@® -— (© 18 Conaian ene of Mining. Mir and Pevceum. Pubiibed by Eve Scene Lid. Alii PHI:S0964-1823(98)0003-8 Application of Skarn Deposit Zonation Models to Mineral Exploration LAWRENCE D. MEINERT Department of Geology, Washington State University Pullman, Washington 9164-2812, U.S.A. Received July 8, 1997; eccepted January 26,198 ‘bret Mos ae sa eps ae ned nah pce nine elaive to associated intusions. ‘occurs on scales from kilometers to micrometers, and refiecs infiltrative Mid flow, wallrock acon emperor vaiaion, and fod mining. Te mod special examples of am Znaon ‘usually occur atthe skarn-marble contact, where transitions between monomineralic bands can be knife sharp. Other small-scale examples occur in zoned veins and individual mineral crystals. Although, visually suking and scientifically interesting, in mineral exploration these small-scale variations are less useful than deposit- or district-scale zonation In most skarn sysiems there is @ general zonation paler of proximal garnet, distal pyroxene, and vesuvanite (ora pyroxenoid such as wollatonite,bus- tamite, or thodonte) atthe marble front. As wel, individual skam minerals may display systematic ‘olor or compositional variations within the larger zonation patter. Such patiems are reviewed for 14 well-studied examples of Cu, W, Sn, Au, and Zn-Pb ska. In addition, many deposits have endoskarn cor olber akeration of the associated intrusion, and recrysallization or other sublle changes have ‘occured inthe surrounding wallrocks. Copper skams, such as Mines Gaspé in Quebec and Big Gos- sani Irian Jays, have high ratio of gamet:pyroxene and are 2oned outward from the intrusion to gar- ne, o pyroxene, o massive-sulfide replacement and vein deposit. Games in Cu skamn are e-rich and ‘change from dark red-brown near the intrusive contact o paler brown, geen, or yellow in distal loce- tions. Pyroxenes in Cu skarns are pale and diopsdic near the intrusion, and become darker and more Fe- and Mr-rich away from the intrusion. Tungsten skamns, such as Salau and Costabonne in France and Pine Creck and Garet Die in California, have intermediate ratios of gametpyroxene, are more extesive venically and along strike than perpendicular othe intrusive contact, and have zonation pat- terms commonly complicated by overprntng of metamorphic lithologies. In W skarns, garnet is com- monly subcalcic andthe pyroxene is Ferich, reflecting particularly reducing walrocks or great depth of formation, Tin skarns, such as Dachang in China and Moina in Australia, also can have subcalcic {amet and Fecrich pyroxene, but this reduced mineral assemblage typically is due to an association ‘with reduced S-ype granites. Tn skars differ from most other skam types in having a late green stage that may replace earlier So-bearng cal-silicate minerals, thus liberating Sn to form cassierite. Many high-grade Au skars, such as Hedley in Brish Columbia and Fontude in Nevada, have low ratios of gametpyroxene and are associated both with reduced plutons and reduced wallrocks. Gold- Fich zones occur in Fetch, pyroxene-dominant, distal skar. Zn-Po skams, such as the Yeonhwa- Urehin district in Korea and Groundhog in New Mexico, have low ratios of garnet:pyroxene and gen- erally form distal to associated intrusions. These skams also are zoned from proximal game: to distal pyroxene and pyroxenoid(bustamiterhodonite), with significant zones of massive sulfides within and beyond skam. Manganese enrichment of most mineral phases, particularly pyroxene, is characteristic of distal zones. Fundamenial controls on skar zonation include temperature, depth of formation, com- position and oxidation state of associated plutons and wallrocks, and tectonic sening. Most W skarns orm at relatively great depth, 5 km to 20 km, with extensive high-temperature metamorphic and mets- somaiic mineral assemblages. In conirast, most other skam types ae relatively shallow, <10 km and mostly Pyx skarn FEBA Hyerosnermal Breccia Ea] Big Gossan Dikes & Intrusive Breccia i Marble (Tw) PBB) Massive sutde cap Kkeh marker shale BEY] Pyx > Gar skam Kembelangan Group Fig. 4 Cross-section through Big Gossan drill stations BGU 26 and BGU 14, illustrating typical geology and “distal” skar geometry {modified from Meinen et al. 1997). Lines of section are shown in Figure 3.Fig. 5 Big Gossan skarn zonation. (A) Red-brown garnet (G) vein with anhydrite and pyroxene (P) envelope that cuts biotite (B) hofn- {els developed from Kembelangan marker shale unit immediately underlying massive mineralized skarn (B) Proximal red‘Application of Skarn Deposit Models to Mineral Exploration + L.D. Manet 191 age pyroxene compositions for the westem, middle, and eastern thirds of the skam system are DieHdsoloss, DiaHdiJo, and Din, Jos. ‘Unlike pyroxene, garnet is zoned on the scale of indi- vidual crystals as well as on the scale of the deposit. Convo luted, concentric, planar, and sector zoning are present in different garnet crysals. In general under crossed nicols, ‘more isotropic zones are more andraditic, whereas more bire- fringent zones are more grossularitic. There is no consistent compositional zonation from core to rim. Most gamet rims, are more andradtic, but some rims are up to 40% more ‘grossulartic than the gamet core. Different compositional bands within an individual crystal can display as wide a com- positional range as is seen at the deposit scale. The average composition of all analyzed gamets is AdwxGrissSprsPYes Gamet higher in the system and on the westem and easter margins is very slightly enriched in Fe relative to deeper, ‘more central locations, but this zonation isnot nearly as pro- ‘nounced as thet previously described for pyroxene. Fluids associated with prograde skam are high-tempera- ture, low-CO; (<0.05 mole%) NaCl-KC! brines. Homoge- nization temperatures for fluid inclusions in pyroxene range from 320° to 485°C and average 410°C. Most fluid inclusions in pyroxene contain multiple daughter minerals, including halite, sylvite, chalcopyrite, hematite, and anhydrite. Total salinity ranges from 38 to 65 wi% NaCl+KCl, and mean salinities are 22 wt% KCI, 35 w% NaCl, and $7 wi NaCHKCl, Clear evidence for boiling in some fiuid incli- sions indieates a pressure of 20 Mpa, corresponding to a depth of 2 km under hydrostatic conditions (Meinert etal, 1997). ‘Chaleopyrite is the dominant ore mineral with borite <<1_ vol of total Cu sulfides. Other metallic minerals include argentian gold, pyrite, sphalerite, galena, and pyrthotite, Pyrite is the most abundant of these minerals, locally reaching 20% by volume. Sphalerite, galena, and pyrthotite combined are <1% by volume, except at the mar- gins of the ska, where pyrrhotite forms a subeconomic cap" on the chalcopyrite mineralization. This sulfide zone is analogous to massive-sulfide bodies in other skamns 35, previously discussed for Mines Gaspé and the “manos” and “chimneys” of some Zn skams (e.g... Megaw eta, 1988). At Big Gossan, this “cap” occurs at high elevations (Fig. 4) for almost the entire length ofthe deposit. ‘Beyond skar, but within the marble aureole surround- ing the Big Gossan deposit, are numerous planar to wavy veinlets (Fig. 5g-h), most <1 mm thick, that appear to repre- sent fluid conduits. In places these veinlets look like stylo- lites, except that their orientation is systematic (mostly perpendicular) relative to the skern front. The dark cener- line of these veins is marked by a concentration of carbon, sulfides (pyrite, sphalerite, and galena), chlorite, serpentine, ‘or clay. Marble occurs for tens to hundreds of meters beyond the Big Gossan skam in the Waripi Formation hangingwall. ‘This marbleization decreases in grain size with distance from the skam or intrusive breccia, or both. ‘Mineralization is zoned within the Big Gossan system (Table 2). Copper, Au, Ag, Pb, Zn, As, Mo, and Co assay data from 192 drillholes totaling 13215 assay intervals were composited every 3 m down the hole, and categorized by rock type, elevation, and mine location along strike. Copper, ‘Au, Ag, Pb, Zn, As, and Co grades in skam all increase toward the top of the system whereas Mo grades increase with depth. Similarly, Cu, Au, Ag, Pb. Zn, As, and Co grades increase (for a given elevation) toward the western and, in most cases, toward the eastem margin of the system. Only ‘Mo is inverse to this trend, defining a central core zone that is interpreted to represent the main locus of fuid flow over- lying the source pluton. Zine and Pb show the strongest enrichment toward the distal margins of the system, and even higher concentrations of these elements (up to several percent) occur as veins and disseminations in marble beyond the limit of skam. However, nowhere do Pb and Zn reach ‘economic proportions within the Big Gossan system. Tungsten Skarns French Pyrenees W-Mo Salau and Costabonne are the two largest of many W- Mo-bearing skams in the French Pyrenees. Stlau has pro- duction/reserves of 1.2 Mt averaging 1.6% WOx Costabonne is smaller, with average grades of 0.3 t0 0.4% ‘WO; (Fonteilles etal, 1989). These skams are associated with 270 to 290 Ma granodioritic stocks and batholiths that have intruded Paleozoic carbonate and clastic sedimentary rocks (Fig. 6). The igneous rocks have minor plagioclase amphibole endoskar on a scale of meters near some con- tacts with mineralized skarm, but otherwise are relatively unaltered (Soler, 1977; Raimbault and Keelin, 1987). Par- ticularly lncking are the mineralized stockwork quartz vein- lets with K-feldspar and biotite envelopes, that occur in intrusions associated with many Cu skarns, This is consis- tent with the estimated pressure of 2 kb, corresponding 10 a depth of atleast 8 km, depending on the range of lithostatic to hydrostatic load (Van Marcke de Lummen, 1983). ‘At Salau, the host rocks consist of Silurian black car- bonaceous shales overlain by Devonian platform carbon- ates of the Salou Formation (Derré and Krylatov, 1976). ee (G)>> pyroxene. Vugs are filed with anhydrite (Ahy), chalcopyrite (Cpy). and pyrite (Py). (C) Intermediate-tocation brown garnet (G) ina matrin of white anhydrite (Ahy) and chalcopyrite (Cpy).(D) Green pyroxene (P) (with interstitial chalcopyrite) > brown garnet (G). (&) Distal-location green pyroxene laths (with interstitial tarnished chalcopyrite) > pale brown gamet In thin section, most ofthe pyrox- ene has been replaced by's fine-grained mixture of amphibole, carbonate, and quartz. (F) DislalMate dark green pyroxene crystals rim ming earlier lighter colored pyroxene skarn fragments (no garnet). White breccia matrix is anhydrite, (G) Dark green pyroxene skam near the skarn-marble contact with minor green garnet (G) partly replaced by epidote(E). Hydrothermal fluid conduits in bleached white mar- _ble are matked by cancentrations of remobilized carbon and chlorte-clay (C-C) alteration. (H) Hydrothermal fvid conduits in bleached ‘white marble samples 100 m beyond skar are marked by concentrations of remoblized carbon (C) and minor sulfides (pyrite, sphalerie, and galena). Seale bar in all rocks is 1 em.92 Explor Mining Geol, Vo. 6, No. 2, 1997 “ate 2. lg Gonsan met eatin ‘These strata were folded duing the Hercynian orogeny and ST Emr arutoni” ste now subparalle! 1 the generally steep intrusive contact come loo, ISO (Fig. 7)- Ska forms a relatively thin band (10 m to $O m) sane at the intrusive contact, and the skarm mineralogy depends Tig tan 210 we con the composition ofthe protolith Fonteilles eta, 1989). cu ag MEO Ik ate lar ie euunded by ¢ nurow whitened wipe) 130718 eche”) zone tat is marked by an increase in grain Poem) 1028 Pi x size, destruction of graphite, andthe formation of wollas- Pom ey as 62ST tonite along the skarn-marble contact (Fig. 8). The most ee ree eae | ay allem epreeae one ee te eee wom et A <3! almost pure hedenbergte (Fig. 9). Proximal skam is game Coop) sit ya. 7955. 28688 dominant and the garnet is low in Fe (Fig. 9). The abun- ewe iiangaimeen, "dane of pyrosene elie to gare Fein ta 198, cam, TANTS, 28 el petite = 10 10) de ey See gm 20 2» a B indicative of relatively reduced conditions, consistent with im vi 2h arc of gpm he poli A! Sl. wih gon, HB, 38g hyn W sams ther is ate subee games that ot Cae me 2» a a : Lowe an 495 mtn cum an fen fom 039026 aa = Mod 8838 “8 tom au 0 s N 2a (ppm) ‘At pm) Mop) Copp) Hiltons com) Au (ppm) ‘8 (oem) Poigpm) 2a(ppm) ‘As (opm) Mo (ppm) Coippm) 1600 Ge arornemandene Sehelte occurences Shale aed sandstone Sov Series - dolomite . a ‘Crincial limestone BB Satu Series -imestone ]] Graphitic marble umeinnes-eaeucvt shale} Ble tle : EE ey ea EE Sittstone ; [EE Sitstone Es I | Fi. 6. Geological map ofthe Sala aren Fane), showing san Fi 6 eal ar ie a Forge Sock (odie from ig. 7. Vera nash croxvaectn of the Vero oh tepesiles eal, $989), Location of Figure 7 cross-section is shown , “ies ofthe Salau France) W skam (modified from Fontelles eal. (on the southern margin of the stock. 1989).