See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/269599502

A Fly Ash Particles Media Filters for Decentralized Wastewater Treatment

Systems

Article  in  Water Practice & Technology · December 2013

DOI: 10.2166/wpt.2013.035,

CITATION READS

1 287

1 author:

Figene Ahmedi
University of Pristina
14 PUBLICATIONS   44 CITATIONS   

SEE PROFILE

Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects:

InWaterSense View project

All content following this page was uploaded by Figene Ahmedi on 10 January 2017.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

A FLY ASH PARTICLES MEDIA FILTER FOR DECENTRALIZED WASTEWATER
TREATMENT SYSTEMS

Figene Ahmedi* and Petko Pelivanoski**

*
Department of Hydro-technic, Faculty of Civil Engineering and Architecture, University of Prishtina,
Bregu i diellit p.n., 10000 Prishtinë, Kosovo
E-mail: figene.ahmedi@uni-pr.edu
**
Department of Water Supply, Sewerage and Land Reclamation, Faculty of Civil Engineering,
University Sts. Cyril and Methodius, Partizanski odredi 24, P.F.560 Skopje, Macedonia
E-mail: pelivanoski@gf.ukim.edu.mk

ABSTRACT
The contribution of this work is twofold: (i) estimation of the hydraulic operation of a coal combustion
byproduct through its physical filtration by developing a physical model, and in broader terms, (ii)
promoting the transformation of native disposal materials into beneficial materials.
We developed an experiment which examines fly ash as a coal combustion byproduct for its hydraulic
performance, and runs in four main stages: First, fly ash in its natural state is tested in the laboratory to
check if its effective size and uniformity coefficient match with recommendations in the literature;
Then, fly ash of effective grain size as recommended in the literature is derived; Further, a physical
model comprised of such a derived fly ash media filter and which supports horizontal flow of the
effluent is developed; Finally, the hydraulic performance of the physical model comprised of derived
fly ash in presence of effluent is evaluated and proved that fly ash is an appropriate media filter for
hydraulic performance. The work clearly highlights the potential of the easy to reach and costless
native fly ash as a media filter for treatment of wastewater which we consider a viable future work.

Keywords: fly ash, hydraulic operation, hydraulic properties, physical characteristics

