Flight Maneuvers

FLIGHT MANEUVERS
HOVERING MANEUVERS :
● Vertical takeoff / Vertical landing

● Surface taxi
● Hover taxi
● Air taxi
● Slope operation
TAKEOFFS - LANDINGS AND GO-AROUNDS :
● Normal and crosswind takeoff and climb

● Maximum performance takeoff and climb
● Normal and crosswind approach
● Steep approach
● Shallow approach and Running landing
● Go-around
FUNDAMENTALS OF FLIGHT :
● Straight-and-level flight
● Level turns
● Straight climbs and climbing turns
● Straight descents and descending turns
PERFORMANCE MANEUVERS :
● Rapid deceleration - Quick stop

● Straight-in autorotation
● 180° autorotation
EMERGENCY OPERATIONS :
● Power failure at a hover

● Power failure at altitude
● Settling with power
● Low RPM recovery
● Anti-torque system failure
● Dynamic rollover
● Ground resonance
● Low “G” conditions
● Systems and equipment malfunctions
● Emergency equipment and survival gear
SPECIAL OPERATIONS :
● Confined area operation

● Pinnacle/Platform operation
FLIGHT MANEUVERS - HOVERING MANEUVERS
● Vertical takeoff and landing.
● Surface taxi.
● Hover taxi.
● Air taxi.
● Slope operation.
HOVERING MANEUVERS - Vertical takeoff
PURPOSE :
Used to transition the helicopter from the ground to a stabilized 3-5 foot hover while
remaining over a centered point.
A vertical takeoff to a hover involves flying the helicopter from the ground vertically.
The helicopter should remain nearly motionless over a reference point at a constant altitude
and on a constant heading.
HOW ?
1. Visually clear the helicopter left, right, front and overhead for obstructions and traffic.
Skids clear.
2. Instruments check (gauges in the green, fuel as required, carburetor heat adjusted
out of the yellow, no warning lights, governor on, RPM’s top of the green)
3. Eyes outside in front of the helicopter (pick a non moving reference point).
4. Little left pedal (to prevent the yaw as the collective will be raised due to the
increased torque).
Little left cyclic to counteract the drift due to the translating tendency.
5. Very slowly, raise the collective until the helicopter gets light on the skids.
6. If the helicopter moves : stop raising collective.
7. Neutralize all aircraft movement with the cyclic and pedals (yaw with pedals - drift
with cyclic).
8. Continue to increase the collective smoothly and slowly. As the helicopter slowly
leaves the ground, check for proper attitude control response and helicopter center
of gravity or control issues.
9. Maintaining heading with slight pedal corrections.
10. The helicopter should rise vertically.
11. Maintain heading with pedals, maintain position over the ground with the cyclic and
maintain altitude with the collective.
Helicopters usually hover left side low due to the tail rotor thrust being counteract by
the main rotor tilt.
A nose low or high condition is generally caused by loading.
12. Establish a 3’ hover.
13. Instruments check and perform a power check to verify how much power is used on
the manifold pressure.
COMMON ERRORS :
● Failure to ascend vertically at a suitable rate.

● Pulling excessive collective to become airborne, causing the helicopter to gain too
much altitude.
● Failure to recognize and correct undesirable drift.
● Improper heading control.
● Overcontrol of cyclic, collective or pedals.
NOTES :
● Forward CG : nose of the helicopter will remain on the ground as the tail/heels of the
skids raise off the ground first.
● Rearward CG : nose of the helicopter will rise off the ground first.
● Lateral CG : one side may lift off sooner than the other.
● Be aware : potential dynamic rollover.
● Maintains positions within 4 feet (for private) or 2 feet (for commercial) of a
designated point with no aft movement.
● Ascends vertically to within 4 feet (for private) or 2 feet (for commercial) of the
designated touchdown point.
● Maintains specified heading +/- 10°.
● To maintain altitude with governor off : increase the collective, this increase drag on
the blades and tends to slow them down. To counteract the drag and maintain RPM :
increase the throttle. Increased the throttle means increased torque : add more pedal
pressure to maintain the heading.
● A slow takeoff gives the pilot more time to adjust for the translating tendency, making
the takeoff smoother and more controlled.
● If things do no feel or look right, slowly lower the collective and land the helicopter
● “Level attitude” is used during hovering flight : helicopter remain stationary without
excessive tilt of the fuselage.Translating tendency, winds and weight and balance all
contribute to the fuselage hanging at some angle to the surface.
HOVERING MANEUVERS - Vertical landing
PURPOSE :
Used to transition the helicopter from a stabilized hover to the surface.
HOW ?
1. From a stabilized 3 foot hover. Headed into the wind.
2. Lower the collective slightly to establish a slow rate of sink.
3. Small amount of right pedal to maintain heading (to decrease anti-torque thrust).
4. Eyes outside in front of the helicopter (pick a non moving reference point, not
immediately in front of the helicopter as this will lead to over controlling).
5. As the helicopter descends, additional downward pressure on the collective may be

necessary to overcome the increase in ground effect.
6. As the skids make ground contact, neutralize all aircraft movement with cyclic and
pedals.
7. Continue to lower the collective smoothly until is full down.
8. Due to the nose low attitude of the R22 (with 2 people aboard), the toes of the skids
will normally touch first on level terrain.
9. A slight amount of forward and left cyclic will be necessary as ground contact is
made.
COMMON ERRORS :
● Touching down with forward movement.
● Failure to descend at a controlled rate :

○ Approaching too slow, requiring the use of excessive power during the
termination.
○ Approaching too fast, causing a hard landing.
● Rapidly lowering the collective at the first touch of the skid to the ground.
● Failure to recognize and correct undesirable drift.
● Improper heading control with the pedals.
● Overcontrol of cyclic, collective and pedals.
NOTES :
● The toe(s) or heel(s) of one or both skids may touch the ground first.
● Lateral CG should be taken into consideration, as the helicopter may be right-skid or
left-skid heavy.
● In a forward, left-skid-heavy situation the left toe of the skid will touch down first,
followed by the left heel, then right skid.
● Treat every landing as a slope landing and never rapidly lower the collective
on the first contact with the ground.
● Be aware of the potential dynamic rollover.
● Maintains position within 4 feet (for private) or 2 feet (for commercial) of a
designated point, with no aft movement.
● Descends vertically to within 4 feet (for private) or 2 feet (for commercial) of the
designated touchdown point.
● Maintains specified heading +/-10°.
HOVERING MANEUVERS - Surface taxi
PURPOSE :
Used when the helicopter is unable to maintain a hover due to inadequate power.
Used to minimize the effects of rotor downwash.
Surface taxiing is the intentional movement of the helicopter, under its own power, while the
skids remain in contact with the ground surface.
Regardless of the type of landing gear, this maneuver should only be performed on smooth
level surfaces.
HOW ?
1. Starts from a stationary position on a smooth surface.

