c and and was one of the featureswhich led to the original
produced thedetailedsectionshownin Figure11b. Small discoveryof the goldfield.
scalestructures,probablyfaults with throwsof 20 m, To supplementthe visual core logging,geophysical
couldbe accuratelymappedat depthsup to 2000 m with logs were acquiredin all of the explorationdrillholes
this technique.Detailedgravity and aeromagneticsur- on this prospect.The suite of logs included natural
veyswerealsoconductedoverthe seismicsurveyarea. gammaray, sonic,density,three-armcaliper,tempera-
The calculatedgravityresponse usingthedensitiestabu- rare,neutron,focused-electric, anddipmeter.In addition
latedin Figure 11d is comparedwith the observedgrav- to providingstratigraphic correlationsignatures anddata
ity fieldin Figure11e. The closeagreementbetweenthe for calculatingsyntheticseismograms (to aid seismicin-
observedand calculatedfieldsprovidesfurther support terpretation),the logswere usedto derivesedimentary
for the integrity of the interpretedgeologicalsection. cycleswithin the Witwatersrandsediments.
Comparisonof Figures11d and e showsthat the grav- Boreholedipmetersurveyswereusedto obtaintheex-
ity high overthe denseWestRandGroupsedimentsand tra detailrequiredin thefinal structuralevaluationof the
Ventersdorplavaswithin thebasinis displaceddowndip prospect.Use of the dipmeterdatafrom drillholeBH1
from themagneticanomalygeneratedby the WestRand is demonstrated in Figure 12. The dipsare displayedas

a) b) c)

NW SE
0o 50ø 90ø Depth (m)

Depth

.,,.•.,.,•590m
FAULT
FAULT 601 m 601m

"• FOLDIN
N "• FOOTWALL
\ OF FAULT
1 m DEPTH
FOLDED
OOTWALL

.........

...................................... 630 . i

o Legend- ...................
ß- Good data quality
9o

o-' Intermediate data

quality

Fig.12. Dipmeter
datafromborehole
BH1.Localityof borehole
shown
in Figure11.(a) Stratigraphic
and
structural d•psdisplayedas"tadpole"plots,with thebodyof thetadpoleprovidingthe dip magnitudeand
thetail of thetadpoleindicatingtheazimuth.(b) Dipsprojectedontoa northwest-southeast planeto provide
the"stick-plot"representation of structural
andstratigraphic surfaces.(c) Dip azimuthvectorplot in plan
view.Faultinferredin the dataat 601-m depth,with a fold in the footwallof the fault.
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264 3D seismicimaging

SE

20m Fault

• 200m Fault

0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000m

I I I I I I
APPROXIMATE SCALE

Fig. 13. InterpretedVentersdorpContactReef surface(yellow surface,sunshadingfrom the left-handside)

shownapproximatelymidwaythroughthe 3D depthcubeat Vaal ReefsNo. 10 shaft.The 20-m fault is close
to the detectionlimit of the survey.Stratigraphysubsequently
confirmedby drillingin boreholeG40.

"tadpole"plotsonFigure12awith thebodyof thetadpole 3D SeismicSurveysat Vaal Reefs No. 10 Shaft