INTRODUCTION
For small communities, small decentralized wastewater treatment systems are attractive since they are
cost–effective and are considered a long–term option towards meeting public health and water quality
goals (Cabanas, 2009; EPA, 2009). The most common decentralized on-site systems through which
the small community’s wastewaters are managed are conventional systems such as septic tanks and
subsurface wastewater infiltration systems (SWIS). Septic tank provides primary treatment as long as
SWIS provides secondary treatment of the effluent discharged by septic tank. There are some other
on-site technologies, known as sand (media) filters and constructed wetlands, which provide advanced
secondary treatment of septic tank effluent. The later are alternative technologies which are usually
located after a septic tank and may substantially improve the quality of effluents, ensuring among
others for lower nutrients concentration in the effluent (Crites & Tchobanoglous, 1998) (Cucarella &
Renman, 2009). Generally, decentralized wastewater treatment systems are soil based systems.
(Tchobanoglous, 2003) emphasizes that the use of soil for treating BOD and TSS was acceptable in
the past, but in the twenty-first century, the use of solely soil for such a destination is not acceptable.
Soil treatment capacity may be used for additional treatment of other constituents such as nitrogen and
phosphorus and not only for BOD and TSS. Several studies contributed on utilization of gravel, sand
and soil for pollutant reduction in decentralized wastewater treatment. On the other hand, it is also
shown that water bodies are impaired by decentralized wastewater treatment systems discharges,
releasing nutrients in a level higher than water ecosystem endures. As such, these systems need to be
updated to improve the effluent quality. A possible improvement is the utilization of coal combustion
byproducts as material for media filter units. Utilization of coal combustion byproducts (CCBs) in
water and wastewater treatment has been investigated by many researchers and practitioners, where
most challenging task was providing clean water for various activities. In particular, the performance
of coal residuals as a material for removal of certain pollutants in wastewater is investigated. A brief
summary of works on efficiency of coal combustion by-products is given in (Ahmedi & Pelivanoski,
2011). Hence, (Sahu et al., 2002) investigates the use of bituminous fly ash as an adsorbent for the
treatment of domestic wastewater of an urbanized village. In fact, authors demonstrate the use of fly
ash as an alternative media for COD removal over activated carbon. The results of their batch
experiments show that COD present in domestic wastewater can be reduced up to the extent of 87.89
% by the use of fly ash. The use of fly ash and bottom ash to remove contaminants from on-site and
municipal wastewater treatment, with special reference to COD, color and organic compounds, and
heavy metals, has also already been examined (Viraraghan, 1993). Bottom ash and fly ash are
considered that may serve as an alternative for wastewater treatment thorough on-site systems. For
instance, a reduction of biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) and suspended solids (SS) is
accomplished using bottom ash as a material content of a filter medium, for mound type soil
absorption systems in laboratory work carried out at West Virginia University. Same study
(Viraraghan, 1993) introduces another comparative review but using pea gravel, medium sand, bottom
ash and fly ash-bottom ash mixture seeking for reduction of chemical oxygen demand (COD) and total
suspended solids (TSS). Further, (Cheung et al., 1994) performed a comparative investigation of
several materials, including fly ash and bottom ash, in order to determine their phosphorus sorption
capacities. The research is conducted following a batch experiment, initially determining the bulk
density, particle density, total porosity and particle size distribution of materials. The results suggested
that alkaline fly ash may operate as a promising amendment to coarse sand bed to enhance phosphorus
removal when compared to bottom ash and acidic fly ash. Next, batch experiments performed by
(Cucarella & Renman, 2009) aimed to also evaluate the efficiency of fly ash, apart from sand and
gravel, for phosphorus removal for on-site wastewater treatment systems. They found that fly ash
belongs to materials of capacities from moderate to very high in relation to phosphorus removal. They
found that fly ash of particle sizes finer than 1 mm provide moderate and very high capacity materials
for P sorption. Then, (Westholm, 2006) surveys results of several authors over different materials
behavior in laboratory experiments. He reports that studies obtained in laboratory (through batch
experiments) show that fly ash and bottom ash have obviously a potential for phosphorus removal in
on-site wastewater treatment. Although diverse laboratory analyses using batch and column
experiments have already been carried out and continue to be studied, seeking for alternative media
filter materials which sustain the performance of on-site small scale wastewater treatment systems, the
field trials in terms of the physical and hydraulic operation of coal combustion byproducts remained
yet relatively unexplored. In this paper, a physical model for physical and hydraulic operation of fly
ash media filter as soil media is introduced. As the wastewater flows through the soil voids of the
porous media, it gets treated by means of filtration, sedimentation, chemical absorption and biological
reactions (Yu Hu et al., 2007). Pollutant reduction efficiencies as well as the lifetime of decentralized
wastewater treatment systems which use filter materials vary depending on the material used due to
differences in medium properties. These differences affect not only the pollutant reduction efficiency,
but also the operating hydraulic loading limit (Cucarella & Renman, 2009; Yu Hu et al., 2007).
Therefore, in order to remove effluent contaminants, the filter material shall provide proper contact
time and oxygen for both wastewater and filter media. Both these characteristics are influenced by
hydraulic conductivity, hydraulic loading rate, and dosing frequency. The hydraulic properties,
respectively hydraulic operation and performance of the media filter are related to and depend on the
particle size, uniformity coefficient, and porosity of the material, thus affecting also the surface area of
the material. The surface area of the material is further a factor on which depends the holding capacity
of the liquid. In fact, seeking for suitable media for the removal of effluent contaminants implies the
choice of materials which must necessarily own appropriate physical characteristics and hydraulic
properties as to enable sustainable hydraulic conditions of the effluent flow. If alone, say, the granular
media are selected incorrectly in terms of their physical characteristics, the hydraulic conditions of the
effluent flow will result as already inappropriate.

