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Electrick: Low-Cost Touch Sensing Using Electric Field Tomography
Electrick: Low-Cost Touch Sensing Using Electric Field Tomography
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Innovative Sensing CHI 2017, May 6–11, 2017, Denver, CO, USA
RELATED WORK our conductive domain, which in turn enables different fab-
Electrick intersects with three key literatures. First we re- rication methods and use cases.
view prior work that relates to our core technical approach.
Touch Sensing on Everyday Objects and Surfaces
We then discuss a broader set of work that overlaps with
Researchers have developed a myriad of approaches to ena-
our application domain: infusing objects and surfaces with
ble touch-screen-like interactions on ad hoc objects and
touch interactivity. As our technique is also applicable to
surfaces, ideally with minimal instrumentation of either the
rapidly prototyped artifacts, we conclude with a more spe-
object itself or the environment.
cialized review of literature in this area.
Technical Approach
The most prevalent way to achieve this level of fidelity (at
Our sensing principle is based on the shunting effect, where scale) is through computer vision. Early systems, such as
a human body proximate to an electric field draws a small Light Widgets [17] and PlayAnywhere [55], used conven-
amount of current to ground. This phenomenon, also called tional cameras segmenting e.g., skin color, motion or shad-
“shunt mode”, has been widely utilized in Electric Field ows. Depth cameras have been a notable boon, easing the
(EF) sensing systems [42, 43, 61]. EF sensing generally previously complex task of segmenting user inputs from a
uses the air as a medium, enabling free-space interactions background scene; notable systems include Light Space
such as finger tracking [18], motion sensing [13] and activi- [54] and WorldKit [58]. It is also possible to super-size
ty recognition [33]. By using measurements from peripheral touchscreen technologies to room scale; for example, Multi-
electrodes, it is possible to deduce the position of the shunt- toe [10] uses an augmented floor with FTIR sensing.
ing object. The combination of EF sensing and tomography Next most popular are acoustic methods. Multi-sensor ap-
was demonstrated in seminal work by Smith [42, 43]. We proaches, chiefly based on time difference of arrival tech-
also employ Electric Field Tomography (EFT), though con- niques, can enable touch sensing on large surfaces, includ-
strained to a conductive medium. ing windows, wall and desks [37, 41, 59]. Passive acoustics
This shunting effect has also been utilized for many single- can also be used to capture and recognize non-spatial ges-
touch touchscreens [15, 26]. In this case, the electric field is tures [20]. Several of these approaches can be applied to
constrained to a conductive substrate, which requires elec- discrete objects. For example, Touch and Activate [35] used
trodes attached to the periphery. Though this setup is physi- an emitter-receiver pair of Piezo-electric elements to recog-
cally similar to Electrick, these touchscreen techniques use nize touches to discrete locations on ad hoc objects.
low-conductivity materials (e.g., ITO, PEDOT) and rectilin- Least common are electrical methods. One option, as
ear sensing areas. This limits these techniques from being demonstrated by Cohn et al. [14], is to detect touch loca-
used in ad hoc existing objects, as well as fabricated ones. tions in an environment by passively capturing ambient
In contrast, Electrick works with a wide range of material electromagnetic noise that couples to users when they are
resistances (500Ω-50MΩ/sq), and can work on irregular and near to a noise source (e.g., a power line behind a wall).
non-rectangular surfaces, allowing us to use methods and Active approaches are also possible. For example, Tac-
materials compatible across many fabrication processes. tileTape [21] is a 1D, capacitive, flexible, touch-sensing
Finally, our measuring scheme is closely related to Electri- tape that can be easily affixed to objects. MaKey MaKey
cal Impedance Tomography (EIT). This technique is widely [12] allows users to appropriate conductive objects (e.g.,
used to reconstruct the interior structure of an object by fruits, Play-doh, toys) as capacitive buttons. Touché [39]
sensing non-invasively from the exterior surface. Classic uses a more advanced swept frequency capacitive sensing
EIT applications include respiratory monitoring [49], un- approach to enable discrete touch location sensing, continu-
derground detection [11] and biological inspection [50]. In ous 1D tracking and hand-gesture controls.
