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    Gramática

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    © All Rights Reserved
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    36 views37 pages

    Gramática

    Uploaded by

    Pilar Rodriguez
    Gramática

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    © All Rights Reserved
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    Language reference Contents Adjectives with -edand ing Articles sand ike Causative have and got Conditionals ‘Countable and uncountable nouns Infinitive and verb +-ing forms Linking words and phrases: when, fn case, even ifand even though Linking words for contrast look, seem and appear Making comparisons Modal verbs Prepositions Relative pronouns and relative clauses Reported speech ‘50 and such, to0 and enough Spelling The passive Using commas Using it this, that or they ‘Verb tenses wish, if only and hope Word formation ‘Words which are often confused 163 16 18 18 ws m m 3 15 1% ” ” 1 18 180 18 183 Adjectives with -ed and -ing There are mary adjectives which are formed with -ed or ing, Some adjectives do not have both forms, 2g, fiving but not ted. + Adjectives with -ed express how the person feels about something: J was fascinated by the photos of her tp to Australia on her Facebook page. + Adjectives with ing ae used! to describe the person or ‘thing which produces the feeling Have you seen that amazing video on YouTube? (felt amazed when I awit) Bee ese page 176 Speling Articles The indefinite article Weuse a ora: + with singular, countable nouns mentioned forthe frst time: ‘A blue car came round the comer We have a new chemistry teacher + to tak about jobs: His mother's a doctor. le do not use a or an with uncountable nouns or plural countable noun: rowledge makes people powerful More women go to university inthis county than men + Use an before words which begin with a vowel sound: an app, an email but not when the letters ‘i ore’ produce a sound: a useful tool, a European studont, a university + When Wis slent, use an: an hour, an honest man the definite article Treis usec: with things we have mentioned before or when it's clear \who erwhat we are referring to from the context: Ive got two new toachers. The maths teacher is from California and the English teacher is from leland Could you go to the bank for me, pleasa?(ie. the bank we slways use) ‘shen referring to particular things: ‘ove music, but don ike the music my sister listons to. with things which ae unique: the Internet, the maon with adjectives to express groups: In this country, the rich are growing richer and the poor 278 growing poorer vith nationalities: the French, the Spanish, the Italians Passa cosence | «vith superlative adjectives: the best, the longest * with ordinal numbers (eg. the frst the second, the thi) used as adjectives: Manolo won the fist prize and lgar won the second * with names of countries which include these words Republic, Kingdom, States or Emirates The Czech Republic, The United Kingdom, The United States, The United Arab Emirates * with names of rivers, mountain ranges, seas and oceans the Nile, the Alps, the Mediterranean, the Pacific + vith many common expressions atthe moment, at the age of 15, inthe end, on the one hand... on the other hand Do not use the, aor an + when talking in general andin the plural Teachers are not paid enough. {cant imagine offces without computes, * with many common expressions: in bedhospitalprisantschook He's in bed. _at home/anivesity/nork: i at university. (90) to bedshospitaVuniverstyhvork: What time do you go to monk? asand like as We use as + tosay someone or something is that thing, or has that function: He works as a nurse, She uses email as a way of keeping in touch wit friend Can i give you some adhice as a friend? tomean the same as before a subject + verb ora past participle: Things happened exactly as had predicted The exam was as expected -very dificult! + tomean because! ‘As tomorrow isa public holiday, wil not be giving you any homework to do, «+ after certain verbs including describe and regard: The teachers regard you as the best group of students in the school. The palce are describing bim as extremely dangerous, with adjectives and adverbs to make comparisons: Mike is not as clever as his sister tomean ‘fo example! inthe phrase such as ‘pent the summer traveling round Europe and visiting lots of places such as Venice, Florence and Barcelona. “with the some .. as You're wearing the same colour shirt a6 me! i + inthe phrases as far as know think i's trus but| don't know all the facts, s far 35 I'm concerned this my ‘personal opinion), as faras I can seetel his is what ve noticed or understood As far as know, my grandparents have always lived in the same house. | don't mind how much money you spend on clothes ~ you can spend all your meney on clothes as far as I'm concerned. ‘Arsenal aren't going to win the cup this year as far as like We use like ‘+ tomean Similar to (especially afte the verbs be, seem, fel, ook, sound, smell and taste: He's eating what looks like @ hamburger. This swimming pool is fantasic— the artificial waves mean {t's ike swimming in the sea, + to mean ‘for example! He enjoys all sorts of adventure sports like paragliding, windsurfing and canoeing. Causative have and get \We use have/get + something + done [eleaned/ xed / made, etc} when we ask someone else to do something for us: {ve just had my bike mended. (ie Someone has mended my bike fer me) + gatis less formal than have: [My da has just gat some new furniture delivered. * lt’snotusually necessary to say who ddit for us, ut tis possible: I'm going to have my hair dyed blonde this afternoon by my sister (2 My sisters going to dye my hair for me) + havelget + something + done can be used in any tense or form: 1’m going to get my suit dry. cleaned forthe wedding “© We can also use ths structure to say ne have been the victim of something Tim had his wallet stolen while he was waiting forthe bus. $0 ato page 17: The pase Conditionals Conditional sentences express condition (f) and the ‘consequence ofthe condition. The consequence can be ‘expressed belore or after the condition you come to Canada, we can vist Vancouver We can visit Vancouver if you come to Canada, Note: Ifthe condition comes frst, a comma is used. the consequence comes frst, no comma is used. Zero conditional \We use a zero conditional to express: «things which ace always or generally rue: the teacher i at, it sets a bad example to the class. People tend to get annoyed ifhen you shout at ther * scientific facts: Whervf water boils, t evaporates. Note: In zero condtonals, when and foen mean thes First conditional We use a frst conditional to express a future concition ve think s possible okey 1 got the jab, I buy myself anew ca Ifyou wash the cay, wll look much smarter. I won't phone you unless it’s urgent. You can ave an ice cream if you behave well You shoulda't go swimming unless you think t's safe. Fh phones, all im I'm busy. Note: unless means ‘except: We can often use unless instead of fFrot 1 can't watch the football with you unless Ifinsh my schoo! work beforehand. (can't watch the football with you if don’ finish my school work before the game begins) Second conditional \We use a second conditional to express a present ot future condition whichis imaginary, contrary tothe facts, ‘impossible or improbable: | would go for awalkift wasn't so old. IF} was a rich as Bill Gates, | woulde’t work. (Being as rich 2B Gates is imaginary) J wouldn't fi in 2 helicopter unless was sure it was ‘completely safe (Ths is how | woul feel inthis situation) We'd win more matches fwe trained harder. (Tis is cantraty tothe facts —we don’t rain hard enough) Third conditional We use third conditional to tall about: * something which didnot happen in the past and + itsresults, which are imaginary. Ifyou hed gone tothe concert you would have enjoyed i Ifyou hed phoned me this morning, (would not have been late for schoo! ‘Ff had lived in the 1th century, would have gone to school by horse: (i had lved inthe 19th century something which aid not happen =I am alive now, | would have gone + school by horse (an imaginary corsequence because | idle inthe 19th century} Ihe hadn't reacted quickly, the hippo would have killed him. (He reacted quiclly, so the hipgo did kil him) Note: We can contract the thd cantonal follows: ffl vadin the 19th century, Il have gone to schoo by horse. Fhe hadn't been n such ahury, he wouldnt have had an saxon le can use could and mightinstead of would # our team had played harder, they could have won the natch. (They had the ability to win the match, but they did't, because they didn't play hard enough) ‘four tesm had played harder, they would have won the match. {They were sure to win, but they didn't because they cidh't play had enough) “the weather had been better, we might have gone svimming,(Swimring was a positlity) the weather ha been better, wa would have gone swimming. Swimming was a certinty) Mixed conditionals ‘When we want to use a conditional sentence ta talk out both the past and the present, we can use second conditional in one part of the sentence and third conditional nthe other: : Tots waren <0 sansive) I'd have gone to the cinema last si * The tickets are expensive and that is why the speaker dide't goto the cinema, f Mar hac fallen off her bike sha’ be champion now * Mar ell off her bike and thatis why she isn't champion. Note: You cannot use zro o rst conditional in mined tional, Countable and uncountable nouns Nouns can be either countable [C] or uncountable [U) However, some nouns can be bth countable [C] and Lncountable[U, but wth a differance in meaning They say it’s healtly to crnk tea tea in general, Uuncountable) Would you lite a tea?