‘Appian of Sar Deposit Models o Mineral Exploration + LD. Manet nem, ‘Wollatonte-bleached marble Pyroxene Granodiorite [BMI Garnet (subcalcie) Graphitic marble Fig. 8. Zonation of skarn formed from marble in the S 'W skarn (modified from Soler, 1977) uu (France) associated with scheelite mineralization and which cuts the carlier garnet and pyroxene skarn (Fig. 9). Thus, there is both a spatial and temporal zonation to the skam system. In some locations, skarn is in direct contact with granodiorite, ‘and in other locations a zone of endoskam was developed inthe granodiorite. Endoskar is characterized by epidote- amphibole-titanite + apatite ‘Less calcreous rocks at Salau are converted to bioti hornfels within 900 m of the La Fourque stock, and to calc- silicate hornfels within 50 m to 100 m of the intrusive con- tact (Fonteilles et al., 1989). The gamet and pyroxene in such hornfels are distinctly ess Fe-rich than skarn formed from marble and, in many cases, approximate the compo- sition of the protolith (Zahm, 1987b). In areas of intense hydrothermal alteration, tis early cale-silicate homnfels is ‘overprinted by gamet and pyroxene (with scheelite) that are closer in composition to skamn formed directly from ‘marble (Fonteilles et al., 1989). Compositions of all ana lyzed garnet and pyroxene at Salau form a continuum between homfels and pure marble end-members (Fig. 9). “Thus, the composition of the minerals in a particular skarn sample directly reflects the composition of the host rock and the intensity of alteration, with skam formed from marble being the “end-member” composition produced by this particular metasomatic system. Low-grade scheelite mineralization (typically 0.1 to 0.56% WO) occurs with the early gamet-pyroxene skam Fonteilles et al, 1989). Higher grades are associated with retrograde alteration of gamnet-pyroxene to epidote-amphi- bole-quartz « calcite. The highest grades (up to 40% WOs) are coincident with both retrograde alteration and precipita- tion of sulfide minerals, the latter including abundant pyrthotite and minor chalcopyrite, sphalerite, arsenopyrite, ‘and molybdenite. In general the highest grades are associ- sted with skarn formed from marble rather than from clastic for argillaceous rocks, and grades of W in most cases increase toward the marble contact. 3 Fig, 9. Composition of garnet and pyroxene from the Salau (France) W skarn (data from Soler, 1977; Zahm, 1987 Costabonne is a skarn system similar to Salau except that most of the carbonate host rock is dolomitie rather than calcic limestone (Van Marcke de Lummen and \Verkaeren, 1986; Guy, 1988). The skarn zonation pattern is similar to that at Salau except that Costabonne has a bor- der zone with magnesian skarn minerals (mostly forsterite, tale, serpentine, and brucite) instead of wollastonite atthe marble front (Guy ¢t al, 1988). In addition, the outer pyroxene skarn is zoned, with more diopsidic pyroxene toward the masble front (Fig. 10). This is another example of wallrock compositional control. At Salau, the graphitic carbonate rocks caused very Fe-tich pyroxene to form in the most distal skam zone, whereas at Costabonne the presence of dolomitic carbonate rocks stabilized diopsidic pyroxene instead. Skams at Salau and Costabonne are estimated to have formed at temperatures of 470°C to 560°C on the basis of mineral equilibria, and at 455°C to 570°C on the basis of pressure-corrected —fluid-inclusion _ measurements (onteilies et al., 1989). Salinities in skam silicates range from 23 to 30 wi% NaClepin, With halite daughter minerals present in many inclusions. Stable isotopes indicate a dom- inantly magmatic fluid during initial skarn formation, and a ‘mixture of magmatic and other, possibly meteoric, uids during retrograde alteration (Guy et al., 1988; Van Marcke cde Lummen, 1988).a me ae EB come: Bruce TER Prrotee (sate) Retrograde seration EE) Prroxene ciopscion Epidone BEB Forsertectimonite ‘Amphibole plagiocare Granite FBI cesideschesne Le Fig. 10, Zonation of skar from granite outward to dol ble, Costabonne (France) (modified from Guy etal. I Sierra Nevada W-Mo ‘The Sierra Nevada region of California contains hun- reds of W-bearing skams that range from isolated occur- rences to substantial mines (Newberry, 1982). The largest the Pine Creek district, produced more than 6.6 Mt of ore prior to 1966, and e possibly similar amount since, at an average grade of 0.5% WOs, 0.13% Mo, and 0.15% Cu (Gray etal, 1968). The Pine Creck skamn occurs in a septum of Paleozoic sedimentary rocks surrounded by pars of the ‘multiphase Sierra Nevada batholith. Skam is associated with the 94 Ma Morgan Creek quartz monzonite an equigranular pluton with pegmatitic, alaskitic, and quartz diorive phases, (Newberry, 1982). The quartz monzonite contains anasto- mosing zones of granoblastic quartz and intergranular rmyrmekite that Newberry (1982) interpreted as due to the ‘gradual, nonexplosive release of magmatic fluids, that in & ‘shallower porphyry Cu environment might result in stock- ‘work quartz veining, brecciation, and mineralization. This is consistent with an estimated maximum pressure of 2 kb at the time of intrusion (Brown et al., 1985). ‘The host rocks at Pine Creek include 30 m to 60 m of fine-grained clastic and agillaceous rocks overlain by 300 m of calcic carbonate and 1000 m of medium-grained clastic ~ argillaceous rocks (Newberry, 1982). These rocks have been ‘metamorphosed to biotite homfels and schist, diopsidic mar- ble, and micaceous quartzite, respectively. These strata were deformed during intrusion and are subparailel to the intrusive ‘contact (Fig. 11). Skam forms a narrow (1 m to 15 m), rela- tively continuous zone along the intrusive contact. The deposit is large because this thin skam zone is continuous for ‘approximately 1.5 km vertically and >2 km laterally. The thickest and highest grade skam formed from marble, although biotite Homfels also is overprinted by gamnet-pyrox- ‘Explor Mining Geo, Vol 6, No, 21997 Fig. 11. Genéralized cross-section through the upper north end of the Pine Creek mine, Califia, showing the distribution of skam relative to intrusive contacts (modified from Newberry, 1982). ene ska, Skam is systematically zoned relative tothe intru- sive and marble contacts (Fig, 12). Marble close (centimeters) to skam is bleached and recrystallized. The outermost ska zone consists of abundant vesuvianite and lesser pyroxene, wollastonite, and scheelite. The main skam zone consists of red-brown gamet and green pyroxene in a ratio of 2:1; this ‘zone constitutes approximately 80% of the total skarn volume and contains ore-grade scheelite. Skar at the intrusive con- tact consists of dark orange-red gamet, green pyroxene, and ‘quartz, but this inner skam zone is barren of scheelite. Mace Oe zonepreneresvenie Be Min one ger pyroene Hi er sone geet qunz dost pie) qua monsaite Fig. 12. Skam zonation in underground drift at Pine Creek, Cali- {fornia (modified from Newberry, 1982).