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Didactics of Language
Didactics of Language
Didactics of Languages
Distance Educaction
Universidade Pedagógica
Rua Comandante Augusto Cardoso n˚ 135
Copyright
This Module cannot be printed for commercial purposes. In case of photocopying, reference should be
made to Universidade Pedagógica and to the Authors of the module.
Universidade Pedagógica
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To Instituto Nacional de Educação a Distância (INED) for the support and guidance provided
To Magnificent Rector, Dean of Faculty, Heads of Department for support provided during whole
process.
Technical Assistance
Course overview 3
Welcome to Didactics of Language Module .................................................................... 3
Didactics of Language Module -is this course for you? ................................................... 3
Course outcomes............................................................................................................... 4
Timeframe......................................................................................................................... 4
Study skills........................................................................................................................ 5
Need help? ........................................................................................................................ 6
Assignments...................................................................................................................... 6
Assessments ...................................................................................................................... 7
Unit 1 9
First Language Acquisition............................................................................................... 9
Introduction ............................................................................................................. 9
Lesson 1: Introduction into First Language Acquisition....................................... 10
Feedback ......................................................................................................................... 12
Lesson 2: Early Childhood Bilingualism .............................................................. 14
Feedback ......................................................................................................................... 16
Lesson 3: Behaviourism in First Language Acquisition ....................................... 17
Feedback ......................................................................................................................... 20
Lesson 4: Innatism Position in First Language Learning...................................... 21
Feedback ......................................................................................................................... 25
Lesson 2: The Biological Basis for the Innatist Position ...................................... 27
Feedback ......................................................................................................................... 30
Lesson 6: The Interactionist Position on First Language Acquisition .................. 31
Feedback ......................................................................................................................... 34
Unit summary ................................................................................................................. 35
Unit 2 37
Theoretical Approaches to Explaining Second Language Learning .............................. 37
Introduction ........................................................................................................... 37
Lesson 1: Second Language Learning and Learners Factors ................................ 38
Activity feedback............................................................................................................ 42
Lesson 2: Behaviourism Position in Second Language Learning......................... 44
ii Contents
Feedback ......................................................................................................................... 45
Lesson 3: Innatism Position in Second Language Learning ................................. 47
Feedback ......................................................................................................................... 49
Feedback ......................................................................................................................... 52
Lesson 4: Recent Psychological Theories ............................................................. 54
Feedback ......................................................................................................................... 56
Lesson 5: The Interactionist Position .................................................................... 58
Feedback ......................................................................................................................... 61
Unit summary ................................................................................................................. 62
Assignment ..................................................................................................................... 63
Assessment...................................................................................................................... 63
Feedback ......................................................................................................................... 64
Unit 3 67
Factors affecting second language learners .................................................................... 67
Introduction ........................................................................................................... 67
Lesson 1: 3 Factors affecting second language learners ....................................... 68
Feedback ......................................................................................................................... 70
Feedback ......................................................................................................................... 72
Lesson 2:................................................................................................................ 74
Feedback ......................................................................................................................... 75
Feedback ......................................................................................................................... 77
Lesson 3:................................................................................................................ 78
Feedback ......................................................................................................................... 79
Lesson 4:................................................................................................................ 80
Feedback ......................................................................................................................... 82
Lesson 5:................................................................................................................ 83
Feedback ......................................................................................................................... 85
Lesson 6:................................................................................................................ 86
Feedback ......................................................................................................................... 90
Unit summary ................................................................................................................. 91
Assessment...................................................................................................................... 92
Feedback ......................................................................................................................... 92
Unit 4 95
Factors affecting second language learners .................................................................... 95
Introduction ........................................................................................................... 95
Lesson 1: Grammar translation method ............................................................... 96
Feedback ....................................................................................................................... 101
Lesson 2: The Direct Method ............................................................................. 101
Introduction ......................................................................................................... 101
Feedback ....................................................................................................................... 105
Lesson 3: The Audio-Lingual Method ............................................................... 106
Introduction ......................................................................................................... 106
Feedback ....................................................................................................................... 111
Lesson 4: The Total Physical Response Method................................................. 112
Introduction ......................................................................................................... 112
Feedback ....................................................................................................................... 116
Lesson 5: The Communicative Approach ........................................................... 116
Introduction ......................................................................................................... 117
Feedback ....................................................................................................................... 121
Unit summary ............................................................................................................... 121
About this Module
Didactics of language method has been produced by Universidade
Pedagógica. All Modules produced by Universidade Pedagógica are
structured in the same way, as outlined below.
How much time you will need to invest to complete the course.
Study skills.
Activity icons.
Units.
Unit outcomes.
1
About this Module
New terminology.
A unit summary.
Resources
For those interested in learning more on this subject, we provide you with
a list of additional resources at the end of this MODULE; these may be
books, articles or web sites.
Your comments
After completing Distance Educaction we would appreciate it if you
would take a few moments to give us your feedback on any aspect of this
course. Your feedback might include comments on:
Course assignments.
Course assessments.
Course duration.
2
Course overview
Welcome to Didactics of
Language Module
Welcome to Didactics of Languages Module. You will see that this
module is divided into four units. You should see this handbook as the
main reading to help you to answer the questions in the tests and
assignments. I suggest you begin your studies with an overall skim
reading of the handbook.
3
Course overview
Course outcomes
Upon completion of Didactics of Languages Module you will be able to:
Timeframe
Each unit will depend on your own speed and how well you are
organised.
4
Study skills
As an adult learner your approach to learning will be different to that
from your school days: you will choose what you want to study, you will
have professional and/or personal motivation for doing so and you will
most likely be fitting your study activities around other professional or
domestic responsibilities.
Study skills
Essentially you will be taking control of your learning environment. As a
consequence, you will need to consider performance issues related to
time management, goal setting, stress management, etc. Perhaps you will
also need to reacquaint yourself in areas such as essay planning, coping
with exams and using the web as a learning resource.
Your most significant considerations will be time and space i.e. the time
you dedicate to your learning and the environment in which you engage
in that learning.
http://www.how-to-study.com/
The “How to study” web site is dedicated to study skills resources.
You will find links to study preparation (a list of nine essentials for a
good study place), taking notes, strategies for reading text books,
using reference sources, test anxiety.
http://www.ucc.vt.edu/stdysk/stdyhlp.html
This is the web site of the Virginia Tech, Division of Student Affairs.
You will find links to time scheduling (including a “where does time
go?” link), a study skill checklist, basic concentration techniques,
control of the study environment, note taking, how to read essays for
analysis, memory skills (“remembering”).
http://www.howtostudy.org/resources.php
Another “How to study” web site with useful links to time
management, efficient reading, questioning/listening/observing skills,
getting the most out of doing (“hands-on” learning), memory building,
tips for staying motivated, developing a learning plan.
The above links are our suggestions to start you on your way. At the time
of writing these web links were active. If you want to look for more go to
www.google.com and type “self-study basics”, “self-study tips”, “self-
study skills” or similar.
5
Course overview
Need help?
In case of difficulties, please contact the following:
In Maputo:
Email: f:linguas@yahoo.com.br
In the provinces:
Assignments
Throughout each unit, you will have to carry out a number of activities
that will help you consolidate the matters reviewed.
6
Assessments
A minimum of four (4) tests should be written in this course; two (2) tests
each semester. A Final Exam will take place at the end of the academic
year.
Assessments
7
Getting around this MODULE
Margin icons
While working through this MODULE you will notice the frequent use of
margin icons. These icons serve to “signpost” a particular piece of text, a
new task or change in activity; they have been included to help you to
find your way around this MODULE.
8
Unit 1
Introduction
This unit is designed to provide you with a more critical awareness of the
issues underlying the theories of first language acquisition.
9
Unit 1 First Language Acquisition
How long?
One remarkable thing about first language acquisition is the high degree
of similarity which we see in the early language of children all over the
world.
The earliest vocalizations are simply the involuntary crying that babies do
when they are hungry or uncomfortable. Soon, however, we hear the
cooing and gurgling sounds of contented babies, lying in their beds
looking at bright shapes and colours around them. Even in these early
weeks and months of life, however, infants are able to hear very subtle
differences between sounds of human language. In cleverly designed
10
experiments, scientists have been able to show that tiny babies can hear
the difference of ̒pa̓ and ̒ ba̓, for example. And yet, it will be many
months before their own vocalizations (babbling) begin to reflect the
characteristics of the different languages they are learning.
By the end of their first year, most babies understand quite a few
frequently repeated words. They wave when someone says ̒ bye-bye̓; they
clap when someone says ̒pat-a-cake̓; they eagerly hurry to the kitchen
when ̒ juice and cookies̓ are announced. At 12 months, most babies will
have begun to produce a word or two that everyone recognizes. From this
time on, the number of words they understand and produce grows rapidly.
By the age of two, most children reliably produce at least fifty different
words and some many many more. About this time, they begin to
combine words into simply sentences such as ̒ Mommy juice̓ and ̒ baby
fall down̓. These sentences are sometimes called ̒telegraphic̓ because they
often leave out such things as articles, prepositions, and auxiliary verbs.
We recognize them as sentences because, even though function words
and grammatical morphemes are missing, the word order reflects the
word order of the language they are hearing and the combined words
have a meaning relationship between them which makes them more than
just a list of words. Thus, for an English-speaking child, ̒ kiss baby̓ does
not mean the same thing as ̒ baby kiss̓. Remarkably, we also see
evidence, even in these early sentences that children are doing more than
imperfectly imitating what they have heard. Their two and three-word
sentences show signs that are creatively combining words: ̒more outside̓
in a situation where the meaning seems to be ̒ I want to go outside again̓
or ̒ Daddy uh-oh̓ which seems to mean ̒ Daddy fell down̓.
11
Unit 1 First Language Acquisition
After you have read the text above answer the following questions.
3. Describe the level of proficiency of a three and half or four year old.
Feedback
Great! Now you can reefer to the answers given below. How many
questions did you get right?
12
3. By the age of three-and-a-half or four years, most children can ask
questions, give commands, report real events, and create stories about
imaginary ones—complete with correct grammatical morphemes. In
fact, it is generally accepted that by age four, children have mastered
the basic structures of the language (or languages) which have been
spoken to them in these early years.
In the lesson above you have learnt about how children learn their first
language. Among many aspects of early first language acquisition the
lesson summarized the main characteristics of earliest vocalization and
telegraphic speech and then looked at the level of proficiency in young
Summary children.
13
Unit 1 First Language Acquisition
You are going to read about the main characteristics of early child
bilingualism.
How long?
Many children, perhaps the majority of children in the world, are exposed
to more than one language in early childhood. Children who hear more
than one language virtually from birth are sometimes referred to as ̒
simultaneous bilinguals̓, whereas those who begin to learn a second
language later are referred to as ̒sequential bilinguals̓. There is a
considerable body of research on the ability of young children to learn
more than one language in their earliest years. The evidence suggest that,
when simultaneous bilinguals are in contact with both languages in a
variety of settings, there is every reason to expect that they will progress
in their development of both languages at a rate and in a manner which
are not different from those of monolingual children. Naturally, when
children go on to have schooling in only one of those languages, there
may be considerable differences in the amount of metalinguistic
awareness they develop and in the type and extent of the vocabulary they
eventually acquire in the two languages. Nevertheless, there seems to be
little support for the myth that learning more than one language in early
childhood slows down the child’s linguistic or cognitive development.
