1.

blood pressure;cardiac output - The activities of the respiratory centers are coordinated with
changes in cardiovascular function, such as fluctuations in __ and __

2. Alveolar Capillaries - as blood flows toward the __, it is directed toward lobules in which the
PCO2 is relatively high

3. blood to alveolar capillaries - this movement occurs because alveolar capillaries constrict when
PCO2 is low

4. PO2;PCO2 - if a peripheral tissue becomes more active, the insterstitial __ falls and the __ rises

5. lung perfusion and alveolar ventilation - local factors coordinate:

6. lung perfusion - blood flow to the alveoli

7. alveolar ventilation - airflow to the alveoli

8. low O2; high CO2 - by directing blood flow to alveoli with __ levels and improving airflow to
alveoli with __ levels, local adjustments improve the efficiency of gas transport

9. medulla and pons - the intrinsic rhythmicity of respiration is primarily controlled

INVOLUNTARILY by specific neural areas located in the reticular substance of the __

10. DRG and VRG - two groups of respiratory neurons in the medulla oblongata responsible for
coordinating the intrinsic rhythmicity of respiration

11. DRG - inspiratory center contains neurons that control lower motor neurons innervating the
external intercostal muscles and the diaphragm
12. EXxternal intercostal muscles;Diaphragm - DRG innervates the __ and __

13. Respiratory Reflexes - the motor neurons in the spinal cord are generally controlled by __

14. Corticospinal Pathway - motor neurons can also be controlled voluntarily through commands
delivered by __

15. DRG - functions in every respiratory cycle, whether quiet or forced

16. VRG - functions only during forced breathing

17. VRG - contains both inspiratory and expiratory neurons

18. Reciprocal inhibition - there is __ between the neurons involved with inhalation and exhalation

19. inspiratory neurons - they remain quiet for 3 seconds and allow the respiratory muscles to relax

20. DRG;VRG - during forced breathing the level of the activity in the __ increases, it stimulates
neurons of the __ that activate the accessory muscles involved in inhalation

21. increases - during quiet breathing, activity in the DRG __ over a period of about 2 seconds,
providing stimulation to the inspiratory muscles

22. active exhalation - at the end of each inspiration, ___ occurs as the neurons of the expiratory
center stimulate the appropriate accessory muscles
23. central nervous system stimulants; increase your respiratory rate by facilitating the respiratory
centers:

Cocaine
Amphetamines
Caffeine
Ecstacy

24. CNS depressants:

Ethyl alcohol
Barbiturates or Opiates

25. Apneustic and Pneumotaxic - located in the Pons

26. Apneustic and Pneumotaxic - are paired nuclei that adjust the output of the respiratory
rhythmicity centers

27. Apneustic and Pneumotaxic - their activities regulate the respiratory rate and depth of
respiration in response to sensory stimuli or input from other centers in the brain

28. Apneustic center - each __ provides continuous stimulation to the DRG and VRG in the medulla

29. Apneustic breathing - prolonged, gasping type of inspiratory maneuver called __

30. Apneustic center - during quiet breathing, stimulation from the __ helps increase the intensity of
inhalation over the next 2 seconds

31. Vagus nerves - during forced breathing, the apneustic centers also respond to sensory input
from the __ regarding the amount of lung inflation
32. Pneumotaxic center - inhibit the apneustic centers and promote passive or active exhalation

33. Centers in the hypothalamus and Cerebrum - can alter the activity of the pneumotaxic centers,
as well as the respiratory rate and depth

34. Pneumotaxic area - enhances the rhythmicity of the breathing pattern

35. Pneumotaxic center - depth of breathing to decrease; rate of breathing increase

36. Pneumotaxic center - some investigator believe that this center is closely related to panting
center in animals such as dogs

37. reduced blood flow - several clinical conditions that can depress the function of the respiratory
components of the medulla (1)

38. acute poliomyelitis - several clinical conditions that can depress the function of the respiratory
components of the medulla (2)

39. excess ingestion of depressing drugs - several clinical conditions that can depress the function of
the respiratory components of the medulla (3)

40. - The activities of the respiratory centers are modified by sensory information from several
sources:

-Chemoreceptors
-Changes in blood pressure
-Stretch receptors
-Irritating physical or chemical stimuli
-Other sensations (pain, changes in body temp)
41. Factors affecting rate and depth of breathing:
-Depth is determined by how many respiratory muscle motor neurons are activated
-Rate is determined by how quickly the inspiratory center is turned on and off
-Stretch and irritant receptors generally inhibit the respiratory centers in the medulla

42. Cranial Nerves IX and X - the respiratory centers are strongly influenced by chemoreceptor
inputs from __

43. Chemoreceptors - are located on the ventrolateral surface of the medulla oblongata

44. Chemosensitive area - Chemoreceptors are located on the ventrolateral surface of the medulla
oblongata in a region known as __