providingthe dip magnitudeand the tail of the tadpole
indicatingthe azimuth. The dips have also been pro-
jected onto a northwest-southeast plane to providethe
stick-plotrepresentationof structuraland stratigraphic
surfacesshownin Figure 12b.
The final figure to be discussedis the dip azimuth
vectorplot presentedin Figure 12c.The changein dip
azimuthsandmagnitudesfromnortheasterly, 25 degrees
above601 m to northwesterly,45 degreesbelow this
depthwasusedto infer the presenceof a fault at 601 m
depth(Figure 12a).The fault zoneis clearlyimagedasa
setof steeplyinclinedsurfacescuttingacrossthe lower
stratigraphicdipson Figure12b.Interpretationof the dip
dragpatternsapproachingthe fault zone, coupledwith
observations in the drill core, suggestthat this is a nor-
mal fault with a downthrowto the northwest.Changes
in the stratigraphicdips from northwestthroughnorth
to northeastwere used to interpret a drag fold in the
footwallto the fault (Figures12a and 12c).Once again,
this feature was confirmed by re-examinationof the
drillcore.
AngloGold's3D seismicsurveyshavegenerallybeen
interpreted on Schlumberger-Geoquest workstations
employingthe GEOVIZ module for 3D geovisualiza-
tion. In order to illustratethe superbresolvingpower
of 3D seismics,asconfirmedby subsequent miningop-
erations, selectedresults from Vaal Reefs No. 10 shaft
(Pretoriuset al., 1997) are republishedhere.
Figure 13 is a 3D representationof the VCR andfault
surfacesat Vaal Reefs No. 10 shaft after computeras-
sistedtrackingof the horizonand faultshas been con-
ductedthroughapproximatelyhalf of the datavolume.
For illustrative purposes,the seismic cube has been
"peeled back" to the current inline section,revealing
the orebodysurface(coloredyellow) with fault planes
shadedin blue. Note how grid-shadingof the topogra-
phic surfacein Geoviz, usinga shallowsunanglefrom
thenorth,helpsto highlighta 20-m fault by castinga sig-
nificantshadowoverthe discretechangein topography.
The seismicstructuralinterpretationhas assistedthe
mine staff in designingthe future developmentlayout

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 16 years of hardrock seismicson the Kaapvaal Craton 265

P
0
P

pp . VCR
o -

0 50 1 O0 150 200 m LEGEND

I I I I I VCR : VENTERSDORP CONTACT REEF
Scale
: VCR REFLECTOR
P
(• : UNDERGROUND
SURVEYPEG

Fig. 14. Inline extractedfrom the Vaal ReefsNo. 10 shaft3D seismicdatavolumeshowingmining con-
firmationof theseismically
derivedVentersdorp
ContactReef(VCR) structure
plan.Thereis verygood
agreementbetweenthe depthsof the VCR derivedfrom the seismicsurvey(red hne) andthe underground
pegs(yellow dots)surveyedin after subsequent
mining.No verticalexaggeration
in display.

for the entire life of the mine. Seismic, drillhole, un-
dergroundsurvey,and samplingdatahavebeenmerged
into an integratedmine-modeling,reserveestimation,
and mine schedulingpackage.A comprehensive plan-
ning databasehasbeendevelopedwhich is sufficiently
flexible to facilitate dynamicreplanningin responseto
new information.
Several of the smaller faults observed
mic survey were intersectedby mining operationsat
No. 10 shaft between 1994 and 1999, and generally
confirmedthe predictedstructure.One exampleis illus-
tratedin the enlargeddip sectiondisplayedin Figure 14.
On this sectionthe VCR pick, displacedby a 40-m
fault (F6), is displayedin red. Subsequentmining op-
erationshave confirmedthe presenceand throw of the
fault, as shown by the undergroundsurvey pegs (P)
displayedin yellow, a remarkableachievement,given
that the reflection is 1400 m below the surface at this
point.
INFORMATION ECONOMICS
The previoussectionshave repeatedlyemphasized
the needfor seismicreflectionsurveysto be costcom-
petitive,particularlywhen comparedto more tradition-
ally acceptedsourcesof subsurfacestratigraphicand
structuralinformation, notably explorationdrillholes.
in the seis- Figure 15 illustrates,in schematicform, the costeffec-
tiveness of the Vaal Reefs No.10 shaft 3D seismic sur-
vey. If eachbinnedseismictraceis consideredto be the
equivalentof a"structuraldrillhole,"thesurveyarguably
deliveredspatialinformationequivalentto 12 000 sur-
facedrillholeson a 20- x 20-m grid,extendingto VCR
depths,and greater,within the area of interest.Cross-
sections within the seismic cube can be viewed and in-
terpretedin any orientation.The total surveycostof ap-
proximatelyUSS1 million (in 1994dollars),wouldonly
fund about3000 m of deepdrilling, includingdeflec-
tions. It must be stressed here that it is not the authors'

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266 3D seismicimaging

ingle drillhol
cost
equivalent

Seismic Cube
- 12,000 holes

>6 km

Resolution
20m,,20m,,20m

$1.0 7 million

2 km

-- 25km '•
Fig. 15. Informationeconomicsat Vaal ReefsNo. 10 shaft.The wedgecut into the 3D cubeemphasizes
the
fact thatthe seismicdatavolumemay be cut into at any orientationanddepth.