14
languages: not having mastered the second language, they have not
continued to develop the first. Unfortunately, the ̒solution̓ which
educators often propose to parents is that they should stop speaking the
family language at home and concentrate instead on speaking the
majority language with their children. The evidence seems to suggest that
the opposite suggestion would be more effective. That is, parents who
themselves are learners of the majority language should continue to use
the language which is most comfortable for them. The children may
eventually prefer to answer in the majority language, but at least they will
maintain their comprehension of their family language. This also permits
the parents to express their knowledge and ideas in ways that are likely to
be richer and more elaborate than they can manage in their second
language.
15
Unit 1 First Language Acquisition
Feedback
1. Simultaneous bilingualism occurs in children who hear more than
one language virtually from birth, whereas sequential bilingualism
occurs to those who begin to learn a second language later.
Was it difficult? Idon’t think so. If you couldn’t get all the answers
right, read the text again and see if you can correct what went wrong.
In the lesson above you read about the main characteristics of early child
bilingualism. The text outlined the differences between simultaneous and
sequential bilingualism, described the main characteristics of subtractive
bilingualism and finally gave possible solutions that educators often
Summary propose to parents whose children are facing subtractive bilingualism.
16
Lesson 3: Behaviourism in First Language Acquisition
In this lesson you are going to read about one of the theories that try
to explain how children learn a first language
How long?
17
Unit 1 First Language Acquisition
Michel: I can handle it. Hannah can handle it. We can handle it.
Examine these transcripts from Peter, Cindy, and Kathryn, who are about
the same age. The transcripts are based on recordings made while the
children were playing with a visiting adult. Look for examples of
Activity imitation and practice.
Transcription conventions:
… = pause
(Peter is playing with a dump truck while two adults, Patsy and Lois, look
on.)
(later)
Peter: (looking under chair for it) Lose it. Dump truck! Dump
truck!
Fall! Fall!
18
(Peter, Patsy, and Lois are playing with pencil and paper.)
(later)
It is also important to note that children’s imitations are not random; they
don’t imitate everything they hear. Very detailed analyses showed that
Peter imitated new words and sentences structures until they became
solidly grounded in his language system, and then he stopped imitating
these and went on to imitate other new words and structures. Thus, unlike
a parrot that imitates the familiar and continues to repeat the same things
again and again, children’s imitation is selective and based on what they
are currently learning. In other words, even when other child imitates, the
choice of what to imitate seems to be based on something the child has
already begun to understand, not simply on what is ̒available̓ in the
environment.
After reading the text above, try to answer the following questions.
You should try to do that before looking at the answers provided in
the feedback section below.
Activity 1
1. What is the main view of behaviourism into first language learning?
19
Unit 1 First Language Acquisition
Feedback
Great! Now compare your answers to the ones given below. Did you
get all of them right? If not read the text again and see what went
wrong.
20
Lesson 4: Innatism Position in First Language Learning
You are going to read about the second theory that tries to explain how
children learn their first language. The second theory is the result of the
reaction to the first theory that you read about in the previous lesson.
How long?
Chomsky argues that the behaviourist theory fails to recognize what has
come to be called ̒the logical problem of language acquisition̓. This
logical problem refers to the fact that children come to know more about
the structure of their language then they could reasonably be expected to
learn on the basis of the samples of language which they hear. According
to Chomsky, the language the child is exposed to in the environment is
full of confusing information (for example, false starts, incomplete
sentences, or slips of the tongue) and does not provide all the information
21
Unit 1 First Language Acquisition
which the child needs. Furthermore, the evidence seems very strong that
children are by no means systematically corrected or instructed on
language. Parental corrections of language errors have been observed to
be inconsistent or even non-existent for children of pre-school age. When
parents do correct, they tend to focus on meaning and not on language
form, often simply repeating the child’s incorrect utterance in a more
complete grammatical form. When parents do correct errors, children
often ignore the correction, continuing to use their own ways of saying
things.
22
children. Even children with very limited cognitive ability
develop quite complex language systems if they are brought up in
environments which people talk to them and engage them in
communication.
In (a) and (b), it looks as if the reflexive pronoun must follow the noun it
refers to. But (c) disproves this:
23
Unit 1 First Language Acquisition
We might conclude that the closest noun phrase is usually the antecedent.
And it’s even more complicated than that. Usually the reflexive must be
in the same clause as the antecedent as in (a) and (d), but not always, as
in (h). Furthermore, the reflexive can be in the subject position in (i) but
not in (j).
In some cases, more than one antecedent is possible, as in (k) where the
reflexive could refer to either John or Bill:
By now, you are probably quite convinced of the complexity of the rules
pertaining to interpreting reflexives pronouns in English. The innatists
argue that children could not discover the rules about reflexives pronouns
by trial and error, even if parents did systematically correct children’s
errors. In fact, they simply do not make enough mistakes for this
explanation to be plausible. The innatists conclude that a child’s
acquisition of these grammatical rules is guided by principles of an innate
Universal Grammar which could apply to all languages. Children come to
̒ know̓ certain things about the specific language being learned through
exposure to a limited number of examples. Different languages have
different rules about, for example, reflexives, and children seem able to
learn, on hearing some sentences, which other ones are possible and
which are not in the language they are learning.
24
After reading the text on the innatist position on learning first
language I want you to draw on the main points of this lesson by
answering the questions below
Feedback
How did you find the questions? If you managed to answer most of
them, it means you have understood the main idea of the innatist
position. Now check your answers to the ones given below.
25
Unit 1 First Language Acquisition
26
Lesson 2: The Biological Basis for the Innatist Position
In this lesson you are going to read about the biological basis for the
innatist theory.
explain the difference between the weak and strong versions of the
critical period hypothesis
Lesson Outcomes
How long?
27
Unit 1 First Language Acquisition
In 1799, a boy at about 12 years old was found wandering naked in the
woods of Aveyron in France. Upon capture, he was found to be
completely wild, apparently having had no contact with humankind. A
young doctor, Jean-Marc-Gaspard Itard, devoted five years to the task of
socializing Victor and trying to teach him language.
Another famous case of a child who did not learn language normally in
her early years is that of Genie. Genie was discovered in California in
1970, a 13-year-old girl who had been isolated, deprived, neglected, and
abused. Because of the irrationals demands of a disturbed father and the
submission and fear of an abused mother, Genie had spent more than
eleven years tied to a chair or a crib in a small, darkened room. Her father
had forbidden his wife and son to speak to her and had himself only
growled and barked at her. She was beaten every time she vocalized or
made any kind of noise, and she had long since resorted to complete
silence. Genie was unsocialized, primitive, and undeveloped physically,
emotionally, and intellectually. Needless to say, she had no language.
After she was discovered, Genie was cared for and educated in the most
natural surroundings possible, and to the fullest extent possible, with the
participation of many teachers and therapists. After a brief period in a
rehabilitation centre, Genie lived in a foster home and attended special
schools. Although far from being ̒normal̓, Genie made remarkable
progress in becoming socialized and cognitively aware. She developed
deep personal relationships and strong individual tastes and traits. But
despite the supportive environment for language acquisition, Genie’s
language development has not paralleled natural first language
development. After five years of exposure to language, a period during
which a normal child would have acquired an elaborated language
system, Genie’s language contained many of the features of abnormal
28
language development. These include a larger than normal gap between a
comprehension and production, inconsistency in the use of grammatical
forms, a slow rate of development, overuse of formulaic and routine
speech, and absence of some specific syntactic forms and mechanisms
always present in normal grammatical development ( Curtiss 1977). For
discussion of further developments in Genie’s life, see Rymer (1993).
Elissa Newport and her colleagues have studied deaf users of American
Sign Language (ASL) who acquired it as their first language at different
ages. Such a population exists because only 5−10 per cent of the
profoundly deaf are born to deaf parents, and only these children would
be likely to ASL from birth. The remainder of the profoundly deaf
population begin learning ASL at different ages, often when they start
attending a residential school where sign language is used for day-to-day
communication.
In one study, there were three distinct groups of ASL users: Native
signers who were exposed to sign language from birth, Early learners
whose first exposure to ASL began at ages four to six at school, and Late
learners who first came into contact with ASL after the age of 12
(Newport 1990).
Just like oral languages, ASL makes use of grammatical markers (like –ed
and –ing in English); the only difference is that these markers are
indicated through specifics hand and body movements. The researchers
were interested in whether there was any difference between Native
signers, Early learners and Late learners in the ability to produce and
comprehend grammatical markers.
29
Unit 1 First Language Acquisition
Results of the research showed a clear pattern. On word order, there was
no difference between the groups. But on test focusing on grammatical
markers, the Native group outperformed the Early learner group who
outperformed the Late learner group. The Native signers were highly
consistently in their use of the grammatical forms. Although the other
two groups used many of the same forms as the Native group, they also
used forms which are considered ungrammatical by the Native signers.
For example, they would omit certain grammatical forms, or use them in
some obligatory contexts but not in others. The researchers conclude that
their study supports the hypothesis there is a critical period for first
language acquisition.
Here are some questions that lead you to the main ideas of the
biological basis of the innatist theory. Work out the answers before
refering to the feedback.
Activity
1. What is the biological basis for the innatist theory?
Feedback
Great! Now compare your answers to the ones given below.
1. Children who for medical reasons cannot move about when they are
infants may soon stand and walk if their problems are corrected at the
age of a year or so. Similarly, children who can hear but who cannot
speak can nevertheless learn language, understanding even complex
sentences.
2. The critical period is the notion that there is a specific and limited
time period for language acquisition.
In this lesson you have seen that the innatist position has been very
persuasive in pointing out how complex the knowledge of adult speakers
is and how difficult or impossible it is to learn a language after puberty.
In the next lesson you are going to read about the third theory of first
Summary language acquisition
30
Lesson 6: The Interactionist Position on First Language Acquisition
In this lesson you are going to read about the third theory of language
acquisition that focuses on the role of the linguistic environment in
interaction with the child’s innate capacities in determining language
development.
Lesson Outcomes
How long?
31
Unit 1 First Language Acquisition
from sight are still there), the stability of quantities regardless of changes
in their appearance (knowing that ten pennies spread out to form a long
line are not more numerous than ten pennies in a tightly squeezed line),
and logical inferencing (figuring out which properties of a set of rods—
size, weight, material, etc—cause some rods to sink and others to float on
water). It is easy to see from this how children’s cognitive development
would partly determine how they use language. For example, the use of
certain terms such as ̒ bigger̓ or ̒more̓ depends on the children’s
understanding of the concepts they represent. The development cognitive
understanding is built on the interaction between the child and the things
which can be observed, touched, and manipulated.
Unlike the innatists, Piaget did not see language as based on a separate
module of the mind. For him, language was one of a number of symbol
systems which are developed in childhood. Language can be used to
represent knowledge that children have acquired through physical
interaction with the environment.