Collective pitch full down and the cyclic in the neutral position.
2. Tilt the rotor disc slightly forward and apply a gradual upward pressure on the
collective until the helicopter begins to move forward along the surface.
3. Pedals maintain the heading.
4. Cyclic maintains ground track.
5. Collective controls starting, stopping and rate of speed.

The higher the collective pitch, the faster the taxi speed.
6. Surface taxi at a speed no greater than a slow walk.
7. During crosswind taxi, hold the cyclic into the wind to eliminate any drifting
movement.
COMMON ERRORS :
Failure to keep skids aligned with path of movement (beware of dynamic rollover).
Failure to maintain runway/taxiway centerline between helicopter skids.
Improper use of cyclic.
Use of aft cyclic to slow down or control speed.
NOTES :
● As it accelerates, it is important to remove the additional forward cyclic in order to

maintain unaccelerated taxiing speed.
● Avoid excessive cyclic displacement while surface taxiing or on the ground which
can lead to main rotor blades contacting the helicopter or rotor mast.
● If skis are stuck to the surface, it may take some power to break them loose.
● Alternative method to taking off in white or brownout conditions by blowing the
obstruction material behind the helicopter as some airspeed is reached and certainly
by translational lift speed.
● Caution should be observed to prevent the landing gear from being stuck to the
surface or striking something on the takeoff surface, leading to the dynamic rollover.
● Stops helicopter within +/- 4 feet (for private) or +/- 2 feet (for commercial) of a
specified point.
● Maintains specified track within +/- feet (for private) or +/- 2 feet (for
commercial).
HOVERING MANEUVERS - Hover taxi
PURPOSE :
Used to maneuver the helicopter from one location to another while hovering above the
ground in a safe and stabilized manner.
Helicopter movement conducted above the surface and in ground effect at airspeeds less
than approximately 20 Kt.
HOW ?
1. From a stabilized 3 foot hover, smoothly move the cyclic towards the direction of
flight.
2. Maintain altitude with the collective and heading with the pedals.
3. As movement begins, adjust the cyclic to keep the ground speed at a constant rate
as a walking pace over the ground. (we don’t want reach ETL).
4. Keep your eyes focused outside at least 50 feet along the intended flight path.
5. Cyclic controls the flight path and speed.

Collective controls height above ground.
6. Pedals controls heading.
7. To stop : apply cyclic opposite of the direction of movement.
8. During all phases of hovering, cyclic changes should be small and smooth to
minimize the effects of overcontrolling or pendular action.
9. A hover taxi should always be completed with the skids aligned with the intended
path.
10. Never crab into the wind.

11. The cyclic must be inclined into the wind enough to cancel out any tendency for the
helicopter to drift.
COMMON ERRORS :
Improper control of heading and track resulting in excessive heading change.

Erratic altitude control.
Misuse of flight controls.
Overcontrolling tendencies cyclic inputs resulting in erratic movement over the surface.
NOTES :
● Fix any mistakes as you go and use small controlled inputs.

● Maintains specified ground track within +/- 4 feet of a designated reference (for
private) or within +/- 2 feet (for commercial) on straight legs.
● Maintains constant rate of turn at pivot points.
● Maintains position within +/- 4 feet (for private) or +/- 2 feet (for commercial) of
each pivot point during turns.
● Private : makes a 360° pivoting turn, left and right, stopping within 10° of a specified
heading.
● Commercial : makes 90°, 180° and 360° pivoting turns, stopping within 10° of
specified heading.
● Maintains recommended hovering altitude (3’ above obstacles).
HOVERING MANEUVERS - Air taxi
PURPOSE :
If you cannot make an approach and landing to the shutdown area, we will have to taxi to
the spot.
In a helicopter with skids, this is usually accomplished by slow controlled movement, at
hovering altitude to the intended touchdown spot = hover taxi.
If there is a great distance to cover = use an air taxi (airport).
It is expected that the helicopter will remain below 100 feet AGL with an appropriate
airspeed and will avoid over flight of other aircraft, vehicles and personnel.
HOW ?
1. Be aware of crosswind conditions that could lead to loss of tail rotor effectiveness.
2. From a normal hovering altitude, apply forward cyclic to accelerate the helicopter -
avoid excessive nose low attitude.
3. Maintain heading with pedals.
4. Maintain altitude with collective.
5. Maintain ground track with cyclic.
6. Waiting for the vibrations (transverse flow effect) and ETL to apply more forward
cyclic for a 40Kt attitude.
7. Adjust collective to maintain altitude.
8. Constantly accelerate to 40 Kt with 3-5 feet skid height - keep eyes outside.
9. Coming up on 40 Kt attitude, apply little aft cyclic to climb to 20 feet - keep eyes
outside.
10. Adjust cyclic, collective and pedals to maintain 20 feet and 40 Kt.
Combination airspeed/altitude remains out of the cross-hatched / shaded area of the
height-velocity diagram.
COMMON ERRORS :
● Erratic movement of the cyclic, resulting in improper airspeed control and erratic
movement over the surface.
● Failure to use proper antitorque pedal control, resulting in excessive heading
change.
● Failure to maintain desired altitude.
● Overflying parked aircraft causing possible damage from rotor downwash.
● Flying in the cross-hatched or shaded area of the height velocity diagram.
● Flying in a crosswind that could lead to loss of tail rotor effectiveness.
● Excessive tail-low attitudes.
● Excessive power used or required to stop.
● Failure to maintain alignment with direction of travel.
HOVERING MANEUVERS - Slope operation
PURPOSE :
Used to land on a sloping surface from a hover and to takeoff from a sloping surface to a
hover.
HOW ?
Be aware of dynamic rollover characteristics and mast bumping.