‘Application of Skam Depot Model to Mineral Exploration * LD. Meet “The gamet and pyroxene in these different zones are vist- ally and compositionally distinct (Fig. 13). The main, outer- ‘most zone of pyroxene is more Fe-rich (up to Hain) and less Ma-tich than inner-zone pyroxene. Similarly, inner-2one gar- net is Fesich and Mn-poor relative (o main-zone gamet. Imporanty, gamets inthe innes zone are subealic; the Fe is ferrous and is mostly present as almandine component, where- as Fe in main-zone gamets is feric and is mostly present as “andradite component (Newberry, 1983). A more detailed study cof gamet and pyroxene zonation by Newbery (1991) suggests Al+Sp 1 Garnet Dike a Pine Creek Hd Pyroxene Fig. 13. Composion of gamet and pyroxene from the Pine Creek and Garnet Dike skars (modified from dat in Newberry, 1980). ‘= metamorphic occurences. All ther symbols are meiasomatic cvcurrences. lane, Main, and Outer skar 2ones are shown in Fig tre 12 and Newberry (1980). Ws ‘compositional plateau for the main skam zone. Profiles from the intrusive contact to marble do not suggest a statistically significant compositional gradient for either garnet ot pyrox- ‘ene within the main skam zone, even though the relatively thin inner and outer skam zones are distinct. Furthermore the sub- calcic gamets in the inner ska zone apparently show a sys- tematic decrease in subcalcic (almandine + spessartine) ‘component toward the marble front. ‘A similar mineralogy and zonation pattern exists at the Gamet Dike mine in the western Sierra Nevada (Newberry, 1980). The main difference between Pine Creek and Garnet Dike skams is that the later is estimated to have formed at 1 pressure of 3 to 4 kb, and thus is a substantially deeper exposure, Ths is reflected in a larger subcalcic garnet zone, more almandine-rich gamets, and more hedenbergitic pyroxene. Thus, for most known W-Mo skams there is a similar zonation pattern of proximal/ate subcalcic garnet- quartz, an intermediate (and large) zone of gamet-pyroxene skam, and a thin skamn front of vesuvianite and wollastonite surrounded by 1 g/t to be produced as 1 by-product of base-metal mining (Meinert, 1989). Most high-grade Au skams are associated with reduced (ilmenite- bearing, Fe:Os/(Fe,Os+FeO) <0.75) diorite-granodiorite plutons and dike/sll complexes. Such skarns are dominated by Fe-rich pyroxene (typically >Hdx), but proximal zones ‘ean contain abundant intermediate grandite gamet. Other ‘common minerals include K-feldspar, scapolite, vesuvian- ite, epatite, and amphibole. Distal and early zones contain jotite K-feldspar homnfels that can extend for hundreds of ‘meters beyond massive skam. Because of the clastic-rich, carbonaceous nature of the sedimentary rocks in these deposits, most skam is relatively fine-grained. Hedley District Au ‘The Nickel Plate mine in the Hedley district of British Columbia is the largest and highest grade Au skam in Cans- dda, Discontinuous production from 1904 until the mine closed196 Explor. Mining Geo, Vo. 6.No. 2, 1997 in 1995 was 13.4 Mt averaging 5.3 gh Au, 1.3 g/t Ag. and (0.02% Cu (Ray etal, 1996). Of tis, >3 Mi of ore at an even higher grade, averaging 14 g/t Au, were mined underground. ‘Skam formed in dominantly clastic rocks of the upper Trias- sic Nicola Group, part of the allochthonous Quesnel Terrane of the Intermontane Belt. Skamn is spatially and genetically sssociated withthe diortic Hedley intrusions, comprising the ‘Toronto Stock and a series of dikes and sills. Atempts to date these intrusions have been inconclusive, but with a suggested age range of 194 to 219 Ma (Rey and Dawson, 1994). The ‘Toronto Stock is a very reduced ilmenite-bearing intrusion ‘with an average FeOy(Fe:Os+FeO) value of 0.15, the lowest of any Au skam (Ray et l., 1996) and the lowest of any major skam class (Meinent, 1995). ‘AS first recognized by Billingsley and Hume (1941), skamn is zoned in both space and time relative to the Toron: to Stock and associated dikes and sills Fig. 14). The earl est and most distal alteration is a fine-grained biotite hhomfels both in clastic rocks and in some of the early sills, (Ray et al,, 1988). With time and proximity to massive ‘kam, biotite occurs with K-feldspar and pyroxene and is slightly coarser grained (Eulinger, 1990). This forms an faureole around the massive garnet-pyroxene skarm that is zoned from garnet > pyroxene near the Toronto Stock, to pyroxene-dominant skam in distal ore zones (gameUpyrox- ene = <0.1; Etlinger et al., 1992). Gamet is intermediate ‘grandite (grossular-andradite) in composition, whereas yroxene is relatively Fe-rich (Fig. 15). The most Fe-rich gamet (Adnax) occurs in distal ore zones (Eulinger etal, 1992), whereas pyroxene composition changes systemati- cally away from the Toronto Stock and the larger dikes, becoming more Fe-rich and slightly more Mn-rich (Fig. 16). ‘The sulfide minerals associated with gamet and pyroxene skam are dominantly arsenopyrite and pyrthotte. Other sul- fides, in decreasing order of abundance, are chalcopyrite, pyrite, sphalerite, hedleyite (BiTe,), native bismuth, gold, galena, maldonite (AvsBi), and lollingite (Etinger, 1990). ‘This later group of minerals is mostly associated with lower temperature alteration that includes amphibole, ferroan wol- lastonite, scapolite, and prehnite. The scapolite and some ‘amphiboles are unusually Cl-tich, a feature that has been suggested to be an exploration guide to Aurich systems (Pan etal, 1994). ‘Gamel-pyroxene skarn atthe Nickel Plate mine is estimat- ‘ed to have formed at a depth of 5 km and at an average ter- ‘perature of 460 to 480 °C, although fluid inclusions in some gamet and pyroxene samples homogenized at temperatures above 600°C (Enlinger, 1990). Salinites of gamet and pyrox- ene fluid inclusions average 18.3 and 9.7 wi% NaClayay Fespec- tively, with sparse halite daughter minerals in gamet, pyroxene, and quar. yielding a maximum of 37.9 wt% NaClayn. Fortitude Deposit, Battle Mountain District, Au ‘The Fortitude deposit isin the Battle Mountain District ‘of north-central Nevada, The District contains several skarm types ranging from a.typical Cu skam with low Au grades, called the West Ore Body, to Au-tich, Cu-poor skams such a5 Granodiorite [E] Gamet skarn FE ore zones Hedley Intrusions Pyroxene ska [~] Nicola Group 14 Plan view of skarn zonation relative to the Toronto Stock in the Hedley district, British Columbia, Canada (after Ray et 1996; Enlinger eta, 1992). the Upper and Lower Fortinude orebodies (Fig. 17). The West ‘orebody is adjacent to the 38 to 38.5 Ma (Theodore et al. 1978, K-Ar on primary biotite) Copper Canyon granodiorite porphyry. The skarns nearest the intrusive body are dominat- ced by gamet with minor pyroxene and are typically high in Cu, with low concentrations of Au. The Fortitude deposit, like most high-grade Au skarns, has an unusual reduced skam mineralogy and trace-clement signature that distin- {Buishes it from most other skam types. The reduced skam mineralogy reflects the very reduced nature of the associated Copper Canyon granodiorite (FesOy/(Fe:0;+FeO) = <0.5) that is quite distinct from typical oxidized porphyry copper deposit plutons. The more distal skams contain more pyrox- ‘ene than garnet, and have the highest concentrations of Au in the district. An extensive biotite + diopsidic pyroxene & K~ feldspar alteration halo surrounds the main ska zone and extends up to 3 km from the Copper Canyon stock (Theodore and Blake, 1975). Like much of Nevada, detailed geological relations in the Battle Mountain District are complicated by