Child-directed speech
32
described on the basis of studies of families in middle-class American
homes is not universal. In some societies, adult do not engage in
conversation or verbal play with very young children. And yet these
children achieve full competence in the community language. Thus, it is
difficult to judge the importance of these modifications which some
adults make in speech addressed to children. Children whose parents do
not consistently provide such modified interaction will still learn
language; however, they may have access to modified language when
they are in the company of older siblings or other children. To the
theorist, this suggests that more important than simplification is the
conversational give-and-take in which the more proficient speaker
intuitively responds to the clues the child provides as to the level of
language he or she is capable of processing. The importance of such
interaction becomes abundantly clear in the atypical cases where it is
missing. Such is the case of Jim.
Jim, the hearing child of deaf parents, had little contact with
hearing/speaking adults up to the age of three years and nine months
(3,9). His only contact with oral language was through television, which
he watched frequently. The family was unusual in that the parents did not
use sign language with Jim. Thus, although in other respects he was well
cared for, Jim did not begin his linguistic development in a normal
environment in which a parent communicated with him in either oral or
sign language. Language tests administered indicated that he was very
much below age level in all aspects of language. Although he attempted
to express ideas appropriate to his age, he used unusual, ungrammatical
word order.
33
Unit 1 First Language Acquisition
Now that you have finished reading the text above try to find the
answers to the two questions below
Feedback
Well done, how did you find the two questions? Difficult? Now you
can compare your answers to the ones given below
In this lesson you read about the third theory of language acquisition.The
lesson explained the interactionist claim on first language learning saying
that language develops as a result of the complex interplay between the
uniquely human characteristics of the child and the environment in which
Summary the child develops. The lesson also discussed Vygotsky’s idea on child
language development Vygotsky argues that language develops entirely
from social interaction. As long as thre is a supportive interactive
environment available, the child will able to advance to a higher level of
knowledge and performance than he or she would be capable of
independently.
34
Unit summary
In this unit you learned about the early milestones in first language
acquisition and the three broad theoretical approaches to explaining first
Summary language acquisition, each of which was corroborated by evidence.
Guidance notes: In each of the theories outline the main view of the
proponents and show its strength and weakness. Your assignment should
Assignment
be made up of three main sections, representing the three theories, an
introduction and a conclusion. You should not forget to include a title
page and a table of contents.
35
Unit 2
Theoretical Approaches to
Explaining Second Language
Learning
Introduction
In this unit we look at some of the theories that have been proposed to
account for second language acquisition (SLA). In many ways, theories
which have been developed for SLA are closely related to those discussed
for first language acquisition in unit 1. That is, some theories give
primary importance to learners’ innate characteristics; some emphasize
the essential role of the environment in shaping language learning; still
others seek to integrate learner characteristics and environmental factors
in an explanation for how second language acquisition takes place.
37
Unit 2 Theoretical Approaches to Explaining Second Language
Learning
In this lesson you are going to look at the characteristics of first and
second language learners.
Lesson Outcomes
How long?
The questions below that show that, it is clear that a child or adult
learning a second language is different from a child acquiring a first
language in terms of both personal characteristics and conditions for
learning. First of all look at the first table (2.1) on the learner’s profile
below and then consider the questions
38
6. Does the learning environment allow the learner to be silent in the
early stages of learning, or is he or she expected to speak from the
beginning?
9. Does the learner receive corrective feedback when he or she uses the
wrong word, or does the listener usually try to guess the intended
meaning?
Learner profiles
39
Unit 2 Theoretical Approaches to Explaining Second Language
Learning
Table 2.1
L1 L2
1 knowledge of another
Language
2 cognitive maturity
3 metalinguistuc
awareness
4 knowledge of the
world
5 nervousness about
speaking
Learning conditions
6 freedom to be silent
7 ample time
8 corrective feedback:
grammar and
pronunciation
9 corrective feedback:
Word choice
10 modified input
The discussion below summarizes our views about the profiles of these
four language learners in terms of their characteristics and the conditions
in which their learning takes place.
Learner characteristic
40
work. On the other hand, as we shall see, knowledges of other languages
can also lead learners to make incorrect guesses about how the second
language works and this may cause errors which a first language learner
would not make.
Young language learners begin the task of language learning without the
benefit of some of the skills and knowledge which adolescent and adult
learners have. The first language learner does not have the same cognitive
maturity, metalinguistic awareness, or world knowledge as older second
language learners. Although young second language learners have begun
to develop cognitive maturity and metalinguistic awareness, they will still
have far to go in these areas, as well as in the area of world knowledge,
before they reach the levels already attained by adults and adolescent.
Most child learners do not feel nervous about attempting to use the
language—even when their proficiency is quite limited, but adults and
adolescents often find it very stressful when they are unable to express
themselves clearly and correctly. Nevertheless, even very young (pre-
school) children differ in their nervousness when faced with speaking a
language they do not know well. Some children happily chatter away in
their new language; others prefer to listen and participate silently in social
interaction with their peers. Fortunately for these children, the learning
environment rarely puts pressure on them to speak when they are not
ready.
Learning conditions
41
Unit 2 Theoretical Approaches to Explaining Second Language
Learning
Activity feedback
Now compare your answers to the ones given in the table below
L1 L2
1 knowledge of another - + + +
Language
2 cognitive maturity - - + +
3 metalinguistuc - - + +
awareness
4 knowledge of the - - + +
world
5 nervousness about - - + +
speaking
Learning conditions
6 freedom to be silent + + - -
7 ample time + + - +
42
8 corrective feedback: - - + -
grammar and
pronunciation
9 corrective feedback: + + + +
Word choice
10 modified input + + + +
43
Unit 2 Theoretical Approaches to Explaining Second Language
Learning
In this lesson you are going to read about the behaviourist view on second
language learning.
How long?
44
There is little doubt that a learner’s first language influences the
acquisition of a second language. However, researchers have found that
not all errors predicted by the CAH are actually made. Furthermore, many
of the errors which learners do make are not predictable on the basis of
the CAH. For example, adult beginers use simple structures in the target
language just as children do: ‘No understand,’ or ‘Yesterday I meet my
teacher.’ Such sentences look more like a child’s first language sentences
than like translations from another language. Indeed, many of the
sentences produced by the second language learners in the early stages of
development would be quite ungrammatical in their first language. What
is more, some characteristics of these simple structures are very similar
across learners from a variety of backgrounds, even if the structures of
their respective first languages are different from each other and different
from the target language.
After this lesson can you see any difference between learning a first
and second language? Answer the questions below to reflect on your
beliefs of how people learn a language
Feedback
Was it difficult to get the answers right? Now compare your answers
to the ones given below. If you didn’t manage to get all the answers
correct, read the text again and see if you can get them right.
45
Unit 2 Theoretical Approaches to Explaining Second Language
Learning
2. The CAH predicts that where there are similarities between the first
language and the target language, the learner will acquire target-
language structures with ease; where there are differences, the learner
will have difficulty.
3. The researchers have found that not all errors predicted by the CAH
are actually made. Furthermore, many of the errors which learners do
make are not predictable on the basis of the CAH.
In this lesson you read about the behaviourist view on second language
learning. You saw that the bahaviourist theory explains second language
learning in terms of imitation, practice, reinforcement (or feedback on
Summary success) and habit formation. You also discussed the reasons why
contrastive analysis failed to explain the origin of second language errors.
46
Lesson 3: Innatism Position in Second Language Learning
outline the different views on the role the universal grammar on second
language learning.
Lesson Outcomes
How long?
Even those who believe that UG has an important explanatory role in SLA
do not agree on how UG works in second language development. Some
argue that, even if second language learners begin learning the second
language after the end of the critical period and even if many fail to
achieve complete mastery of the target language, there is still a logical
problem of (second) language acquisition: learners eventually know more
about the language than they could reasonably have learned if they had to
depend entirely on the input they are exposed to. They infer from this that
UG must be available to second language learners as well as to first
language learners. Some of the theorists who hold this view claim that the
nature and availability of UG in SLA is no different from that which is
47
Unit 2 Theoretical Approaches to Explaining Second Language
Learning
After reading the first part of this lesson I would like you to answer
the questions below
48
Feedback
Great! Are your answers similar to the ones below? If not try to trace
the answers again in the reading text
1. Chomsky has not made specific claims about the implications of this
theory for second language learning. Nevertheless, some linguists
working within this theory have argued that Universal Grammar
offers the best perspective from which to understand second language
acquisition (SLA). Others argue that, although it is good framework
for understanding first language acquisition, UG is no longer
available to guide the acquisition of a second language in learners
who have passed the critical period for language acquisition. In their
view, this means that second language acquisition has to be explained
by some other theory, perhaps one of the more recent psychological
theories.
49
Unit 2 Theoretical Approaches to Explaining Second Language
Learning
According to Krashen, there are two ways for adult second language
learners to develop knowledge of second language: ‘acquisition’ and
‘learning’. In this view, we acquire as we are exposed to samples of the
second language which we understand. This happens in much the same
way that children pick up their frst language—with no conscious attention
to language form. We learn, on the other hand, via a conscious process of
study and attention to form and rule learning.
Krashen argues that the acquired system acts to initiate the speaker’s
utterances and is responsible for fluency and intuitive judgements about
correctness. The learned system, on the other hand, acts only as an editor
or ‘monitor’, making minor changes and polishing what the acquired
system has produced. Moreover, Krashen has especified that learners use
the monitor only when they are focused more on being ‘correct’ than on
what they have to say, when they have sufficient time to search their
memory for the relevant rules, and when they actually know these rules!
Thus, writing may be more conducive than speaking to monitor use,
because it usually allows more time for attention to form. He maintains
that since knowing the rules only helps the speaker supplement what has
been acquired, the focus of language teaching should be on creating
conditions for ‘acquisitions’ rather than ‘learning’.
Krashen based this hypothesis on the observation that, like first language
learners, second language learners seem to acquire the features of the
target language in predictable sequences. Contrary to intuition, the rules
which are easiest to state (and thus to ‘learn’) are not necessarily the first
to be acquired. For example, the rule of adding an –s to third person
singular verbs in the present tense is easy to state, but even some
advanced second language speakers fail to apply it in rapid conversation.
50
Further, Krashen observes that the natural order is independent of the
order in which rules have been learned in language classes. Most of
Krashen’s original evidence for this hypothesis came from the
‘morpheme studies’, in which learners’ speech was examined for the
accuracy of certain grammatical morphemes. While there have been
many criticisms of the morpheme studies, subsequent research has
confirmed that learners pass through sequences or stages in development.
Krashen cites many varied lines of evidence for this hypothesis, most of
which appeal to intuition, but which have not been substantiated by
empirical studies. In recent years, he has emphasized the value of
undirected pleasure reading as a source of comprehensible input. While
he acknowledges that some people who are exposed to intensive
comprehensible input do not achieve high levels of proficiency in the
second language, he retains his convictions that input is the source of
acquisition. He points to the affective filter hypothesis to explain lack of
success when comprehensible input is available.
51
Unit 2 Theoretical Approaches to Explaining Second Language
Learning
hand, the theory has also been seriously criticized for failing to propose
hypotheses which can be tested by empirical research. Most teachers and
researchers see much of which is intuitively appealing in his views. There
is little doubt that communicative language teaching, with its primary
focus on using language for meaningful interaction and for accomplishing
tasks, rather than on learning rules, has won support from many teachers
and learners. Nevertheless, it will be seen in Chapter 6 that some
classroom-centred research shows that attention to language form may be
more important than Krashen acknowledges. We will also see that
instruction which focuses on language form can be incorporated within
communicative language teaching.
