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sensitive areas or are near previously isolated In almost every case, metallic ores are buried
communities. If a proposed mining project under a layer of ordinary soil or rock (called
involves the construction of any access roads, then ‘overburden’ or ‘waste rock’) that must be moved
the environmental impact assessment (EIA) for the or excavated to allow access to the ore deposit.
project must include a comprehensive assessment The first way in which proposed mining projects
of the environmental and social impacts of these differ is the proposed method of moving or
roads. excavating the overburden. What follows are brief
descriptions of the most common methods.
1.1.3.1 Open-pit mining
access roads and prepared staging areas that Because open-pit mining is employed for ore
would house project personnel and equipment, deposits at a substantial depth underground, it
mining may commence. All types of active usually involves the creation of a pit that extends
mining share a common aspect: the extraction below the groundwater table. In this case,
and concentration (or beneficiation) of a metal groundwater must be pumped out of the pit to
from the earth. Proposed mining projects allow mining to take place. A pit lake usually
differ considerably in the proposed method for forms at some point in time after mining stops and
extracting and concentrating the metallic ore. the groundwater pumps are turned off.
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1.1.6 Beneficiation
Chapter 1 7
1.2 ENVIRONMENTAL AND SOCIAL IMPACTS OF MINING
The remainder of this chapter describes the
most important environmental impacts of mining
projects.
Chapter 1 9
site conditions (e.g., geology, vegetation, the slope to be revegetated either naturally or
topography, climate, and proximity to and with human assistance.”3
characteristics of surface waters), combined
with significant differences in the quantities and
characteristics of exposed materials at mines,
preclude any generalisation of the quantities
and characteristics of sediment loading.
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1.2.2 Impacts of mining projects materials that generate hazardous air pollutants
on air quality such as particulate matter, heavy metals, carbon
monoxide, sulfur dioxide, and nitrogen oxides.
Airborne emissions occur during each stage of
the mine cycle, but especially during exploration, 1.2.2.1 Mobile sources
development, construction, and operational
activities. Mining operations mobilize large Mobile sources of air pollutants include heavy
amounts of material, and waste piles containing vehicles used in excavation operations, cars that
small size particles are easily dispersed by the transport personnel at the mining site, and trucks
wind. that transport mining materials. The level of
polluting emissions from these sources depends
The largest sources of air pollution in mining on the fuel and conditions of the equipment. Even
operations are: though individual emissions can be relatively
small, collectively these emissions can be of real
• Particulate matter transported by the concern. In addition, mobile sources are a major
wind as a result of excavations, blasting, source of particulate matter, carbon monoxide,
transportation of materials, wind erosion and volatile organic compounds that contribute
(more frequent in open-pit mining), fugitive significantly to the formation of ground-level
dust from tailings facilities, stockpiles, ozone.
waste dumps, and haul roads. Exhaust
emissions from mobile sources (cars, 1.2.2.2 Stationary sources
trucks, heavy equipment) raise these
particulate levels; and The main gaseous emissions are from combustion
of fuels in power generation installations, and
• Gas emissions from the combustion drying, roasting, and smelting operations. Many
of fuels in stationary and mobile sources, producers of precious metals smelt metal on-site,
explosions, and mineral processing. prior to shipping to off-site refineries. Typically,
gold and silver is produced in melting/fluxing
furnaces that may produce elevated levels of
Once pollutants enter the atmosphere, they
airborne mercury, arsenic, sulfur dioxide, and
undergo physical and chemical changes before
other metals.
reaching a receptor (Figure 1). These pollutants
can cause serious effects to people’s health and to
1.2.2.3 Fugitive emissions
the environment.
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency defines
Large-scale mining has the potential to contribute
‘fugitive emissions’ as “those emissions which
significantly to air pollution, especially in the
could not reasonably pass through a stack,
operation phase. All activities during ore
chimney, vent or other functionally-equivalent
extraction, processing, handling, and transport
depend on equipment, generators, processes, and
Figure 1.
Impacts
Emissions Atmosphere Human health,
Mobile and stationary sources. Pollutants are transported, diluted, Environment (water, soil, wildlife),
(Can be measured and controlled) undergo physical and chemical changes Infrastructure,
Global climate
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1.2.3.1 Habitat loss example, sediment contamination of rivers and
streams is common with surface mining.
Wildlife species live in communities that depend
on each other. Survival of these species can 1.2.3.2 Habitat fragmentation
depend on soil conditions, local climate, altitude,
and other features of the local habitat. Mining Habitat fragmentation occurs when large areas
causes direct and indirect damage to wildlife. The of land are broken up into smaller and smaller
impacts stem primarily from disturbing, removing, patches, making dispersal by native species from
and redistributing the land surface. Some impacts one patch to another difficult or impossible, and
are short-term and confined to the mine site; cutting off migratory routes. Isolation may lead to
others may have far-reaching, long-term effects. local decline of species, or genetic effects such as
inbreeding. Species that require large patches of
The most direct effect on wildlife is destruction or forest simply disappear.
displacement of species in areas of excavation
and piling of mine wastes. Mobile wildlife 1.2.4 Impacts of mining projects
species, like game animals, birds, and predators,
on soil quality
leave these areas. More sedentary animals, like
invertebrates, many reptiles, burrowing rodents,
Mining can contaminate soils over a large area.
and small mammals, may be more severely
Agricultural activities near a mining project may
affected.