numerous thrust faults (De Wit, Golconda, and Roberts Mountain) that have juxtaposed a wide variety of rock types, all of which have been affected by hydrothermal alteration (Blake etal, 1984), Host rocks range from lower Cambrian through Permian and, consist of sandstone, arkose, shale, chert, te, greenstone, limestone, and quartzite (Blake etal. 1984), Most skam occurs in the basal mid-PennsylvanianApplicaton of Sham Deposit Models i» Mineral Exploration * LD. Menert 7 Battle Formation, the Pennsylvanian to Permian Aniler Peak Limestone, and the Permian Edna Mountain Formation. The sain mineralized unit is the Antler Peak Limestone, which consists of well-bedded dark grey limestone and minor chert nodules (Theodore and Blake, 1978). ‘Skarn mineralogy has been investigated for most of the eposits in the Battle Mountain district. For example, the ‘West Ore Body occurs mostly in the Antler Peak Limestone and is atypical Cu skarn with a prograde ska assemblage of grandite gamet (Adm) + diopsidic pyroxene (Hd) and a retrograde assemblage of actinolite + epidote + K- feldspar (Theodore and Blake, 1978). Pyrthotite. pyrite, chalcopyrite, and marcasite are the main sulfide minerals. ‘The Fortitude deposit also occurs in the Antler Peak ‘Sequence, primarily in the Antler Peak Limestone and the Battle Formation. The stratigraphic continuity between the ‘West and Fortitude skams is illustrated in the cross-section of Figure 18. The Fortitude orebody contains a prograde skam assemblage of andraditic gamet + hedenbergitic pyroxene (Héines, Joa), with only minor retrograde alter- ation to epidote + actinolite + chlorite (Myers. 1994). As iMlustrated in Figures 17 and 18, pyroxene shows a general increase in Fe content toward the marble front (Hd proxi- ‘mal tothe Copper Canyon stock and Hd, atthe distal skarn fringe). This tend is mimicked by a Mn enrichment toward the marble front, with the pyroxene nearest the intrusion rarely exceeding 3% Jo (except for cross-cutting veinlets and crystal rims), whereas the pyroxene near the marble Fig. 15. Composition of garnet and pyroxene from the Nickel Plate front is generally between 2 to 8% Jo (Myers, 1994) mine, British Columbia (modified from Eitlinger et al, 1992). bead ae T of pyrrhotite Ty in garnet Fe in pyroxene — Mn in pyroxene — Toronto Steck {Mn in pyroxene tion from the Toronto Stock through distal skarn zones ofthe Nickel Plate mine, . showing change in gamet-pyroxene abundance and compositional variations in _ pyroxend (modified from Enlinger et al, 1992)198 Explor. Mining Geot, Vl. 6, No.2, 1997 Fig. 17, Plan view of skam in the West and Fortitude deposits, Nevada, illustrating mineralogical zonation and inferred direction of uid flow (after Myers, 1994). North-south cross-sect through ‘West and Fortinude deposits is shown in Figure 18. As illustrated in Figure 18, the distribution of most met- als parallels the skam zonation in the Antler Peak Lime- stone. Copper is highest in gametcrich skam near the intrusive contact, whereas Au is concentrated in pyroxene- dominant skam, particularly where the pyroxene is Fe-rich (Hd). Silver is present at elevated concentrations proxi- ‘mal to the stock and at the distal skam front, beyond the main Fortitude Au zone. The skarn system contains several sulfide minerals, including chalcopyrite, pyrite, pyrrhotite, arsenopyrite, marcasite, sphalerite, and galena that from the intrusion to the marble, occur roughly in the order listed. ‘Arsenopysite is locelly massive, and native Bi is commonly Visible in hand specimens. Native gold occurs at grain boundaries between skam and sulfide minerals, indicating a possible reaction relationship (Wotruba etal, 1988). In gen- eral, Au is associated with native bismuth, hedleyive, pearceite, and stannite. Trace elements are also zoned with- in the system, with anomalous Co, Mo, Cr, and Ni in proxi- smal zones, and anomalous As, Bi, Cd, Mn, Pb, Zn, Sb, and Hg in distal zones (Fig. 18). Fluid-inclusion work shows that the skarn formed at relatively high temperatures (300°C to >550°C) that par- allel fluid-inclusion homogenization temperatures mes- sured in the adjacent Virgin dike apophysis of the Copper Canyon granodiorite (Myers, 1994). The distribution of measured fluid-inclusion temperatures parallels the skarn zonation of Figure 18. Temperatures for garnet closest 0 the main stock ‘(érillhole #500) range from 360°C to 590°C. More distal garnet and pyroxene (drillholes 2723, and 1997) range from 380°C to 440°C and 320°C to 430°C, respectively, and the temperatures for most distal (and Fecrich) pyroxene (drillhole 1994) range from ‘350°C to 400°C (Myers, 1994). In addition, high salinity ‘conditions have been documented, with multiple daugh- ter minerals in fluid inclusions identified by SEM and ‘STEM analysis. Limited fluid-inclusion measurements indicate pyroxene skarn had salinities of 25 10 44 wt% NaClegiv. On the basis of limited evidence for boiling. Myers (1994) estimated a formation pressure of 0.4 kb for the Fortitude system, in close agreement with the stratigraphic estimate of 1.5 km and a pressure of 375 bars (Theodore and Blake, 1975). Similar zonation occurs in 8"O and 5%C values, which indicate progressive reaction of « magmatic fluid ‘with isotopically heavy carbonate wallrocks (summarized by Zimmerman et al,, 1992, and Myers, 1994). Skarn gar- nets are progressively enriched in 8% outward from the Copper Canyon stock, with gamet 0 values of 6.9 per mil in the proximal skim and values as high as 8.2 per mil distal ska Pyroxene (80 10.3 per mil), amphibole (610 8.6 to 9.2 per mil), and quartz (60 to 13.2 per mil) are less systematic, but in each case the highest 5"O values are most distal to the granodiarite stock. Skarn formation can be modeled as resulting from the progressive reaction of magmatic fluids with isot6pi- cally heavier carbonate wallrocks (510 = 24.0 per mil).Application of Skam Deposit Models o Mineral Exploration + L.D. Manet Gar] 2 31 1:3 Ma 2 BO 30 Reap ag 1 Beat nome 1 12 Cu, Co, Mo, Cr, Ni As, Bi, Cd, Mn, Pb, Zn, Sb, Hg == —— Increase Decrease —$ $$ <— FoRrTITUDE ——> ae Middle Bande Formation Antler Peak Lower Battle Formation Formation Pumpemickel YA Voper Bante Harmon [E) Bee Z rete Forman 199 4S 1:20 75(4) 85 (6) 12, 13 1:28 13) Fig. 18, Nomh-south cross-section ‘metal zonation (after Myers and Meinen, 1991). ‘The variation in 84C values in calcite also can be ‘explained by progressive reaction of magmatic fluids with carbonate wallrocks. Values for 50 and 8C decrease from unaltered limestone (50 24.0 per mil, 8°C 2.4 per til) to blocks of residual limestone in skarn (50 15.4 to 19.3, 3°C -4.5 to 1.7 per mil) to calcite intergrown with skarn minerals (6% 11.8 to 13.1 per mil, 8°C -10.3 10 =1.7 per mil). The absence of minerals with 810 tess than magmatic values suggests that meteoric fluids (60 less than -10) probably