1. After reading the text above on Krashen’s monitor model can you try
to summarize the main idea in each of the five hypotheses
Activity 2
Feedback
Great! Were you able to tackle the following points? If so, well done
According to Krashen, there are two ways for adult second language
learners to develop knowledge of second language: ‘acquisition’ and
‘learning.’ For Krashen, acquisition is by far the more important process.
He asserts that only acquired language is readily available for natural,
fluent communication.
52
In relation to the affective filter, Krashen claims that the ‘affective filter’
is an imaginary barrier which prevents learners from acquiring language
from the available input. ‘Affect’ refers to such things as motives, needs,
attitudes, and emotional states. A learner who is tense, angry, anxious, or
bored may ‘filter out’ input, making it unavailable for acquisition.
In this lesson you read about the innatist view on second language
learning. The text started by outlining Chomsky´s view on how the
innatist view is valid for second language learning and then the text
outlined the view from some linguists working within this theory have
Summary argued that Universal Grammar offers the best perspective from which to
understand second language acquisition (SLA). The discussion went on
with the involvement of others scholars who argue that, although the
universal grammar (UG) is good framework for understanding first
language acquisition, it is no longer available to guide the acquisition of a
second language in learners who have passed the critical period for
language acquisition. In their view, this means that second language
acquisition has to be explained by some other theory, perhaps one of the
more recent psychological theories. Towards the end of the lesson you
read about Krashen’s monitor model and its contribution to the teories of
second language learning.
53
Unit 2 Theoretical Approaches to Explaining Second Language
Learning
Information processing
Now you are going to read a text that discusses two of the recent
psychological theories to explain second language known as information
processing and connectionism.
Lesson Outcomes
How long?
54
One theorist who has emphasized the role of ‘noticing’ in second
language acquisition is Richard Schmidt. He argues that everything we
come to know about the language was first ‘noticed’ consciously. This
contrasts sharply with Krashen’s views, of course. Schmidt, like the other
cognitive psychologists, does not assume that there is a difference
between acquisition and learning (Schmidt 1990).
Connectionism
55
Unit 2 Theoretical Approaches to Explaining Second Language
Learning
Look back at the text above and answer the following questions
Feedback
Did you face any difficulties in answering the questions above? I
hope not. Now compare your answers with the ones below. If you
find that you didn’t get most of the answers, go back to the text again
and find the answers.
56
of the linguistics features they eventually learn. Thus, while innatists
see the language input in the environment mainly as a ‘trigger’ to
activate innate knowledge, connectionists the input as the principal
source of linguistic knowledge.
57
Unit 2 Theoretical Approaches to Explaining Second Language
Learning
How long?
58
2. Comprehensible input promotes acquisition.
Therefore,
59
Unit 2 Theoretical Approaches to Explaining Second Language
Learning
Speaker 2 Tu as …
Speaker 3 Tu as …
Speaker 1 Tu es
Speaker 3 Tu t’es
1. How do Evelyn Hatch (1992), Teresa Pica (1994) and Michael Long
(1983) view second language learning?
Activity 2 2. What is the relationship between interaction and comprehensible
input?
60
Feedback
Did you find the questions difficult? I don’t think so. Now I want you
to compare your answers to the ones given below
1. Evelyn Hatch (1992), Teresa Pica (1994) and Michael Long (1983)
argued that much second language acquisition takes place through
conversational interaction. This is similar to the first language theory
that gives great importance to child-directed speech. Michael Long’s
views are based on his observation of interactions between learners
and native speakers. He agrees with Krashen that comprehensible
input is necessary for language acquisition. However, he is more
concerned with the question of how input is made comprehensible.
Therefore,
61
Unit 2 Theoretical Approaches to Explaining Second Language
Learning
not available in the input, and so they put greater emphasis on innate
principles of language which learners can draw on.
Unit summary
In contrast, the innatists draw much of their evidence from studies of the
complexities of the proficient speaker’s language knowledge and
performance and from analysis of their own intuitions about language.
Critics of this view argue that it is not enough to know what the final state
of knowledge is and more attention should be paid to the developmental
steps leading up to this level of mastery.
62
will not soon be solved. Research which has theory development as its
goal has very important long-term significance for language teaching and
learning, but agreement on a ‘complete’ theory of language acquisition is
probably, at best, a long way off. Even if such agreement were reached,
there would still be questions about how the theory should be interpreted
for language teaching. Many teachers watch theory development with
interest, but must continue to teach and plan lessons and assess students’
performance in the absence of comprehensible theory of second language
learning.
Assignment
Outline the similarities and differences between first and second language
learning. Then discuss if there is anything useful that can be derived from
first language acquisition that can be useful for classroom learning
Assignment
Assessment
TEST 1
The test below covers the main ideas in unit one and two
Assessment
63
Unit 2 Theoretical Approaches to Explaining Second Language
Learning
Feedback
Great! I hope you didn’t face many difficulties in answering the
questions above. Now look at your answers and compare them with
the ones below
64
3. The weak version of the critical period states that children must learn
their first language before puberty, after that it can be difficult or
incomplete. The strong version argues that children must acquire their
first language before puberty, after that period it will be impossible.
5. The CAH predicts that where there are similarities between the first
language and the target language, the learner will acquire target-
language structures with ease; where there are differences, the learner
will have difficulty. The weaknesses of the contrastive analysis are as
follow: not all errors predicted by the CAH are actually made.
Furthermore, many of the errors which learners do make are not
predictable on the basis of the CAH.
a) The acquisition and learning hypothesis, states that there are two
ways for adult second language learners to develop knowledge
of second language: ‘acquisition’ and ‘learning’. In this view, we
acquire as we are exposed to samples of the second language
which we understand. We learn, on the other hand, via a
conscious process of study and attention to form and rule
learning.
65
Unit 2 Theoretical Approaches to Explaining Second Language
Learning
66
Unit 3
Introduction
In this unit, we will look at proposals for how differences among learners
may lead to differences in their learning success.
Outcomes
67
Unit 3 Factors affecting second language learners
In unit 1, it was pointed out that all normal children, given a normal
upbringing, are successful in the acquisition of their first language. This
contrasts with our experience of second language learners, whose success
varies greatly. In this lesson you are going to read about the
characteristics of a good language learner and about research in second
language learning.
How long?
68
Characteristics of the ‘good language learner’
It seems that some people have a much easier time of learning than
others. Rate of development varies widely among first language learners.
Some children can string together five-, six-, and seven-word sentences at
Activity 2.1 an age when other children are just beginning to label items in their
immediate environment. Nevertheless, all normal children eventually
master their first language.
1 = Very important
2 = Quite important
3 = Important
69
Unit 3 Factors affecting second language learners
of others 1 2 3 4 5
j) has an above-average IQ 1 2 3 4 5
Feedback
This activity aimed at exploring your beliefs on what constitute the
characteristics of a good language learner. At the end of this unit I
would like to invite you to look back to this activity and compare to
the knowledge you will have about the subject.
All of the characteristics listed above can be classified into five main
categories: motivation, aptitude, personality, intelligence, and learner
preferences.
70
However, many of the characteristics cannot be assigned exclusively to
one category. For example, the characteristic ‘is willing to make
mistakes’ can be considered a personality and/or a motivational factor if
the learner is willing to make mistakes in order to get the message across.
71
Unit 3 Factors affecting second language learners
learners with much less motivation to learn the second language. One
explanation which has been offered for these conflicting findings is that
the language proficiency tests used in different studies do not measure the
same kind of knowledge. That is, in informal language learning settings,
highly motivated learners may be more successful when the proficiency
tests measure oral communication skills. In other studies, however,
highly motivated learners may not be more successful because the tests
are primarily measures of metalinguistic knowledge. Results such as
these imply that motivation to learn a second language may be more
related to particular aspects of language proficiency than to others.
Feedback
1. Researchers use questionnaires to measure the type and degree of
their motivation or tests to measure their second language
proficiency.
72
In this lesson you have read about the characteristics of a good language
learner. You saw that characteristics such as motivation, aptitude,
personality, intelligence, and learner preferences cannot be assigned
exclusively to one category, that is, some categories tend to overlap. This
Summary fact makes it difficult to single out their importance when classifying the
characteristics of a good language learner. In this lesson you also read
about the methods used by researchers to find out about learners
individual factors and the difficulties that these instruments/methods
encounter in producing reliable results. The text outlined some of the
difficulties such as the difficulties in observing and measuring qualities
such as motivation, extroversion, or even intelligence in addition to the
fact that these characteristics are not independent and interpreting the
correlation between them is not easy.
73
Unit 3 Factors affecting second language learners
Lesson 2:
Lesson Outcomes
How long?
74
Now I would like you to answer the following questions
Feedback
Great! Now compare your answers to the ones given below. How
many did you get right?
Now read this text that looks at the role of aptitude in second
language learning
3.4 Aptitude
There is evidence in the research literature that some individuals have an
exceptional ‘aptitude’ for language learning. Lorraine Obler (1989)
reports that a man, whom she calls CJ, has such a specialized ability. CJ
is a native speaker of English who grew up in an English home. His first
true experience with a second language came at the age of 15 when he
began learning French in school. CJ also studied German, Spanish and
Latin while in high school. At the Age 20, he made a brief visit to
Germany. CJ reported that just hearing German spoken for a short time
was enough for him to ‘recover’ the German he had learned in school.
Later, CJ worked in Morocco where he reported learning Moroccan
Arabic through both formal instruction and informal immersion. He also
spent some time in Spain and Italy, where he apparently ‘picked up’ both
Spanish and Italian in a ‘matter of weeks’. A remarkable talent indeed!
75
Unit 3 Factors affecting second language learners
(1) the ability to identify and memorize new sounds; (2) the ability to
understand the function of particular words in sentences; (3) the ability
to figure out grammatical rules from languages samples; and (4) memory
for new words. While earlier research revealed a substantial relationship
between performance on the MLAT or PLAB and performance in foreign
language learning, these studies were conducted at a time when second
language teaching was based on grammar translation or audiolingual
methods. With the adoption of a more communicative approach to
teaching, many teachers and researchers came to see aptitude as irrelevant
to the process of language acquisition. Unfortunately, this means that
relatively little research has actually explored whether having a skill such
as the ‘ability to identify and memorize new sounds’ is advantageous
when classroom instruction is meaning-oriented rather than focused on
drills or metalinguistic explanations.
While few second language teaching contexts are able to offer such
choices to their students, teachers may find that knowing the aptitude
profile of their students will help them in selecting appropriate classroom
activities for particular groups of students. Or, if they do not have such
information, they may wish to ensure that their teaching activities are
sufficiently varied to accommodate learners with different aptitudes
profiles.
76
Feedback
Now compare your answers to the ones given below. How many did
you get right? Great!
77
Unit 3 Factors affecting second language learners
Lesson 3:
3.5 Personality
This lesson will discuss the concept of personality and its contribution to
success in language learning.
Lesson Outcomes
How long?
78
with learning. We may also note, in passing, that when larger doses of
alcohol were administered, pronunciation rapidly deteriorated!
To sumarize the main idea in what you have just read, answer the
question below
Feedback
Was it easy to work out the answer? Now compare your answer to
the one provided below.
