ABSTRACT

Specific heat capacity of a substance is the amount of heat required to

raise unit mass of substance by one degree Celsius. Specific heat is a property
related to internal energy that is very important in thermodynamics.
The intensive properties cv and cp are defined for pure, simple compressible
substances as partial derivatives of the internal energy u (T, v) and enthalpy h
(T, p), respectively.

CV is the amount of heat energy that a substance absorbs or releases (per

unit mass) with the change in temperature where a volume change does not
occur. In other words, it is the heat energy transferred between a system and its
surrounding without any change in the volume of the system.

CP is the specific heat at constant pressure. It is the amount of energy

released or absorbed by a unit mass of substance with the change in temperature
at constant pressure. In other words, it is the energy transferred between a
system and its surrounding under constant pressure​.

An experimental setup is to be fabricated for measurement of specific

heat of air by heating the air at constant pressure and constant volume.The setup
can be also be used to determine specific heat of different gases.
OBJECTIVES:-

1. The heat capacity of anything tells us how much heat is required to raise a
certain amount of it by one degree. For a gas we can define a molar heat
capacity C - the heat required to increase the temperature of 1 mole of the gas
by 1 K.

Q = mC∆t

- The value of the heat capacity depends on whether the heat is added at
constant volume, constant pressure, etc. Instead of defining a whole set of molar
heat capacities; let's focus on CV, the heat capacity at constant volume, and CP,
the heat capacity at constant pressure.

2. To identify type of heater required to heat the air

3. Avoid heating of air locally and avoid heat deposition by providing insulation
proper insulation is needed outside the hollow cylinder to avoid the leaks of
heat.

4. To avoid change in volume by having constant pressure and by providing

proper expansion this is the objective to calculate specific heat at constant
pressure and specific heat at constant volume.
 LITERATURE SURVEY

Heat capacity or thermal capacity is a ​measurable ​physical ​quantity equal

to the ratio of the ​heat added to (or removed from) an object to the resulting
temperature change.​[1] The unit of heat capacity is ​joule per ​Kelvin , or ​kilogram
meter squared per ​Kelvin ​second squared in the ​International System of Units
(​SI​). The ​dimensional form is ​L2​​ MT​−2​Θ​−1​. Specific heat is the amount of heat
needed to raise the temperature of one kilogram of ​mass​ by 1 Kelvin.

Heat capacity is an ​extensive property of matter, meaning that it is

proportional to the size of the system. When expressing the same phenomenon
as an ​intensive ​property​, the heat capacity is divided by the amount of
substance, mass, or volume, thus the quantity is independent of the size or
extent of the sample. The molar heat capacity is the heat capacity per unit
amount (SI unit: ​mole​) of a pure substance, and the specific heat capacity, often
called simply specific heat, is the heat capacity per unit mass of a material.
Nonetheless some authors use the term specific heat to refer to the ratio of the
specific heat capacity of a substance at any given temperature to the specific
heat capacity of another substance at a reference temperature, much in the
fashion of ​specific ​gravity​. In some engineering contexts, the ​volumetric heat
capacity​ is used.

Relations between heat capacities

Measuring the heat capacity sometimes referred to as specific heat, at
constant volume can be prohibitively difficult for liquids and solids. That is,
small temperature changes typically require large pressures to maintain a liquid
or solid at constant volume, implying that the containing vessel must be nearly
rigid or at least very strong (see ​coefficient of thermal expansion and
compressibility​). Instead, it is easier to measure the heat capacity at constant
pressure (allowing the material to expand or contract freely) and solve for the
heat capacity at constant volume using mathematical relationships derived from
the basic thermodynamic laws. Starting from the ​fundamental thermodynamic
relation one can show that where the partial derivatives are taken at constant
volume and constant number of particles, and constant pressure and constant
number of particles, respectively.

The heat capacity ratio, or adiabatic index, is the ratio of the heat capacity
at constant pressure to heat capacity at constant volume. It is sometimes also
known as the isentropic expansion factor.
 For gases, and also for other materials under high pressures, there is need
to distinguish between different boundary conditions for the processes under
consideration (since values differ significantly between different conditions).
Typical processes for which a heat capacity may be defined include ​isobaric
(constant pressure) or ​isochoric​ (constant volume) processes.

Factors that affect specific heat capacity

Molecules undergo many characteristic internal vibrations. Potential
energy stored in these internal degrees of freedom contributes to a sample’s
​
energy content, [17] ​
[18]
but not to its temperature. More internal degrees of
freedom tend to increase a substance's specific heat capacity, so long as
temperatures are high enough to overcome quantum effects.