Use a maximum slope angle of 5°.
Always approach and depart the slope at 45° angle to ensure tail rotor clearance from
obstacles.
Never turn your tail rotor into the slope.
When entering and exiting the slope area, the pilot should visually check the area for the tail
rotor, then announce “tail clear”.
Landing from a slope :
1. Approach the slope at a 45° angle and once over the spot, clear tail rotor.
2. Perform a slow pedal turn to position the helicopter parallel with the slope at a
stabilized 3 foot hover headed into the wind when possible.
3. When ready, slowly and slightly lower the collective to establish a slow rate of
descent.
4. Focus on your eyes outside, on a point at least 20 feet in front of the helicopter.
5. When the upslope skid contacts the ground, stabilize all movement.
Begin applying lateral cyclic gently in the direction of the slope (upslope) to hold the
skid against the slope and maintain the helicopter level.
6. Maintain heading with pedals. Control attitude with cyclic.
7. Hold the one skid and hover momentarily while the helicopter is stabilized.
8. Lower collective slowly while simultaneously applying gentle lateral cyclic in the
direction of the slope to hold the uphill skid in place.
9. If at any time the cyclic hits the hard stop and no more cyclic travel is available
before the downhill skid settles to the ground, abort the landing and pick a new
slope.
10. Slowly lower the collective to the hard stop.
11. Once the downhill skid settles to the ground, continue to lower the collective ⅔ down.
12. Check stability with forward / aft cyclic (slow movements).
13. Check stability with left / right pedals (slow movements).
14. Lower the collective all the way down, slowly center the cyclic so the rotor disc is
parallel with the slope, center pedals.
15. Check the skids.
COMMON ERRORS :
● Failing to consider wind effects during the approach and landing.

● Failing to maintain heading resulting in a turning or pivoting motion
● Turning the tail of the helicopter into the slope.
● Lowering the downslope skid or wheel too rapidly.
● Applying excessive cyclic control into the slope, causing mast bumping.
NOTES :
● Be aware of any abnormal vibration or mast bumping that signals maximum cyclic
deflection. If this occurs, abandon the landing because the slope is too steep.
● Putting the right skid upslope allows greater lateral control due to translating
tendency.
● Conversely, a left skid upslope restricts the amount of lateral cyclic available.
● With a counterclockwise rotor system, landings can be made on steeper slopes
when using left cyclic to the right.
● When landing on slopes using left cyclic, some cyclic input must be used to
overcome the translating tendency.
● Consider the drifting tendency when determining landing direction.
● Normal operating RPM should be maintained until the full weight of the helicopter is
on the landing gear.
● This ensures adequate RPM for immediate takeoff in case of helicopter starts sliding
down the slope.
● It’s easier to land on the slope where the uphill side is to the right and the wind is
coming from the downslope side.
● It’s preferable to land the helicopter uphill from people so they can approach the
helicopter from the downhill side.
● Approaching from the downhill side provides greater main rotor clearance between
the rotor system and the downward sloping ground.
Takeoff from a slope :
It’s the reverse of a slope landing.
1. Clear area and skids.
2. Instruments check.
3. Apply lateral cyclic into the slope (upslope).
4. Slowly begin to increase the collective.
5. As the downslope skid becomes light, neutralize any aircraft movement.
6. Continue to slowly increase the collective while maintaining heading with pedals.
7. The uphill is now a pivot point, be aware of potential dynamic rollover uphill.
8. When the downslope skid breaks ground and the aircraft begins to level, slowly
begin to center the cyclic while simultaneously keeping the uphill skid held firmly on
the ground.
9. As a level attitude is reached, the cyclic should be approximately neutral and the
helicopter will be in a light, one skid hover.
10. Continue to increase the collective until the uphill skid breaks ground.
11. Maintain position over the ground with the cyclic and heading with the pedals until a
stabilized 3 foot hover is attained.
12. Depart the slope area at 45° angle and never turn your tail into the slope.
COMMON ERRORS :
● Rushing the maneuver.

● Failure to adjust cyclic control to keep the helicopter from sliding downslope.
● Holding excessive cyclic into the slope as the down slope skid is raised.
● Improper selection of approach to, or departure from the slope.
● Failure to consider wind effects.
● Turning tail towards the slope.
● Lowering downslope skid too fast.
● Allowing conditions that could lead to dynamic rollover.
● Improper heading control with pedals.
NOTES :
● Rushing may result in overcontrolling the helicopter.

● A good exercise is to practice going from the full down position to a one skid hover
and then back to the full down position.
● If an upslope wind exists, execute a crosswind takeoff and then make a turn into the
wind after clearing the tail rotor.
● Maintains the specified heading throughout the operation +/- 10° (for private)
or +/- 5° (for commercial).
FLIGHT MANEUVERS - TAKEOFFS, LANDINGS AND
GO-AROUNDS
● Normal and crosswind takeoff and climb.
● Maximum performance takeoff and climb.
● Rolling takeoff.
● Normal and crosswind approach.
● Steep approach.
● Shallow approach and running landing.
● Go around.
● Approach and landing with simulated powerplant failure - multiengine helicopter.