intentionto proposethe directreplacementof otherin- to the use of lower effort levelsand increasedproduc-
formation sourceswith seismic reflection, but rather to tivity, but the tracedensityis higher,with the resultthat
campaignfor an optimummix of informationsourcesto thecost/km
2 of imagingthesubsurface
wascompara-
maximizethe economicbenefitsto a mining operation. ble for the two surveys.Although it is difficult to ap-
Figure 16 comparesthe costsof 3D seismicreflection ply rules of thumb in estimatingcosts,in the authors'
for a deep Witwatersrandcasehistory (No. 10 shaft) experience,
the figureof USS160000 to 180000/km
2
anda shallowcasehistory(Weltevreden).The costsper wouldbe approximatelycorrectfor the data acquisition
trace are substantiallylessat Weltevreden,due mainly componentof a 3D seismicsurveyunderSouthAfrican

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 16 years of hardrock seismicson the Kaapvaal Craton 267

severalof the lessonslearnedcouldbe geneticallyap-

plied to otherearthimagingtechniques,be theygeolog-
16e ical or geophysical.
The mostimportantprincipleis that
14e themissionmustalwayscommencewith a soundunder-
standingof the physicalpropertycontrastsof both the
12e orebodyand its host rocks.In the authors'experience
10e the physicalpropertiesdatabasesfor areassubjectedto
geophysicalimagingareusuallypoor,andas a resultof
80 poor orebodycharacterization, the field techniquesse-
60 lectedare not alwaysappropriate.Fortunately,this was
not the case with the Witwatersrandseismicsurveys.
40 20m An extensiveprogramof downholegeophysical logging
20 precededthe seismicprogram,focusinglargelyon the

0
• 2%
E3Cost/trace (USS)
Traces/km2/100
ß Cost/km• (kUS$)
• Resolution (m)
1% of Mine cost
Fig. 16. Relativeinformationcostsfor shallowanddeep
3D seismicsurveysin the WitwatersrandBasin. Units
of the vertical axis as shown in the label box. The costs
er trace(yellowbars)for shallowsurveysare relatively
r thanfor deepsurveys,dueto lowersourceeffortand
higherproductivityresultingfrom economicsof scale,
while the numberof tracesper squarekilometerare sig-
nificantlyhigherfor shallowsurveys(red bars).Overall
costpersquarekilometeris thereforesimilarfor deepand
shallowsurveys(bluebars).Resolution (greenbars)refers
to theCMP bin size.Thepercen.
ta.gecostof theseismic
surveyswith respectto directm•mngcostsare shownas
purplebars.
surveyconditions.(Obviouslythe costsof permits,data
processing,and interpretationshouldbe addedto this
to derive a holistic total.) As shownin Figure 16, this
amountsto between1 and2% of directminingcostsand
representsextremelygood value for money as part of
the risk managementstrategyof a responsiblemining
operation.Note that the verticalresolutionon the shal-
low surveyhasimprovedfrom 20 rn to 8 m, with respect
to earlierdeepersurveys.
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS
The authorshavebeenprivilegedto participatein one
of the most extensiveseismicprogramsin the history
of mineralexploration.Froma philosophicalviewpoint,
host stratigraphyof the auriferousdepositsas well as
on direct detection.Equippedwith this seismicstrati-
graphicdatabase,the advantagesand limitationsof the
techniquewereunderstoodfrom the outset.
Once an appropriatetechniquehasbeenselectedfor
orebodyimaging, rigoroussurvey designis required
to achievethe desiredresolution.Temporaland spatial
aliasingmust be avoidedat all costs.Extensivedesk-
top designexercisesand preproductionfield trials are
routinely applied on seismicreflection surveys.This
culture of rigorousplanning is largely driven by the
relativelyhigh costof reflectionseismicsurveys,partic-
ularly standingtime penalties(currentlyapproximately
US$3000/hr).The emphasis is notjust on absolutecost,
but ratheron costcompetitiveness andsuitabilityfor the
job in hand.Reflectionseismicsurveysin the Wits have
spanneda broad range of applicationsfrom reconnai-
sancemappingthroughdetailed2D to high-resolution
3D surveysfor mine planninganddevelopment.
The seismictechniqueis often selectivelyemployed
to follow up on reconnaissance dataprovidedby other,
lesscostlymethodssuchas gravityand aeromagnetics.
Integratedinterpretationof all geologicaland geophys-
ical datasetshas been an importantingredientfor the
successfulsurveysconductedby Anglo-AmericanCor-
porationandAngloGoldin the WitwatersrandBasin.
Given the relativelylow costof seismicprocessing,
there is a growing belief in the need to produce at
least two seismiccubesfor each 3D seismicsurvey:
a structuralcube and a stratigraphic/sedimentological
cube. The processingroutesfor each cube can differ
substantially.The formercubeis processed to optimize
structuralresolutionat the expenseof wavelet shape.
Becausethis shapemay conveyuseful stratigraphicin-
formation,favorablestratigraphic(wavelet-preserving)
processingroutesfor 3D seismicsurveysin the hard-
rock environmentare currentlybeingresearched.