Recommendations on the selection of media filter materials

In relation to physical characteristics and hydraulic properties that affect the operation and
performance of media filters, several authors in the field have recently made some recommendations
on media filter selection for decentralized wastewater treatment systems when using sand, gravel, or
soil itself.
Thus, according to (Eliasson, 2002), media filter materials shall neither be too coarse nor too fine.
That makes materials have an optimal number of spaces (pores), and appropriate surface area and
hydraulic conductivity, enabling thus unsaturated flow conditions which provide aeration as well as a
proper contact time of the wastewater with the media. Further, (Arias et al., 2001; Brix et al., 2001)
recommend the effective grain size range from 0.3 to 2.0 mm, and the uniformity coefficient less than
four to ensure an adequate hydraulic conductivity and minimize the risk of clogging. (EPA, 1980)
recommends that not more than 1 % of the media should be finer than 0.13 mm. In relation to the
effective size of filter media, (EPA, 1980) recommends ranges from a minimum of 0.25 mm up to
approximately 1.5 mm. (Eliasson, 2002) recommends that an ideal sand for intermittent sand filters is
coarse sand with an effective size between 0.3 mm and 0.5 mm. In order to maintain open passage for
air, the exclusion of fines from material by washing and drying it is extremely important (Crites &
Tchobanoglous, 1998; Eliasson, 2002).
It is worth noting that, whenever there is a shortage of natural resources, the industrial byproducts
like are coal combustion byproducts may attract attention (Westholm, 2006) as an alternative media
filter material for decentralized wastewater treatment systems. One of the main arguments in favor of
recommending the use of coal ash as a media filter is its availability as either free or at a low
affordable cost since considered as a mere disposal material.
Therefore, this work focuses in the evaluation of the affinity of fly ash for hydraulic operation when
wastewater is applied. As a prerequisite to this evaluation, the assessment of physical characteristics as
well as of hydraulic properties of fly ash is first carried out. Results on physical characteristics and
hydraulic properties of fly ash proved the suitability of the native fly ash to serve as a media filter
material due its appropriate hydraulic operation.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The disposal material used in our experiment is a native coal combustion byproduct produced during
lignite combustion for energy production in Kosovo. In fact, the material used for the experiment is fly
ash which is otherwise land-filled. It means that it has not been recycled nor used for supplemental
needs like road construction, or water or wastewater treatment. Fly ash originates in plant’s
electrostatic precipitator filters, and is collected in dry weather conditions as fresh and not exposed to
rain weather conditions.
Prior to the experiment, data about physical parameters, such as effective size (D10), uniformity
coefficient (Uc) and the porosity of the fly ash are first analyzed in a geotechnical laboratory. For the
purpose of this research, laboratory analyses on grain size distribution were restricted to only visible
particles (i.e., those up to 0.075 mm). The wastewater used for the experiment is the one collected
from a domestic discharge point in a city quarter. According to (Tchobanoglous & Burton, 1991;
Crites & Tchobanoglous, 1998), the wastewater that should be treated in media filters should be a
septic tanks effluent. To improvise that the effluent is entering the media filter, a bucket for the
influent retention is used. The influent is retained in the bucket for few hours to settle some of the
large suspended solids. Such an influent when entering the media filter, we refer to it further in this
study as effluent.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION – THE EXPERIMENT
Next we discuss in detail the results of our experiment over fly ash which is run in four main stages:
First, fly ash in its natural state is tested in the laboratory to check if its effective size and uniformity
coefficient match with recommendations in the literature; Then, fly ash of effective grain size as
recommended in the literature is derived; Further, a physical model comprised of such a derived fly
ash media filter and which supports horizontal flow of the effluent is developed; Finally, the hydraulic
performance of the physical model comprised of derived fly ash in presence of effluent is evaluated to
conclude if fly ash is an appropriate media filter for hydraulic performance or not.