TAKEOFFS, LANDINGS AND GO-AROUNDS /
Normal and crosswind takeoff and climb
PURPOSE :
The purpose of practicing a normal takeoff from a hover is to transition the helicopter from a
stabilized hover to a normal climb over a specified ground track.
HOW ?
1. Review the power available chart for appropriate climb power (MCP and 5’ T/O).
2. Clear the airspace of traffic with a 360° clearing turn and complete a before takeoff
check (TWIN check).
3. Instruments check (engine instruments green, fuel as required, carburetor heat out of
the yellow arc, no warning lights, RPM’s in the green).
4. 3 foot hover height.
5. Nose into the direction of takeoff (upwind).
6. Radio call (clearance from the tower, UNICOM frequency).
7. From a stabilized 3 foot hover, select an object along the takeoff path to use as a
reference point for maintaining ground track.
8. Begin the takeoff with a small amount of forward/left cyclic to get the helicopter
moving forward.
9. If the helicopter begins to settle (the in ground effect is less and the vector lift
becomes more horizontal), increase the collective to hold a 3 foot altitude and
maintain heading with pedals.
10. Waiting vibrations : transverse flow effect, the nose pitch up (more lift in the front
and stops the acceleration), apply more forward cyclic and left cyclic for the
dissymmetry of lift.
11. As the airspeed increases, the streamlining of the fuselage reduces engine torque
effect, requiring a gradual reduction of antitorque pedal pressure, and the increased
efficiency of the tail rotor will cause a left yaw (effective translational thrust), requiring
a right pedal correction.
12. Just as translational lift occurs, translational thrust follows. ETL occurs.
This gives two effects that must be countered by adjusting the pedals as the climb
begins.
13. Continue to smoothly accelerate with more forward cyclic, maintaining a ground track
to 50 KIAS of airspeed.
14. Keep an altitude of 10 feet and airspeed of 50 KIAS (height/velocity diagram).
15. Coming up on 40 Kt, apply gentle aft cyclic to rotate the helicopter into a climb while
continuing accelerate and raise collective for the desired rate of climb and pedals for
trim.
16. Adjust collective 5’ T/O, be aware to not exceed approved limits.
17. Best rate of climb 53 Kt for the R22 (less drag), climb at least 500 feet/min or more.
18. If crosswind : climb at least 300 feet before turning crosswind.
19. During crosswind takeoff : above 50 feet, crab the helicopter into the wind by putting
the aircraft in trim with the pedals and maintaining ground track with cyclic.
20. The stronger the crosswind, the more the helicopter has to be turned into the wind.
COMMON ERRORS :
● Forgetting before takeoff checks.

● Applying too much forward cyclic from initial hover.
● Inability to control aircraft heading with pedal.
● Failure to anticipate the additional lift from ETL.
● Failure to keep desired ground track.
● Allowing the aircraft’s nose to pitch up too much during the ETL transition.
● Failure to use sufficient collective pitch to prevent loss of altitude prior to attaining
translational lift.
● Adding power too rapidly at the beginning of the transition from hovering to forward
flight without forward cyclic compensation, causing the helicopter to gain excessive
altitude before acquiring airspeed.
● Failure to maintain proper airspeed during the climb.
● Failure to transition to a level crab to maintain ground track.
NOTES :
● During the takeoff, the acceleration to climb speed and the appropriate altitude
gain should be accomplished without entering the shaded areas of the
height-velocity diagram.
● When the takeoff is made during crosswind conditions, the helicopter is flown in a
slip during early stages of the maneuver. The cyclic is held into the wind a sufficient
amount to maintain the desired ground track for the takeoff. The heading is
maintained with the use of the antitorque pedals.
● The rotor is tilted into the wind so the sideward movement of the helicopter is just
enough to counteract the crosswind effect. To prevent the nose from turning in the
direction of the rotor tilt, it is necessary to increase the antitorque pedal pressure on
the side opposite the rotor tilt.
● At about 5 Kt, ground effect diminishes and a helicopter begins to sink : power
should be added to prevent this sink.
● Any power change requires a cyclic adjustment to accommodate the increased
translating tendency.
● As speed increases, directional stability increases, so the need for left pedal
decreases
● After the helicopter has transitioned through ETL, the student should begin to crab
the helicopter (trim), improving the climb performance.
● Instructing students to look well ahead of the helicopter and to scan for traffic.
Maximum performance takeoff and climb
PURPOSE :
Used to climb at a steep angle to clear barriers in the flightpath.

Used when taking off from small areas surrounded by high obstacles.
To simulate obstruction clearance and transition the helicopter from the surface to a
maximum performance climb from a confined area over an obstacle.
HOW ?
1. Reposition the helicopter to the most downwind area to allow a longer takeoff climb
(if possible) and into the wind.
2. On the ground, check the manifold pressure limit chart to determine the maximum
power available at the given pressure altitude and temperature.
3. Clear the aircraft left, right, skids and overhead.
4. Complete a before T/O instruments check (engine instruments in the green, fuel as
required, carburetor heat out of the yellow, RPM’s in the green, no warning lights).
5. Radio call (clearance in airport or UNICOM frequency).
6. Eyes outside, select a reference point along the T/O path to maintain ground track.
Consider alternate routes in case the maneuver is not possible.
7. Start the T/O by slowly raising the collective until the helicopter becomes light on its
skids.
8. While light on the skids, neutralize all movements of the helicopter.
9. Slowly increase the collective and position the cyclic so to break ground and
maintain a 40 KIAS attitude (approximately the same attitude as when the helicopter
is light on the skids).
10. Continue to slowly increase the collective until you reach the maximum power
available.
11. This large collective movement will require a substantial increase in left pedal to
maintain heading.
12. At 50 feet of altitude (for demonstration purposes) or when clear of obstacles, slowly
lower the nose by adding forward cyclic gently to accelerate to a normal climb speed
(60 KIAS), attaining efficiency of ETL.
13. As the airspeed passes 60 KIAS, reduce the collective to normal climb power (hover
power manifold pressure).
COMMON ERRORS :
● Failure to consider performance date, including height/velocity diagram.

● Nose too low initially causing horizontal flight rather than more vertical flight.
● Failure to resume normal climb/power airspeed after passing over the obstacle.
● Once above ETL, failure to increase collective to resume maximum climb.
● Inability to stay within the limitations of the helicopter (failure to maintain maximum
permissible RPM).
● Improper inputs to all 3 controls, abrupt control movements.
● Failure to do before takeoff check.
NOTES :
● Before attempting a maximum performance takeoff, know thoroughly the capabilities