For any given substance, the heat capacity of a body is directly

proportional to the amount of substance it contains (measured in terms of mass
or moles or volume). Doubling the amount of substance in a body doubles its
heat capacity, etc.

However, when this effect has been corrected for, by dividing the heat
capacity by the quantity of substance in a body, the resulting ​specific heat
capacity is a function of the structure of the substance itself. In particular, it
depends on the number of ​degrees of freedom that are available to the particles
in the substance; each independent degree of freedom allows the particles to
store thermal energy. The translational ​kinetic energy of substance particles
which manifests as ​temperature change is only one of the many possible
degrees of freedom, and thus the larger the number of degrees of freedom
available to the particles of a substance ​other than translational kinetic energy,
the larger will be the specific heat capacity for the substance. For example,
rotational kinetic energy of gas molecules stores heat energy in a way that
increases heat capacity, since this energy does not contribute to temperature.

In addition, quantum effects require that whenever energy is stored in any

mechanism associated with a bound system which confers a degree of freedom,
it must be stored in certain minimal-sized deposits (quanta) of energy, or else
not stored at all. Such effects limit the full ability of some degrees of freedom to
store energy when their lowest energy storage quantum amount is not easily
supplied at the average energy of particles at a given temperature. In general, for
this reason, specific heat capacities tend to fall at lower temperatures where the
average thermal energy available to each particle degree of freedom is smaller,
and thermal energy storage begins to be limited by these quantum effects. Due
 to this process, as temperature falls toward absolute zero, so also does heat
capacity.

Table of specific heat capacities

Note that the especially high molar values, as for paraffin, gasoline, water
and ammonia, result from calculating specific heats in terms of moles of
molecules. If specific heat is expressed per mole of ​atoms for these substances,
none of the constant-volume values exceed, to any large extent, the theoretical
Dulong–Petit ​limit of 25 J​⋅​mol​−1​⋅​K−1
​ = 3 R per mole of atoms (see the last
column of this table). Paraffin, for example, has very large molecules and thus a
high heat capacity per mole, but as a substance it does not have remarkable heat
capacity in terms of volume, mass, or atom-mol (which is just 1.41 R per mole
of atoms, or less than half of most solids, in terms of heat capacity per atom).

Table of
specific heat
capacities at
25 °C (298 K)
unless
otherwise
noted.[citation Isochor
needed] Isobaric Isobaric Isochore Isobaric e
atom-m
Substance Phase mass Molar molar volumetric olar
in​ ​units
cP​ ​
CP,m ​
CV,m C​P,v of​ ​R
Air (Sea level,
dry,
0 °C (273.15
K)) gas 1.0035 29.07 20.7643 0.001297 ~ 1.25 R
Air (typical
room
conditions) gas 1.012 29.19 20.85 0.00121 ~ 1.25 R
Argon gas 0.5203 20.7862 12.4717 1.50 R
Carbon
dioxide
CO​2​[26] gas 0.839* 36.94 28.46 1.14 R
Helium gas 5.1932 20.7862 12.4717 1.50 R
Hydrogen gas 14.3 28.82 1.23 R
Hydrogen
sulfide
H2S[26] gas 1.015* 34.6 1.05 R
Methane at
2 °C gas 2.191 35.69 0.85 R
Nitrogen gas 1.04 29.12 20.8 1.25 R
Neon gas 1.0301 20.7862 12.4717 1.50 R
Oxygen gas 0.918 29.38 21 1.26 R
Water at
100 °C
(steam) gas 2.08 37.47 28.03 1.12 R
Water at
25 °C liquid 4.1813 75.327 74.53 4.1796 3.02 R
Water at
100 °C liquid 4.1813 75.327 74.53 4.216 3.02 R

Mass heat capacity of building

materials
Substance Phase Cp
Asphalt solid 0.92
Brick solid 0.84
Concrete solid 0.88
Glass, silica solid 0.84
Glass, crown solid 0.67
Glass, flint solid 0.503
Glass, pyrex solid 0.753
Granite solid 0.79
Gypsum solid 1.09
Marble, mica solid 0.88
Sand solid 0.835
Soil solid 0.8
Water liquid 4.1813

​ m
CV,
Monatomi CV,​
(J/(mol​⋅​K)
c gas m​/​R
)
He 12.5 1.5
Ne 12.5 1.5
 Ar 12.5 1.5
Kr 12.5 1.5
Xe 12.5 1.5

INTRODUCTION

Specific Heat Requirements-

The specific heat capacity of a substance is the amount of heat
required to raise one gram of the substance by one degree Celsius. Water, for

example, has a specific heat capacity of 4.18 . This means to heat one gram
of water by one degree Celsius, it would require 4.18 joules of energy.