79
Unit 3 Factors affecting second language learners
This lesson has discussed the concept of personality and its contributionto
success in language acquisition. From the lesson we can come to the
conclusion that in general, the relationship between personality and
second language acquisition is not clear. And, as indicated earlier, the
Summary major difficulty in investigating personality characteristics is that of
identification and measurement, however, many researchers believe that
personality may be an important influence on success in language
learning.
Lesson 4:
3.6 Motivation and attitudes
This lesson discusses the role of motivation and attitudes in formal and
informal language learning.
Lesson Outcomes
How long?
There has been a great deal of research on the role of attitudes and
motivation in second language learning. The overall findings show that
positives attitudes and motivation are related to success in second
language learning (Gardner 1985). Unfortunately, the research cannot
indicate precisely how motivation is related to learning. As indicated
above, we do not know whether it is the motivation that produces
successful learning or successful learning that enhances motivation or
whether both are affected by other factors. As noted by Peter Skehan
(1989), the question is, are learners more highly motivated because they
are successful, or are they successful because they are highly motivated?
80
need to speak the second language in a wide range of social situations or
to fulfil professional ambitions, they will perceive the communicative
value of the second language and will therefore be motivated to acquire
proficiency in it. Likewise, if learners have favourable attitudes towards
the speakers of the language, they will desire more contact with them.
Robert Gardner and Wallace Lambert (1972) coined the terms integrative
motivation to refer to language learning for personal growth and cultural
enrichment, and instrumental motivation for language learning for more
immediate or practical goals. Research has shown that these types of
motivation are related to success in second language learning.
One factor which often affects motivation is the social dynamic or power
relationship between the languages. That is, members of a minority group
learning the language of a majority group may have different attitudes
and motivation from those of a majority group members learning a
minority language. Even though it is impossible to predict the exact effect
of such societal factors on second language learning, the fact that
languages exist in social contexts cannot be overlooked when we seek to
understand the variables which affect success in learning. Children as
well as adults are sensitive to social dynamics and power relationships.
81
Unit 3 Factors affecting second language learners
Clearly, cultural and age differences will determine the most appropriate
way for teachers to motivate students. In some classrooms, students may
thrive on competitive interaction, while in others; co-operative activities
will be more successful.
Now refer back to the text and answer the following questions.
Feedback
Did you get the answers to the two questions? If not refer to the
answers below.
82
2. The terms integrative motivation to refer to language learning for
personal growth and cultural enrichment, and instrumental motivation
for language learning for more immediate or practical goals.
This lesson discussed the role of motivation and attitude in formal and
informal language learning. From the reading it transpired that in second
language learning, motivation is viewed as a complex phenomenon which
can be defined in terms of two factors: learners’ communicative needs
Summary and their attitudes towards the second language community. We also saw
that if learners need to speak the second language in a wide range of
social situations or to fulfil professional ambitions, they will need to be
motivated to learn the language. Concerning the two types of motivation
we saw that the terms integrative motivation refer to language learning
for personal growth and cultural enrichment, and instrumental motivation
for language learning for more immediate or practical goals.
Lesson 5:
3.7 Learner preferences
This lesson looks at how different learners prefer to learn and what
influence them to learn in that way they do.
Lesson Outcomes
How long?
Learners have clear preferences for how they go about learning new
material. The term ‘learning style’ has been used to describe an
individual’s natural, habitual, and preferred way of absorbing, processing,
and retaining new information and skills (Reid 1995). We have all heard
people say that they cannot learn something until they have seen it. Such
learners would fall into the group called ‘visual’ learners. Other people,
who may be called ‘aural’ learners, seem to need only to hear something
once or twice before they know it. For others, who are referred to as
‘kinaesthetic’ learners, they need to add a physical action to the learning
process. In contrast to these perceptually based learning styles,
considerable research has focused on a cognitive learning style distinction
83
Unit 3 Factors affecting second language learners
While recent years have seen the development of many learning style
assessment instruments, very little research has examined the interaction
between different learning styles and success in second language
acquisition. At present, the only learning style that has been extensively
investigated is the field independence/dependence distinction. The results
from this research have shown that while field independence is related to
some degree to performance on certain kinds of tasks, it is not a good
predictor of performance on others.
84
this information to help learners expand their repertoire of learning
strategies and thus develop greater flexibility in their ways of
approaching language learning.
2. Describe the different types of learners you have read about in this
Activity 2 text.
3. What make learners to prefer to learn in one way and not another?
And what can teachers do to help learners to achieve their best?
Feedback
Is your answer similar to the one given below? If so, well done.
2. The different types of learning styles I have read about in this lesson
are as follow: a) visual learners, those say that they cannot learn
something until they have seen it, b) ‘aural’ learners, those who seem
to need only to hear something once or twice before they know it, c)
‘kinaesthetic’ learners, those who need to add a physical action to the
learning process.
This lesson looked at how different learners prefer to learn and what
influences them to learn in the way they do. From the reading we came to
the conclusion that learner’s preferences for learning are influenced by
their learning style or their beliefs about how languages are learned.
Summary Teachers can use this information that they have about their learners
learning styles to plan lessons that suit all types of learners.
85
Unit 3 Factors affecting second language learners
Lesson 6:
3.9 Age of acquisition
The lesson that follows looks at the importance of age in language
learning.
Lesson Outcomes
How long?
86
unit 1, the Critical Period Hypothesis suggests that there is a time in
human development when the brain is predisposed for success in
language learning. Developmental changes in the brain, it is argued,
affect the nature of language acquisition. According to this view,
language learning which occurs after the end of the critical period may
not be based on the innate biological structures believed to contribute to
first language acquisition or second language acquisition in early
childhood. Rather, older learners depend on more general learning
abilities − the same ones they might use to learn other kinds or skills of
information. It is argued that these general learning abilities are not as
successful for language learning as the more specific, innate capacities
which are available to the young child. It is most often claimed that the
critical period ends somewhere around puberty, but some researchers
suggest it could be even earlier.
The Critical Period Hypothesis has been challenged in recent years from
several different points of view. Some studies of the second language
development of older and younger learners who are learning in similar
circumstances have shown that, at least in the early stages of second
language development, older learners are more efficient than younger
learners. In educational research, it has been reported that learners who
began learning a second language at the primary school level did not fare
better in the long run than those who began in early adolescence.
Furthermore, there are countless, anecdotes about older learners
(adolescents and adults) who have reached high levels of proficiency in a
second language. Does this mean that there is no critical period for
second language acquisition?
87
Unit 3 Factors affecting second language learners
Morphology was tested using a procedure like the ‘wug test’, which
required learners to complete sentences by adding the correct
grammatical markers to words which were supplied by the researchers.
Again, to take an example from English, learners were asked to complete
sentences such as ‘Here is one boy. Now there are two of them. There are
two_____.’
In the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test, learners saw four pictures and
heard one isolated word. Their task was to indicate which picture
matched the word spoken by the tester.
88
For the story comprehension task, learners heard a story in Dutch and
were then asked to retell the story in English or Dutch (according to their
preference).
The learners were divided into several age groups, but for our discussions
we will divide them into just three groups: children (aged 3 to 10),
adolescents (12 to 15years), and adults (18 to 60years). The children and
adolescents all attended Dutch schools. Some of the adults worked in
Dutch work environments, but most of their Dutch colleagues spoke
English well. Other adults were parents who did not work outside their
homes and thus had somewhat less contact with Dutch than most of the
other subjects.
Even people who know nothing about the critical period research are
certain that, in school programs for second or foreign language teaching,
‘younger is better’. However, both experience and research show that
older learners can attain high, if not ‘native’, levels of proficiency in their
second language. Furthermore, it is essential to think carefully about the
goals of an instructional program and the context in which it occurs
before we jump to conclusions about the necessity − or even the
desirability − of the earliest possible start.
The role of the critical period in second language acquisition is still much
debated. For every researcher who holds that there are maturational
constraints on language acquisition, there is another who considers that
the age factor cannot be separated from the factors such as motivation,
social identity, and the conditions for learning. They argue that older
learners may well speak with an accent because they want to continue
being identified with their first language cultural group, and adults rarely
get access to the same quantity and quality of language input that children
receive in play settings.
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Unit 3 Factors affecting second language learners
When the goal is basic communicative ability for all students in a school
setting, and when it is assumed that the child’s native language will
remain the primary language, it may be more efficient to begin second or
foreign language teaching later. When learners receive only a few hours
of instruction per week, learners who start later (for example, at age 10,
11, or 12) often catch up with those who began earlier. We have often
seen second or foreign language programs which begin with very young
learners but offer only minimal contact with the language. Even when
students do make progress in these early-start programs, they sometimes
find themselves placed in secondary school classes with students who
have had no previous instruction. After years of classes, learners feel
frustrated by the lack of progress, and their motivation to continue may
be diminished. School programs should be based on realistic estimates of
how long it takes to learn a second language. One or two hours a week
will not produce very advanced second language speakers, no matter how
young they were when they began.
Now look at the questions below and find the answers in the text you
have just read.
3.
Feedback
Are your answers similar to the ones below?
90
the more specific, innate capacities which are available to the
young child.
This lesson discussed the concept of critical period hypothesis and the
importance of age in language learning. From the text it transpires that
second language learning is more influenced by other general abilities
rather than the biological structures.
Summary
Unit summary
In this unit you learned about how personal and general factors affect
second language learners. We learned that the learners age is one of the
factors which determine the way in which an individual approaches
second language learning.
Summary
But the opportunities for learning (both inside and outside the classroom),
the motivation to learn, and individual differences in aptitude for
language learning are also important determining factors in both rate of
learning and eventual success in learning. In this unit you have also
looked at ways in which intelligence, aptitude, personality and
motivational characteristics, learners’ preferences, and age have been
found to influence second language learning. You have learned that the
study of individual learner variables is not easy and that the results of the
research are not entirely satisfactory. This is partly because of the lack of
clear definitions and methods for measuring the individual characteristics.
It is also due to the fact that these learner characteristics are not
independent of one another. Nonetheless, in a classroom, a sensitive
teacher, who takes learner´s individual prsonalities and learning styles
into account, can create a learning environment in which virtually all
learners can be successful in learning a second language.
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Unit 3 Factors affecting second language learners
Assessment
Test 2 Unit 3 (learner factors) Time: 90 minutes
Assessment
This test covers the content of the lessons in unit three only. Please
read the questions carefully and then provide the answers.
Feedback
Well done! This test covered the most important ideas discussed in
unit three now compare your answers to the ones given below.
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3. In general, the available research does not a clearly define a
relationship between personality and second language acquisition.
And, as indicated earlier, the major difficulty in investigating
personality characteristics is that of identification and measurement,
however, many researchers believe that personality may be an
important influence on success in language learning
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Unit 4
Introduction
This unit presents and discusses well-known language-teaching methods
that are in use today. Some of these methods have been around for a long
time.
explain the different roles that teachers and students play within a
language class.
Outcomes
evaluate language teaching methods according to learners needs.
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Unit 4 Factors affecting second language learners
In this lesson you are going to read about one of the oldest method of
language teaching which was first used to teach Latin and Greek.
How long?