the HCI domain, we recently adapted the technology for use Finally, it is also possible to create materials with special,
in a hand-gesture-sensing smartwatch [62, 63]. integrated features that enable touch capabilities. These are
EIT has been used in conjunction with materials that alter not ad hoc objects per se, but rather augmented versions of
their local impedance when pressure is applied by a finger, everyday materials. The most common target for these ef-
such as piezo-resistive films [38], multilayer meshes [9, 51], forts has been textiles. Through silk-screening or weaving
and tactile sensor arrays [22]. This has been used, most no- of conductive materials, sensing of discrete touch locations
tably, to create touch sensitive skins for robots [9, 22, 51, [34] and even multi-touch inputs is possible [40]. Most pro-
52]. Like Electrick, irregular geometries are supported, jects utilize capacitive sensing, though other techniques,
though no prior work has demonstrated scalability beyond such as Time Domain Reflectometry [57], have also been
roughly 0.5 m2. Further, although Electrick also uses to- applied with success.
mography, the sensing principles are very different – our Adding Interactivity to Rapidly Prototyped Objects
method does not sense changes in a material substrate (im- The last decade has seen tremendous growth in digitally-
pedance in the case of EIT), but is rather based on a user’s augmented, rapid fabrication tools, especially for HCI uses
finger shunting current. This different sensing mechanism such as prototyping enclosures, controllers, and new com-
allows us to leverage different (and low cost) materials for puting form factors. However, the outputs from these tools,
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Innovative Sensing CHI 2017, May 6–11, 2017, Denver, CO, USA
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Innovative Sensing CHI 2017, May 6–11, 2017, Denver, CO, USA
Figure 2. We used a carbon-loaded ABS filament (A) to 3D- Figure 4. Velostat can be vacuum-formed, as seen in
print a custom phone accessory (B,C) for a phone game (D). this phone enclosure example.
Example Solid Materials surface resistivity of ~16 MΩ/sq. From this material, we
Bulk plastics, such as ABS and Polycarbonate, are widely made a squishable, interactive Yoda toy (Figure 3B).
available in mildly conductive formulations (most often by Example Paints
adding carbon or metallic particles). These plastics come in Liquid paint and spray coatings are particularly versatile, as
many forms, including blocks (for e.g., milling), sheets (for they can be added as a postproduction step to almost any
e.g., forming/stamping), pellets (for e.g., molding/extrusion object or surface – small or large, flat or irregular, regard-
processes) and filament (for e.g., 3D printing). less of how the underlying object was manufactured. In
As one example material, we use a static dissipating ABS, addition to total paint coverage, paints can also be masked
sold by Zen Toolworks as a filament (Figure 2A; $46 for a (e.g., stenciled, silk-screened) to define interactive areas.
1kg spool) [60]. At 45MΩ/sq, this black, carbon-loaded As an example paint, we use a carbon conductive paint
ABS is not sufficiently conductive for e.g., 3D printed cir- made by MG Chemicals [29], which is intended for electro-
cuits. However, it is perfect for 3D printing Electrick- static discharge and RF shielding uses. This paint can be
capable objects (Figure 2C). We can also use the pellet form purchased online as a 340g aerosol can for $16 [3] (Figure
of this material to create molded objects (such as the mum- 5A), or as a liquid paint in quarts or gallons [32]. A single
my figurine seen in Figure 3A). coat has resistivity of roughly 1kΩ/sq, and dries to a durable,
Another compatible material is Velostat, a carbon-loaded matte black finish (Figure 5C).
polyolefin sheet/film made by 3M [1]. It is primarily used Coatings
for packaging of electronic components to mitigate electro- As previously discussed, the shunting effect of a user’s fin-
static buildup. We ordered a 4mil thick, 3’×150’ roll online ger occurs through capacitive coupling; direct contact is not
for $200 (i.e., under 50 cents per square foot) [31], which required. This permits the use of an optional (thin) topcoat,
has a surface resistivity of 72 kΩ/sq. This can be attached to which can be used to add color or alternate finish to an ob-
surfaces directly (e.g., to walls), or laminated onto a ther- ject. Although our search for compatible coatings was not
mal-formable sheet (e.g., polyethylene) and vacuum formed exhaustive, we did experiment with spray (Figures 14 and
into a low-cost, durable shell of almost shape (Figure 4). 23), acrylic (Figure 5D), and latex paints (Figure 17), as
Example Pliable Materials well as paper (Figure 14).
There are also conductive materials that are soft and pliable. IMPLEMENTATION
As one example of an easy-to-use, off-the-shelf material, we Our Electrick implementation required the development of
selected Jell-O, which has a surface resistivity of roughly custom hardware and software, which we now describe.