be particularly affected. According to a study
commissioned by the European Union:
If streams, lakes, ponds, or marshes are filled
or drained, fish, aquatic invertebrates, and
“Mining operations routinely modify the
amphibians are severely impacted. Food supplies
surrounding landscape by exposing previously
for predators are reduced by the disappearance of
undisturbed earthen materials. Erosion of
these land and water species.
exposed soils, extracted mineral ores, tailings,
and fine material in waste rock piles can result
Many wildlife species are highly dependent on
in substantial sediment loading to surface
vegetation growing in natural drainages. This
waters and drainage ways. In addition, spills
vegetation provides essential food, nesting sites,
and leaks of hazardous materials and the
and cover for escape from predators. Any activity
deposition of contaminated windblown dust
that destroys vegetation near ponds, reservoirs,
can lead to soil contamination.
marshes, and wetlands reduces the quality and
quantity of habitat essential for waterfowl, shore
“SOIL CONTAMINATION: Human health
birds, and many terrestrial species.
and environmental risks from soils generally
fall into two categories: (1) contaminated
The habitat requirements of many animal species
soil resulting from windblown dust, and (2)
do not permit them to adjust to changes created
soils contaminated from chemical spills and
by land disturbance. These changes reduce living
residues. Fugitive dust can pose significant
space. The degree to which animals tolerate
environmental problems at some mines. The
human competition for space varies. Some
inherent toxicity of the dust depends upon
species tolerate very little disturbance. In instances
the proximity of environmental receptors
where a particularly critical habitat is restricted,
and type of ore being mined. High levels
such as a lake, pond, or primary breeding area, a
of arsenic, lead, and radionucleides in
species could be eliminated.
windblown dust usually pose the greatest
risk. Soils contaminated from chemical spills
Surface mining can degrade aquatic habitats with
and residues at mine sites may pose a direct
impacts felt many miles from a mining site. For
contact risk when these materials are misused
Chapter 1 15
resources as well as bringing problems of contamination is transferred to other economic
sanitation and waste disposal. activities, such as agriculture and fishing. The
situation is made worse when mining activities
“Migration effects may extend far beyond take place in areas inhabited by populations
the immediate vicinity of the mine. Improved historically marginalized, discriminated against, or
infrastructure can also bring an influx of excluded.
settlers. For instance, it is estimated that
the 80- meter-wide, 890-kilometre-long Proponents of mining projects must insure that
transportation corridor built from the Atlantic the basic rights of affected individuals and
Ocean to the Carajas mine in Brazil created communities are upheld and not infringed
an area of influence of 300,000 square upon. These include rights to control and use
kilometres.”10 land, the right to clean water, and the right to
livelihood. Such rights may be enshrined in
1.2.5.3 Lost access to clean water national law, based on and expressed through a
range of international human rights instruments
According to scientists at the University and agreements. All groups are equal under
of Manchester (UK) and the University of the law, and the interests of the most vulnerable
Colorado(U.S.): groups (low-income and marginalized) need to be
identified and protected.
“Impacts on water quality and quantity
are among the most contentious aspects 1.2.5.5 Impacts on public health
of mining projects. Companies insist
that the use of modern technologies will EIAs of mining projects often underestimate
ensure environmentally friendly mining the potential health risks of mining projects.
practices. However, evidence of the negative Hazardous substances and wastes in water, air,
environmental impacts of past mining activity and soil can have serious, negative impacts on
causes local and downstream populations to public health. The World Health Organization
worry that new mining activities will adversely (WHO) defines health as a “state of complete
affect their water supply. ... physical, mental and social well-being, and not
merely the absence of disease or infirmity.”12
“There are major stakes in these conflicts,
affecting everything from local livelihood The term ‘hazardous substances’ is broad and
sustainability to the solvency of national includes all substances that can be harmful to
governments. Fears for water quantity people and/or the environment. Because of the
and quality have triggered numerous and quantity, concentration, or physical, chemical or
sometimes violent conflicts between miners and infectious characteristics, hazardous substances
communities.”11 may (1) cause or contribute to an increase of
mortality or an increase in serious irreversible or
1.2.5.4 Impacts on livelihoods incapacitating illness; or (2) pose a substantial
present or potential hazard to human health or
When mining activities are not adequately the environment when improperly treated, stored,
managed, the result is degraded soils, water, transported, disposed of, or otherwise managed.
biodiversity, and forest resources, which are
critical to the subsistence of local people. When
contamination is not controlled, the cost of the
10 Ibid.
11 Bebbington, A., & Williams, M. (2008) “Water and
Mining Conflicts in Peru.” Mountain Research and Develop- 12 World Health Organization. 1946. Preamble to the
ment. 28(3/4):190-195 http://snobear.colorado.edu/Markw/ Constitution of the World Health Organization. Official Records
Research/08_peru.pdf of the World Health Organization No. 2, p. 100.
Chapter 1 17
production, including mining. This assessment electrowinning.13 The bottom line is that metal
found that Life Cycle greenhouse gas emissions mining generates more than 1 kg of greenhouse
from copper and nickel production range from gas for every 1 kg of metal that is produced, and
3.3 kilograms (kg) of CO2 per kg of metal for this does not take into account lost carbon uptake
copper produced by smelting to 16.1 kg of CO2 of cleared forests.
per kg of metal for nickel produced by pressure 13 T. E. Norgate and W. J. Rankin (2000) “Life Cycle Assess-
acid leaching followed by solvent extraction and ment of Copper and Nickel Production, Published in Proceedings,
Minprex 2000, International Conference on Minerals Processing
and Extractive Metallurgy, pp133-138. http://www.minerals.csiro.
au/sd/CSIRO_Paper_LCA_CuNi.htm