did not play a significant role in the formation of this deposit (Zimmerman et al., 1992). This conclusion is consistent with the relatively small amount of retrograde alteration observed in the Fortitude skam (Myers, 1994), if ugh Copper Canyon stock and West and Fortitude deposits, Nevada, ilustrating mineralogical and ‘ine-Lead Skarns Most Zn skams occur in continental settings associated with either subduction or rifting. They are mined as ores ‘of Zn, Pb, Ag, + Cu, although Zn is usually dominant. These skams are also of high grade (10% to 20% Zn+Pb, 30 to 300 gh Ag) and are sulfde-tich. Many are transitional to mas- ‘sive-sulfide veins, mantos, and chimneys, that lack significant cale-silicate alteration (e.g, Megaw et al., 1988). Besides their notable Zn-Pb-Ag content, Zn skams can also be distin- ‘uished from other skam types by their distinctive Mn- and Fe-rich mineralogy, by their occurrence along structural and lithologic contacts, and by the absence of significant meta- ‘morphic aureoles centered on the skarh, Almost all skam min-20 cerals in these deposits can be enriched in Mn, including gar” fet. pyroxene, olivine, ilvaite, pyroxenoid, amphibole. chlo, Tiecand serpentine, In some deposits, the ratio of pyroxene:gamet andthe Mn content of pyroxene increase sy5- ematical along the fuid flowpath. Yeonhwa-Ulchin District Zn-Pb-AB ‘Numerous Zn-Pb-Ag skams occur in the Kyongsang tec- tonic bel of easiem Korea (Yun, 1979). The thee largest of these occur in the Yeonhwa-Uichin district and provide an Jnteresting contrast in terms of meta ratios, skarm mineralogy, i ‘rocks as summarized by Yun and Ein- ibus to early Tertiary age. The intrusive rocks seem t0 young from northwest to southeast, and limited K-Ar dating suggests that Yeonhva II is about 72.6 + 2.2 Ma and Ulchin is 49.3 = 2.0 Ma (Yun and Silberman, 1979). “The Yeonhwa I mine, with 7.6 Mt averaging 6% Zn and ‘2% Pb, is the largest producer of Zn and Pb in Korea (Yun ‘and Einaudi, 1982). Orebodies occur as tabular lenses along, the contact of the Pungchon Limestone and Myobong Slate, fand as vertical pipes at intersections of north-northeast and rorth-northwest faults that cut both the lower limestone and ‘pper dolomite limestone facies of the Pungchon Lime- stone (Fig. 19a). Some pipes also penetrate the overlying Hwajeol calcareous shales and form anastomosing, sulfide- rich veins close tothe surface. The only igneous rocks in the mine area are minor quartz porphyry dikes. Although these fare thought to connect at depth to the mineralizing source, the skam and mineralization are not zoned relative to dike Contacts, Instead, skam is zoned relative to stratigraphic contac and fractures. “Ai the deepest mine levels, skarn occurs as a tabular ‘body zoned relative to the Pungchon/Mycbong contact (ig. 192). This skam displays a deep, central (proximal to the fuid conduit) gamel >> bustamite zone containing pyhotite,sphalerite, galena, and chalcopyrite, and a shal- Tow, distal pyroxene-sulfide zone with pyrite, sphalerite, galena, and rhodochrosite (Yun, 1979). Pyroxene, with Mn Eonient up toJors, is much more abundant than garnet. In the shallower levels, gamet is absent and pyroxene occurs with tmassive-sulfde lenses, pipes, and veins. The overall ratio of sulfide to silicate skarn is estimated at 10:1. Mineralization is zoned within the Yeonhwa I mine in terms of grade and Pb/Zn, both increasing higher in the system from 5% to 20% combined Pb+Zn and from 0.06 to 1.3, respectively (Yun and Einaudi, 1982). ‘The Yeonhwa Il mine, with 4.5 Mt averaging 4.1% Za, 0.2% Pb, and 0.1% Cu, isthe second largest producer of Zn and Pb in Korea (Yun and Einaudi, 1982). Although no large Explor Mining Geol Vol. 6.No. 2, 1997 stocks are present at Yeorhwa Il, there are several sizable Sills (up © 300 m thick) and, unlike Yeonhwa I skar is pre~ Sent along igneous contacts, Tabular contact and fracture~ Controlled skars have a central gamet >> thodonite-quartz Sone with envelopes of 80% to 90% pyroxene skam. Car- netpyroxene decreases upward in the mine although, unlike Yeonhwa 1, gamet-free zones are rare (Yun, 1979). Overall, pyroxene is estimated tobe slightly more abundant than gar- Pet The maximum Fe and Mn content of the pyroxene is Hv and Jon, respectively. Gamet is both Fe- and Ma-rich (up to Sp) and generally is later than pyroxene, a feature thet Yun and Einandi (1982) interpreted to represent contem- poraneous zonal growth, with gamet overprinting pyroxene fs the system Like Yeonhwa I, skarn contains ones of massive sulfides (sphalerte > pyrhotite-galena- ‘haleopyrite), but there does not seem to be a systematic ver- tical increase in sulfide content or metal ratio. This may be related to the proximity of skam to igneous contacts and the lack of vertically oriented pipes #s at Yeonhwa ‘Compared to Yeonhwa 1 and Tl, Ulchin is smaller (1-4 Mt) and bas slightly higher grades of Zn (5.9%), Pb (2.3%), and Co (0.3%) (Yon and Einaudi, 1982). Ulchin skar occurs in roof pendants surrounded by Ulchin granite and appears to be relsted toa series of rhyodacite dikes (Fig. 9b). The large ite body seems to be much older than the rhyodacite ‘kes and skarn, but has had an important influence in meta- morphosing the sedimentary roof pendants. Thus, there are barren metamorphic calc-silicate rocks that are similar to those previously described for W skams; such features are absent at most Zn skams, and are sbsent at Yeonhwa I and Tl. ‘Skam occars at igneous contacts and along east-north- easvstriking faults that have been intruded by rhyodacite dikes (Yun and Einaudi, 1982), Garnet is concentrated close to igneous contacts, and epidote endoskarn occurs within the intrusions. Outer skarn zones contain more pyroxene but, ‘overall, gamet and pyroxene are present in subequal propor. tions. Both gamet and pyroxene are Fe-rich, up 10 Adw and Hn, respectively, Ore (sphalerite ~ pyrthotite >> galena- chalcopyrite) is localized in pyroxene zones and commonly forms vertical pipe-like bodies, Pyroxene becomes more Ma-rich toward marble (Jos:e) and thodonite occurs at the ‘marble front, completing a general zonation patter of dike epidote-gamet-pyroxene-rhodonite-marble. Like Yeonhwa I. ‘mineralization is zoned within the Ulchin mine in terms of iprade and Pb/Za value, both increasing higher in the system from 5% to 20% combined Pb+Zn and from 0.01 to 1-1, respectively (Yun and Einaudi, 1982). Groundhog Zn-Pb-Ag ‘The Groundhog mine in New Mexico is the largest Za skam in the United States, wit total production of approxi- mately 3 Mt and average skem of 13.5% Za, 2.8% Pb, 0.6% Cu, and 46 git Ag (Meinert, 1987). The deposit is systematically zoned relative to a nearly vertical dike swarm of Tertiary granodiorte, porphyry dikes that thickness from 1 m to-50 m, extend for more than ‘a northeastsouthwest direction, and intrude almost21 SSE _Aplicaion