12 kΩ/sq (Figure 22 offers an example application). Play-
doh is also compatible with Electrick. We created our own Electrodes
using flour, water, salt, and food coloring to control the sur- Once an object has been created or coated with a compatible
face resistivity (roughly 23 kΩ/sq). Using Play-doh, users conductive material, it must then be instrumented with elec-
can shape objects with their bare hands and then make them trodes around the periphery of the intended interactive re-
interactive (example use shown in Figure 18). gion. In line with Electrick’s low-cost DIY spirit, we used
copper tape, to which we solder a wire that runs to our sens-
Another pliable material is silicone, which is widely used in ing board. It is also possible to reverse these fabrication
commercial molding/casting applications. We made our steps, attaching the electrodes first, and then covering the
own conductive silicone by mixing bulk carbon fiber with electrodes with e.g., over-molded materials or paint.
standard silicone (1:18 ratio by weight). The outcome has a
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Innovative Sensing CHI 2017, May 6–11, 2017, Denver, CO, USA
Analog Sampling This approach is capable of high accuracy and even multi-
The measured signal is amplified with a preamp to maxim- touch segmentation (Figure 8, right). However, it requires
ize the dynamic range of our ADC. We also implemented a construction of a finite element model (FEM) for each ob-
ject before use [25]. This is relatively straightforward for
planar circular or rectilinear surfaces, but is a significant
obstacle for ad hoc uses and complex geometries (which
would require 3D scanning equipment). We also found this
method to be sensitive to small fabrication/manufacturing
variances, such as electrode size, adhesion, and conductive
coating thickness.
Fortunately, machine learning offers a robust and practical
alternative, one that offloads much of this variability and
Figure 7. A schematic view of our system with e.g., 8 electrodes. complexity from users to computers. Instead of having to
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Innovative Sensing CHI 2017, May 6–11, 2017, Denver, CO, USA
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Innovative Sensing CHI 2017, May 6–11, 2017, Denver, CO, USA
finger roughly 5 cm away from the surface. Over a period of Number of Electrodes
roughly one second, 30 data points were recorded and la- The touch tracking accuracy across our three electrode
beled as “no touch”. Participants were then instructed to count conditions is shown in Figure 10. Our discrete touch
touch each of the 16 points denoted by the touch template. location classifier achieved 90.7% (SD=12.0%) mean accu-
This was done one at a time, in a random order, as requested racy. Of note, 57.0% of the error trials were in adjacent po-
by a simple visualization on a laptop screen. Each time a sitions (i.e., off by one cell in our 4×4 touch grid). Our re-
user touched a point, 30 data points were recorded. The gression-based, continuous tracking method had a mean
laptop emitted a beep when the user could proceed to the distance error of 9.1 mm (SD=4.7).
next point. This concluded one round of data collection, the
Intuitively, we expected higher electrode counts to produce
only training data we collected. a finer mesh of cross-sectional measurements, and thus of-
This data was then used to train our touch-sensing machine fer more accurate touch tracking. However, we found the
learning models. For discrete touch location sensing, data opposite effect: a paired t-test showed that the 32-electrode
was used to train a touch/no-touch classifier and an inde- condition was significantly worse than the 8-electrode con-
pendent, 16-class classifier – one class for each touch loca- dition (p<0.05) in the case of discrete tracking. As an addi-
tion. For our regression-based, continuous touch-tracking tional visualization, we also plot touch trials from all partic-
model, only data from the four corners was used for train- ipants (raw; no post hoc per-user offsets, etc.) along with 2σ
ing. This mitigates overfitting and offers a more realistic ellipses drawn to scale (Figure 10).
evaluation of accuracies (vs. training on all 16 points). We suspect this reduction in accuracy is chiefly due to the
We then tested our system’s accuracy live (i.e., no post hoc reduced distance between projecting/measuring electrode
calibration, algorithm tweaks, data cleaning, etc.). We fol- pairs. A shorter electrode separation means that the electric
lowed the same procedure as above, where users moved field does not project as far into the conductive medium,
sequentially through all touch points in a random order. which reduces the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR). Furthermore,
This time, the system’s live classification/regression result the reduced distance between measuring electrode pairs
was recorded along with the requested touch location for similarly decreases terminal resistance, resulting in smaller
later analysis. This testing procedure was repeated twice voltage measurements, again reducing SNR. This result
more, for three testing rounds in total. This four-round pro- suggests that electrode count should be tuned according to
cedure (1 training round followed by 3 testing rounds) was surface size; e.g., for smaller interactive areas, lower elec-
repeated for every condition in all five experiments. trode counts are likely to work better.