45. Excess concentration of H ions in the CSF - the most powerful stimulus known to influence DRG
and VRG

46. Central Chemoreceptors - the neurons in that area respond only to the pH of the CSF and are
often called __

47. Central Chemoreceptors transmit signals to the respiratory components of the medulla by the
following mechanism: -

-As the CO2 level increases in the arterial blood the CO2 molecules diffuses across a
semipermeable membrane
-The BBB is very permeable to CO2 molecules but impermeable to H and HCO3
-as CO2 moves into the CSF it forms into carbonic acid
-Because the CO2 lacks the hemoglobin and carbonic anhydrase and relatively low bicarbonate
and protein level, the overall buffering system in the CSF is very low
-The H generated from the reaction rapidly increases and therefore reduces the pH level in the
CSF
-the liberated H ions causes the central chemoreceptors to transmit signals to the respiratory
component in the medulla which increases alveolar ventilation
-the increases ventilation reduces the PaCO2 and subsequently the PCO2 in the CSF
-As the PCO2 in the CSF decreases, the H ion also falls
 -This action decreases the stimulation of the central chemoreceptors

48. Central Chemoreceptors - Neural signals to the respiratory components in the medulla also
diminish

49. Central Chemoreceptors - causes alveolar ventilation to decrease

50. Central Chemoreceptors - regulate ventilation through the indirect effects of CO2 on the pH
level of the CSF

51. Peripheral Chemoreceptors - are specialized oxygen sensitive cells that react to reduction of
oxygen levels in the arterial blood

52. Peripheral Chemoreceptors - located high in the neck at the bifurcation of the internal and
external carotid arteries and on the aortic arch

53. 9thCN;10thCN - when activated by the low PaO2, afferent signals are transmitted to the
respiratory components in the medulla by the way of __ from the carotid arteries and by the
way of __ from the aortic bodies

54. Glossopharyngeal Nerve - CN IX

55. Vagus Nerve - CN X

56. Carotid bodies - Compared to the aortic bodies, the __ play a much greater role in initiating an
increased ventilatory rate in response to reduced arterial oxygen levels

57. Peripheral Chemoreceptors - are not significantly activated until the O2 content of the inspired
air is low enough to reduce the PaO2 to 60mmHG
58. >30mmhg - Suppression of the peripheral chemoreceptors is seen when the PaO2 falls __

59. Peripheral Chemoreceptors - in patient with low PaO2 and a chronically high PaCO2 level (end
stage of Emphysema) the __ may be totally responsible for the control of ventilation

60. Peripheral Chemoreceptors are also stimulated by: -

1. Hypoperfusion
2. Increased temperature
3. Nicotine
4. Direct effect of PaCO2 is minor and not so great as response generated by the central
chemoreceptors

61. Other responses activated by peripheral chemoreceptors –

1. Peripheral vasoconstriction
2. Increase pulmonary vascular resistance
3. Systemic arterial hypertension
4. Tachycardia
5. Increase in left ventricular performance

62. increase - when blood pressure falls, the respiratory rate __

63. declines - when blood pressure rises, the respiratory rate __

64. Hering Breuer inflation reflex - generated by stretch receptors located in the walls of the bronchi
and bronchioles that become excited when the lungs overinflate

65. Hering Breuer inflation reflex - appears to be a protective mechanism that prevents pulmonary
damage caused by excessive lung inflation
66. Deflation reflex - when the lungs are compressed or deflated, an increased rate of breathing
results

67. Irritant reflex - When the lungs are exposed to noxious gases, it causes the ventilatory rate to
increase; produce cough and bronchoconstriction

68. Irritant reflex - located in the subepithelial mechanoreceptors

69. Juxtapulmonary Capillary Receptors - located in the interstitial tissues between pulmonary
capillaries

70. Juxtapulmonary Capillary Receptors - when stimulated a reflex triggers a rapid shallow breathing

71. Juxtapulmonary Capillary Receptors activated by: -

1. Pulmonary Capillary congestion

2. Capillary hypertension
3. edema of the alveolar walls
4. lung deflation
5. emboli

72. Protective reflexes - operate when exposed to toxic vapors, chemical irritants, or mechanical
stimulation of the respiratory tract

73. Protective reflexes - receptors involved are located in the epithelium of the respiratory tract

74. Protective reflexes - Sneezing, Coughing, Laryngeal Spasms

75. Sneezing - triggered by an irritation of the wall in nasal cavity

76. Coughing - is triggered by an irritation of your larynx, trachea, or bronchi

77. Apnea - a period where respiration is suspended

78. Glottis - is forcibly closed while the lungs are still relatively full

79. 160kph - Air leaving the larynx can travel at __

80. Laryngeal Spasms - result from the entry of chemical irritants, foreign objects, or fluids

81. reduction - __ in body temperature leads to decrease in the respiratory rate

82. Hypothalamus - activates sympathetic NS

83. Hypothalamus - modulates depth and rate of breathing

84. 60-100bpm - Normal heart rate

85. 12-20 per minute - normal respiratory rate

86. 25-35 per minute - respiratory rate for 1-2 years old

87. 500ml - tidal volume for adults

88. Increase respiratory rate - how to increase alveolar ventilation?

89. Cortex - for controlled breathing