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EXPERIENCE
As we enter the classroom, the class is in the middle of reading a passage
in their textbook. The passage is an excerpt entitled “the boys’ Ambition”
from Mark Twain’s Life on the Mississippi. Each student is called on to
read a few lines from the passage. After he has finished reading, he is
asked to translate into Spanish the few lines he has just read. The teacher
helps him with new vocabulary items. When the students have finished
reading and translating the passage, the teacher asks them in Spanish if
they have any questions. One girl raises her hand and says, “What is
paddle wheel?” The teacher replies, “Es una rueda de paletas.” Then she
continues in Spanish to explain how it looked and worked on the
steamboats which moved up and down the Mississippi River during Mark
Twain’s childhood. Another student says, “No understand ‘gorgeous’”
The teacher translates, “primoroso.”
Since the students have no more questions, the teacher asks them to write
the answers to the comprehension questions which appear at the end of
the excerpt. The questions are in English, and the students are instructed
to write the answers to them in English as well. They do the first one
together as an example. A student reads out load, “When did Mark Twain
live?” Another student replies, “Mark Twain lived from 1835 to 1910.”
“Bueno,” says the teacher, and the students begin working quietly by
themselves.
After one-half hour, the teacher, speaking in Spanish, asks the students to
stop and check their work. One by one each student reads a question and
then reads his response. If he is correct, the teacher calls on another
student to read the next question. If the student is incorrect, the teacher
selects a different student to supply the correct answer, or the teacher
herself gives the right answer.
Announcing the next activity, the teacher asks the students to turn the
page in their textbook. There is a list of words there. The introduction to
the exercise tells the students that these are words taken from the passage
they have just read. The students see the words “ambition,” “career,”
“wharf,” “tranquil,” “gorgeous,” “loathe,” “envy,” and “humbly.” They
are told that some of these are review words and that others are new to
them. The students are instructed to give the Spanish word for each of
them. This exercise the class does together. If no one knows the Spanish
equivalent, the teacher gives it. In part 2 of this exercise, the students are
given English words like “love,” “noisy,” “ugly,” and “proudly,” and
they are directed find the opposites of these words in the passage.
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Unit 4 Factors affecting second language learners
When they have finished this exercise, the teacher reminds them that
English words that look like Spanish words are called “cognates.” The
English “-ty,” she says for example, often corresponds to the Spanish
endings –dad and –tad. She calls the students’ attention to the word
“possibility” in the passage and tells them this word is the same as the
Spanish posibilidad. The teacher asks the students to find other examples
in the excerpt. Hands go up; a boy answers; “Obscurity.” “Bién,” says the
teacher. When all of these cognates from the passage have been
identified, the students are told to turn to the next exercise in the chapter
and to answer the question, “What do these cognates mean?” there is a
long list of English words (“curiosity,” opportunity,” “liberty,” etc.),
which the students translate into Spanish.
The next session of the chapter deals with grammar. The students follow
in their books as the teacher reads a description of two-word or phrasal
verbs. This is a review for them as they have encountered phrasal verbs
before. Nevertheless, there are some new two-word verbs in the passage
that the students haven’t learned yet. These are listed following the
description, and the students are asked to translate them into Spanish.
Then they are given the rule for the use of a direct object with two-word
verbs:
If the two-word verb is separable, the direct object may come between the
verb and : its particle. However, separation is necessary when
the directed object is a pronoun.
or
but not
but not
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After reading over the rule and the examples, the students are asked to
tell which of the following two-word verbs, taken from the passage, are
separable and which are inseparable. They refer to the passage for clues.
If they cannot tell from the passage, they use their dictionaries or ask
their teacher.
Finally, they are asked to put one of these phrasal verbs in the blank of
each of the ten sentences they are given. They do the first two together.
on the river.
River.
When the students are finished with this exercise, they read their answers
aloud.
At the end of the chapter there is a list vocabulary items that appeared ion
the passage. The list is divided into two parts: the first contains words,
and the second, idioms like “to give some a cold shoulder.” Next to each
is a Spanish word or phrase. For homework, the teacher asks the students
to memorize the Spanish translation for the first twenty new words and
write a sentence in English using each word.
In the two remaining lessons this week, the students will be asked to:
1. Write out the translation of the reading passage into Spanish.
2. State the rule for the use of a direct object with two-word verbs,
and apply it to other phrasal verbs.
3. Do the remaining exercises in the chapter that include practice
with one set of irregular past participle forms. The students will
be asked to memorize the present tense, and past participle forms
of this irregular paradigm.
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Unit 4 Factors affecting second language learners
4. 4Do you agree with any of the other principles underlying the
Grammar-Translation Method? Which ones?
Which ones?
100
Feedback
These are reflection questions, therefore, there is no one correct answer.
You should compare your beliefs on how languages are learnt and the
information from the text that you have just read.
You have now had an opportunity to examine the principles and some of
the techniques of the Grammar-Translation Method. You have seen that
for the proponents of the grammar translation method, the goal of foreign
language study is to learn a language in order to read its literature or in
Summary order to benefit from the mental discipline and intellectual development
that results from foreign-language study. Reading and writing are the
major focus. Accuracy is emphasized and grammar is taught deductively.
In this lesson you are going to read about the Direct Method.
evaluate the fundamental reason for learning a foreign language using the
Direct Method and;
How long?
Introduction
As with the Grammar-Translation Method, the Direct Method is not new.
Its principles have been applied by language teachers for many years.
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Unit 4 Factors affecting second language learners
The Direct Method has one very basic rule: No translation is allowed. In
fact, the Direct Method receives its name from the fact that meaning is to
be connected directly with the target language, without going through the
process of translating into the students’ native language.
EXPERIENCE
The teacher is calling the class to order as we find seats toward the back
of the room. He has placed a big map of the United States in the front of
the classroom. He asks the students to open their books to a certain page
number. The lesson is entitled “Looking at a Map.” As the students are
called one by one, they read a sentence from the reading passage at the
beginning of the lesson. The teacher points to the part of the map the
sentence describes after each student has read his sentence. The passage
begins:
We are looking at the map of the United States. Canada is the country to
the north of the United States, and Mexico is the country to the south of
the United States. Between Canada and the United States are the Great
Lakes. Between Mexico and the United States is the Rio Grande River.
On the East Coast is the Atlantic Ocean, and on the West Coast is the
Pacific Ocean. In the East is a mountain range called the Appalachian
Mountains. In the West are the Rocky Mountains.
After the students finish reading the passage, they are asked if they have
any questions. A student asks what a mountain range is. The teacher turns
to the blackboard and draws a series of inverted cones to illustrate a
mountain range.
The students nods and says, “I understand.” Another student asks what
“between” means. The teacher replies, “You are sitting between Maria
Pia and Giovanni. Paolo is sitting between Gabriella and Cettina. Now do
you understand the meaning of ‘between’?” The student answers, “Yes, I
understand.”
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After all of the questions have been answered, the teacher asks some of
his own. “Class, are we looking at a map of Italy?”
“It’s blue.”
The question and answer session continues for a few more minutes.
Finally, the teacher invites the students to ask questions. Hands go up,
and the teacher calls on students to pose questions one at a time, to which
the class replies. After several questions have been posed, one girl asks,
“Where are the Appalachian Mountains?” Before the class has a chance
to respond, the teacher works with the students on the pronunciation of
“Appalachian.” Then he includes the rest of the class in this practice as
well, expecting that they will have the same problem with this long word.
After insuring that the students’ pronunciation is correct, the teacher
allows the class to answer the question.
Later another student asks, “What is the ocean in the West Coast?” The
teacher again interrupts before the class has a chance to reply, saying,
“What is the ocean in the West Coast? … or on the West Coast?” The
student hesitates, then says, “On the West Coast.”
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Unit 4 Factors affecting second language learners
The class replies in chorus, “The Ocean on the West Coast is the Pacific.”
After the students have asked about ten questions, the teacher begins
asking questions and making statements again. This time, however, the
questions and statements are about the students in the classroom and
contain one of the prepositions “on,” “at,” “to,” “in,” or “between,” such
as, “Antonella, is your book on your desk?” “Antonio, who is sitting
between Luisa and Teresa?” “Emanuela, points to the clock.” The
students then make up their own questions and statements and direct them
to other students.
The teacher next instructs the students to turn to an exercise in the lesson
which asks them to fill in the blanks. They read a sentence out loud and
supply the missing word as they are reading, for example:
Finally, the teacher asks the students to take out their notebooks, and he
gives them a dictation. The passage he dictates is one paragraph long and
is about the geography of the United States.
During the remaining two classes this week, the class will:
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Now that you have considered the principles and the techniques of
the Direct Method somewhat, see what you can find of use for your
own teaching situation.
2. Does it make sense to you that the students’ native language should
not be used to give meaning to the target language?
3. Do you agree that the culture that is taught should be about people’s
daily lives in addiction to the fine arts?
5. Are there any other principles of the Direct Method which you
believe in? Which ones?
10. Are there any other techniques of the Direct Method which you
would consider adopting? Which ones?
Feedback
These are reflection questions, therefore, there is no one correct answer.
You should compare your beliefs on how languages are learnt and the
information from the text that you have just read.
In this lesson you read about the principles and the techniques of the
Direct Method. From the text it transpired that when teaching language
using the Direct Method, classroom instruction is conducted exclusively
in the target language; only everyday vocabulary and sentences are
Summary taught; grammar is taught inductively and both speech and listening
comprehension were taught.
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Unit 4 Factors affecting second language learners
In this lesson you are going to read about the Audio-Lingual Method.
evaluate the fundamental reason for learning a foreign language using the
Audio-Lingual Method and;
How long?
Introduction
The Audio-Lingual Method, like the Direct Method we have just
examined, has a goal very different from that of the Grammar-Translation
Method. The Audio-Lingual Method was developed in the United States
during World War II. At that time that was a need for people to learn
foreign languages rapidly for military purposes. As we have seen, the
Grammar-Translation Method did not prepare people to use the target
language. While communication in the target language was the goal of
the Direct Method, there were at the time exciting new ideas about
language and learning emanating from the disciplines of descriptive
linguistics and behavioural psychology. These ideas led to the
development of the Audio-Lingual Method. Some of the principles are
similar to those of the Direct Method, but many are different, having been
based upon conceptions of language and learning from these two
disciplines.
106
EXPERIENCE
As we enter the classroom, the first thing we notice is that the students
are attentively listening as the teacher is presenting a new dialogue, a
conversation between two people. The students know they will be
expected to eventually memorize the dialogue the teacher is introducing.
All of the teacher’s instructions are in English. Sometimes she uses
actions to convey meaning, but not one word of the students’ mother
tongue is uttered. After she acts out the dialogue, she says:
“All right, class. I am going to repeat the dialogue now. Listen carefully,
but no talking please.
“Two people are walking along a sidewalk in town. They know each
other, and as they meet, they stop to talk. One of them is named Sally and
the other one is named Bill. I will talk for Sally and for Bill. Listen to
their conversation:
“Listen one more time. This time try to understand all that I am saying.”
Now she has the whole class repeat each of the lines of the dialogue after
her model. They repeat each line several times before moving on to the
next line. When the class comes to the line, “I’m going to the post
office,” they stumble a bit in their repetition. The teacher, at this point,
stops the repetition and uses a backward build-up drill (expansion drill).
