AEST Play in early childhood education (ECE) is a very broad topic that continues to generate much discussion and debate Slogans suct as “play isthe business of childhood” or “play is the child's way of learning” are sill heard but they are becoming less convincing. Voicing slogans such as these often encourages those who are opposed to play im education (© dismiss it on the grounds thatthe idea Seems too brood and vague to be a valid and useful bass for teaching and ‘eaming. It doesn’t help when ECE programs claiming to be play-centered lack a thoughtful rationale for thei play policies and practices or when low-level, unchallenging ‘tivities called “play” abound in their indoor and outdoor ¢avironments. This threatens the place of play in the ECE, ty iwviting misguided attacks on it and by encouraging eucators to devalue play's importance 28 a context ant tnedium for development during the early years (Zigler &e Bishop Josef, 2004), Even though play in the history of ECE has been viewed favorably as a cornerstone of learning (e.g, Froebel, __ 1887/1896; Pestalozzi, 1894/1915; Piaget, 1970; Vygotsy, 1978) there have always been its critics who advocate for ote structured and direct instruction, Recently, however, _ thedebate has intensified in an educational conte strongly _infucaced by early leaming standards and assessment of ‘Scudemic attainments (Christie & Roskos, 2007). Greater Soncern exists that play in ECE is slipping 4 vigorous response is now needed to protect its important ‘0k (Miller & Almon, 2009). Three ways to make such [Pots are to employ contemporary scholarship to better hlain (@) the nature of play (b) the importance of play, and (c) play pedagogy. ‘andits role in ECE, and these have assumed. sig portance in efforts to improve play's status in the FSi and in te public eye, For example, DeVries 2001) 18 Play in Early Childhood Education Jautes E, Jonvson, Seear Sarvs Ceuse, axo Moweas At-Massoun ‘The Pennspvania State University recommended that much of hat children do in ECE classrooms should be called “work activities," which would include construction, exploring, investigating, problem- solving, and experimenting. Pretending and group games remain play forms. She recommended that teachers include in the curriculum high quality, inellectually challenging Projects that stimulate social, emotional, moral, and intellectual development. Also for Elkind (2001), play's ‘ot the same as work in ECE. The confusion conceming play and work to some degree may be attributed to Maria Montessori (1912/1964, p. 53), who said that play is the child's work. Play is not work, nevis ic the opposite of work. Eikind sought to correct this misunderstanding by advancing the Piagetian view that play and work are complementary, two poles of an adaption process which requires both assimilation (pley) and accommodation (work). Exploration and imitation, including exploratory play and imitative play, are more accommodative or stimulus-otiented. Play is more response-oriented, where Personal meaning is more important than adjusting to external realty. Typically, a ckild’s behaviors can be escribed as a mixture ora sequencing of “work” and “play” but the two states should aot be lumped together ot viewed 8 opposites. Play and work function together in serving the child in adapting to and leaning from experiences. ECE activities for children have structme with degrees of play and work. Hardly ever would one label something that a child does as pure work or pure play. Since ECE is concemed with the development of ‘young children, a question to answer is how play can be a Positive influence, To answer this question demands that Play be appreciated asa complex and highly differentiated ‘Phenomenon. With its definition problematic, teachers and researchers often have used an additive model in which the following criteria are considered when judging whether play is occurring: (a) noniterality, (b) positive affect, (c) process over product orientation, ()intinsic motivation, and () free choice. Applying these can help distinguish play from work, 263266 routines, rituals, and play-related behaviors like exploration tnd imitation (Johnson, Christie, & Wardle, 2005) ‘Analysis of play is made on the basis of what is known about contexts, children’s actions, and their inferred mental states, A useful distinction to make is between play frame to context (surrounding the play episode) and play script tr text (within the play episode). The ECE teacher of re- cavher can Keep sepacaie metaplay negotiations or play disruptions (e.g teacher intrusions or chiléren’s conficts) ‘which snap the play frame, from enactments occurring during play episodes. Observing and understanding play requires recognizing its multilayered qualities and synthe Sizing information about person, object, space, time, and situational factors. Play enactments can be coded with respect to levels or forms exhibited. Many