(a cup oftes, countable) Living ina large house isa fot of work. workin gene uncountable That picture is a work of art (a poticuar work, countable) ‘The gremmar for countable nouns different from the ‘grammar for uncountable nouns Use 2 or anin the + donotuse aor an singular: ajob, + cannot be made plural an animal work, music + canbemade plurat | use verbs inthe singular «25, books. The news i good, Music * use some and anyin the plural: some snl, helps me relex + use some and any inthe any answers singular: some food, any ‘use few and manyin | advice the plural: fow students, | use ltl and muchin the many years singular: tle information, much homework + use other words to refer to2 quantity: apiece of achice,asmallamountof | | ney Bona nan Osome connor ncomablerousin Eats | sxcrmcaton evr blot come canage eipment pence fod une inmenot hava bmaibe inoloe Mth reds aie na pope etn wise saneyanole sober” | epee Infinitive and verb + -ing forms Infinitive Wie use the infinitive: + 10:07 why we do something (ve just gone runrng to get some exercise. Ho's ton up tennis to make fiends + to say why something exists: There's an exemple to hep you «+ after too and enough e's t00 cold to go swimming today isnt good enough to make the national team + We use the iniritive inthe follwing verb patterns: verb+t0 agree appear | She agreed to “inrtve bother decide | meet himafter demand fail hope work learn manage offer | plan refuse seem |be supposed eaten verb + ask choose expect | She expected to GGomebody |help intend promise | win he race something) |went expect youto ; play inthe match ' The money somebody/ encourage forbid | enabled him to. go + something + force imite order | touniersiy toinfntive permit persuade recommend remind I teach tell_ war ‘+ We use these verbs fom th lists above to report speech: advise agree allow ask decide encourage | forbid. invite offer order permit persuade promise recommend refuse remind | tell threaten warn Bee also page 173: Reported speech can't bear watching ny team when they play badly. Verb + -ing Weuse a verb + ing «after prepostions He's madea lot of fiend by joining the tennis club. ‘We watched. flm about climbing inthe mountains. Note: We also usea verb + ingaftertowhon fois 2 preposition J looking forward to going on haley. She's used to studying everthing in Engi. «+ ascubjects or objacts ofa sentence: (Climbing is safer than it looks. He decided to take up runing We use a verb + -ing after these verbs: admit appreciate avoid celebrate consider olay deny distke enjoy finish imagine iwolve keep mind miss postpone practise regret risk stop suggest 1 realy enjoyed winning that match She suggested playing 2 game of squash after schoo! ‘We can use these vers from the lst above in reported speech admit deny regret suggest 1B seepage 176: Reporte speech = reo We use a verb + -ing ater these expressions: itSnogood iesnotworth is no use its avaste oftime centstand can'tbear_can'thele F’snot worth joining that sports club. I’sa waste of time entering the competition unless you": really fi, Verbs followed by ether an infntve ora verb + ing wth almost the same meaning love begin continue hate prefer like start ove playing tennis. love to play tennis Iecontinued raining all dy. It continued to rain al day. Note: When love, hate, prefer and lke are used with they ae abways followed by the ifnitve: | woulde't ike to do an adventure race, 1d prefer to watch it on television a Verbs followed by either an infinitive or a Linking words and phrases: when, herb + -ing with a difference in meaning if, in case, even if and even though Ly + asivation | Didyourmenber | ementerteirg | * ‘iti vmyuncamfrable when te wether so hot. [Boclenacten ee | egtaestte | + smethng ne know happen t sae pointe a ee {rm ontng an essay atthe moment. When nish, something in the pronase beck pat) We use ifta describe: ixget | Dont frgetto bring ['teverloget 7] * something we are not sure wll happens eres ee We'd miss he beginning ofthe fn ifthe bus i ate. {anaction you have | tennis championship. | * Compare: todo) famemory of IF get a place a university, my parents will uy me ernew | somethinginthe | car ('m not sure i'll get a place at university} pe When get a place at university my parents wll buy me 2 Faget [Iegettotaiyor | egatratwanng 7] "eNom conten getaplace at unversiy) therecehasbeen | harder bore the | Weuse incase wih the | canceled reqrat+ | race msouy cit] + present tense to tak about something which might toszy/ total |dothis) happen in the future infor neers im | {take a book to readin ease have to wait along tine sorry to give you his | frre rain information’) ae Take a botle of water with you in case you get thirsty 1 "3 | Fmranning everyday | you antic get | * Patsinplefo expan vty someone dd someting because tying to | fk why dont you Grated ff her mobile phone measeiirong dung =, agetfe My objective | xy swimming? the oxam (She thought emightring ding the exams |istogetfity Gvimmingiss | shotumedit off) al method to reach your | incase and ita afernt. Compare objective) * take my swimming costume in case we go to the beach. mean ‘Mario means towin |! wanted to be a {ll take it now because we might go to the beach later) the championship. | swimming champion, | + I) take my swimming costume if we goto the beach, | Chisishis intention) | butitmesne going ic | vert ake my swimming costume now, becaee| dont the pool every day at | know we'll go tothe beach we might not go) 5.30. (tinolved) | deve : fe “op fy oughie [iter ereiaed | uma ough asvonay wa ann ategh bet he: teed tecetaeite bhe | Heboughe anew computer, even though his old one was merdertodink Pear eng) | woking perfacth The speakaris certain he cldene ws | [inorero dink” |tHeddvtcoirany | “oaperecte( ———lsomensier _|__] « jeaiooking forars tomy hold, even though Note:The form forget + verb +-ingis unusual. itismmore the weather forecast is for ai, [The speaker knows the armal to use (not) remember weather forecast is for rain) {don'tremember rig Yas uze even aa stronger way of saying {when we are not certain about something * im going to have a holiday in the USA this summer even it ail all ny exams. (I'm not sue ifm going to fil my ‘exams —but Im going to have the holiday annoy) + 1hcome to your party even if have to walk there (don't know I'l have to walk there, bu Il make sure come ta your party) Linking words for contrast We use these linking words to show contrast: although eventhough while whereas. but however despite inspite of [om the one hand, .. (on the other hand) although, even though, while and whereas * We use although, even though, while and whereas to put ‘wo contrasting ideas in one sentence: | didn't buy the dress although | hought it was beaustl «They can be placed atthe beginning ofthe sentence or in the middle, between the two contrasting idexs: twas late, She dacided to phone him, > Although it thas late, she decided to phone him. OR She decided to phone him although it was late + When the sentence begins with although, even though, while or whereas, we separate the two parts with 2 ‘comma, When these words are placed in the middle, the comma is optional: Berlin is. a noisy city. My home vilage is quite peace > While Bertin is 2 noisy city, my home vilage is quite peaceful. OR Betinis a noisy ity whereas my home vilage is quite peaceful ‘even though is stronger than although: | didn’t buy the car even though I had