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Basic Concept of Anatomy PDF
Basic Concept of Anatomy PDF
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head
face
neck
shoulder
scapular
arm breast region
thorax
back
upper limb elbow
abdomen loin
forearm
flank
wrist buttock
hand groin
thigh hip
leg
ankle
foot heel
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median
plane proximal
posterior anterior
lateral
medial
distal
posterior
(dorsal) proximal
anterior
(ventral)
horizontal
plane
distal
Inferior Inferior
medial
lateral
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Fascia
flexion flexion
The fascia of the body may be divided into superficial
and deep layers.
The superficial fascia (subcutaneous fatty tissue)
consists of loose areolar tissue that unites the dermis
to the deep fascia. It contains cutaneous nerves, blood
extension extension vessels and lymphatics that supply to the dermis. Its
C thickness varies at different sites within the body and
dorsiflexion = extension
women have a thicker layer than men.
In some places sheets of muscle lie in the fascia,
D
e.g. muscles of facial expression.
The deep fascia forms a layer of fibrous tissue
around the limbs and body and the deep structures.
Intermuscular septa extend from the deep fascia,
plantarflexion = flexion
attach to bone, and divide limb musculature into
lateral
compartments. The fascia has a rich nerve supply and
abduction rotation it is, therefore, very sensitive. The thickness of the
fascia varies widely: e.g. it is thickened in the iliotibial
medial
rotation
tract but very thin over the rectus abdominis muscle
and absent over the face. The arrangement of the
adduction
fascia determines the pattern of spread of infection as
well as blood due to haemorrhaging into tissues.
lateral
rotation
Bone
abduction Bone is a specialized form of connective tissue with a
medial
mineralized extracellular component.
rotation The functions of bone include:
adduction
• Locomotion (by serving as a rigid lever).
• Support (giving soft tissue permanent shape).
E F • Attachment of muscles.
• Calcium homeostasis and storage of other
inorganic ions.
• Production of blood cells (haematopoiesis).
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C D
E F
Classification of bone
hair
Bones are classified according to their position and
shape.
epidermis The position can be described as:
• Axial skeleton, consists of the skull, vertebral
blood vessel
column including the sacrum, ribs, and sternum.
sebaceous dermis
gland
• Appendicular skeleton, consists of the pelvic
arrector
pili muscle girdle, pectoral girdle, and bones of the upper
sweat gland and lower limbs.
hair follicle superficial
fascia/ Types of shape include:
nerve
hypodermis
fat • Long bones, e.g. femur, humerus.
deep fascia • Short bones, e.g. carpal bones.
skeletal • Flat bones, e.g. skull vault.
muscle
• Irregular bones, e.g. vertebrae.
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Orthopaedics
articular cartilage
As an individual ages their bone density is reduced
(osteopenia). The cortical bone becomes thinner and
epiphysis the trabeculae decrease in number. As a result, bone
epiphyseal plate structure is weaker and predisposes to fractures,
metaphysis
especially in osteoporotic postmenopausal women.
compact bone
Fractures tend to occur where, in normality, there is a
cancellous bone greater amount of trabecular bone to cortical bone,
e.g. radius (Colles fracture), femoral neck and
medullary cavity
vertebral body. Fractures occurring secondary to
periosteum another process, e.g. osteoporosis, are known as
diaphysis
pathological fractures.
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Clinical examination/neurology
When testing reflexes the reflex arc is being assessed
at a particular spinal cord level. On striking a tendon
with a hammer it stretches the tendon and a receptor
dendrites
within the muscle (a muscle spindle). This receptor
nucleus
monitors muscle length and prevents over-stretching
nerve cell body
by initiating a reflex arc and causing muscle
Nissl bodies
contraction to counter the stretching. This is
witnessed as a jerk of the limb; for example, on
axon striking the patella tendon the quadriceps muscle
neurolemma
(nerve cell contracts, causing knee extension. The common limb
membrane)
reflexes and their spinal cord segment levels, which
Ranvier's node
are tested, are:
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anterior
ramus
anterior
root
grey ramus
skin
white ramus
skeletal blood skin
muscle vessel
heart
splanchic nerve
sympathetic
chain ganglion
Somatic nerves
sensory
motor
diaphragm
prevertebral
ganglion Sympathetic nerves
stomach presynaptic
motor
postsynaptic
sensory
The spinal cord ends at the lower border of the first Immediately after formation, the spinal nerve
lumbar vertebra in the adult. Below this, the nerve divides into anterior and posterior rami. The great
roots of the cord form a vertical bundle: the cauda nerve plexuses, e.g. the brachial, lumbar and sacral,
equina. are formed by anterior rami. The posterior rami
Each spinal nerve is formed by the union of the supply the erector spinae muscles and skin that cover
anterior and posterior roots (Fig. 1.10): them.
The spinal nerves each supply an area of skin called
• The anterior root contains motor fibres for skeletal
a dermatome (except the face, which is supplied by
muscles. Those from T1 to L2 also contain
the fifth cranial nerve). The nerve supply of each
preganglionic sympathetic fibres; S2 to S4 also
dermatome overlaps above and below with adjacent
contain preganglionic parasympathetic fibres.
dermatomes. Testing for loss of sensation over a
• The posterior root contains sensory fibres whose
dermatome indicates the level of a lesion within the
cell bodies are in the posterior root ganglion.