systems have been used in research and teaching, Prominent exemplars include Parten (1932) for level of social participation during play (e.g. solitary, parallel, associative, cooperative, onlooker, unoccupied), tnd for cognitive forms of play there are Piaget's (1962) fensorimotor, symbolic, and games-with rules and Smi- Jansky’s (1968) functional, constructive, dramatic, and sociodramatic play. Cross-Walking level of social play and type of cognitive play is common, having been first intro= duced by Rubin, Maioni, and Homung (1976). In addition to classification, play behaviors of young children can be evaluated. As an early example, Smilansky (1968) used two criteria for crediting more mature sociodramatic play jn relation to dramatic play: social interaction and verbal ‘communication. Both dramatic play and sociodramatic play included role-play with respect to self and others, Gpject and situation transformations, and persistence {at least 10 minutes). More recently, Bodrova (2008) (iscussed evaluating mature versus immature play using teiteria such as: (a) ability to sustain a specific role by ‘Consistently engaging in actions, speech, and interactions that fit the character enacted; (b) ability to use substitute fo pretend objects; (c) ability to follow rules associated ‘with the make-beliove scenario; and (4) ability to integrate any themes and ideas and sustain play over time spans Of several days or weeks. Immature play is repetitive, dependent on concrete props, lacking in ole enactment, fnctuding the presence of peer conflicts, not following {implicit or explicit play rules, and simple or unelaborated content in play episodes of short duration. Schemes are tied to score levels of other specific play forms, such as constructive block play (Forman, 1982). ‘Pay evaluation is needed to gauge what children are doing so that teachess can then guide them toward more ‘ature, developmentally enriching play. Descriptions Of play need to retain action sequences and contextual information, Deliberate attention must be paid to children’s goals, means for reaching them, and their understanding With careful observations of play the teacher is better for deciding on appropriate interventions (Johnson eral, 2008; Van Hoorn, Nourot, Seales, & Alward, 2010) James E. Johnson, Serap Sevimli-Celik, and Monirah Al-Mansou: Importance of Play ‘The significance of play in ECE is recognized interna sionally and testimonies 1 its place in young children’s evelopment and well-being are based on considerable theoretical and empirical evidence as well as teacher lore rand ideology (c.g, Dockett & Fleer, 1999; Johnson etal. +2005; Pellegrini, 2009; Wood & Attfield, 2005). Teachers’ Gnd parent {aids of knowledge abot play and thet still jn performing various adult roles to foster marure play ae important factors in effos to promote school readiness and continued leaming in young children through provid- ing them with effective play-based ECE eussiculum and instruction, Teacher and parent beliefs about play and its Jimportance have been studied over the years .2, Bennet Wood, & Rogers, 1997; Fisher, Hirsh-Pasek, Golinkoff, & Gye, 2008; Kemple, 1996). "According to the neo-Vygotskian cultural-historical approach, as represented by Leont ev (1981), pretend play tke “leading activity” in child development ducing the fist five years (he most important activity psychologically put not the most common), but schoolwork is the leading aetvity for S- to 10-year-old children (middle childhood), Hence, pay and play pedagogy for the two age groups are similar but also ft differently into the child's development and learning over the mnge of years of ECE (birth to 8 ‘yeas ok). Contemporary research supports the importance J rplay during the early years in numerous areas of growth sand development including: (8) self-regulation, socal com. petence, and early academics; (b) physical well-being an Fitness: and (c) problem-solving and creativity. ‘Self: Regulation, Social Competence, and Farly Academics Seif-regulation is an executive function process of exer: cising contol over one's emotions, cognitions, impulses nd actions. Mature play entails self-regulation in that it is purposeful and requires inhibition of inaporopriat® 1 sponses, the regulation of attention, and working memor} ib the service of orgenizing, sequencing, switching, 004 planning behaviors. Another component of self regulaion Js theory of mind (@, perspective taking, emotional dlerstandng). Vygotsky (1978) argues that play can Bel? develop self-regulation when children create an imaginary Situation, take on and act out roles, and follow rules it plicit in the play scenario. Although mature roleplay #8 Feoeived a great deal af attention as a means of develOping ‘elf regulation (Bodrova,2008), other play forms including ames, constructive pla, and physical play share this Po ential Bodrova & Leong, 2007; Riley, San Juan, Kinkos ve Ramminger, 