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268 3D seismicimaging

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Onkiehong,L., 1988,A changing

philosophy
in seismicdataacqui-
sition: First Break, 6, 9.
The authorsare gratefulto the Anglo AmericanCor- Onkiehong,L., andAskin,H. J., 1988,Towardstheuniversalseismic
poration and AngloGold for their permissionto pub- acquisitiontechnique:FirstBreak,6, 46-63.
lish this paper. We also wish to extend our grati- Pretorius,C. C., Jamison,A. A., andIrons,C., 1987,Seismicexplo-
tude to our colleaguesin AAC, and our consultantsin rationin theWitwatersrand Basin,Republicof SouthAfrica:Proc.
Schlumberger/Geco-Praka, CGG, and Irons Geophysi- of Exploration87, OntarioGeologicalSurvey,SpecialVolume3
(1989), 214-253.
cal for theirsuggestions andcommentsduringtheprepa- Pretorius,C. C., Steenkamp,W. H., and Smith, R. G., 1994, Devel-
ration of the manuscript.Commentson the original opmentsin data acquisition,processingand interpretationover
manuscript by reviewersMatt SalisburyandDavidEaton ten years of deep vibroseismicsurveyingin South Africa, in
are greatlyappreciated. A specialthank-youto Desiree Anhausser,C. R., Ed., 15th CMMI Congress,Vol. 3 Geology,
249-258.
HenriquesandDaphneLambertfor patientandprofes-
Pretorius,C. C., Trewick,W. F., andIrons,C., 1997,Applicationof
sionalassistance in preparingthe diagramsandLeonie
3D seismicsto mineplanningat Vaal ReefsGold Mine, Number
Abrahamsfor typingthe manuscript. 10 shaft,Republicof SouthAfrica, in Gubins,A. G., Ed., Proc.of
Exploration
97:4thDecennial
Internat.
Conf.onMineralExpl.,
Prosp.andDevel. Assoc.of Can., 399-408.
REFERENCES Pretorius,D. A., 1986, Compilationof the geologicalmap of the
WitwatersrandBasin, in Anhaeusser,C. R., and Maske, S., Eds.,
Campbell,G., 1994,Geophysicalcontributions to mine-development Mineral depositsof southernAfrica, Vol. 1: Geol. Soc. S. Africa,
planning:A riskreductionapproach,in Anhausser, C. R., Ed., 15th 1019-1020.
CMMI Congress,Vol. 3 Geology,283-325. Roux,A. T., 1967,The applicationof geophysics
to goldexploration
De Wet, J.A. J., Hall, D. A., and Campbell,G., 1994, Interpretation in SouthAfrica: Mining andgroundwatergeophysics, Economic
of the Oryx 3D seismicsurvey,in Anhausser,C. R., Ed., 15th GeologyReportNumber26, GeologicalSurveyof Canada,425-
CMMI Congress,Vol. 3 Geology,259-270. 438.

Krahmann, R., 1936, The geophysicalmagnetometricinvesti- Trewick, W. S. F., 1994, Explorationhistoryand, mining strategy
gations on West Witwatersrand areas between Randfontein for the VentersdorpContactReef at Vaal Reefs No. 10 shaft-
and Potchefstroom, Transvaal: Trans. Geol. Soc. S. Africa, 39, Klerksdorp Goldfield, in Anhausser,C. R., Ed., 15th CMMI
1-44. Congress,4-9 September1994,Vol. 3 Geology,67-70.