of Skrm Deposit Models o Mineral Exploration + LD. MEIeRT Ore width (m) Bo z . i gl gl 28 FE ae : re i Ba e235 32 i: a HAN ey ES i e B H 23 ia i ae Of i i i i SWE - WEG VSVn7 SERRA, =_ BE ASS WSK ABVVVWVHA RSVR 1982). Fig. 19, Cross-secions through (A) the Yeonhwa I skarn system, Korea, showing the distribu ding and neat-vertical pipes across a 3 3ian Lake Valley Limestone. (On the basis of metal ratios, skam mineralogy, and fi inclusion temperatures, the hot, proximal part of the system lies to the northeast, and the cooler, distal part ofthe system to the southwest. Zine and Pb grades both increase, and Cu decreases, toward the distal southwest part of the system (Table 3) Silver does not vary as dramatically, and reaches, ‘4 maximum in the central part of the system. Similarly, ‘metal ratios change systematically, with high Zn/Pb, CuZn, and Cu/Pb in the proximal part ofthe system (Table 3) ‘Skam has formed atthe contact of the granodiorte por- phyry dikes and receptive carbonate units. At all skarn con- tacts the granodiorite porphyry dikes are converted to epidote endoskarn, wit pistachio-green epidote close to the sedimentary contact, and pink, Mn-tich epidote farther from the contact. Exoskarn also is zoned relative to the dike-lime- stone contact, both along strike and perpendicular to the ‘contact. Proximal (northeast) zones have 2 gamet + chal- copyrite magneite near the igneous contact, pyroxene > gamet farther away, and pyroxene plus pyroxenoid (bus tamite-rhodonite) atthe marble front (Fig. 20). Sphalerite > gamet-pyrite occurs in all pyroxene zones and can be quite massive at the marble front. A narrow (26 to <3 wt% NaC). Discussion ‘As has been appreciated from the earliest studies (¢g. ‘Tomebohm, 1875; Goldschmidt, 1911), most skams are zoned. This paper has summarized examples. of skam deposits from four major classes (Cu, W, Au, and Zn) that illustrate some of the variations in mineralogy, metal content, ‘geochemistry, and geological seting that are possible. Even though each skam type is somewhat different and, in someApplication of Skar Deposit Models wo Mineral Exploration * LD. MEET 203 bmn Busifmite-hodonite rai resin a Di Maxson pyroxene <25% >30e etiee Ee fe ee cme fe ee ee << ihe Ti sre ‘ie & 3 iB 2 ae : th i Fig. 20, dealized zonation pat inclusion characteristics, and metal ratios (after Meinert, 1987). ‘magnetite, pyx = pyroxene, and = sphalerite. sense, each individual deposit is unique, there are some com- ‘mon themes that warrant further discussion. Because the def- inition of skam is based upon mineralogy, and because ‘mineralogy i the basis for mapping, identifying, and study- ing skams in the field, itis appropriate to focus on zonat of skam mineralogy. In terms of eale-silicate mineralogy, all of the skarn deposits discussed in this paper contain gamet and pyroxene. Furthermore, all of the deposits show at least ‘some zonation inthe distribution of these two minerals, theit relative abundance, their appearance, and in many cases, their compositions. Thus, one could ask, “Is there a general pattern that applies to all skams"? General Paterns and Causes of Variation , most skams seem to have a prox- imal zone of garnet, distal zones of pyroxene, and distinctive minerals such as vesuvianite of a pyroxenoid such as wol- lastonite,bustamite, or rhodonite near the marble contact ‘The several variations on this theme are controlled by depth of formation, and wallrock composition and permeability. For example, W skarns generally form at significant depth and are associated with large plutons. This combination of {or the Groundhog skam system, New Mexico, lutrating variations in mineralogy and composition, ‘Cp = chalcopyrite, = galena, hm = hematite Jo= johansennite, 7 caesi0, GSO, Hs cmasi0, o Fig. 21. Ternary plot of Groundhog, New Mexico, pyroxene com potition as a function of provolith composition, and location slong ‘Suike and perpendicular to the dike contact as discussed inthe text (efter Meinen, 1987)204 sploe. Mi high pressure and temperature leads to widespread and high- grade metamorphism such that W skams typically overprint ‘metamorphic lithologies. Thus, there may be “barren” meta- morphic calesilicate rocks interspersed with mineralized skar, Also, st high temperatures and pressures, permeabili- ty may be greatly reduced such that skarn forms as relative- ly narrow zones slong plutonic contacts. In contrast, shallower and cooler skarn systems, such as some of the Cu ‘and Zn skamns discussed, seem to form from fluids that have infiltrated for long distances relative tothe intrusive contact, resulting in a more pronounced mineralogical zonation, a5, illusuated in Figure 5. This may be why many W skams show less dramatic and Jess systematic mineralogical varis- tions than most Cu and Zn skars. Thus, the scale and direc tion of mineralogical zonation appear to be systematically different among different skarn classes. Conversely, some of the deposits within particular skam classes, for example Pine Creek and Salau for W skarns, and Mines Gaspé and Big Gossan for Cu skarns, share many features even though they formed at different times and on different continents. Additional causes of skam variation include composi- variations of plutons and protoliths. Several studies have identified systematic associations of skam deposits ‘with particular pluton compositions (e.g, Ray et a., 1995 Meinert, 1995), and some of the deposits discussed in thi paper have mineralogical variations controlled by protolith ‘composition (e., dolomitic host rocks at Costabonne and Big Gossan, and carbonaceous host rocks at Salau and Groundhog). For a given skam type, reduced plutons or wallrocks may cause the formation of lower ratios of ga net:pyroxene, coupled with relatively Fe-poor gamet (dom- inanily Fe) and Fecrich pyroxene (dominantly Fe’); oxidizing conditions may cause the reverse to happen. Thus, in a general way the overall ratio of garnet:pyroxene and the ‘mineral compositions give important clues about several fundamental geological variables. This concept of oxidation state also has been used in classifying some skarn deposit (e.g., Newberry 1982, 1983, 1991 for W skams: Brooks, 1994, and Ray and Webster 1997, for Au skarns). Addition ally, it has-been suggested that the major- and trace-element composition of a panicular mineral, such as pyroxene, can be used to classify skam deposits (e.g., Nakano eta, 1994). If many skarns are zoned from proximal garnet to distal pyroxene, then the overall ratio of gametipyroxene should serve as a crude indicator of the general oxidation state of a system, including the effects of pluton, wallrocks, and depth of formation. Figure 22 shows the effect of oxidation state of plutons and wallrocks on a variety of skam parameters. For the different skam types discussed in this paper, oxida- tion state can be