the money ready in ay pocket but «* butean be used to join two sentences. In this caso, tis Used in the middle of the sentence and it often follows 3 We warned her, but she didn't pay any attention. * buccan sometimes be used at the beginning of a new sentence: He likes romantic fms But don't tll anybody! see aso page 17: Us comers however + however normaly starts a new sentence and refers to the sentence before * Iris usvally followed by a comma: He decided to go out tothe cinema, However, he dih't tall his family where he was going. despite and in spite of + despite and in spite of mean ‘without taking any not ‘or being influenced by’ ‘nat prevented by’ He got into the basketball team despite being quite short. She vient swimming in spite ofthe cold weather. ‘They can be placed atthe beginning ofthe sentence the middle. They are followed by a noun ara verb + When used! at the beginning of a sentence, a comma s also used te separate the two parts of the sentence: Despite working al day, Teresa cit’ fee! at all trec Wie got to school on time inspite of the heavy taf on the one hand, ... (on the other hand.) * onthe ane hand... on the other hand) normally srt sentences and can be used to balance two contrasting ideas or points of view: 1m not sure whether ta goto the seaside for my hol this year.On the one hand, most of my kiends are go" (On the other hand, i's time to have @ change and go somewhere different. + on the ather hand ean be used to introduce a cont: idea even ifyou haven't used on the one hand: Doing sport can be @ great nay to relax On the other rand, it can cause quite serious injures. look, seem and appear ‘We use these verbs to express our impressions of something or someone: ‘haven't talked to hi very much, but he seems very Intelligent You stil look ted, even f you have slept al night. We use these withthe following patterns: look’seem/appear | She looks very old + adjective He seems hungry Marga appeared tired. subject + look + as | The car looks as if t needs washi f+ sentence You look a if you've had a bad itlooksiseeme/ | it looks as ifthe car needs washi appears + asif+ | it seems as if you've had a bad. sentence seem/appear+ | The weather seems to have infinitive changed. Sho appeared to be crying, lool/seem + ihe + He looks like my uncle, It may seem lke an impossible uti isnt cally Making comparisons mmparative | adjective/adverb + | Tennisis cheaper or + than than got ‘more + adjective’ | Marina works harder adverb + than | than before Golfismore ‘expensive than tenis Itvains more often than in the past. the + adjective! | Chessis one ofthe adverb +-est | cheapest hobbies the most + Playing team sports adjectneledvero | is the most sociable free-time activity. ‘omparison of adjectives Aad -erend est ith * onesylable adjectives: Fiona i tar than last year, + two-syllable adjectives endingin -y and-j,eg, happy, Fiandly My brothers the friendliest person in ny family. * adjectives of two syllables or more (except two sylable adjectives ending in-yand Biking isthe most dangerous actity. See also page 176 Spating 5.2 form irregular comparisons: good-better-best bad —worse—worst vallbetter—best rmuch-maore-most mary-mere—mest ile less—least far—fatherfurther-farthestfurthest badly-worse worst 590 things athe sme, ne 96+ aeoctve + 28 nds doing aerobics as intresting a playing tea this means Shen doing aerobics and paying sports equal nteesting) ay that one thing i ass than another, use not so/as + adective + as: Window shopping i not so/as enjoyable as dubbing. ssleast + adjective: ying chassis less healthy than plying tearm sports Ciubbing isthe least healthy activity you can do. Comparison of adverbs [Add-erand |» one-lele adie, 09. Far fst sth staight Niymum rks harder than ny do. Use mareand | + two-sylable adverbs including mestwith: | adverbs ending inf [Maria ead the text more quickly than ‘Susanna, She visits me more often than inthe past. ‘These adver form iregular comparisons well-beter-best badly - worse - worst To saytwo things are the sare, use as-+ adverb + as la finished the exercise as quickly as Mark Julia and ‘Mark rished the exercise equally quickly) To say that we do one thing diferentl from another, use: + nat o/as-+ adverb + as: Sophie doesn't speak Spanish so/as well 2 Gordon. We can use words and phrases with comparative forms to express large and small diferences, These are some ways of expressing a large difrence: + much / far / 3 ot / considerably + adjctvaladverb + -erf ‘more + adjectivefadver: Paying team sports much riskier than mary people imagine + not nearly as + adjectineladverb + as: Some mobile apps are not needy as dificult to use as ‘norma computer programs. x These are some ways of expressing a small ference: * slighty /a bit/a litle + adjectve/advert + -efmore + adjectveladver People dive sightly slower than thy adn the past 1 not quite as+ adjectvelsdverb + as ‘don't ind running quite as enjoyable as eying eS Modal verbs \We use modal verbs to express the speaker's view of ability, certainty and possibilty, obligation, prohibition and, permission These modal verbs are akways followed by the infinitive without to: ‘can, could, may, might, nus, shall, should, wil, would + These modal verbs are always followed by the initive with to: have t, ought to Note: Modal verbs always have the same form, ie. no's‘ in the thi person singular (He can come) or-edin the past {except for have to, which changes in the same way as have). Expressing ability “o.say someone has an ably, we use can, can could, could and beable. Inthe preset wa se + canoromlelare able toto express ality + cantor am notn'varen’ aba for things which re not possible Lizean speak ve languages, but she cant peak Russian The doctor's able to see you now, but she ant abe to see you tomorow Note: We usually use can and can't when speaking because | they ate shorter and less formal than able to, Inthe past, we use: + could only when speaking in genera |F_ When nasa chi, | eould ead thou gases «+ was/nere able to when speaking about something someone succeeded in doing on one particular occasion, Dad didn't have ary money on him, but fortunately he | was able to use his creditcard to pay the bil. rot He- | devid ese biseredit cord payste bik) «+ couldn't and wasn'/neren't able to when speaking in {ganeral and also when speaking about one particular Pascual wasn't able to / coulda't do all the questions in the maths exam. Olga couldn't / wasnt abe to ride a bike tl she was 18. \When talking about ability, we use can only inthe present and could onl inthe past For perfect and future tenses, we use able to: "ve been very busy 50 | haven't been able to finish reading the novel (resent perfect ‘When you finish the course, you'll be able to speak English really wel future simple) Note: We do net use be able ton the continuous. a + We use be able to after an infinitive ‘She hopes to be able to study medicine when she gos touniversity. «+ We use be able to after modal verbs (might, should, ete): Ifo free this weekend, | might be able to help you, your house, When you've fhished this course, you should be able to spoak English very well. “= We usvally use can and could with see, hear, smell, fo and raste: From the top of the mountain we could see for miles I ean hear a strange noise coming ftom upstairs. + However, we use manage wien we succeed in doing something quite dificult to do: now you've been busy, but did you manage to phone: my mum? He managed to pass the exam, although he was feeling when he didi Note: couldis not possible in ths exam ade Expressing certainty and possibility ‘To expross certainty about the present, we use: + mast She's been in over 15 fms so she must be very well known, Note: We usualy have a goad reason for expressing this certainty, 2g. She's been in over 15 fins. * can'tor couldn't forthe negative (not mustn't) You can't be tired. You've just got out of bed! ‘Mark couldn't have been atthe party he's on holds America atthe moment To express cortainty about the past, we use: «+ must have + past participle: ‘You have a very big part in the play t must have token you ages to lear all the lines. «+ can't have and couldn't havo = past participle in neget sentences She can't have left her lasses at home — (saw her ‘wearing them on the bus. ‘She eouldh't have stolen the money because she's fr honest! ‘To express possiblity about the present or future, we use + may, might or could: may come and vst you next summer \We might go tothe cinema itwe finish all our workin We'd better go for a walk now because it could rain la ‘may not and might not for might) in negative