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 Index

acousticimpedance, 2, 6, 9-12, 14-17, 38-39, 45, 74, diffraction,5, 45, 60, 61, 64, 96, 119, 171, 174, 204,
114, 116, 143, 159, 190,204,230,232,233,236, 236-238

241,243,249,251,262 dipmoveout
correction
(DMO), 93, 100,104,105,108,
amplitudefocusing,3, 70, 85 117-120, 130, 162, 171,174,236-238,240,241,
amplitudevariationwithoffset(AVO), 16,70, 83, 85 245,256-258,260
amplitudeversusangle(AVA), 88 downholeseismicimaging(DSI), 4, 57, 184-236
anisotropic
[includesanisotropy],
2, 15, 17,21, 23, 28,
77, 134, 208, 213 elastic Kirchhoff method, 46
Archean,4, 61,110, 112, 141,164, 165, 167, 194-196, elasticmoduli, 22, 23, 25, 26
205,229, 249 elasticphase-screenapproach,46
attenuation,16, 27, 31, 36, 49, 63, 72, 101,118, 132, elastic-wavescattering,46, 47, 53, 72
147, 190, 213,235,253,256, 257, 260 exotherm, 160

finite-difference
(FD) method,3-5, 46, 48, 60, 70, 71,
band-pass
filtering,119, 212
73, 76-82, 84, 86, 88, 185-187, 193
Bell Allard model, 240
forwardmodeling,3, 5, 45, 46, 50, 73, 112, 114, 115,
bimodalvolcanicsequence,
164-166, 168, 170, 176,
132, 190, 202, 204
195, 196, 205
Fourier transform, 202
boreholelogging,126, 170, 244
fractures,2, 12, 16, 20, 28, 36, 39, 71, 144, 147, 165,
Bornapproximation,60, 70-71, 74, 77, 81, 110,
207, 213,223,225,243
185,240
Fresnel radius, 49
bulk modulus, 13, 24, 25
Fresnelzone, 16, 50, 127, 132, 133
full-waveformsoniclog,2, 20, 36-39, 169, 184, 186,
complex-elasticscreenmethod,60 192, 193,233
compressionalwavevelocity,10,24, 37, 39, 61, 75
Comptonscattering, 30-32 Green's function, 47, 50
conductivity,
1, 96, 97, 103, 138, 154 ground-penetrating
radar,53
confiningpressure,11-13, 26, 27
convolution,46, 48 hardrock,1-6, 9-13, 16-18, 31, 45-90, 93, 104, 108,
117, 181,190, 194, 235,236, 244, 247-268
dataprocessing,
3, 5, 33, 117,162,184,190,200,202, Hilbert transform, 216
235,236, 247, 248,254, 257-259 hydrocarbon,
1, 59, 67, 118, 141,142
deconvolution,5, 118, 119, 144, 152, 162, 171,174,
212, 213,236, 247, 256, 257 imagepointtransform (IPT), 202-204,214,219
density,2, 6, 9-16, 20-23, 25, 29, 30-34, 38-39, 49, impedance,
3, 4, 6, 9, 10-17, 20, 21, 28, 38, 39, 45,
61, 65, 72-75, 95, 97, 113-115, 133, 134, 144, 53, 57, 59, 60, 66, 73-75, 93, 102, 104, 106, 110,
145,153, 154, 159, 165, 168, 169, 171,176, 112-116, 119, 123, 125, 132-134, 136, 155, 159,
185, 194, 196, 197, 199, 230, 232, 233,249, 169-171, 175, 190, 192, 194, 196, 204, 206, 225,
262,263,266 230, 232, 233,236, 240, 241,243-244, 249,
densitylogging,28-31, 33, 34, 197 251,262
densitylogs,2, 32, 113, 169, 199,249 seismicimpedance,
20, 38, 133,175,233
269
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270 Index