RESULTS Material
We now discuss the results of our five experiments, as well Our material experiment results, seen in Figure 11, show an
as a post hoc study investigating sensing stability across average discrete touch accuracy of 91.4% (SD=9.6), with
users. All figures use standard error for their error bars.
Touch Segmentation
Touch/no-touch classification accuracy averaged 99.5%
(SD=0.5) across all conditions and factors. The one signifi-
cant outlier (p<0.05) from this average was our paper-
coated condition (93.2% accuracy).
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Innovative Sensing CHI 2017, May 6–11, 2017, Denver, CO, USA
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Innovative Sensing CHI 2017, May 6–11, 2017, Denver, CO, USA
Figure 17. A user can turn on/off a light by tapping the wall.
Wall: We also carbon painted a 4x8’ sheet of drywall (Fig-
Brightness can be adjusted by sliding up and down. ure 17). By using 16 electrodes, we created a 107” diagonal
touch surface. We then applied an off-white latex wall paint.
In particular, we were curious if Electrick’s sensing was Pervasive touch-sensitive walls could enable innumerable
user-dependent, or if the touch sensing was universal across applications. As one example, we created a light control
users. To explore this, we ran a leave-one-user-out crossfold application; tapping the wall anywhere near a sconce light
validation experiment. In each fold, Electrick was allowed toggles it on/off; dragging up or down allows the user to
to train on 13 users’ data, and then tested on a data from a control the brightness.
14th user. We repeated this process for all user combina-
tions. This effectively simulates “walk up” accuracy, where- Toys: The low-cost nature of toys has largely precluded the
in the system has never previously seen the user. integration of touch surfaces. As an example of how Elec-
trick can be used in this domain, we carbon sprayed a dog
We ran this post hoc test using data from our material and toy and then hand painted it in colored acrylic paints (Figure
geometry studies, the results of which are shown in Figure 5). With this setup, touches to different locations trigger
15. Overall, discrete touch location classification accuracy different audio effects. We made similar apps for toys
decreases by a mean of 3.3%, while continuous touch track- molded from conductive ABS and silicone (Figure 3).
ing improves by 2.5 mm. These modest fluctuations, neither
of which is statistically significant, suggest that Electrick Play-doh: Play-doh can also be made interactive with Elec-
can be trained (e.g., factory calibrated) on a small subset of trick, allowing a user to sculpt a figure or object, and then
users and then work for all. bind interactive functionally to different touch locations.
To achieve this, the finished object is placed onto an 8-
EXAMPLE APPLICATIONS electrode base, with small pins that penetrate the play-doh.
To demonstrate the expressivity and versatility of Electrick, Figure 18 offers a snowman example, where different
we built a variety of fully functional, interactive, example phrases are spoken when touching the nose or belly.
applications. These were selected to include a range of siz-
es, geometries, materials, fabrication processes and use do- Guitar: In this demo, a user can add virtual controls (e.g.
mains. They are best understood by viewing our Video Fig- volume, filters and effects) to the surface of a guitar through
ure, but we include brief descriptions below. a drag-and-drop design application on a computer (Figure
19). To achieve touch tracking, we carbon sprayed an elec-
Desk: Using a roller, we carbon painted a desk and attached tric guitar and used eight electrodes running along the edge
eight electrodes to the sides of the desktop, allowing the of the instrument.
whole surface to become touch sensitive. As an example
application, users can place paper stickers anywhere on the Car Steering Wheel: This is a perfect example of a large,
table, register them to an application (e.g., browser) or func- irregular object that has yet to be instrumented with rich
tion (e.g., mute), after which the stickers can be pressed to touch functionality, despite offering an immediately useful
quick launch items (Figure 16). surface for user input. As an example, we added 8 elec-
trodes to a carbon-sprayed Chevy Aveo steering wheel;
Electrick can track the position of both hands, as well as
detect gestures, such as swipes (Figure 20).
Phone Case: We vacuum-formed a rear cover for a Moto E
smartphone (Figure 4). With Electrick, phone enclosures
Figure 20. This Electrick-augmented steering wheel Figure 21. This Electrick-augmented phone enclosure
can track hand location and gestures. allows different grips to launch apps.