Fly ash – in its natural state

The results of laboratory analyses carried out on physical parameters of fly ash in its natural state are
summarized in Table 1.
Table 1 Physical parameters of fly ash
Effective size (mm) Uniformity coefficient Porosity (%)
0.11 2.65 90.34

Based on these results (cf. Table 1), it is obvious that the effective size of fly ash, D10 = 0.11 mm,
does not match with the effective size recommended in the literature, D10 = 0.25 – 2.0 mm (see
Introduction). Furthermore, what classifies the natural fly ash as unsuitable media filter is also its high
porosity, as well as its high affinity for wastewater permeability, providing thus an insufficient contact
for flow with fly ash media filter.

Media filter material - grain size selection

Taking into account the recommended rate for media filter grain size, fly ash of particle size greater
than 0.3 mm is derived (hereinafter referred to as a derived fly ash) to serve for the media filter in the
experiment. In order to derive the particles of recommended effective size from a natural fly ash, the
natural fly ash is first sieved, but also washed during sieving to free it of dust. Then, the material is
dried in open sunny weather conditions. The values of effective size and uniformity coefficient of the
derived fly ash are determined through grain size distribution analyses carried out in the laboratory.
The analyses on fly ash of recommended particle size yield values for effective size, uniformity
coefficient, and porosity as provided in Table 2.
Table 2 The effective size, uniformity coefficient, and porosity of derived fly ash
Effective size (mm) Uniformity coefficient Porosity (%)
0.332 1.6 63.30

Tests on fractional components of derived fly ash have also been conducted. Their results per
fractional component are presented in Table 3.
Table 3 Fractional components of derived fly ash
Gravel (%) Sand (%) Fines (%)
Coarse Fine Silt Clay
3.4 59.1 37.5 0.0 0.0

The hydraulic conductivity of media filter material which is essential to determining the capability
for permeability of a material is next measured in the laboratory. The hydraulic conductivity is
determined through constant head permeability test in the laboratory, and resulted to a 3.14 x 10-3cm/s
rate.
 Once the porosity and the hydraulic conductivity of derived fly ash have been determined, the
specific surface area of such a fly ash material to serve as a media filter material is next determined. Its
specific surface area is calculated by the Kozenyev equation (see equation (1) below) expressed in
cm2/cm3 (Ahmedi, 1997), and yields a value 2878.11 cm2/cm3.
k x S2 = (1.5 x 104) x [n3/ (1 - n)2] (1)
with:
k = hydraulic conductivity (cm/s)
S = specific surface area (cm2/cm3)
n = porosity (%)
To evaluate if the derived fly ash may provide conditions for appropriate hydraulic operation, the
experiment as introduced next is developed.

The physical model

As part of the experiment for the assessment of physical and hydraulic operation of derived fly ash, we
developed a physical model – unit with horizontal flow, as depicted in Figure 1. The model consists of
a glass box of length 80 cm, width 20 cm and height 20 cm. It is filled with media filter in a
length/height ratio of 58 cm/10 cm. Its drainage compartments comprised of sand are placed at both
ends of the box, occupying thereby the retained length of 22 cm in total of the box, respectively.

10 cm
filling zone

20 cm
20 cm

Entering Exit
zone zone

11 cm 58 cm 11 cm
Figure 1 The physical model and its dimensions.
The effluent enters the media filter from a bucket, as illustrated in Figure 2. The bucket used is of
plastic, from where the distribution pipe is connected to the filter box. The distribution pipe is a
transparent PVC pipe (to allow monitoring the flow drops). In order to hold a constant pressure of the
flow, an additional bucket is connected.

Figure 2 The configuration of the experiment.