isochronalintegration,48, 57 scalarwavefield, 46
isotropic,15, 20, 21, 23, 24 scatteredwavefield,46, 47, 51, 52, 54, 55, 57, 60, 62,
65, 70, 71, 77, 83, 88, 186
Laplace'sequation,1 scattering,2-5, 16, 20, 28, 30-33, 45-55, 57, 59-62,
64-67, 69-89, 102, 120, 125, 161,185-187, 190,
massdensity,21, 28, 29, 31, 38 193,213,235
massivesulfide(s),2, 3, 9-12, 16, 17, 34, 38 sedimentarybasins,1, 5, 6, 9, 12, 20, 142, 194
median filters, 213 seismicanisotropy,2
microcracks,10, 11, 16, 26-28 shallow reflection, 93-109
Mie scattering,71, 73, 81 shearmodulus, 13, 23, 24, 25
mine-seismic-profiling (MSP), 141,146-148, 151,155 shear-wavevelocity,24, 34, 61
signal-to-noiseratio (S/N), 5, 60, 66, 71, 118, 119,
Nafe-Drake curve, 9, 11, 14, 113, 114, 134 133,152, 154, 162, 190, 203,204, 225,233,
noise, 5, 9, 16, 59, 60, 63, 66, 67, 71,101,105, 237, 254
117-119, 131-134, 145, 147, 153,154, 162, 170, Snell'slaw, 48, 60
183, 184, 189, 190, 198, 202-204, 212, 213,216, soniclogging,21, 27, 34, 35, 39, 181,184, 192, 193
217, 219, 225,233-237, 253,254, 256-258 spectralbalancing,110, 119, 145, 152, 200, 202
normalmoveout(NMO), 104, 118, 119, 142, 144, 145, sphericalinclusion,50, 57
152, 236, 256, 260 Stoneleywaves,35, 36, 39
subhorizontalfracturezones,93, 97
perturbation,65, 70, 73, 75 S-wave, 4, 16, 34, 35, 45, 53, 57, 60, 61, 67, 71-73
Poisson'sratio, 11, 13, 14, 16, 17, 25, 192
polarity,3, 84, 85, 93, 98, 101,102, 104, 106, 108,238 3D seismicsurvey,4-6, 17, 18, 45, 66, 70, 125,
pore fluid, 2, 21 229-268
pore fluid pressure,21 trace equalization,144, 145, 152, 171, 213
porosity,12, 16, 21, 24-28, 30, 170, 222 transit time, 26, 35, 36
potentialfield, 1, 70, 141, 157 triangulartessellation,46
potholes,4, 143-146, 151, 155 true amplituderecovery(TAR), 213,236
P-wave, 2, 10, 11, 14, 16, 17, 34-38, 53, 57, 61, 63-65, 2D seismicsurvey,4, 17, 59, 112, 115, 117, 141-177,
68, 71-75, 77-79, 82-86, 88, 108, 119, 149, 153, 194, 230, 231,236, 237, 247, 248, 251,253,256,
159, 165, 168, 169, 181,184, 185, 187-192, 198, 257, 259, 261,262
200-202, 204, 209, 211-213, 216, 218, 221,
232,233 verticalseismicprofile(VSP), 3, 4, 9, 17, 28, 50-55,
59, 61, 63-69, 72, 78, 147-149, 155, 181-193,
radioactivewaste, 2, 5, 93 206, 207-226, 230, 249, 251
Rayleigh-Bornapproximation,71, 72, 74 vibroseis,4, 5, 145, 171,247, 249, 251,253,254,
reflection coefficient,6, 10, 12, 14, 38, 49, 53, 59, 113, 257, 258
116, 118, 142, 153,170, 184, 194, 203,232, 236, viscoelasticfinite-differencemethod,3, 73
244, 257 Voigt bounds,22-24
reflectivity,2, 6, 10, 12, 16, 45, 104, 114, 122, 125, 128, volcanogenicmassivesulfide(VMS), 4, 5, 38, 112, 164,
129, 134, 136, 138, 159, 176, 181,182, 184, 192, 165, 167, 168, 174-177, 181,182, 192, 195, 196,
200, 230, 233,236, 237, 240, 243 229-244
refraction, 2, 9, 10-13, 15, 17, 35, 60, 104, 108, 110,
118, 129, 161, 162, 171, 184, 209, 230, 237, 240, water saturation,16
258, 260
refraction static correction, 108, 118, 236, 237, 240 zero offset, 49, 53, 57, 120, 171,198,201,238
Ricker wavelet, 50, 77, 102 Zoeppritz equation,48

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