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Innovative Sensing CHI 2017, May 6–11, 2017, Denver, CO, USA
DISCUSSION
One potential concern with Electrick is durability, especial-
ly of coatings. We did not detect wear in any of the objects
we created (all pictures in the evaluation section were taken
Figure 22. Students can touch different parts of this Jell-O cast after the user study, during which each touch surface was
to learn about the different regions of the human brain. touched 896 times by participants). Of course, this is not a
long duration and there was no exposure to the elements.
Also, no doubt, there are many more materials that are
compatible with Electrick – such as conductive rubbers,
foams and fabrics – which we did not have a chance to ex-
plore. Transparent coatings may even be possible (e.g., ITO
or PEDOT). And of course, conductive material composites
can often be made in the home or lab by mixing conven-
Figure 23. In this interactive topographical map, touching tional and conductive materials (e.g., carbon powder), as we
different regions launches local information. did with silicone.
could not only provide protection, but also be used to detect We did find that environmental electromagnetic noise, from
various grips, to e.g., quickly launch apps, such as the cam- e.g., fluorescent lights, running appliances and power lines,
era or messaging (Figure 21) can affect tracking accuracy. Not only does the conductive
object act like an antenna, but so does the human body,
Instructional Aids: Physical props are often useful in learn- which upon touch, introduces more noise. As discussed
ing visual-spatial subject matter. As an example, we cast a previously, we used a high pass filter to combat this inter-
model of a brain using Jell-O, simulating the organic feel. ference, though we still found being proximate to (e.g.,
By placing the model onto an 8-electode acrylic base, stu- standing underneath) a florescent light reduced performance.
dents can touch different regions of the brain to summon We hope to explore ways to mitigate this in future work.
information (Figure 22). Such a base could be reused for
any number of low-cost instructional objects. Similarly, we Finally, perhaps the biggest limitation stems from the
coated a US topographical map with carbon spray, instru- grounding condition, which is a universal issue for Electric
mented it with eight electrodes, and applied a green topcoat Field Sensing systems [19]. In Electrick, both the sensor
with spray paint (Figure 23). Information about different and the user’s body capacitively couples to common ground
geographical regions is retrieved upon a user’s touch. (the Earth) to complete the circuit. Bigger sensor ground
planes have stronger capacitive coupling, and thus bigger
Bongo Hero: We designed a “pluggable” phone accessory shunting current and SNR. In our user study, the sensor was
featuring four miniature bongos (Figure 2). This was 3D connected to and powered by a laptop (under both plugged-
printed using carbon ABS on an off-the-shelf MakerBot in and unplugged conditions; no statistically significant dif-
Replicator 2X (standard ABS settings, 10% infill). To this, ference in performance), which offered a fairly substantial
we attached eight electrodes around the base, allowing this ground. When a smaller sensor ground is used (e.g., running
otherwise static 3D print to become touch interactive. In this from a small LiPo battery), the shunting current will be re-
example, we enable a “bongo hero” game (Figure 2D). duced. Although our sensor has a high input impedance, this
Game Controller: Finally, we laser cut a basic game con- decrease in shunting current will inevitably lower the SNR.
troller, to which we added a Velostat layer and eight elec- This may preclude the ability to use Electrick in small form
trodes (Figure 24, left). With the surface now made touch factors, such as wearables, though we do believe Electrick
sensitive, players or developers can pick (or customize) can be made to work in devices as small as smartphones.
different interface layouts by overlaying different templates CONCLUSION
(Figure 24, bottom row). Not only are buttons supported, We have presented Electrick, a low-cost and versatile touch
but also analog inputs, like sliders and joysticks. Obviously, sensing technique that can be scaled to large surfaces and
this design flexibility has immediate implications and appli- irregular geometries. We further show that our technique
cations in rapid prototyping of physical interfaces. can be used to bring touch interactivity to rapidly proto-
typed objects, including those that are 3D printed. Through
a series of user studies, we characterized the performance
characteristics of our system. Our results show that Elec-
trick can accurately track both discrete and continuous
touch input under various test conditions, materials, shapes
and sizes. It is also is robust over time and across users. We
believe this work can bring touch interactivity to new clas-
Figure 24. This Electrick-powered game controller allows
ses of objects, as well as enable designers to rapidly proto-
different layouts to be easy swapped in. type objects with innate interactive capabilities.
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