and limitations of the equipment.
● Consider the wind velocity, temperature, density altitude, gross weight, CG location
and other factors affecting pilot technique and the performance of the helicopter.
● To takeoff safely, there must be enough power to hover OGE in order to prevent the
helicopter from sinking back to the surface after becoming airborne (note the
difference between the power available and the power required to hover.)
● Advantages of initiating this maneuver from the ground : IGE hover requires less
power due to :
○ the reduced induce flow through the rotor disk,
○ the lift vector increases (using a lesser blade angle for the same amount of
lift), because the surface area disperses the airflow outward,
○ the blade tip vortices are reduced resulting in larger portions of the blades
producing lift.
● Establish a proposed flightpath that maintains rotor and skid clearance along the
entire flightpath.
● Be aware that anytime it appears that the maneuver cannot be completed due to lack
of available power other limitations, or that the obstacle cannot be cleared : abort the
maneuver. Descending rearward along the same flightpath.
● A rotor drop and/or decrease in power causes the aircraft to descent
● Don’t rush the maneuver, there should be a balance between obtaining ETL and
continuing to climb.
● The increased rotor efficiency of passing through ETL should be achieved as
soon as possible to reduce power requirements.
● The angle of climb for a maximum performance takeoff depends on existing
conditions.
● The more critical the conditions are, such high density altitude, calm winds
and high gross weights, the shallower the angle of climb is.
● In light or no wind conditions, it might be necessary to operate in the crosshatched or
shaded areas of height/velocity diagram during the beginning of the maneuver.
● In most light helicopters, this maneuver require to operate within the crosshatched or
shaded areas of the height/velocity curve.
Check engine condition by monitoring the engine instruments and apply
maximum power smoothly and slowly in order to prevent exceeding the engine
limitations.
● With the high power settings, the collective must be lowered immediately if
there is an engine failure. An engine failure at a low altitude and airspeed could
place the helicopter in a dangerous position.
● After clearing all obstacles, transitions to normal climb attitude, airspeed +/- 10 Kt
(for private) and +/- 5 Kt (for commercial), and power setting.
● Remains aware of the possibility of wind shear and/or wake turbulence.
● Maintains proper ground track with crosswind correction, if necessary.
Rolling - Running takeoff
PURPOSE :
The purpose of practicing a running takeoff is to simulate a high-density altitude or high

gross weight situation when a hover cannot be sustained.
HOW ?
1. To simulate a high altitude condition, limit the amount of power you are be able to
use first by reducing the manifold pressure limit by 2’’.
2. Clear the area around the helicopter to the right and left, in front and above.
3. Start the takeoff by slowly raising the collective until the helicopter becomes light on
its skids.
4. While light on the skids, neutralize all movements of the helicopter.
5. Continue to slowly increase the collective until manifold pressure is 2’’ below noted
hover power (for training).
6. Apply forward cyclic from the neutral hovering position to get the helicopter sliding
forward on the surface.
7. Maintain a straight ground track with lateral cyclic and heading with pedals.The skids
must stay aligned with the takeoff direction until the helicopter leaves the surface to
avoid dynamic rollover.
8. As the aircraft gains ETL, the helicopter becomes airborne, use slight back pressure
on the cyclic to lift the helicopter off the ground.
9. Maintain a straight ground track with lateral cyclic and heading with antitorque pedals
until a climb is established.
10. A small amount of lateral cyclic may be needed to correct for drift.
11. When the helicopter lifts off the ground and the blades begin to cone, the RPM will
increase, causing the governor to decrease the throttle and in turn, lower the power
available. To counteract this, increase the collective to maintain the original power
setting.
12. Continue to accelerate, remaining below 10 feet to stay in ground effect and within
the height velocity diagram until a minimum climb speed of at least 45 KIAS is
reached.
13. At 50 feet of altitude, adjust manifold pressure to climb power (hover manifold
pressure and resume a normal climb at 60 KIAS.
COMMON ERRORS :
● Too much forward cyclic during the surface run.

● Failure to keep heading aligned with ground track.
● Exceeding manifold pressure limits.
● Failure to obtain ETL before departing the ground.
● Losing ETL once airborne by lowering the nose too much after becoming airborne,
resulting in the helicopter settling back to the surface.
● Failure to remain below the recommended altitude until airspeed approaches normal
climb speed.
NOTES :
● Avoid a running T/O if there is not sufficient power to hover.

● Initially it will take a fair amount of cyclic to start the helicopter moving.
Once it has begun, a reduction of forward cyclic may be necessary.
● It initially requires more forward cyclic control to accelerate the helicopter on the
ground, against the resistance of the skids than it does to maintain the slightly nose
down attitude required for acceleration in the air.
● Once airborne, the helicopter should be held in ground effect until climb speed
is reached.
● Be caution of dynamic rollover and always practice on smooth surfaces and there’s
no barriers or obstacles in the flightpath to interfere with a shallow climb.
● The greater the headwind component, the easier it is to get the helicopter off the
ground when power is limited.
● In a crosswind, cyclic must be applied into the wind to keep the ground track parallel.
Maintain this attitude even after leaving the ground. Only after climb speed is
reached and the climb has begun, should the helicopter be crabbed into the wind.
● Transitions to a normal climb airspeed +/- 10 Kt (for private) or +/- 5 Kt for
commercial and power setting.
● Maintains proper ground track with crosswind correction if necessary.
● Check the condition of the skids shoes before and after practicing running takeoffs
and landing.
Normal and crosswind approach
PURPOSE :
Used to transition from flight at altitude to a stabilized 3-5 foot hover.

A normal approach uses a descent profile of between 7° and 12° starting 300-500 feet AGL.
HOW ?
Normal approach to a hover
1. On final approach, the helicopter should be headed into the wind, aligned with the
point of intended touchdown and at 60 KIAS and 300 feet AGL.
2. When a normal approach angle of 10° is intercepted, begin the approach by lowering
the collective sufficiently to establish descent at the proper approach angle.
3. With the decrease in collective, the nose will tend to pitch down, requiring aft cyclic to
maintain a 60 KIAS attitude and right pedal to maintain heading.
4. During the approach :

i. use the cyclic to control the rate of closure,
ii. use the collective to control the rate of descent,
iii. use the pedals to control the heading.
5. Maintain entry airspeed until the apparent ground speed and rate of closure appear
to be increasing, then slowly, begin decelerating with slight aft cyclic to slow the
helicopter and smoothly lower the collective to maintain approach angle.
6. If a crosswind condition exists, crab into the wind above 50 feet.
7. At approximately 25 to 40 feet, and dependent upon the wind, the helicopter will
begin to lose effective translational lift. This loss will be felt as a lateral vibration and
the aircraft will begin to settle.
The pilot must anticipate the loss of ETL and compensate with increased collective to
maintain the approach angle..
8. This increase of collective pitch tends to make the nose rise, requiring forward cyclic
to maintain proper rate of closure.
9. As the helicopter approaches an altitude of 3 feet, increase the collective to hold a 3

foot hover.
10. Maintain aircraft heading with pedals. Slight aft cyclic input may be necessary to stop
any forward movement.
The most important is maintaining a consistent angle of approach to the termination

point.
COMMON ERRORS :
● Improper use of cyclic to control rate of closure.