 Following, we detail the calculation of hydraulic loading rate (HLR), dosing frequencies, and
hydraulic retention time (HRT).
The experiment in the model is performed for the daily wastewater flow of Q = 5.0 L/d.
Hence, HLR = 25 cm/d
The uniform application of effluent without ponding is considered to be the best loading method for
most soil materials (Otis et al., 1977). On the other hand, according to (Crites & Tchobanoglous,
1998), if surface ponding (i.e., continuous ponding) between liquid applications occurs, the media
filter will certainly fail. Therefore, in this study, the effluent flow is horizontal and applied uniformly
without ponding to the media filter. The hydraulic application rate (HAR) is determined as hydraulic
loading rate (HLR) divided by dosing time (DT). The dosing frequency is considered to be 24 doses
per day.
Hence, HAR = 1.04 cm/dose
It is relevant to mention that, due to the lack of a control panel which regulates the frequency, a
manual frequency control is done. Thereby, the quantity of the flow discharged per dose is determined
first:
Flow/dose = 208 .33 ml/hour = 3.47 ml/min
Next, the hydraulic retention time of the model is calculated.
Taking into account that the box is not fully filled, as well as not filled with same material through
the whole length, the volume is calculated as a sum of the filter material volume (Vfm) and the drainage
material volume (Vdm). The porosity of sand as a drainage material with particles of size greater than
0.3 mm is determined in the laboratory and resulted to be 41.60 %.
Hence,
Vfm = 58 x 20 x 10 = 11 600 cm3
Vdm = 22 x 20 x 10 = 4 400 cm3
The porosities of materials are taken into account when calculating the effective volume, Ve, in terms
of the water absorbed by materials. Hence, the hydraulic retention time of the model is calculated as
given below. The effective volume of the model filled with derived fly ash is determined as follows:
Veda = nda x Vfm = 63.30 % x 11 600 cm3 = 7342.80 cm3
Ves = ns x Vdm = 41.60 % x 4 400 cm3 = 1830.40 cm3
Ve = 7342.80 cm3 + 1830.40 cm3 = 9173.20 cm3
with:
Veda = effective volume of derived fly ash
Ves = effective volume of sand
The hydraulic retention time is:
HRT = 9173.2 cm3/ 5 000 cm3/d = 1.83 day ≈ 44 hours

Hydraulic performance of the media filter

Finally, given the physical and hydraulic properties of the derived fly ash which resulted in the
experiment, to evaluate if the fly ash media filter may operate well hydraulically, we let the effluent
start flowing through the model (Figure 3).
Figure 3 The effluent filtration through fly ash media filter.
Results of this experiment clearly demonstrate that effluent entering the fly ash media filter flows
hydraulically appropriate. These results may be further discussed in terms of different particle size
distribution, permeability, as well as specific surface area of derived fly ash. Led by the structuring of
fractional components in derived fly ash, the derived fly ash may be considered as sand.
Another parameter that makes the derived fly ash be even more effective in its hydraulic
performance is its large specific surface area (2878.11 cm2/cm3) - a feature which allows the derived
fly ash hold effluent. The high rate of fly ash specific surface area is influenced by its porosity (63.3%)
and sustainable (near low) hydraulic conductivity (3. 41 x 10-3 cm/s).

CONCLUSIONS
Based on the results presented earlier of this research, the following conclusions might be drawn:
 Fly ash might be used as a media filter once its grains reach the values for effective size and
uniformity coefficient as recommended in the literature - that in order to enable appropriate
hydraulic operation of the media filter.
 Results of the experiment conducted on the physical model we developed prove the capability for
hydraulic operation of the fly ash media filter when its particles are of size greater than 0.3 mm. Its
physical and hydraulic parameters highlight it as a suitable filter material. Hence, the material
which is a mere disposal material may onwards be generally considered as beneficial material.
Having proved the capability of the fly ash media filter to operate well hydraulically, it will be
interesting to further investigate the potential of the fly ash media filter for treatment performance in
decentralized wastewater treatment systems. Utilization of this material by decentralized wastewater
treatment systems may foster a wider use of such systems for wastewater treatment – not to exclude
their use in developing countries. This, since alone these systems are cost effective, adding then the
fact that fly ash which might be incorporated into their units is easily accessible and available at no
cost.
Further research is needed to first accurate the phosphorus reduction through the model of fly ash
content, and afterwards estimate the lifetime of fly ash filter material used for decentralized
wastewater treatment.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors would like to thank the geotechnical laboratory (GEOKOS) for their technical support in
carrying out the analyses of the fly ash particles.
REFERENCES
Ahmedi, F., 1997. Mekanika e Dherave (Soil Mechanics). Prishtinë, Kosovo: University of Prishtina, Faculty of
Civil Engineering and Architecture.