sentences, int can'tor could which express certainty: Frankie fs looking very pale. He may not be very well Don't cook any dinner for me because I might not be back in time, 1 express possibility about the past, we use: ‘may have, might have, could have, may not have, might not have + past participle It unlike Sally 10 be late. She may have overslept or she ‘might not have remembered the appointment :xpressing obligation, prohibition and ermission bligation ~ must and have to Ve can often use mustand have towithout any difference in eaning: hers must / have to try to make thei lessons as “eresting as possible. ‘mus + infinitive without tin the present tense, For other tenses, we use have to + infinitive V'dlike to go camping, but I have to ask my parents In order to get the heliday job I had tofillin an {application form and do an interview: have to more often in questions: Dowe have to answer al the questions? ‘must for 3 goal (or an obligation) that we give ourselves: | must go 10 the supermarket later have to when the cbligation comes from someone else: My teacher has given me a lot of homework which | have todo for Mandl. must for strong advice: You must be careful ifyou stay out late at night ther ways of expressing obligation We use be supposed to + infinitive to talk about an ‘obligation which is cfferent from what really happens: We're supposed to do five writing tasks each tarm (But ‘most people only do two or three) Aren't you supposed to be in cass sight now? (ie, not out here playing football) We use should + infinitive without toto tak about the Fight thing to do, but which i different from what rally happens: You should answer using your own ideas, not things you have memorised beforehand. The past of should is should have + past participle: You shouldn't have tried to answer al three questions in ing Pare 2 We can use ought to to mean ‘should: You ought to be more polite to the people you deal with El Prohibition We use these modal verbs and phrases to express prohibition: can‘, must, not et, (be) not allowed to, don't allow somebody) to. You can't go in there —it says ‘No entry!” You mustn't speak during the exam it's forbidden IMy sister won't let me listn to her CDs. Fm not allowed to use the itchon in my host family’s house ‘My parents didn't allow me to play computer games when | vas smal, We do not use don't have to to express prohibition: You mustn't use your mobile phone in cass, ’s not allowed) Compare this with ‘You don't have to use your mobile phone to speak to Fayed. Look! He's over ther. (ie. Ws not necessary) In the past, we use: could’, did't fe, wasn't allowed to, didn't allow (somebody) to: | couldn't leave the room until the end ofthe meeting She wasn't allowed to invite her boyfriend tothe party. \We don't use mustn't to talk about the past | eesti couldn't ride my bike to school because my mum thought it was dangerous, We musts weren't allowed to use our dictionary in the exam last week, Permission To express permission, we use: can (past could, let, am allowed to and may (oast was/were allowed to), You can only use your phone during the break, notin class Are we allowed to use calculators in the maths exam? She let him borrow her bicycle to get tothe station, We only use may n formal situations: Is not necessary to stay unt the end of the examination. When you have answared all the questions, you may leave the room. ‘To say that there is no obligation or i's not necessary, we use: don't have to, don’t need to and neecin't This fsa really good exercise on phrasal verbs for anyone who's interested, but i's not for homework, 30 you don't have to doit ifyou don't want to. You needn't learn all the vocabulary on this page — only the words you think are useful ‘didn't need to means t wasnt necessary and | didn’t do it; needn't have means ‘It wasn't necessary but | didi | didn’t need to buy a newspaper to find out the story because I'd already heard it on the rai What lovely roses! You needn't have bought me so many, but it was very generous of you, aan Prepositions | at, imand on in time expressions Weuuse stwth points of timer at three o'clock, at the end of the lesson, at midnight mealtimes: We can meet at breakfast the weekend, Christmas and Easter \Whry don’t we go tothe cinema at the weekend? right when talking about nights in general: | prefer to study at night becouse i's quieter. Note: on the weekends commen in American Enalish We use in for periods of tie: in 2014, in Apri, n the summer, nthe 19th comtury for parts ofthe day Paola often has a short slep inthe afternoon (But Paola slept for two hours on Sunday aftemoon. See below) to say the period of time before something happens or how long something takes I"lbe going to university in sie weeks’ time. He did the writing tsk in just 13 minutes. We use on for paricular dates, days, parts of days or types of days: He was bom on July 13th \What are you doing on Sunday night? | got married on a sunny day in August at, in and on to express location We use at: «+ hen we think ofa place as 2 point, not an area fineluding athome, at school at work, at university: ‘The postman ist the front door. 10 talk about an event with a number of people see you at the party tonight! for addresses: The party is at 367 Wood Avenve. We use in when we think ofa place as an area or space: (Olga lives in St Petersburg. Sonia lines ina large house inthe country. for cars and taxis Hove listening to music when I'm in the ear ‘normally within class, in hospital, in prison, in court Patrick sin hospital with a broken leg with people a things which form tines We stoad in the ticket queue forfour hours. fot the wort: He's reputed to be ane af the richest men inthe word. We use on: « totak abouta position in contact with a surface There's an insect on your forehead ‘She lay on the beach al day. + with coast, road to, the outsirts of the edge of, border way toffom, ete: We can stop at ny village, which ison the way to Mach vith means of tensport apart rom cars and taxis (soo a {always get frightened on planes. for technology: He's been on the phone for hours. | ound cut abour it on Facebook. with fet and righ: Talk to the student on your right, * with premises, fan, foo, sland and Ist It’s on the fifth floor You're nat on my list of students fortis class o ‘atyourmy house |/n the worle ‘on the beach atthe festival |inthe city la theta train atthe party | inthemountains_|on the island atthetheatre —|inthecountyy | on thes farm atthelyourhotel | inthe town fn the outs atthe concert | inthe sky ‘nthe floor atmy school | inthehotel fon the stage atthe camp —|inacar onthe bus atthe university [inthis area onthe road atthe beach inthe countryside | on the plane ‘atthe airport inthe street atthesesside | inthe sea { in traffic jms Relative pronouns and relative clauses A dause isa group of words containing a subject and = verb ina tense wich form a sentonce or part ofa sents Relative clauses start with these relative pronouns: who ‘which that, whose, where, when and wy relative clause | The man who phoned you i my doctor Defining relative clauses Relative clauses which tal us which particular person or thing the speakers talking about ste called defining clauses, Thay give essential information: ‘The dactor who treated me is ry cousin “The relative clause tells us which dactor we are talking jon-defining relative clauses ative clauses which give us extra information are called defining relative clauses: ctor who belongs tothe same tennis dub as you, tated me yesterday. @ already know which doctor {t's my dector who belongs the seme tennis cub as you does nat tell us which doctor 2 are taking about itjust adds extra information ora are differences in grammar: * Don'thave commas. + Use the following relative pronouns: who, which, whose, * Use commas (or pauses in spokan English where, when and shy. + Use the following Can use thatinsigad of whoor | relative pronouns hich, who, which, whase, + who, which or thet can be where and when committed when they ae the | * Dorit use thet object ofthe clause: The + The relative ‘medicine —/ which that pronoun cannot be the doctor gave me shouldbe | omitted taken tice day the doctors the subject nd/ which/ that the abject ofthe clause). leported speech fense changes in reported speech the reporting verb sai, told, admitted, warned, ete) sin + pest, we tend to change tha orginal verb to a past form wall Here are some changes we make: resent simple | liven Berlin’ | She said she lived in past simale Berio, ‘Tm watching | He said he was ™ watching TY, resent perfect |Tve seen the | She said she had seen pastperfect_| film already’ | the film alead. ‘missed the | He told me he had concert missed the concert “TMlphone you | She promised she soon’ ‘would phone me We alto change these modal verbs can could | Tean She said he could understand | understand German German, tut|_| but she couldnt Lean speak it’ | speak t may might | may gue te | Sam suggested he book to John’ | might give tie book to John. must had to | Tmust cook — | Tanya sad sha had to L diner’ | cookdinna. ‘We do not change these modal verbsin teported speech: could, would, should, might, ought ta and used! to: "I would prefer to study in Lonclan'-> She ssi thet she would prefer to study in Londen, must can change to hed to: “You must read this text forthe next lesson’ My teacher told me I had to read the text for the following lesson. But we don't change must when: * it’s negative “You mustn't tll Katya our secret? 