2008). Both social competence and ca1Y Teaming of aeademie content hinge upon the ability t Be focused and maintain self-control, which themselves &° strengthened by matute play. wtelve experiencing fourd in good play stimulates B®‘maturation of executive function occurring in the pro- frontal cortex of the brain (Diamond, Bamett, Thomas, & Munro, 2007). Play can foster a sense of control and self-regulation of one’s own learning. During play children set their own challenges and determine their own attention and plans. These cognitive mechanisms can contribute to effortful, intentional use of imagination, creativity, and problem solving. Children create their own zone of proximal development and are self-scaffolded in play; during play children transcend the concrete here and now and use abstract thought and build symbolic competence (Vygotsky, 1978). Recent research has documented rela- tions among play, self-regulation, and executive function in young children, For example, Whitebread (2010) found that self: regulatory skills could be facilitated in 3- to 5-year old children through a variety of playful activities designed by ‘32 teachers in England. These activities included construct- ing a model, dressing a doll, and playing board and card games, either with peers ot adults, Behaviors were rated as higher in metacognitive or self-regulatory quality when they happened in-a social context characterized by exten- sive collaboration and talk. Analysis of 582 play episodes showed that adult questioning had a slight positive impact (on what children could say about their own learning, but this greatly depressed children’s self-regulation and moti- vation. Supporting play in educational settings to achieve self-regulation requires a mix of adult emotional support, children’s initiation and feelings of control, cognitive challenges in the play activities, and private speech and collaborative talk to bring about learning and metacognitive awareness. Ia an important study, Diamond et al. (2007) {ested 147 prekindergarceners in state funded programs and ound thatthe Tools of the Mind curriculum, based on 40 activities that promoted executive functioning (including ‘mature dramatic play), led to improved cognitive control at the end of the second year of the program on the Dots and Flanker tasks, Stroop-type measures of executive function _ (See Diamond et al, 2007 for task descriptions). Sceial competence includes ability and willingness to ‘ngage in socially responsible behavior as well as in posi- tive social play with peers. Both involve emotional regula. tion and perspective taking, Elias and Berk (2002) found ‘that mile class 3- and 4-year-olds who engaged in moce ‘mature sociodramatic play were more cooperative during. "Cirle and clean-up times than were children with lower ‘cores on the play measures, controlling for verbal ability ‘and inital self-control scores. High impulse children 08 Scored atthe beginning of the school year, who engaged in Complex sociodtamatic play, improved the most in clean-up Performance over the course of the year. Peer interactions in open-ended play also benefit social “Kil learning, cooperation, and building confidence in dealing with other children. Broadhead, Howard, and Wood 2010) reported that when play is thematically driven by Pung children and they are able to follow their own in- Play in Early Childhood Education 267 terests and plans there is more cooperation, rich language tse, problem-solving, and reciprocity, Her Social Play Con- tinuum tool is used by teackers and researchers to quantity ‘but also locate and reflect upon peer playin the associative, social, highly social, and cooperative domains. Broadhead etal. also employed teacher initiated and teacher-drected activities where children are shown that their play is valued. For example, if less mature social play is performed by older children, the teacher would wait anti afr Ue play is finished before engaging in discussions with them about it, This collaborative approsch to play observation, inter- ‘vention, and reflection aims to help teachers create & more ‘harmonious classroom atmosphere where quality play can flourish. This seasitive child-centered approaci to social play and building and respecting classroom community is similar to Rogers and Evans (2008) who used child focus ‘groups to capture an insider’ view of role-play. Child iit ated and adult guided play aims to build self-egulation and social-emotional competence; mature play whieh i related to these two important atributcs is viewed as a means to prepare children for academic achievement. Play that strengthens self-regulation and increases so- cial competence in young children helps them in ataining school readiness and subsequent classroom success, Play of this kind is important becauss it makes it more likely that children with this play background will be able to demon- strate social and emotional sills