Ahmedi, F. & Pelivanoski, P., 2011. Sand, Gravel, Clay, and Coal Combustion Byproducts used as a Filter
Material for Phosphorus Removal in Small Scale On-Site Wastewater Systems - An Overview. In The 4th
International Conference on Environmental and Geological Science and Engineering. Barcelona, Spain,
September 2011. WSEAS.

Arias, A., del Bubba, M. & Brix, H., 2001. Phosphorus Removal by Sands for Use as Media in Subsurface Flow
Constructed Reed Beds. Water Research, Elsevier, 35, pp.1159-68.

Brix, H., Arias, C.A. & del Bubba, M., 2001. Media Selection for Sustainable Phosphorus Removal in Subsurface
Flow Constructed Wetlands. Water Science and Technology, IWA 44, pp.47-54.

Cabanas, C.V., 2009. Recycling Filter Substrates Used for Phosphorus Removal from Wastewater as Soil
Amendments. KTH Architecture and the Built Environment.

Cheung, K.C., Venkitachalam, T.H. & Scott, W.D., 1994. Selecting Soil Amendment Materials for Removal of
Phosphorus. Water Science and Technology, IWA 30, pp.247-56.

Crites, R. & Tchobanoglous, G., 1998. Small and Decentralized Wastewater Management Systems. McGraw-
Hill.

Cucarella, V. & Renman, G., 2009. Phosphorus Sorption Capacity of Filter Materials Used for On-Site
Wastewater Treatment Determined in Batch Experiments-A Comparative Study. Environ. Qual. 38, pp.381-92.

Eliasson, J., 2002. Sand/Media Specifications. Washington State Department of Health and Wastewater
Management Program.

EPA, 1980. Onsite Treatment Methods. In EPA/625/1-80-012 Design Manual Onsite Wastewater Treatment
and Disposal Systems. Washington DC: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Water Program
Operations, Office of Research and Development.

EPA, 2009. Nutrient Control Design Manual. State of Technology Review Report. Cinciati, Ohio: EPA/600/R-
09/012 Office of Research and Development.

Otis, R.J., Converse, B.L., Carlile, B.L. & Witty, J.E., 1977. Effluent Distribution. In Proceedings of the Second
National Home Sewage Treatment Symposium., 1977. ASAE Publication.

Sahu, R., Dahiya, R.P. & Gadgil, K., 2002. Fly Ash Based Low Cost Method for COD Removal from Domestic
Wastewater. In Map India 2002, 5th Annual International Conference. New Delhi, 2002. Center for Energy
Studies Indian Institute of Technology.

Tchobanoglous, G., 2003. The Importance of Decentralized Wastewater Management in the Twenty-First
Century. Davis: Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of California.

Tchobanoglous, G. & Burton, F.L., 1991. Wastewater Engineering: Treatment, Disposal and Reuse. McGraw-
Hill.
Viraraghan, T., 1993. Ash Utilization in Water Quality Management. Preprints of papers-American Chemical
Society-Division of Fuel Chemistry, p.38 (3) 939.

Westholm, L.J., 2006. Substrates for Phosphorus Removal - Potential Benefits for On-Site Wastewater
Treatment? Water Research, Elsevier 40, pp.23-36.

Yu Hu, H., Cheng, Y.-L. & Yang Lin, J., 2007. On-Site Treatment of Septic Tank Effluent by Using a Soil
Adsorption System. Pract. Period. Hazard. Toxic Radioact. Waste Manage.@ ASCE, 11(3), pp.197-206.

View publication stats