● Improper use of collective to control rate of descent.
● Failure to coordinate pedal corrections with power changes.sing too much aft cyclic
close to the surface, which may result in tail rotor strikes.
● Maintaining a constant airspeed on final approach instead of an apparent walking
pace.
● Failure to crab above 100’ AGL and slip below 100’ AGL.
● Failure to arrive at termination point at zero ground speed.
NOTES :
● The student can determine the proper approach angle by relating the point of
intended touchdown to a point on the helicopter windshield.
● The collective controls the angle of approach.
● If the touchdown point seems to be moving up on the windshields, the angle is
becoming shallower, necessitating a slight increase in collective.
● If the touchdown point moves down on the windshield, the approach angle is
becoming steeper, requiring a slight decrease in collective.
● Considers the wind conditions, landing surface and obstacles.
● Establishes and maintains the normal approach angle and proper rate of closure.
● Helicopters require near maximum power to land because the inertia of the
helicopter in a descent must be overcome by lift in the rotor system.
● Be aware of the possibility of wind shear and/or wake turbulence.
● Avoids situations that may result in settling with power.
● Maintains ground track with crosswind correction if necessary.
● Aligning with the landing direction may allow the pilot to detect winds sooner and
detect obstructions (traffic on taxiway or runway…).
● Flying any path that is less than straight into an area on the approach azimuth
decreases the time available for hazard detection and low reconnaissance.
● Before turning, the student should be required to check for approaching traffic and
state whether the pattern is clear of conflicting traffic.
● During the approach, the power setting is usually quite low.
Most students wait until they are very close to the ground before adding power, this
can easily lead to overcontrolling, (usually done while transitioning through
translational lift).
● Arrives over the touchdown point for private) or termination point (for
commercial), on the surface or at stabilized hover +/- 4 feet (for private) or +/- 2
feet (for commercial).
TAKEOFFS, LANDINGS AND GO-AROUNDS / Steep approach
PURPOSE :
Used to transition from flight at altitude to a hover using a steeper than normal approach
angle due to obstacles along the intended flight path.
Used primarily when there are obstacles in the approach path that are too high to allow a
normal approach.
Used to avoid areas of turbulence around a pinnacle approach.
An approach angle of approximately 13° to 15° is considered a steep approach.
HOW ?
1. On final approach, the helicopter should be headed into the wind, aligned with the
point of intended touchdown, at 60 KIAS and 300 feet AGL.
2. The collective controls the angle of approach, the cyclic controls the rate of closure
and the path of flight, and the pedals control heading.
3. When passing the normal approach angle of 10°, begin the approach by lowering the
collective and applying aft cyclic to slow the helicopter. Use the proper antitorque
pedal for trim.
4. When the steep approach angle of 15° is intercepted, continue lowering the
collective so that the helicopter begins descending on the necessary approach angle.
Coordinate right pedal for trim.
Since this angle is steeper than a normal approach angle, the collective must be
reduced more than for a normal approach.
5. Continue to decelerate with slight aft cyclic and smoothly lower the collective to
maintain the approach angle.
6. Aft cyclic is required to decelerate sooner than a normal approach, and the rate of
closure becomes apparent at higher altitude.
7. Reference the touchdown point on the windshield to determine changes in the
approach angle.Visualize the location and fly the landing gear to 3 feet above the
intended touchdown point.
8. The helicopter should be kept in trim just prior to loss ETL (approximately 25 Kt).
Maintain a crab above 50 feet.
9. Maintain the approach angle and rate of descent with the collective, the rate of
closure with the cyclic, and trim with the pedals.
10. Avoid high rates of more than 300 feet per minute at airspeeds below 30 KIAS
because of the danger of settling with power.
11. Loss of ETL will occur higher above the ground during a steep approach, requiring
an increase in collective to prevent settling.
This action should be coordinated with left pedal for trim and forward cyclic.
12. Terminate at a stabilized 3 foot hover (or all the way down) by adding collective to
arrest the rate of descent, left pedal for yaw control and forward cyclic to level the
helicopter.
13. If unable to terminate the approach to a 3 foot hover due to increased power
demands of arresting the descent, terminate the approach to a low hover height
(between the ground and 1 foot) to avoid exceeding manifold pressure limits.
COMMON ERRORS :
● Improper approach angle (collective).

● Improper rate of closure (cyclic).
● Improper pedals inputs with power changes.
● Failure to arrive at termination point at zero airspeed.
● Unable to determine location of loss of ETL.
● Rate of descent too high when below ETL.
NOTES :
● Loss of ETL occurs higher in a steep approach, requiring an increase the collective
to prevent settling, and more forward cyclic to achieve the proper rate of closure.
● Don’t rush the maneuver, don’t fly the helicopter aggressively towards the ground.
● Plan on terminating to a hover or to the surface at a specific point.
● If you are going to overshoot the spot, don’t hesitate to perform a go-around.
It’s better to make a good decision early than to try to fix a bad approach during
times of high power demands and when in close proximity to the ground.
● Considers situations where this maneuver is recommended and factors related to a
steep approach including height/velocity information.
● Considers the wind conditions, landing surface and obstacles.
● Select a suitable termination point.
● Establishes and maintains the recommended approach angle (15° maximum) and
proper rate of closure.
● Avoids situations that can result in settling with power.
● Be aware that any wind effect is lost once the aircraft has descended below the
barriers surrounding a confined area, causing the aircraft to settle more quickly.
Additional power may be needed on a strong wind condition as the helicopter
descends below the barriers.
● Arrives at the termination point on the surface +/- 4 feet (for private) or +/- 2
feet (for commercial).
Shallow approach and running landing
PURPOSE :
Used to simulate an approach and landing when sufficient power for hovering is not
available due to a high density altitude, high gross weight or partial engine malfunction
(such as a failed magneto).
To compensate this lack of power, a shallow approach and running landing makes use of
translational lift until surface contact is made.
A glide angle for a shallow approach is approximately 3° to 5°.
HOW ?
1. To simulate : subtract 2’’ from hover power to simulate power available for landing.
2. Instruments check (gages green, carburetor heat full up, carb heat out of the yellow,
no warning lights, RPM’s in the green).
3. For a shallow approach, start the descent early (look for around a 300’/min descent
rate).
4. Lower the collective, right pedal, cyclic for a comfortable approach attitude.
5. On final approach, the helicopter should be headed into the wind at 60 KIAS and 300
feet AGL.
6. When a shallow approach angle of 5° is intercepted, begin the approach by lowering

the collective to maintain the approach angle.
7. When approach the ground, begin a slow deceleration with aft cyclic, maintain the
approach angle with the collective, and keep the aircraft in trim with the pedals.
8. Carburetor heat adjusted.