manifested in different ways. For exemple, the inner zone of a “typical” W skam would contain subct gamet, whereas this zone would contain andraditic gar- net in a Cu skam. The outer zone of a “typical” high-grade ‘Au skam would contain very Fe-tich pyroxene, whereas in ‘8 Cu skam it would be more diopsidic. Each skam type can bbe thought of as having a typical range of mineralogical characteristics, and that range can shift on the basis of “external” factors such as the composition and oxidation Geok. Vol. 6, No.2, 1997 sate of the wallrocks. Thus, in evaluating a specific skam deposit itis necessary to interpret the mapped mineralogy in terms of the larger geological context. ‘Skam deposits can be thought of as variations upon a theme, and the central theme is that most skamns are zoned. ‘This zonation occurs on scales from micrometers to kilome- ters. For exploration purposes, zonation on a deposit scale is the most useful. Zonation models exist for many different skam types and, although every ore deposit in a sense is unique, the common threads among different skams of a given type provide powerful predictive tools for both explo- tation and understanding. Figure 23 illustrates a possible exploration application ofthe concept of mineralogical zona- tion within a skarn deposit. Tis cross-section is generalized, but perhaps corresponds most closely to a Cu skamn. The ‘deep drillholes have penetrated skar, but not the causative pluton. Using the zonation patterns for typical Cu skams, it can be predicted that ratios of gamet:pyroxene will increase toward the pluton, that the appearance (color and texture) of, sgamet and pyroxene will change as illustrated in Figure 5, and that distal pyroxene zones will be more hedenbergitic ‘and johannsenitic than proximal zones. These predictable pattems can be used to target future exploration with consid- erable confidence. Furthermore, for skam models that attempt to quantify spatial changes in mineralogy, composi- tion, and geochemistry, such as that presented for the Groundhog system, it may be possible to provide semi-quan- tive estimates of distances between different skam zones. 5F ul ° Hi —fI— eine” FepstfePyeFeo) Pluton Oxidation State Fig. 22. Oxidation sate of skarn deposits in terms of puionic and hostrock characteristics (modified from Newbery. 1991). The oxidation state of plutonic rocks is measured by whole zock oxide FexOo/ FexOp+Fe0). Alternative indicators of plutonic oxidation sae include oxide mineralogy (eg. ilmenite, magnetite, hematite) tnd Fe content of mai minerals such s pyroxene, amphibole, and biotite. The oxidation sate of ost rock s measured by the abun- dance of eatbon (eg. graphite, carbon, hydrocarbon), sulfides (oyrhotve, pyrite) and oxides (imenite, magnetite, hematite)‘Applicaton of Skarm Deposit Models Mineral Exploration *L.D. MeNexT Regional Variations ‘As most skams result from the interaction of magmatic systems and crustal rocks, it is not surprising that there should be regional variations that reflect underlying tectonic and petrogenetic processes. Early attempts at quantifying such regional zonations focused on the economic metals in skams, either geographically (Shimizaki, 1975) or by skam type (Zharikov, 1970; Smimov, 1976). More recently, Nakano etal, (1990) showed that Sr isotopes are relatively ‘constant (z= <0.001 "SrfSr) for individual skam deposits, but vary systematically as a function of skam type (econom- ic metals) and crustal composition. In terms of PSr/S¢ val- tues, Cu skams are very similar to their associated plutons, ‘whereas Zn-Pb skams, which generally form ina distal envi- ronment relative to causative igneous rocks, show very litle larity o their associated plutons. Another way of assess- ing regional variations is to examine all the diferent skam types in a particular tectonic or geological area. Recent examples of such an approach by Newberry etal. (1997) for ‘Alaska, and Ray and Webster (1997) for British Columbia, Drill holes —_ Gr Garnet Ad 20s demonstrate not only the abundance of skams in different pars of the world, but also some patterns of association and ‘non-association that we are just beginning to understand, Acknowledgments ‘This paper is a summary of ideas from many workers on skam deposits; very little is “new science”, Rather, 1 have attempted to provide an overview of zonation pattems that ‘may be difficult to discem from the study of only one or & few deposits. | have attempted to include representative examples from different pars of the world, and to cite rele- vant publications, so that the reader can trace ideas back to ‘original sources. It is likely that in attempting to present more than a dozen deposits in @ uniform light, Ihave not done jus- tice to the detailed work presented in the original publica- tions. For this T apologize in advance. I thank the detailed reviews by Dave Lentz, Yuanming Pan, and Gerry Ray for helping to catch some of the inconsistencies and idiosyn- crasies. In addition, I thank the many companies and indi- Limestone 23. Cartoon illustrating application of zonation models in skam explorati explored by surface diling. Skam intercepts are evaluated in terms of skarn mineralogy and mineral compositions. data with models based upon specific deposits as discussed in the text allows determination of relative location within the skarn and ‘approximate vectors to specific skar or ore 20nes.206 Expot Mining Geol, viduals that I have been privileged to work with around the slobe, Many ofthe ideas presented here have been “field test- ed by drilling” as there is nothing so sobering toa seeming- ly bright scientific idea as the hard reality of new drill core. References ALCOCK, J.B., 1982. Skam and porphyry copper mineral- “ation at Mines Gaspé, Murdochville, Quebec. Economic Geology, 77, p. 971-999. ATKINSON, WW. JR.. and EINAUDI, M-T, 1978. Skam for- ‘mation and mineralization in the Contact Aureole at Carr Fork, Bingham, Utah. Economic Geology, 73, p. 1326- 1365. BILLINGSLEY. P. and HUME, C.B., 1941. The ore deposits of ‘Nickel Plate Mountain, Hedley, B.C. CIM Bulletin, 44, p. 524-590. BLAKE, D.W., WOTRUBA, PR. and THEODORE, T.G., 1984. Zonation in the skarn environment at the Tomboy- Minnie gold deposits, Lander County, Nevada. Arizona, Geological Society Digest, 15, p. 67-72. BROOKS, J.W., 1994. Petrology and geochemistry of the ‘McCoy gold skam, Lander County, Nevada. Ph.D. thesis, ‘Washington State University, Pullman, Washington. BROOKS, J.W., MEINERT, L.D., KUYPER, B.A. and LANE, MLL. 199i. Petrology and geochemistry of the McCoy gold’ skam, Lander ‘County, NV. In Geology and Ore Deposits of the Great Basin. Edited by G.L. Raines, RE. Lisle, R.W. Schafer and W.H. Wilkinson. Geological Soct- ety Nevada, Reno, 1, p. 419-442. BROWN, PE. BOWMAN, J.R. and KELLY, W.C., 1985. 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