The purpose of this drill is to break down the troublesome sentence into
smaller parts. The teacher starts with the end of the sentence and has the
class repeat just the last two words. Since they can do this, the teacher
adds a few more words, and the class repeat this expanded phrase. Little
by little the teacher builds up the phrases until the entire sentence is being
repeated.
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Unit 4 Factors affecting second language learners
After the students have repeated the dialogue several times, the teacher
gives them a chance to adopt the role of Bill while she says Sally’s lines.
Before the class actually says each line, the teacher models it. In effect,
the class is experiencing a repetition drill where the task is to listen
carefully and attempt to mimic the teacher’s model as accurately as
possible.
Next the class and the teacher switch roles in order to practice a little
more ,the teacher saying Bill’s lines and the class saying Sally’s. Then
the teacher divides the class in half so that each half gets to try to say on
their own either Bill’s or Sally’s lines. The teacher stops the students
from time to time when she feels they are straying too far from the model,
and once again provides a model, which she has them attempt to copy. To
further practice the lines of this dialogue, the teacher has all the boys in
the class take Bill’s part and all the girls take Sally’s.
She then initiates a chain drill with four of the lines from the dialogue. A
chain drill gives students an opportunity to say the lines individually. The
teacher listens and can tell which students are struggling and will need
more practice. A chain drills also lets students use the expressions in
communication with someone else, even though the communication is
very limited. The teacher addresses the student nearest her with, “Good
morning, Jose.” He, in turns, responds, “Good morning, teacher.” She
says, “How are you?” Jose answers, “Fine, thanks. And you?” The
teacher replies, “Fine.” He understands through the teacher’s gestures that
he is to turn to the student sitting beside him and greet her. That student,
in turn, says her lines in reply to him. When she has finished, she greets
the student on the other side of her. This chain continues until of the
students have a chance to ask and answer the questions. The last student
directs the greeting to the teacher.
Finally, the teacher selects two students to perform the entire dialogue for
the rest of the class. When they are finished, two others do the same. Not
everyone has a chance to say the dialogue in a pair today, but perhaps
they will sometime this week.
The teacher moves next to the second major phase of the lesson. She
continues to drill the students with language from the dialogue, but these
drills require more than simple repetition. The first drill the teacher leads
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is a single-slot substitution drill in which the students will repeat a
sentence from the dialogue and replace a word or phrase in the sentence
with the word or phrase the teachers gives them. This word or phrase is
called the cue.
The teacher begins by reciting a line from the dialogue, “I’m going to the
post office.” Following this she shows the students a picture of a bank
and says the phrase, “The bank.” She pauses, then says, “I am going to
the bank.”
From her example the students realize that they are supposed to take the
cue phrase (“The bank.”), which the teacher supplies, put it into its proper
place in the sentence.
Now she gives them their first cue phrase, “The drugstore.” Together the
students respond, “I am going to the drugstore.” The teacher smiles.
“Very good!” she exclaims. The teacher cues, “The park.” The students
chorus, “I am going to the park.”
Other cues she offers in turn are “the cafe,” “the supermarket,” “the bus
station,” “the football field,” and “the library.” Each cue is accompanied
by a picture as before. After the students have gone through the drill
sequence three times, the teacher no longer provides a spoken cue phrase.
Instead she simply shows the pictures one at a time, and the students
repeat the entire sentence putting the name of the place in the picture in
the appropriate slot in the sentence.
Finally, the teacher increases the complexity of the task by leading the
students in a multi-slot substitution drill. This is essentially the same type
of drill as the single-slot the teacher just used. However with this drill,
students must recognize what part of speech the cue word is and where it
fits into the sentence. The students still listen to only one cue from the
teacher. Then they must make a decision concerning where the cue word
or phrase belongs in a sentence also supplied by the teacher. The teacher
in this class starts off by having the students repeat the original sentence
from the dialogue, “I am going to the post office.” Then she gives them
the cue “she.” The students understand and produce, “She is going to the
post office.” The next cue the teacher offers is “to the park.” The students
hesitate first; then they respond by correct producing, “She is going to the
park.” She continues in this manner, sometimes providing a subject
pronoun, other times naming a location.
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Unit 4 Factors affecting second language learners
The teacher models two more examples of this transformation, then asks,
“Does everyone understand? OK, let’s begin. ‘They are going to the
bank.’” The class replies in turn, “Are they going to the bank?” They
transform approximately fifteen of these patterns, and then the teacher
decides they are ready to move on to a question-and-answer drill.
The teacher holds up one of the pictures she used earlier, the picture of a
football field, and asks the class, “Are you going to the football field?”
She answers her own question, “Yes, I’m going to the football field.” She
poses the next question while holding up a picture of a park, “Are you
going to the park?” And again answers herself, “Yes, I’m going to the
park.” She holds up a third picture, the one of a library. She poses a
question to the class, “Are you going to the library?” They respond
together, “Yes, I am going to the library.”
“Very good,” the teacher says. Through her actions and examples, the
students have learned that they are to answer the question following the
pattern she has modeled. The teacher drills them with this pattern for the
next few minutes. Since the students can handle it, she poses the question
to selected individuals rapidly, one after another. The students are
expected to respond very quickly, without pausing.
The students are able to keep up with the pace, so the teacher moves on to
the next step. She again shows the class one of the pictures, a
supermarket this time. She asks, “Are you going to the bus station?” She
answers her own question, “No, I am going to the supermarket.”
The students understand that they are required to look at the picture and
listen to the question and answer negatively if the place in the question is
not the same as what they see in the picture. “Are you going to the bus
station?” The teacher asks while holding up a picture of a cafe. “No, I am
going to the cafe,” the class answers.
“Very good!” exclaims the teacher. After posing a few more questions
which require negative answers, the teacher produces the picture of the
post office and asks, “Are you going to the post office?” The students
hesitate a moment and then chorus, “Yes, I am going to the post office.”
“Good,” comments the teacher. She works a little longer on this question-
and-answer-drill, sometimes providing her students with situations that
require a negative answer and sometimes with situations that a positive
one. She calls on individuals now, smiling encouragement to each
student. She holds up pictures and poses questions one right after another,
but the students seem to have no trouble keeping up with her. The only
times she changes the rhythm is when a student seriously mispronounces
110
a word. When this occurs she restates the word and work briefly with the
students until his pronunciation is closer to her own.
For the final few minutes of the class, the teacher returns to the dialogue
with which she began the lesson. She repeats it once, then has the half the
class to her left do Bill’s lines and the half of the class to her right do
Sally’s. This time there is no hesitation at all. The students move through
the dialogue briskly. They trade roles and do the same. The teacher
smiles, “Very good. Class dismissed.”
The lesson ends for the day. Both the teacher and the students have
worked hard. The students have listened to and spoken only English for
the period. The teacher is tired from all her action, but she is pleased for
she feels the lesson went well. The students have learned the lines of the
dialogue and to respond without hesitation to her cues in the drill pattern.
Feedback
These are reflection questions, therefore, there is no one correct answer.
You should contrast your beliefs on how languages are learnt and the
information from the text that you have just read.
We’ve looked at both the techniques and the principles of the Audio-
Lingual Method. From the reading text we can come to the conclusion
that for the proponents of the Audio-lingual method, foreign language
learning is basically a process of mechanical habit formation; analogy
Summary provides a better foundation for language learning than analysis and the
meanings that the words of a language have for the native speaker can be
learned only in a linguistic and cultural context and not in isolation.
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Unit 4 Factors affecting second language learners
In this lesson you are going to read about the Total Physical Response
Method.
evaluate the fundamental reason for learning a foreign language using the
Total Physical Response Method and;
How long?
Introduction
The method we will consider in this lesson is an example of a new
general approach to foreign language instruction which has been named
“the comprehension approach.” It is called this because of the importance
it gives to listening comprehension. All the other methods we have
looked at have students speaking in the target language from the first day.
Methods consistent with the comprehension approach, on the other hand,
begin with the listening skill.
There are several methods being practiced today that have in common an
attempt to apply these observations to foreign language instruction. What
the methodologists advocate doing during an initial listening period
varies from method to method. For example, in Krashen and Terrell’s The
Natural Approach (1983), the students listen to the teacher using the
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target language communicatively from the beginning of instruction, and
communicative activities prevail throughout the course. The teacher helps
her students to understand her by using pictures and occasional words in
the students’ native language and by being as expressive as possible. In
many ways the Natural Approach is similar to the Direct Method, which
we examined in the previous lesson. One of the ways it is different,
however, is that the students are permitted to use their native language
along with the target language as they respond to the teacher. This frees
them to concentrate on listen comprehension. The teacher does not
correct any student errors during oral communication. In Winitz and
Reed’s self-instructional program and Winitz’ The Learnables, students
listen to tape-recorded words, phrases, and sentences while they look at
accompanying pictures. The meaning of the utterance is clear from the
context the picture provides. Stories illustrated by pictures are also used
as a device to convey abstract meaning. In the Total Physical Response
Method, students listen and respond to the spoken target language
commands of their teacher.
EXPERIENCE
We follow the teacher as she enters the room and we take a seat in the
back of the room. It is the first class of the year so after the teacher takes
attendance, she introduces the method they will use to study English. She
explains in Swedish, “You will be studying English in a way that is
similar to the way you learned Swedish. You will not speak at first.
Rather, you will just listen to me and do as I do. I will give you a
command to do something in English and you will do the actions with
me. I will need four volunteers to help me with the lesson.”
Hands go up and the teacher calls on four students to come to the front of
the room and sit with her in chairs that are lined up facing the other
students. She tells the other students to listen and to watch.
In English the teacher says, “Stand up.” As she says it, she stands up and
she signals for the four volunteers to rise with her. They all stand up. “Sit
down,” she says and then all sit. The teacher and the students stand up
and sit down together several times according to the teacher’s command;
the students say nothing. The next time that they stand up together, the
teacher issues a new command, “Turn around.” The students follow the
teacher’s example and turn so that they are facing their chairs. “Turn
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Unit 4 Factors affecting second language learners
around,” the teacher says again and this time they turn to face the other
students as before. “Sit down. Stand up. Turn around. Sit down.” “Walk,”
and they all begin walking towards the front row of the students’ seats.
“Stop. Jump. Stop. Turn around. Jump. Stop. Turn around. Sit down.”
The teacher gives the commands and they all perform the actions
together. The teacher gives these commands again, changing their order
and saying them quite quickly. “Stand up. Jump. Sit down. Stand up.
Turn around. Jump. Stop. Turn around. Walk. Stop. Turn around. Walk.
Jump. Turn around. Sit down.”
Once again the teacher gives the commands; this time, however, she
remains seated. The four volunteers respond to her commands without
her. “Stand up. Sit down. Walk. Stop. Turn around. Turn around. Walk.
Turn around. Sit down.” The students respond perfectly. Next, the teacher
signals that she would like one of the volunteers to follow her commands
alone. One student raises his hands and performs the actions the teacher
commands.
Finally, the teacher approaches the other students who have been sitting
observing her and their four classmates. “Stand up,” she says and the
class responds. “Sit down. Stand up. Jump. Stop. Sit down. Stand up.
Turn around. Turn around. Jump. Sit down.” Even though they have not
done the actions before, the students are able to perform according to the
teacher’s commands.
The teacher is satisfied that the class has mastered these six commands.