necessary for performing the student role. Taking turrs, following directions, and ‘ther basics of school life depend on having these general skills, Play also is valuable daring the preschool years for its benefits to cmerging literecy and numeracy, and help- ing children do well in these bigh intensity academic areas lirsh-Pasek, Golinkof?, Bert, & Singer, 2006), Research over past decades suppors the importance of ‘ature play for language and early learning (Christe, 2010; Roskos & Christie, 2004), Literacy rests on language and. representational or symbolic competence in general. Play benefits these foundations as well as carly literacy in the areas of alphabet knowledge, concepts about print, oral language, and comprehension, and phonological aware- ness. Roskos end Christie (2004) reviewed considerable research on the topic and concluded that play promotes literacy because play uses language and symbols and aids in children's making connections between oral and writ ten media. As an example from many studies that could be ‘mentioned, Dickinson and Tabors (2001) fotlowed 74 low- income family 3-year olds over several years, and reported significant associations between children’s talk during play and their later literacy scores. Note also thatthe play pedagogy techniques described later in this chapter, such 1s Paley's narrative approach, stestto and capitalize on the close affinity among play, stores, and literacy. ‘The play-math connections a second critical area that thas caught rescarchers’ attention in recent years. Young children encounter many oppertunities to acquire knowi- edge and develop math skills in their everyday activities,268 James B. Johnson, Serap Sevimli-Celi and Monirah Al-Mansour including their play. Ginsburg (2006) noted the potential for reading and book use to help children learn about perspec tives, angles, covariation (e.g, the Three Bears and their bed sizes corresponding to their body sizes), numbers, and so forth. Block play invites considerable opportunities to de- velop spatial knowledge; play with small objects encourages counting, patterning, and grouping. Ginsberg’s Everyday Math curiculom is developmentally appropriate with use of materials and physical actions, and balances play with ‘more direct instruction. When teaching is nut play pet 56 it can atleast be playful : ‘Numerous other studies indicate support forthe relation of play with emerging spatial and quantitative concepts in young children. Again, spontaneous child initiated play and adult guided play are shown to be valuable. Noss and Farenga (2007) cover a broad range of topics concerned with spatial concepts, including architecture. Gelman (2006) showed the motivating power of play; children learn and use math skills when they are embedded in a game more than when they are not. Ramani and Siegler (2008) showed that a relatively brief intervention with at risk preschoolers using the game “Chutes & Ladders” promoted their aumber line estimation ability, knowing the numerals, counting, ‘and quantity. Worthington (2010) reported that during play young children invent math symbols and develop their imaginations and mathematical graphics, such as gestures to stand for the “take away” sign. Physical Well-Being and Fitness Play is an essential part of physical development and ithelps todevelop active and healthy bodies especially important in fighting agains the obesity epidemic. According toa report from the Centers for Disease Control (CDC, 2009), obesity prevalence among low-income, preschool children has increased gradually from 12.4% in 1998 to 14.5% in 2003 and to 14.6% in 2008. In a longitudinal study, Taylor et al. (2009) described pattems of physical activity and inactivity of 3-,4-, and S-year-old children, They reported an increase in screen time and a decrease in physical activity, especially for 4 and S-year-olds. Another recent study investigated physical activity of young children and playtime practices and policies in 96 childcare centers in Noth Carolina. The results ofthe study showed that few best practice guidelines ‘were followed by a majority of the participating centers. Only 13.7% of childcare centers in North Carolina offered 120 minutes of active playtime during the school day (Mc- Williams et al, 2008). ‘Through play and exploration of the environment, children practice physical skills such as running, jumping, hopping, skipping, and galloping. By exploring and experi- menting with the movement capabilities of their bodies, young children start to be aware of their personal spaces in elation to other persons’ spaces; and children begin to gain more control over their bodies (Gallahue & Ozmun, 1998), Activities such as pulling, pushing, swinging, and banging help children to develop their upper bodies; and their lower bodies develop through jumping, skipping, gal- oping, and hopping, Tkese fundamental movement skills also improve children’s body