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in the urine that lie above their solubility threshold. In the socalledmetastable
rangetheformationofcrystalsmaynotoccuratall,oronlyslowly,despite supersaturation of
the solution. However, when the concentrations rise beyond the metastable range,
crystallization occurs. Dissolving already formed crystals is possible only by reducing
the concentration to below themetastable range. The most frequently found
components in kidney stones are calcium oxalate (ca. 70%),
calciumphosphateormagnesium-ammonium phosphate (ca. 30%), uric acid or urate
(ca.
30%)aswellasxanthineorcystine(<5%).Severalsubstancesmaybecontainedinonestone,
because crystals that have already formed act as nuclei for crystallization and facilitate
the deposition of other metastably dissolved substances(hencethetotal is>100%).
Certain substances that form complexes, such as citrate, pyrophosphate, and (acid)
phosphate,can bind Ca2+ and, by reducing the
Ca2+concentration,areabletopreventcalcium phosphate and calcium oxalate from
precipitating. Causes of stone formation. The raised concentrationofstone-
formingsubstances can be theresultofprerenal,renal,andpostrenalfactors:
Prerenalcausesproducetheincreasedfiltration and excretion of stone-producing
substances via a raised plasma concentration (→p.94). Thus, prerenal hypercalciuria
and phosphaturiaaretheresultofraisedintestinal absorption or mobilization from bone,
for example, if there is an excess of PTH or calcitriol (→A2). Hyperoxalemia can be
brought about by a metabolic defect in amino acid breakdown or by increased
intestinal absorption (→A3). Hyperuricemia occurs as a result of an excessive supply,
increased new synthesis, or increased breakdown of purines (→A3). Xanthine stones
may occur when the formation of purines is greatly increased and the breakdown of
xanthines to uric acid is inhibited. However, xanthine is much more soluble than uric
acid and xanthine stones are thereforemuchlesscommon.