7 Ana told Stefon he mustn't tell Katya their secret + itexpresses a deduction: ‘Arturo must stilbe asleep.” She said that Arturo must stil be asleep, { Note: ithe reporting verb isin a present tense, no tense changes are necessary: 1! help you with your homework > She says shel help me with my homenark Questions in reported speech To report question we make the following changes * We change the ward ardler inthe question tothe same as 4 noxmal sentence, ‘We make the same tense changes as in reported speech (bee abo) ‘We use the same quostion wards (when, how et) We use a full stop (not a question mark (2 ‘Wow iong have you been living in London? She asked :me how long | had been lving in London, ‘When can phone you?" 9 Abduilah acked Maga when ‘he could phone him. ‘+ We do not use the ausiiay verbs do, does and dia the {question as the same form as a normal sentence “What time does the lesson start? Ludinla asked whot time the lesson started, * Wie use ifor whether with Yes/No questions ‘Can come to your party?’ Aniale wanted to know whether she could come to our panty. ‘We often use these verbs and phrases to introduce reported questions ask wonder, want to know, enquire Pronoun, adjective and adverb changes in reported speech Wo usualy make the folowing changes: you helherthey] ‘spoke to you | He said he had spoken | learie’ | toher eatin ~ your? hisher |'Isawyour | He mentioned that he their brother had seen her brother + our their | earlion’ eat | thither "You should | She told him he shoul lespranouns)+ it | give thisto | give it to Joan. | san’ thisthatithese/ | This work is | She told him the work those +noun- very good!’ | was very good. the +noun | ee Remember that references to times also need to change in reported speech 1 saw Adam this morning’ She said she had seen Adam that morning (Other changes include: present [* today + that doy “reference | thisweek/ |« that week /that month / this morth/ | that year | this year future |» tomorrow |» the next/ the folowing day reference © nextmonth/ |* the next/ the following neta | rth past |» yesterday |» the doy beore OR tho referees predaus dey s test etd | the preout wetfnonty momtijear | yeor Othe weetnonth! | jen belore Descriptions of place also frequently change: ‘Did! eave my ‘book here?” He asked if he'd left his book there. Imperatives in reported speech We use verb + infntv o report orders and commands: “Fetch hat book She asked bm to fetch the book. ‘Don't lok out ofthe window” She told him not to look out ofthe window, Reporting verbs “There are many varbs which we can use to introduce reported speech, each followed by different grammatical patterns, You wil se that mast verbs can be folowed by ‘more than one grammatical patter. ver + infinitive + agree: Magda agreed to look aftr the chilaren. * clfer: She offered to take the children tothe 200. * promise: She's promised to phone me later ‘verb + abject + infinitive * advice: The doctor advised Mrs Carter to take a for: holiday. «23k: The neighbours asked us to tum our music down «invite: Patsy has invited me to goto the party with hex * cider: The palce ordered everyone to leave the bul «persuade persuaded my mather to take a holiday. remind: Can you remind me to phone Stephen? ‘ei: Carl told Jane to close all the windows ‘warn: They warmed us not to walk on the ice ver + preposition + noun or verb + -ing ‘+ accuse of Sophie accused Marcel of stealing her bo + admit tr Bill admitted tothe mistake ‘Sally admitted to taking the money. + apologise for: Tommy apologised forthe accident. Mandy apologised for being late. + complain about: The neighbours have been complei about the noise We complained about being givan too much homev todo. verb + noun or verb + ~ing ‘+ admit: Danry admitted the theft: ‘Sue admitted stealing the money. ‘+ deny: Sihia denied the erime Sean denied causing the accident + recommend: can really recommend this book Irecommend eyeing 2s a way of geting ft | + suggest! Jasmine suggested the solution to the probe ike suggested going climbing atthe weekend, verb + hat) + sentence + acim: Salysdmitted (hat she had fen the money + agree: The heacteecher agreed (that) the exam hac too cfu. + complain: We complained that we had been given to> much homework to do. deny: Pablo denied that he had caused the accident explain: She explained that she wasnt feeling very wel promise: Mandy promised (that) she would phone latex recommend: The doctor recommended (that! take say: Robin said (that) he was going swimming atx + suggest: Liz suggested that)! should try the shape! contre onthe edge oftoun + object + that) + sentence so and such, too and enough -rsuade: | persuaded my mother that she should take a olay. soand such «omis: Lynn promised Chari ftha she would phone eae isd che woul so.and such ar) mean very, extemal’ That was 0 kind of you! serind Can mind you tha you one Se ee | eee Wt sound such ano talebout cae ad ee St Thal tol these he Beal hte rad Pe ay tt so uthe poctubeioanciieae sam: Nobody wamed me that) my grandmother was Sh@ gave sucha good performance that she won an Oscar ‘sting us todd, te: suggests never followed by the infinitive. The sing patterns are possible suggest + verb + ing + Hewasssonervous | + She tells such good jokes. Maria suggested buying a new computer, bbelore the exam that he | + Switzerland has such suggest + noun! ‘couldn't sleep ata. spectacular scenery that Pol suggested the idea. Thatremarkwas just so | we always choose it for our suagest + (that) + sentence: silly) holidays. Tony suggested that they played! football that ateroon, | * He cooks so well that suggest + (that) + should: 1 think ein the Chantal suggested (that) should write a letter competition er common patterns are ssk-+ fuhat, et. + sentence: She asked me what was doing, Hoasked me il was fee. ‘rite + object + to + noun: Patsy has invited me tothe party. We had so litle money | * Why did you come in such leftatthe end of our | anold pair of jeans? See also page 166: Initive and vera + ing forms holiday that we had to | irwas-uch a beautiful day a sleep on abench inthe | that we decided to go for Sez ao page 17: The pasive—th pave ith epoting eae Vaae + Marts makes $0 many |» Elena's got such alot of mistakes winen she's | fiends thatthe telephone. speaking! ever stops ringing. We also use such (+ noun) to mean ‘ofa similar type! When children commit crimes, adits are often shocked, Fortunately such behaviour is not 2= cammon as newspapers make us believe, . too and enough + too means ‘mare than is needed or wanted! She's too old to joi the police. + enough means 2s much as is necessary or needed! Have we got enough eggs to make a cake? This coffee snot warm enough! Poase heat itup again. Frane didn't answer the {questions convincingly ‘enough to get the job, That hote snot smart ‘enough for her. He's too young to drive. That suitcase is too heavy for me tit. Youredringtoo | Haveyougotenough money Abngeous, Pease slow | ro gett Landon? down That enough ake in || They brett oo much | the igboad forme t ge feodiforustoeat. | sometoeveyone || Frewcebed t0 mary emails answer Spelling Spelling changes when adding -ed, -ing, -er and -est to words We double the final consonant when we add -ed ing, -eror esto words: ‘which ore one yllable and end in a consonant-vowel consonant stop — stopped, hit hitting, at fatter + hich have two er more syjlables which end in consonant vowe-consonant and the final lable is stressect admit - admitted, ocaur- occurring Note: In British English, we always double a final afters single vowel travel traveling, cancel cancelled ‘We don't double the final consonant when: «+ there are two fra consonants: send — sending, hard hardest «there are two vowels before