Crab the helicopter when above 50 feet AGL and use a slip below 50 feet AGL to
align the aircraft with the ground track.
9. It’s important that the helicopter’s skids are parallel with the ground track to avoid
possible dynamic rollover.
10. Plan to smoothly land the helicopter at the point of intended touchdown while
taking advantage of effective translational lift (ETL) by landing at or above ETL.
11. Reaching 3-5 feet over the taxiway, apply gentle aft cyclic to slow the helicopter
below ETL. Vibrations of ETL start.
12. The helicopter may be in a slight nose high position prior to ground contact.
Level the helicopter by adding forward cyclic.
13. Use collective inputs to ease the helicopter to the ground and to ensure a smooth
landing by maintaining 1-2 feet with collective.
The helicopter should arrive at the point of touchdown at or slightly above ETL. Since
translational lift diminishes rapidly at slow airspeeds, the deceleration must be
coordinated smoothly, at the same time keeping enough lift to prevent helicopter
from settling abruptly.
14. Let it settle on the taxiway while raising collective to as much 2’’ below hover power
to cushion landing.
15. After ground contact, maintain heading with pedals and ground track with the cyclic
forward to ensure clearance between tail boom and the rotor disk.
16. Gently lower the collective to slow helicopter down.
17. When the helicopter stops, slowly lower collective all the way down.
If the collective is lowered too rapidly, unanticipated yaw may occur, increasing the
risk of dynamic rollover.
Lowering the collective changes the amount of antitorque pedal needed, so a small
amount of right pedal may be required to keep the skids parallel to the path of travel.
In a R22, the helicopter may drift to the right due to translating tendency, and a small
amount of lateral pressure to the left may be required for directional control.
Do not apply any cyclic to help the helicopter slow down, but rather, use the friction
from the skids to do so.
COMMON ERRORS :
● Incorrect approach angle (too steep/shallow).

● Improper use of cyclic to control rate of closure.
● Failure to maintain directional control with the pedals.
● Loss of the additional lift with ETL.
● Landing the helicopter with a nose high/low attitude.
● Failure to maintain pedal control after touchdown.
● Failure to maintain ground track after touchdown
● Drifting to the right after touchdown.
● Utilizing insufficient collective and throttle to cushion a landing.
● Touching down at an excessive groundspeed for the existing conditions.
NOTES :
● The landing area should be smooth and the landing gear must be long enough to
accomplish this task.
● The power reduction to initiate the desired angle of descent is less than a normal
approach since the angle of descent is less.
● Considers obstacles and other hazards.
● Due to the increased ground friction when the collective is lowered or if the landing is
being executed to a rough or irregular surface, the helicopter may come to an abrupt
stop and the nose might pitch forward. Caution not to correct this pitching movement
with aft cyclic, which could result in the rotor making contact with the tail boom.
● Establishes and maintains the recommended approach angle and proper rate of
closure.
● Maintains a speed that will take advantage of ETL during surface contact.
● Check the condition of the skid shoes before and after practicing running takeoffs
and landings.
TAKEOFFS, LANDINGS AND GO-AROUNDS / Go Around
PURPOSE :
A go around is a procedure for remaining airborne after an intended landing is discontinued.

The purpose is to abort an approach when the helicopter is in a position from which it is not
safe to continue the approach.
It could be instructed by the control tower, to avoid conflict traffic
Any time a pilot feels an approach is uncomfortable, incorrect, or potentially dangerous, it
should be abandoned.
The decision to make a go-around should be initiated before a critical situation develops.
When the decision is made, carry it out without hesitation.
HOW ? :
1. When you initiate the go-around, increase the collective to takeoff power to stop the
descent. Apply right pedal for the trim.
2. Once the descent is stopped, add forward cyclic to accelerate the helicopter to 60
KIAS.
3. Upon reaching 60 KIAS, use gentle aft to initiate a climb.

If aft cyclic is not introduced at 60 KIAS, the helicopter will continue to accelerate.
4. Climb to normal traffic pattern altitude for the upwind to crosswind turn.
5. In the traffic pattern, make the radio call.
Keep in mind that it may be necessary to alter your course to avoid overflying other
aircraft or if an unsafe condition exists on the ground.
Always wly with the anticipation of an engine failure.

COMMON ERRORS :
● Failure to recognize the need for a go-around.

● Hesitating to make the decision.
● Improper flight control applications during transition to climb.
● Failure to control drift and safely clear obstacles.
● With the initial power change, the rate of descent may stop, and the student may not
add enough power to continue a climb (the level off).
NOTES :
● It is always preferable to go-around than to try to fix a problem on the way down.
● Encourage the student to use the go-around procedure as a safety precaution
at any time he or she is iuncomfortable with continuing the approach, if in
doubt, go-around.
● Helicopters are sometimes difficult to see on the ground. Keep an eye on ground
traffic at all times to anticipate its location and movement.
● Makes a timely decision to discontinue the approach to landing.
● Establishes proper control input to stop descent and initiate climb.
● When power is added, the nose of the helicopter begins to rise, given the impression
that the helicopter is climbing.
This results in a loss of airspeed if no forward cyclic is added. If allowed to continue,
the helicopter may begin to settle.
● Maintains proper ground track with crosswind correction, if necessary.
● Transitions to a normal climb airspeed, +/- 10 Kt (for private) or +/- 5Kt (for
commercial).
FLIGHT MANEUVERS - FUNDAMENTALS OF FLIGHT
● Straight-and-level flight.
● Level turns.
● Straight climbs and climbing turns.
● Straight descents and descending turns.