s = specific heat capacity (sometimes represented by the letter c, or Cs)

q = heat

m = mass

Δ T = change in temperature

Meaning of Cp& Cv-

Specific heat is a property related to internal energy that is very important
in thermodynamics. The intensive properties cv and cp are defined for pure,
simple compressible substances as partial derivatives of the internal energy u (T,
v) and enthalpy h (T, p), respectively:

Where the subscripts v and p denote the variables held fixed during
differentiation. The properties cv and cp are referred to as specific heats (or heat
capacities) because under certain special conditions they relate the temperature
change of a system to the amount of energy added by heat transfer. Their SI
units are J/kg K or J/mol K. Two specific heats are defined for gases, one
for constant volume (cv) and one for constant pressure (cp).

Significance of Specific Heat –

Specific heat is the amount of heat needed to raise the temperature of one
kilogram of mass by 1 Kelvin. The heat of water is the amount of heat needed to
raise its temperature a certain amount. One of water's most significant properties
is that it takes a lot of heat to it to make it get hot. Precisely, water has to absorb
4,184 Joules of heat for the temperature of one kilogram of water to increase 1
degree Celsius (°C). For comparison sake, it only takes 385 Joules of heat to
raise 1 kilogram of copper 1°C.

Type of heater required to heat the air

A) Furnace

A furnace works by blowing heated air through ducts that deliver the
warm air to rooms throughout the house via air registers or grills. This type of
heating system is called a ducted warm-air or forced warm-air distribution
system. It can be powered by electricity, natural gas, or fuel oil.

B) Boilers

Boilers are special-purpose water heaters. While furnaces carry heat in

warm air, boiler systems distribute the heat in hot water, which gives up heat as
it passes through radiators or other devices in rooms throughout the house. The
cooler water then returns to the boiler to be reheated. Hot water systems are
often called hydronic systems. Residential boilers generally use natural gas or
heating oil for fuel.

C) Heat pumps

Heat pumps are just two-way air conditioners. During the summer, an
air conditioner works by moving heat from the relatively cool indoors to the
relatively warm outside. In winter, the heat pump reverses this trick, scavenging
heat from the cold outdoors with the help of an electrical system, and
discharging that heat inside the house.
METHODOLOGY

Specific heat is used to calculate the amount of heat absorbed when

energy is added to a material or substance through an increase in temperature
over a defined range. Calculation of the amount of heat or energy added to a
material is a relatively easy process as long as the initial and the final
temperatures of the material are recorded, the mass of the material is reported
and the specific heat is known. The specific heat, the mass of the material and
the temperature scale must all be in the same units in order to accurately
perform the calculation for heat.

In this case, the setup will consist of a cylindrical section of metal having
a cavity/hollow section within itself. This section is then placed inside metal
box. Metal box is very well insulated and does not allow any dissipation of heat
through it. The cylindrical section is wrapped with heating coil over its surface
so as it covers the whole surface area of its cross section. The heating coil can
be made of different materials but generally the heating coil is made up of
copper as it is a very good conductor of heat and transfers heat easily within it.
The coil is supplied with the help of an electric supply which heats it at a very
high temperature, which in return heats the metal surface of the cylinder
uniformly throughout. This causes increase in the temperature inside the hollow
cavity section. The increase in temperature also causes the pressure increase in
the hollow section. The volume of the section is constant. The mass of air inside
the cylinder is calculated on the basis of the volume of cylinder and density of
air.

Temperature inside the cavity is measured using thermocouple which is

placed inside the cavity. These temperature sensing devices give very accurate
readings. The temperature before heating the cavity and the temperature after
heating the cavity is measured. The difference between the two temperatures is
calculated. The current supply is also measured while the process.

The Two factors that change the specific heat of a material are pressure
and temperature.
REFERENCES

  Yunus A. Cengel and Michael A. Boles,Thermodynamics: An Engineering

Approach, 7th

Edition, McGraw-Hill, 2010, ​ISBN​ ​007-352932-X​.

  ​Kittel, Charles (2005). Introduction to Solid State Physics (8th ed.).
Hoboken, New Jersey,

USA: ​John Wiley & Sons.​ p. 141. I​ SBN​ ​0-471-41526-X.​

  ​Georgia State University. ​"Molar Specific Heats of Gases"​.
arXiv​:​cond-mat/9711074​ . B
​ ibcode​:​2003AmJPh..71.1142F.​ d​ oi:​ ​10.1119/1.1593658​.
  ​Fraundorf, P. (2003). "Heat capacity in bits". American Journal of Physics.
71 (11): 1142.

  ​Laider, Keith J. (1993). ​The World of Physical Chemistry​. Oxford University

Press. I​ SBN​ 0​ -19-855919-4