the fina consonant ‘appeal appeoled, mean - meanest + the word ends ina vowel: strike striking, sale safest «+ fora verb, the stress is not onthe fina lable ‘open-opening + the word endsin oF 9% slow = slower, tela ~relaxing, display - displayed ‘When adding -e finaly’ after a consonantloecomes study studied, ovely~ loveliest ‘When adding -ing, a finaly after a consonant does not change: study — studying Note: Notice how the spelling of these words changes: Tie =lving~ liad: die - dying died ay laying — ei tty tying tried Spelling changes when adding prefixes and other suffixes ‘We normally de not change the spelling ofthe base wore when we add a prefix ora sufi: need - unneeded, arrange — arrangement However «ne drop the finale’ when there isa consonant before = ‘and the suffix begins with @ vowel (er, ed, ing, ance ation, ete) ivtate tating, fame ~ famous + we do not drop the final‘! when the suffix Begin with consonant safe safety, manage ~ management + afinal'y' becomes i: industy— industrial Adding prefixes Wher ne adda syllable like un. dls, or n- before the w to make it negative, we do not change the speling, 2 is-and un appoint disappoint, satsied -dissatisies ike unlike, necessary ~ unnecessary Note: Before words beginning with we usa irs elev before words beginning with’ orp we use im immature, impatient; before words beginning wth =: its Mogica|, iterate “These words are frequently misspelledby exam candi Tees coen spetng or by ‘candidates ‘zccommodation advertisement beautiful because beginning believe between childven comfortable communicate convenient countzylcounties course different cembarrassedembarassing environment excellent ‘experience government loose lose necessary owadys opinion opportunity/opportunties profer receive recommend restaurant. society their until wealthy which The passive The passives formed by the verb to be + past participle oneleatenieleaned, ete) * All the food was eaten They ate all the food very uly very icky + Weve soldchecor + Thecarhas been sold ‘ iesnzowbon people | tsricewbon im inited invite me to dinner. | todinner * Onadlearday.you | + Ona cer dey, ice cansee isa fom the | ean be sean fom the rian malar ve use the passive when: what happens is mare important than who does it The car has been repaired, so we can go avy this weekend. we don't know who or what does/did something: ‘My mobile phone has been stolen! wwe don't need to say who oF what does/aid something because it’s cbvious fram the situation ar context The law wos passod earlier this year (obviously by a government suhen writing in an official style ‘Your ticket has been booked and can be collected fiom our office. passive with get We can use get instead of be to form the pessive, especially when we want to say that something happened. ‘osomecne or something He got hurt playing football yesterday (He was hurt) lim atid we were playing football and one of your windows got broken, (One of your windows was broken) get used manly in infermal spoken English We only use get when something happens or changes: He got arrested by the police. tis not possible with state verbs The-sargotonnedbyfimstar The carwas owned by 2 fn ta. passive with reporting verbs often use the passive to report what people sy, think, =, especially when we don't know who said it or thought rit’ not important + Quzen is thought to be suffering ram a heauy cold. “nando Alonso is considered to be the best Spanish raul One ctver ofall time. s use ofthe passive is comman in news reports oe We use three possible forms: + Ho/Sha ie saidthoughtieonsidered, etc + infinitive: ons are known to hunt inthis area, Elena is thought to be hight inteligent. + Verbs that wo can use with ths pattern are: consider expect feel know say suppose think understand ‘otalk about the past, we can use: She isle to have playedieaten/been, etc: ‘The Pime Ministers understood to have spoken to the rebeleon the phone + leis saidthought/considered, ete + that +a sentence: Ikis thought that Elena i highly intelligent. [tis known that ions hunt inthis ares, eros that we can use with this pattern are: ‘agree announce condder dace expect eal find know propose recommend say suggest suppose think understand * Itis agreed/planned, etc. + infritve: thas been agreed to change the dates ofthe meetin. Verbs that we can use with this pattern ae: || agree decide forbid hope plan propose sais Using commas We use commas i} + when we make lst: Ike playing tenis, listening to music, chating with ftiends and watching TV. Note: We don't use a comma withthe final item on the list we use and. + toseparate adjectives when there area number of adjectives before the nour He's an enthusiastic, hard-working student. Note: With short common adjectives, commas arenat necessary Myvilage is quite a friendly ite place + after an adverb ora short introductory phrase at the beginning of sentence such as frst, asa ecu, consequently or tis reason alin all general nally however in my opinion, et: Generally, people in my country start university aged 19. Inmy opinion, young people should help ther parents to do the housework after time phrase atthe beginning ofa sentence: 12014, be left school and went to university alter clauses at the beginning of sentences starting with i antess, when, while, after, before, although, even though, whereas, 35, ete When everyone in a family lps withthe housework, they have a better relationship. ‘when we join two sentences with but, we often put = comms before but He got quits good mas in his exams, but he wasn't happy with his results Using it, this, that or they We use it this and that (in the plural they these and those) 10 refer to something we have already mentioned. Often more than one ofthem is corect in the context. However: ‘we use itwhen we are not making any emphasis I prefer listening olive music I's mare spontaneous. thisand that ae mare emphaticin drawing attention to the thing just mentioned: ‘People usually listen to music through headphones. There's some evidence that this damages their hearing. wwe often use this when = west have something more to say about the thing wwe arereferting to File sharing has become a common activity. This is raving serious effects on the music industry. = we refer tothe second of two things mentioned in the previous sentence. Compare: 11 While many festivals are welcomed by local people, they are usually very noisy, This means that people ing inthe district find it hard 10 sleep. (This= the noise) 2 While many festivals are welcomed by local people, they are usualy very noisy. Also, they aro normaly held inthe summer (they = the festivals) ++ we often use that in conditional sentences think that every town and village should havea festival if that is what local people wat Verb tenses Simple and continuous forms «Present simple descrbes a situation which is permanent or happens regularly Paullvesin Londen. tHe catches the bus at eight every morning + Present continuous deseribos a temporary sition or ‘one in progres: 1m staying with my aunt while Mum and Dad are anay He's playing tans atthe moment. State verbs ‘We do not usvally use verbs which describe states, not {actions in the continuous, These verbs describe + thoughts: believe know, remember, thnk meaning ‘believe, feel (meaning ‘believe’, suppose, et + feelings: love, ke, hate, want, prefer, etc ‘+ senses: smell hear, ast, see, feel, touch 1+ possession: have belong, own, et + the verb tobe Note: + When think means to use your brain to plan something solve a problem, make a decision, etc, it can be used = the continuous: 1’m thinking about what to do tod. planning) + When feel means to experience something physical ° ‘emotional, it can be used inthe continuous: I don't want to came tothe party because Im feeling Candidates often spall these words wrong: — 1B see ako page 176: Speing Present perfect simple and continuous: Both the present parlect simple and present perfect coniinuous talk about something which started in the pas and * either has a result in the present He's twisted his ankle, so he can't pay football with us this afternoon, ve been partying all weokend,s0 I'm feeling ted nor + orisill happening now: We've been building an extension fo our housefand ve havent finished yt) Often they are interchangeable. However ‘emphasises the results | emphasises the action: 1've phoned all my fiends | 've been phoning my frien ‘and theyre coming to the | (and that’s why l haven't party done my homework sayshow muchatan | says hawlong the activity activity complete: has been in progress: ve written two essays. | (ve been studying al afternoon