awareness (Sanders, 2002). “Moreover, they have to be mastered before learning more complex specialized skills necessary for play relating to anes, sports, and dance activities (Gallahue & Ormun, 1998), For example, earlier appearing play that involves throwing and catching will contribute to later passing and shooting skills in basketball. Therefore, children exhibit- physical skill at an early age are more likely in the future to be active and participate in sports (Cliff, Okely, & MeKeen, 2008) Outdoor Play ‘The benelits of outdoor play on children's physical, cog- nitive, and social-emotonal development is well known. Children who spend their time outdoors show superior gross ‘motor skills, longer spaas of concentration, and better lan- guage and collaborative skills (jortoft, 2001). According to Clements (2004), outdoor play helps children to develop a sense of community while enjoying sensory experiences with dirt, water, sand, and mud. Similarly, Rivkin (1995) highlighted the value of playing outdoors. She noted that ‘when playing outdoors children experience “sensory qualities of the world” and can also experiment with “big behaviors” such 2s shotting, running, climbing, and jump- ing. Being outdoors also improves children’s attention levels. For instances, Martensson etal. (2009) investigated the restorative potential of green outdoor environments for children in preschool setings, Results showed that having available areas surrourded with large trees, bushes, and hilly landscapes, reduced children's inattention. Besides nature, landscaping elements can add value to children’s ‘outdoor play. Greening the school grounds makes children ‘more active and increases their play repertories; green school grounds invite cxldren to jump, climb, dig, and it (Dyment & Bell, 2007). ‘Allowing for a variety of physical actions during outdoor play is important for promoting preschoolers’ participation in moderate to vigorous physical activities. In their current research, Aarts, Wendel, Oers, Goor, and Schuit (2010) defined outdoor play as a “cheap and natural way for children to be physically active.” They investigated the environmental determinants of outdoor play in children. Their results showed that to be physi- cally active children needed adequate space, diverse play ‘opportunities, and interaction with natural elements on the scliool grounds. They also found that children were more active when rules, policies, and supervision allowed for noncompetitive, open-ended play, and when opportunities ‘were present to cate fo: the garden and other green spaces (Aarts et al, 2010),Play in Barly Childhood Education 269 Creative Expression Friedrich Froebel (1887/1896) emphasized play andits use of gifts (play materials) and occupations (activities). He believed that humans are essentially productive and cxe- ative, and that fulfillment comes through developing these elements in harmony with God and the world. As a result, Froebel sought to encourage the creation of educational ‘environments that involved practical work and the direct use ofmateils. Through engaging wit the world, understand ing unfolds, hence the significance of play understood as a creative activity through which children become aware of their place in the world, Piaget (1962) and Vygotsky (1978) also viewed children as active explorers oftheir world. Play is therefore an important part ofthe process of constructing Imowledge. enables children to control what happens, and touse what they already know to furter their understanding and development (Olsen & Samsion, 2000). Children learn best in an environment that permits dis- covery, curiesity, exploration, imagination, and play, Play is closely attached tothe child's physical, social, emotional, and cognitive growth (Mayesky, 2009), Research suggests that children in theirpretend play perform transformational ‘operations that may be linked with creative thought (Melon, 1995). The use of imagination in pretend play isa form of creativity according to several authors (Russ, 1993; Russ, Robins, & Christiano, 1999; Singer & Singer, 1990). In addition, constructive play is creative in thatt can be open- ended play with multiple outcomes. Play expression varies and is more likely to approach being creative when condi- tions for it are free, spontaneous, and unstructured with ‘many possible outcomes. Such play encourages creative thinking and sparks imagination (Ackermann, Gauntlrt, & Wecksteom, 2009), However, such an outcome is not automatic. Celebi- Onc and Unluer (2010) examined creativity in children’s Play and use of play materials, Results showed that most of the children were not able to express creativity with dif- ferent kinds of play materials; in ther play children greatly Preferred to use toys as play materials. In a second study Celebi-Oncu and Unluer (2010) found that most of the & Reyoolts, G. (1992). 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