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spinal cord. Dermatomes of the limbs and trunk are where gaseous exchange occurs. Deoxygenated blood
illustrated in the relevant chapters. is eventually returned to the heart first by venules then
by veins (Fig. 1.11A). Valves in the low-pressure
venous system are required to prevent back-flow of
Cardiovascular system blood. However, some veins have no true valves, e.g.
The cardiovascular system functions principally to venae cavae, vertebral, pelvic, head and neck veins.
transport oxygen and nutrients to the tissues and The general structure of the blood vessel wall
carbon dioxide and other metabolic waste products consists of three layers or tunicas (Fig. 1.11B). The
away from the tissues. contents of each vary with vessel type and its function.
The right side of the heart pumps blood to the Arteries have a well-developed tunica media of
lungs via the pulmonary circulation. The left side of smooth muscle. The walls of the largest arteries
the heart pumps oxygenated blood through the aorta contain numerous elastic tissue layers; however, veins
to the rest of the body via the systemic circulation have relatively little smooth muscle and elastic tissue.
(Fig. 1.11A). Capillaries consist of an endothelial tube.
Blood is distributed to the organs via the arteries The larger vessels, e.g. aorta, also contain an
and then arterioles, which branch to form capillaries additional external layer of blood vessels (vasa
superficial left
temporal facial internal jugular brachiocephalic
vertebral external jugular subclavian
common carotid
aortic arch axillary
subclavian
superior
internal thoracic vena cava
axillary
azygos cephalic
aorta
basilic
brachial inferior
vena cava
ulnar common iliac median
forearm
radial external iliac
deep arch
dorsal
superficial venous
arch arch
femoral
femoral great
saphenous
popliteal popliteal
posterior tibial
Fig. 1.11(A) The arterial tree (A) and venous tree (B) of the cardiovascular system.
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endothelium
internal
tunica elastic
intima lamina
tunica smooth
media muscle
tunica external
adventitia elastic
lamina
fibrocollagenous layer
(in larger vessels contains blood
vessels and is known as vasa vasorum)
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Anterior view
right
lymphatic thoracic duct
duct
supraclavicular nodes aorta
subclavian vein
brachiocephalic posterior
vein mediastinal
nodes
axillary nodes
superficial
cubital nodes lymphatic
vessels
cisterna chyli
lumbar nodes
deep lymphatic
vessels
iliac nodes
popliteal nodes
superficial
lymphatic
vessels
deep lymphatic
vessels
Fig. 1.12 The lymphatic system (shaded area drains into the right lymphatic duct; unshaded area drains into the thoracic duct).
Lymph carries foreign material (not recognized as the intestinal villi contain chyle (a milky lymph
self), which may be presented by special cells in the fluid), which drains into larger lymphatic vessels and
lymph nodes (antigen-presenting cells) to cells of the eventually into the thoracic duct.
immune system to mount an immune response. The Lymphatics are found in all tissues except the
lymphatics also are involved in the absorption and central nervous system, eyeball, internal ear, cartilage,
transport of fats. Lacteals (end lymphatic vessels) of bone, and the epidermis of the skin.
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Radiological Anatomy 1
oesophagus
A1
B
C
D
stomach E
F
villi
duodenum
A2
B key
C
D Ao oesophageal epithelium
E A1 stomach epithelium
F A2 small intestine epithelium
A3 large intestine epithelium
B muscularis mucosae layer
A3
C submucosa layer
B
C D circular smooth muscle layer
D E longitudinal smooth
E muscle layer
F F serosa
rectum
small intestine large intestine
– jejunum – caecum
– ileum – ascending colon
– transverse colon
– descending colon
– sigmoid colon
Fig. 1.13 The gastrointestinal system. The illustration shows the basic layers of the gastrointestinal tract wall with epithelial
adaptions, which dictate function.
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kidney
inferior vena cava A
5 8 9
adrenal gland
2
4 3 key
1. afferent arteriole
1
2. efferent arteriole
ureter 6 7 3. glomerulus
4. Bowmanís capsule
5. proximal convoluted
tubule
6. thin descending limb of
Loop of Henle
7. thick ascending limb of
Loop of Henle
8. distal convoluted
bladder tubule
9. collecting duct
C
A and B
C
D
E
key
A urothelium
B submucosa
C longitudinal smooth muscle
D circular smooth muscle
E C D C B A E serosa (connective tissue)
Fig. 1.14 Components of the urinary tract. Inset A shows the structure of a nephron, inset B shows the structure of the ureter
and inset C shows the structure of the bladder wall.
(when only barium is used) or double when both The following chapters will introduce normal
barium and air are introduced into the intestines. radiographic anatomical structures and give a method
Angiography is a procedure in which a contrast for reading X-rays because they will be presented
medium is injected into an artery or vein via a to you not only in your anatomy studies but also
percutaneous catheter. It is used to assess vascular in the clinical years. The pre-registration house
disease such as atherosclerosis (fatty plaques) in the officer will usually be expected to perform the initial
coronary arteries or an aneurysm (a balloon-like interpretation of an X-ray.
swelling) in the abdominal aorta.
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