cmething's permanent | something is temporary and fend maybe accompanied | may be accompanied by 2 ya time expression which | time exprassion which shows Shows thse thi) My dadhas worked in the_| ve been working hee for ssmeshop allhislie Ive | the ast wo ments uni 90 Sivayslived here, tounverity We've been eating dionerin the garcen during he warm eather used when we want 10 55 how many times an nhas been repeated ‘when we want fo emphasise the process of change over a Period of time ard that these say Give the idea that | may give the idea that used to We use used toto talk about «= situations or states inthe past which are not true now: My maths teacher used to be inthe ary, || + tepeated activites or habits in the past which do not | happen now ‘She used to run inthe London Marathon every year unt sh injured her leg Note: We only use used onthe pas: ‘She used to run in marathons. Did you use to run in marathons? | didnt use to run io marathons, * When we want to talk about habits in the present, we use the present simple wth an adverb ike usually every day, ete: "usually drink ta with my luc, vs ivited ber to or three | changes are not finshed mes, but she lays says_| My teacher sayemy English busy. fas been improving since ( _|started doing my homework! member! State verbs are not normaly used inthe See alo page 178 Ved tenses state verb # use the past simple to tak about ction or events inthe past: (visited Egypt last year. sctons or events which happened one after another saw the Pyramids, then | went round the Cairo Museu 2nd later | went 02 traditional restaurant ‘ings which happened for 3 long time inthe pat ‘She lived in Zurich for ten years from 2003 to 2013, fst continuous ue the past continuous to talk about: an actvty which started before and continued until an event in the past: He was riding to school when his matexbike broke down, The activity of riding was interrupted by the problem with the motorbike) sn activity which sterted before and continued after an vent inthe past as watching television won the news was announced, continued to watch television afterwards) member State verbs are not normally used inthe See aio page 178: Ver tenses sate verte He catches the same train every day. Past perfect simple and continuous Past perfect simple ‘We use the past perfect simple: * to indicate that me are talking about something which happened before something which s described inthe past simple When he got to the station, his tain had aloady left Compare this with When he got to the station, bis tan left, “This indicates thatthe tain left atthe time he artved, typically with time expressions such as when, 35 soon as, ator, before, ete She started diving before he'd fastened bis seatbelt often with these adverbs: aka, just, never ‘He'd never eaten steak: and kidney pie until he came to England. Past perfect continuous We use the past perfect continuous te show that we are talking about something which happened before something which s described inthe past simple, but it: * focuses onthe length of tie: Mandy needed a walk because she'd been sitting down all day. ‘+ sayshow long something happened up toa point inthe past: ‘twas two months before any ofthe teachers noticed that Paula hadn't been coming to school He'd been playing for Arsenal for only two games when be scored his frst goal Bee also page 176: Sealing wish, if only and hope ‘Wie use wish /ifonly+ past simple to say we would lke a present situation tobe different: | wish had 2 warmer jacket. (This one doesn'tkeep me warm) ‘only it was the summer helidays! (But it int stil at school) Note: This use of wish /f only is similar to second conditional, eit uses a past tense to refer to something ‘hich is contrary tothe facts inthe present. We use wish /fonly + would to say: * we want something to happen: J wish my car would start. can't make it start and | want ittostert) + we want someone to start doing something they dont do: only you'd listen to mel «or we want someone stop doing something which annoys us ffonly my mum wouldn't phone me every five minutes! We use wish /ifonly + past perfectt talk about things \thich we are unhappy about which happened in the past He wishes he had studied harder when he was t school (He cide study hard enough ~ perhaps ihe had studied harder he would have gone to university.) "Note: This use of wish /ifonyis similar to third condition ie. it uses a past perfect tense to refer to something whi is contrary to the facts inthe past. only means wish When taking about other people, use he wishes, they wit, ete. We Use Fonly when we fee something very svongly. Otherwise we use J wish We use hope when we want something to happen orto tre, and usually have @ good reason to think that mish hope you have a good holiday. ‘She hopes her students wil get a high grade in thei ex Note: We use hope + present/uture tense with a future ‘meaning, especialy when the subject ofthe two clauses = diferent, ie. (and you in hope you have a good haley We aften use hope + infitive when there is only one subject tothe sentence: He hopes to go into politics inthe future. (He hopes he'l inte polities n the future) We can use hope when we want something to be true the past, but we don't know iit is true hope you hed a good fight fout| don'tknow if you hes ‘good fight) nae pia op wet | seething? Use |____ nprove so ne hope? “| hove an go fishing this | et a sferneon. Talng abot (wich vedin | pment London Sto (J) sastet se wishes sh bad / \sstoen ren rene finde ie Talking about wish you woulda’ free something play such loud ar hing you would lke music. He wishes: comet to happen or ‘his daughter would tapping or meting > come home sree happen Use eee ———s jee ‘do? Use wish + woud, | ating ose ‘wih ct post tine eaten som cake Sepa [stent oor She wished he had - gore ners Word formation Forming personal nouns ou can fom personal nouns (nuns which deseribe people bho do parculr setts) by adeing + -e,-04-or ee verb 09. entrain -enterane, operte oper inab-ifabiant refer referee + Jan -mantwoman/personto anoun, eg, motor motorist electiiy -cecrcon pest-postman ding prefixes Prefixes to give negative meanings jou can give some words the negative meaning by acting oratx (eg, cis- like ~ cslte) tothe beginning of a word, 278 are some common prefixes which give 3 nogative ing dis: discourage Insinexperienced ns unbelievable fore many words beginning with ‘Ve add the prefix illegal ‘mand’ we add the prefix im: impatient we add the prefix: responsible ther prefixes and their meanings: ris- usually means ‘wrongly’ or ‘badly’ misunderstand (= understand wrongly or badly) ‘e- usually means ‘do again’ and is often added to verbs: inter- means between or amang’ interact ite: When you edd s prefix toa word, the spelling ofthe ginal word does not change: dis + satisfied = dissatisfied jing suffixes 1 can form vers, nouns, adjectives and adverbs fromm er related or base words by adding a suffixteg. appear -3nce = appearance) to the end ofthe word, There are no 2" les ~ each word and the words which ean be formed imitmust be learned individual. Soe also page 176: Speling -epeling changes when adding races and otherautines SEE Some ofthe most common suffixes ar sted below @yverb > noun nen dochst [austere atonon! | eoina | eombnaton tensor |arine” | efnson cos lam ade ___|hison — al ae heme | aren — jm edad [ese [Sinner a ait [abt [al approve | approval By oe) @ adjective > noun ancef-ence | relevant relevance | patient patience _| ness fiendly fienaliness | ity popular | popularity available | availabilty @noun > adjective as bossy “ful ‘meaning | meaningfal_| ous fury furious dese fhope | hopeless ai ‘emotion | emotional “ie optimist [optimist ish cil chileish @pnoun > noun ism tic crticism ist motor ‘motorist ship. partner portnership @ edjective/noun > adjective/noun “iy simplify cassly | “sevice [special | specialsapeciolze erie tier Overd > adjective ved educate [educated “ng mislead | misleading “ablerible [ely reliable respond __| responsible [rent ‘confide [anid ive compete [competitive @adiective > adverb ‘Aver ae last ahvay formed by adding “the agjectve ends in ic, you changeitto an adverb by adding “aly “ylaly | simple simply cargenic | xganicaly lords which are often confused nit 4, Vocabulary, Exercise 1 (page 42) food noun [U] something that poople and animals eat, or plants absorb, to keep thom alle: baby fod. ‘There was lots of food andl drink atthe party. ish FOOD noun [0] food prepared in a particular way 28 pat ofa meal:a chickenivegetarian dish seal FOOD noun [C] an oocasion when fod is eaten, or the food which is eaton on such an occasion: | have y main meal at midday You must come round fr a ‘neal sometime, init 6, Vocabulary, Exercise 1 (page 63) fun orfunny? # something is fun, you enjoy doing it ally ited the skating it was sueh fun |¥ something is funny, it makes you laugh 3a very nay fi. 2 I something is funny, itis strange, suprising, expected or dfcl 1p explain or undefstand ‘Tre washing machine is making a funny noise again. ‘possibilty, occasion or opportunity? 