She begins to introduce some new ones. “Point to the door,” she orders.
She extends her right arm and right index finger in the direction of the
door at the side of the classroom. The volunteers point with her. “Point to
the desk.” She points to her own big teacher’s desk at the front of the
room. “Point to the chair.” She points to the chair behind her desk and the
students follow.
“Stand up.” “The students stand up. “Point to the door.” The students
point. “Walk to the door.” They walk together. “Touch the door.” The
students touch it with her. The teacher continues to command the students
as follows: “Point to the desk. Walk to the desk. Touch the desk. Point to
the door. Walk to the door. Touch the door. Point to the chair. Walk to
the chair. Touch the chair.” She continues to perform the actions with the
students, but changes the order of the commands. After practicing these
new commands with the students several times, the teacher remains
seated and the four volunteers carry out the commands by themselves.
Only once do the students seem confused, at which point the teacher
repeats the command which causes difficult and performs the actions
with them.
Next the teacher turns to the rest of the class and gives the following
commands to the students sitting in the back row: “Stand up. Sit down.
Stand up. Point to the desk. Point to the door. Walk to the door. Walk to
the chair. Touch the chair. Walk. Stop. Jump. Walk. Turn around. Sit
down.” Although she varies the sequence of commands, the students do
not seem to have any trouble following the orders.
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Next the teachers turns to the four volunteers and says, “Stand up. Jump
to the desk.” The students have never heard this command before. They
hesitate a second and then jump to the desk just as they have been told.
Everyone laughs at this sight. “Touch the desk. Sit on the desk.” Again,
the teacher uses a novel command, one they have not practiced before.
The teacher then issues two commands in the form of a compound
sentence, “Point to the door and walk to the door.” Again, the group
performs as it has been commanded.
As the last step of the lesson, the teacher writes the new commands on the
blackboard. Each time she writes a command, she acts it out. The
students copy the sentences from the blackboard into the notebooks.
The class is over. No one except the teacher has spoken a word.
However, a few weeks later when we walk by the room we hear a
different voice. We stop to listen for a moment. One of the students is
speaking. We hear her say, “Raise your hands. Show me your hands.
Close your eyes. Put your hands behind you. Open your eyes. Shake hand
with your neighbour. Raise your left foot.” We look in and see that the
student is directing the other students and the teacher with these
commands. They are not saying anything; they are just following the
students orders.
6. Would you like to dapt any of the techniques of the Total Physical
Response Method to your teaching situation?
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Feedback
These are reflection questions therefore there is no one correct answer.
You should compare your beliefs on how languages are learnt with the
information from the text that you have just read.
In this lesson you read about theTotal Physical Response. From the lesson
it became clear that the Total physical Response Method is based on three
influential learning hypotheses: (1) There exists a specific innate bio-
program for language lerning, which defines an optimal path for first and
Summary second language development. (2) Brain lateralization defines different
learning functions in the left- and right-brain hemispheres. (3) Stress (an
affective filter) intervenes between the act of learning and what is to be
learned; the lower the stress, the greater the learning.
In this lesson you are going to read about the Communicative approach.
How long?
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Introduction
You may have noticed that originators of most of the methods discussed
in this book take as their primary goal enabling students to communicate
using the target language. Many of these same methodologists emphasize
the acquisition of linguistic structures or vocabulary. Adherents of the
communicative approach, which we will consider in this chapter,
acknowledge that structures and vocabulary are important. However, they
feel that preparation for communication will be inadequate if only these
are taught. Students may know the rules of language usage, but will be
unable to use the language.
Let us see how this notion of communication is put into practice in the
Communicative Approach. The class we will visit is one being conducted
for immigrants to the United States. These twenty people have lived in
the United States for two years and are at a high-intermediate level of
English proficiency. They meet two evenings a week for two hours each
class.
EXPERIENCE
The teacher greets the class and distributes a handout. There is writing on
both sides. On one side is a copy of a sports column from a recent
newspaper. The reporter discusses who he thinks will win the World Cup.
The teacher asks the students to read it and then to underline the
predictions the reporter has made. He gives them these and all other
directions in the target language. When the students have finished, they
read what they have underlined. The teacher writes the predictions on the
blackboard. Then he and the students discuss which predictions the
reporter feels more certain about and which predictions he feels certain
about.
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Unit 4 Factors affecting second language learners
Then he asks the students to look at the first sentence and to tell the class
another way to express this same prediction. One student says, “Malaysia
probably will win the World Cup.” “Yes,” says the teacher. “Any
others?” No one responds. The teacher offers, “Malaysia is almost certain
to win the World Cup.” “What about the next?” he asks the class. One
student replies, “It is possible that Italy will win the World Cup.” Another
student offers, “There’s a possibility that Italy will win the World Cup.”
Each of the reporter’s predictions is discussed in this manner. All the
paraphrases the students suggest are evaluated by the teacher and the
other students to make sure they convey the same degree of certainty as
the reporter’s original prediction.
Next, the teacher asks the students to turn to the other side of the handout.
On it are all the sentences of the article that they have been working on.
They are, however, out of order. For example, the first two sentences on
this side of the handout are:
England may have an outside chance. In the final analysis. The winning
team may simply be the one with the most experience.
The first sentence was in the middle of the original sports column. The
second was the last sentence of the original column. The teacher tells the
students to unscramble the sentences, to put them in their proper once
again. When they finish, the students compare what they have done with
the original on the other side of the handout.
The teacher next announces that the students will be playing a game. He
divides the class into small groups containing five people each. He hands
each group a deck of thirteen cards. Each card has a picture of a piece of
sports equipment. As the students identify the items, the teacher writes
each name on the blackboard: basketball, soccer ball, volleyball, tennis
racket, skis, ice skates, roller skates, football, baseball bat, golf clubs,
bowling bowl, badminton racket, and hockey stick.
The cards are shuffled and four of the students in a group are dealt three
cards each. They do not show their cards to anyone else. The extra card is
placed face down in the middle of the group. The fifth person in each
group receives no cards. She is told that she should try to predict what it
is that Dumduan (one of the students in the class) will be doing the
following weekend. The fifth student is to make statements like,
“Dumduan may go skiing this weekend.” If one of the members of his
group has a card showing skis, the group member would reply, for
example, “Dumduan can’t go skiing, because I have her skis.” If, on the
other hand, no one has the picture of the skis, then the fifth student can
make s strong statement about the likelihood of Dumduan going skiing.
She can say, for example, “Dumduan will go skiing.” She can check her
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prediction by turning over the card that was placed face down. If it is the
picture of the skis, then she knows she is correct.
The students seem to really enjoy playing the game. They take turns
so that each person has a chance to make the predictions about how a
classmate will spend his or her time.
For the next activity, the teacher reads a number of predictions like
the following:
The students are told to make statements about how probable they think
the predictions are and why they believe so. They are also asked how
they feel about the prediction. In discussing one of the predictions, a
student says he doesn’t think that it’s like that a world government will be
in place by the twenty-second century. The teacher and students ignore
his error and the discussion continues.
Next, the teacher has the students divide into groups of three. Since there
are twenty students, there are six groups of three students and one group
of two. One number of each group is given a picture strip story. There are
six pictures in a row on a piece of paper, but no words. The picture tells a
story. The student with the story shows the first picture to the other
members of his group, while covering the remaining five pictures.
The other students try to predict what they think will happen in the
second picture. The first student tells them whether they are correct or
not. He then shows them the second picture and asks them to predict what
the third picture will look like. After the entire series of pictures has been
shown, the group gets a new strip story and they change roles, giving the
first student an opportunity to work with a partner in making predictions.
The students are told to make statements about how probable they think
the predictions are and why they believe so. They are also asked how
they feel about the prediction. In discussing one of the predictions, a
student says he doesn’t think that it’s like that a world government will be
in place by the twenty-second century. The teacher and students ignore
his error and the discussion continues.
Next, the teacher has the students divide into groups of three. Since there
are twenty students, there are six groups of three students and one group
of two. One number of each group is given a picture strip story. There are
six pictures in a row on a piece of paper, but no words. The picture tells a
story. The student with the story shows the first picture to the other
members of his group, while covering the remaining five pictures.
The other students try to predict what they think will happen in the
second picture. The first student tells them whether they are correct or
not. He then shows them the second picture and asks them to predict what
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Unit 4 Factors affecting second language learners
the third picture will look like. After the entire series of pictures has been
shown, the group gets a new strip story and they change roles, giving the
first student an opportunity to work with a partner in making predictions.
For the final activity of the class, the students are told that they will do a
role-play. The teacher tells them that they are to be divided into groups of
hour. They are to imagine that they are all employees of the same
company. One of them is the others’ boss. They are having a meeting to
discuss what will possibly occur as a result of their company merging
with another company. Before they begin, they discuss some possibilities
together. They decide that they can talk topics such as whether or not
some of the people in their company will lose their jobs, whether or not
they will have to move, whether or not certain policies will change,
whether or not they will earn more money. “Remember,” reminds the
teacher, “that one of you in each group is the boss. You should think
about this relationship if, for example, he makes a prediction that you
don’t agree with.”
For fifteen minutes the students perform their role-play. The teacher
moves from group to group to answer questions and offer any advice on
that the group can discuss. After it’s over, the students have an
opportunity to pose any questions. In this way, they elicit some relevant
vocabulary words. They then discuss what language forms are
appropriate in dealing with one’s boss. “For example,” the teacher
explains, “what if you know that your boss doesn’t think that the vacation
policy will change, but you think it will. How will you state your
prediction? You are more likely to say something like ‘I think the
vacation policy might change,’ than ‘The vacation policy will change.’”
“What if, however,” the teacher says, “it is your colleague with whom
you disagree and you are certain that you are right. How will you express
your prediction then?” One student offers, “I know that the vacation
policy will change.” Another student says, “I am sure that the vacation
policy will change.” A third student says simply, “The vacation policy
will change.”
The class is almost over. The teacher uses the last few minutes to give the
homework assignment. The students are to listen to the debate between
two political candidates on the radio or watch it on television than night.
They are then to write their prediction of who they think will win the
election and why they think so. They will read these to their classmates at
the start of the next class.
Source: Freeman, D.L. (1986). Techniques and Principles in language
Teaching. Oxford: OUP.
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Now that we have had a chance to experience a Communicative
Approach class and to examine its principles and techniques, you
should try to think about how any of this will be of use to your own
teaching. Ask yourself the following questions:
Activity 2 1. Do you agree with the expanded view of communicative
competence?
Feedback
These are reflection questions, therefore, there is no one correct answer.
You should compare your beliefs on how languages are learnt and the
information from the text that you have just read.
After reading this lesson it is clear that for teachers using the
communicative approach, meaning is paramount; language learning is
learning to communicate; dialogueues center around communicative
functions and are not normally memorized; contextualization is a basic
Summary premise for language learning to take place and communicative
competence, i.e. the ability to use the linguistic system effectively and
appropriately is the desired goal for language learning.
Unit summary
In this unit you learned about some of the well-known language teaching
methods that are in use today. Now you should be able to look at the
Summary methods and approaches and select those that suit your learners'
communicative needs.
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Unit 4 Factors affecting second language learners
Compare the approaches and methods of language teaching you have read
about. Don’t forget to mention their strengh and weakness.
Assignment
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