4 possibility sa chancs that something may happen or tru. Possibility cannot be fofowsd by an inne, + there a possibilty of goting a jab in your organisation? -n occasion is an vent, or atime when something appens. Occasion does not mean ‘chance! or opportunity days are abvays spocial occasions. 40 opportunity is 2 possibility of doing something, ra siualion which gves you the possibilty of dong something ‘The tp t Pars gave me an opportunity to speak Franch, ave more opportunity o travel than my paronts di work or Job? Work is something you do to eam money. This noun is “countable, S12 enoys her work mn the hospital +4 is used total about the particular tyne of work ‘These words are often confused by candidates at Cambridge English: Fist. Unit 5, Vocabulary, Exercise 3 (page 54) ‘assist verb [rT] formato help: You wil bo expected to assis the ealfr with the selection of ustatons forthe ook. atiend BE PRESENT verb [ oT] slighty formal 0.90 ta {an event, lace, etc. The mooting ison the fh and were hoping everyone wil tend. {get to know sbisth: to spend time wth somebody or ‘Something s0 that you gradually lean more about them: The fst couple of meetings ara for the doctor and patient (0 get fo know each other join BECOME A MEMBER vorb [I or T]:to become & ‘member ofan organisation: et so unit afer Christmas ‘that | dacied toon a gym, ‘ake part tobe involved in an actvty with ther people: ‘She doesn't usually take part in any ofthe class activites. know or find out? 1 you know something you aady have the information. ‘Ady koows what te the tain leaves. Ifyou find something out, you leam new information for ta fist time, tring the station to nd out what time the tain leaves. lear, teach or study? ‘Toleam sto gt naw knowledge or skis. ‘want to leam how to orive. ‘When you teach someone, you give them new knowledge orshals, My dad tought me how to ave, ‘When you study, you go to classes, read books, et. 10 ‘ty to understand new ideas an tats, Has studying biology at university. Unit 7, Vocabulary, Exercise 2 (page 80) look, see or wateh? ‘See means to natce people and things with your eyes. ‘She saw a big spider and screamed. ‘Look (at) is used when you are trying to see something ‘orsomeane.I looks followed by an object, you must use a preposition, The usual proposition is at J've looked everywhere, but cant rd my kes. “Hooked a te map to find the road. ‘Watch means fo look at something for a period of time, usually something which moves or changes. He watched television al evening. liste, listen to or hear? Use hear when you want to say tat sounds, musi, etc. come to your ears. You can hear something witout wanting to. | could hear his muse trough the wall. Use listen to say that you pay attention to sounds or try to hear something The audience listened careully. Use listen to when you wantto say what itis that you are tuying to hear The audience listed 10 the speaker Unit 8, Vocabulary, Exercise 6 (page 87) ‘acting noun {U} the job of performing in fis or plays: He wants to get into acting. audience group noun [C] he grous of people gathered in one piace to watch or listen to a ply, fl, someone ‘speaking, et, oF the (numberof) people watching or listening to a particular television or radio programme, oF reading particular book performance noun [C] the action of entertaining other people by dancing, singing acting or playing music play noun 0] piece of wring that i intended to be ‘acted in a theatre or on radio or telavision (the) public noun [U + singular or plural ver) all ordinary people ‘scene noun [C] a part of a play or fim in which the action slay in one place fora continvous period of time ‘spectator nour [C] a person who watches an activity, ‘especially @ sports even, without taking part ‘stage noun [C] the area in@ theatre whichis often raised ‘above ground level and on which aolors or entertainers periorm Unit 9, Vocabulary, Exercise 1 (page 98) stay verb (0 continue doing something, orto continue t= boin a particular sate He's decided not ta stayin teaching. ‘Te shops stay open unl nine o'clock. ‘spend verb fo use ime ding something or being somewhere: -My sisor always sponds ages inthe bathroom. pase verb Ifyou pass tine, you do something to scp {yoursel being bored during int prod: The visors pass ter cays swimming, windsuring and plying voleyba make verb (+ nounfajective to cause tobe, to becom orto appear es {tthe good weather that makes Span such a populer tourist destination. Dont stand aver me athe tine makos me menus. ‘cause verb to make something happen, especially ‘something bad: The diftcl ding conditions caused several accidents ‘Some common collocations with cause: cause trouble cause problems, cause damage, cause tafe jams, cause stress, cause pollution. Note, however, these collcations: have an effect (on): The good weather has had a beneficial effect on his hoatth and happiness. rhavelmake an impact (on) The anti-smoking campaign hhadimade quite an impact on young peopl, Unit 10, Vocabulary, Exercise 1 (page 110) arrive (+ at} verb to roach a place, especially atthe end ofa journey: Itwas dark by te time we arived a the station. “You arrive ata building or part of a building: We anived at th thoate just asthe play was starting. ‘You arrive in a town, cy or country: Wen ei you amie in London? ‘You arrive home/herefthere: Wo anived home yesterday. get (+ to) vorb to reach or arve at a place: if you get othe ote before us, just wat at reception, ‘You get home/herefthere: \What time does he nomally get home? reach verb to arve at a place, especialy alter spending 2 long time ora lot of effort traveling We nally reached the hotel just ater midnight. tis not normally followed by a preposition. tis not normally used with here a here. nit 12, Vocabulary, Exercise 2 (page 129) prevent verb to stop something from happening of someone from doing something: Label your sucases (o prevent contusion, avold verb to stay away trom someone or something fat early to avoid the taf. protect verb to ep someone or something safe from ‘jury, damage or loss: £3 important to protect your skin trom the hanmiul effects of the sun. check verb to make certain that something or someone ‘correct, sae or suitable by examining ita tham quickly ou should always check your ol, water and tyes before ‘2king your car ona lang tip. Ater 0 fished the exam, ‘chocked my answers for mistakes. supervise vorb to watch a person or actity to make -csriain that everything is done correctly, sally, etc. ‘Tre UN's supervising the distabuton of ad by local -2zencies inthe clsastararoa. control verb to order, mi, instruct or rule something, or someones acons or behaviour ¥ you can't contol your dog, putt on a feed! ‘Tre temperature is controled by a thermostat P an eye on to watch or look afer something oF you keep your eye on my suitcase while | go to get re ticks? Unit 13, Vocabulary, Exercise 2 (pagemma) ‘pace EMPTY PLACE noun [C or U] an empty ares ‘whichis available to bo used: |s there any space fr my clothes in that cupboars? place AREA noun [C] an area, town, bling, ete: Fer garden was a cool, pleasant place to sit [Ua suitable area, building, situation or oocasion: University is @ grat place for making new fends. oom SPACE noun [C or UJ] the amount of space that ‘someone or something needs: That sofa woul toko up 100 much room inthe at. area PLACE noun [C or Ua partular part ofa place, piece of land or country All areas ofthe country wil have some rain tonight. location POSITION noun [C oF U] SLIGHTLY FORMAL ‘place or position ‘The hotels in lovely locaton overlooking the lake. ‘A map showing the locaton ofthe propery wil be sent to you. ‘square SHAPE noun [C] an area of approximately ‘square-shaped land ina city or a town, offen including the builings that suround it A band were playing inthe town square. Writing reference What to expect in the exam ‘The Whiting paper is Paper 2 Itlasts 1 hour and 20 minutes, You do two tasks. | “+ In Part there is one tas (an essay) which you must do. «+ InPare2, you choose one of three tasks. Part 1: Essays ‘You wite an essay. The purpose ofan essay isforyouto

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