FUNDAMENTALS OF FLIGHT - Straight and level flight
PURPOSE :
Straight and level flight is achieved by maintaining constant airspeed, altitude and heading.
HOW ?
1. A level flight attitude is best determined by referencing the horizon with a fixed point
in the cockpit, such as the magnetic compass or the tip path plane.
a. Attitude or pitch control with the cyclic is the most important aspect of straight
and level flight.
b. The pilot will be able to detect changes in attitude by noting changes between
the fixed point and the horizon.
c. Airspeed in cruise flight is determined by attitude and controlled by the cyclic.
2. The cyclic control is very sensitive and requires very slight pressure to effect a
change.
To increase airspeed in straight and level flight, apply forward pressure on the cyclic
and raise the collective as necessary to anticipate actual movement of the helicopter.
3. Normal cruise airspeed for training is 70 KIAS.

Primarily, the collective controls altitude.
Cruise power (manifold pressure in the R22) is controlled by the collective, and the
manifold pressure setting at 70 KIAS maintains a level flight altitude.
4. Each collective movement will require a corresponding pedal adjustment to maintain

the aircraft in trim.
An increase of collective will require additional left pedal to counter the increase in
torque.
Conversely, a collective decrease will require additional right pedal.
5. Additionally, when the collective is increased, the nose will tend to rise, requiring
slight forward cyclic to maintain a level or cruise flight attitude.
The opposite is true with a decrease in collective pitch, the nose will move down,
requiring a slight aft cyclic.
COMMON ERRORS :
● Improper coordination of flight controls.

● Overcontrolling the cyclic.
● Failure to cross-check and correctly interpret outside and instrument references.
● Faulty trim technique, tending to hold antitorque pedal pressure and opposite cyclic
(cross-controlling).
● Fixation on instruments.
● Failure to hold proper control position to maintain desired ground track.
● Failure to allow helicopter to stabilize at new airspeed.
NOTES :
● Try stabilizing the attitude of the helicopter using a reference inside the cockpit, such
as the compass.
● Because of altitude, pilots may not immediately notice a nose low (accelerating) or a
nose high (decelerating) attitude.
● The attitude required to maintain straight and level flight should be clearly defined
using all available visual aids. One aid is the distance between the horizon and the
tip path plane of the rotor system.
● Prominent objects on the ground should be used for heading reference. This
encourages the student to look outside instead of concentrating too much on the
instruments.
● The horizontal stabilizer streamlines the helicopter airframe for reduced drag by
applying more down force as airspeed increases
● Common student difficulties :

○ Overcontrolling : explain that controls are operated by pressure rather than
movement.
○ Trim.
○ Coordination : difficulty relating the effect one control has on another, the
most is the change in torque as power is changed, requiring the use of
antitorque pedal pressure as power is varied. Effect of a power change on
pitch attitude in forward flight due to gyroscopic precession and differential lift
on the advancing and retreating blades :
● As power is increased with the collective, the nose tends to pitch
up,
● As power is decreased the nose pitch down,
● As speed is increased, the nose of the helicopter tends to rise
and begin a roll towards the retreating blade.
○ Scan : to correct a deviation, it must first be recognized. Most students tend to

devote all their attention to a specific problem (fail to see the helicopter drifts
off heading, to see other aircraft or obstacles in the vicinity if their attention is
fixed on a single item).
○ Kinesthesia : the sense of motion and pressure changes through nerve

endings and muscular sensations (or seat of the pants flying).
Development of this sense enables a student to become aware of changes in
the helicopter’s attitude more quickly.
● Point out to the student the importance of the other senses as well. The sounds of
the engine, rotor, and transmission give information of RPM and possible mechanical
problems.
FUNDAMENTALS OF FLIGHT - Level turns
PURPOSE :
Used to change the heading of the helicopter.

Turn the aircraft using a constant angle of bank at a constant airspeed and altitude.
HOW ?
1. From straight and level flight at 70 KIAS, clear the airspace around the aircraft and in
the direction of the turn (helicopter’s altitude but also above and below).
2. Smoothly apply the cyclic toward the direction of the turn until the desired angle of
bank is reached. This is the only control movement needed to start the turn.
3. As the angle of bank increases, additional collective may be required to maintain

altitude.
If additional collective is added, apply the left pedal to maintain trim.
4. Use the horizon as a reference to maintain a 70 KIAS attitude and the desired angle
of bank with the cyclic.
5. Do not use the pedals to assist the turn. Use the pedals to keep the aircraft in trim
around the vertical axis (keeping the fuselage in the correct streamlined position
around the vertical axis facilitates the helicopter flying forward with the least drag).
6. How fast the helicopter banks depends how much lateral cyclic pressure is applied.
7. Begin the recovery from the turn just prior to reaching the desired rollout heading.
8. Apply the cyclic opposite the direction of the turn, and if any collective has been
added during the turn, reduce it back to cruise power while maintaining the aircraft in
trim with pedals.
COMMON ERRORS :
● Improper coordination of flight controls.

● Failure to cross-check and correctly interpret outside and instrument references.
● Faulty rim technique.
● Fixation on instruments.
NOTES :
● Due to pilot’s arm position when manipulating the cyclic, new students will often
rotate about their arm using their elbows as a pivot point.
To correct this :
○ during left turns, add a small amount of forward cyclic,
○ during right turns, add a small amount of aft cyclic.
● Turns should be practiced at different airspeeds.

● The cyclic is displaced from perpendicular to the horizon.
● The amount of tilt or bank depends on how much and how long the cyclic is
displaced from perpendicular to the horizon.
● Visualization of the bank is one of the most common problems for students.
● To correct pitch attitude is confirmed by reference to the altimeter and a level turn.
FUNDAMENTALS OF FLIGHT - Straight climbs and climbing turns
PURPOSE :
Used to practice a climb in altitude at a controlled rate.
HOW ?
1. Clear the airspace around the aircraft by visually scanning for traffic (above and
below).
2. Note the manifold pressure necessary to maintain a 70 KIAS.
3. Initiate the climb by raising the collective to increase manifold pressure 2-3” above
cruise power and establish a 500 feet per minute climb.
4. Add a slight amount of aft cyclic pressure to slow the aircraft into a 60 KIAS attitude.
5. Maintain aircraft trim with a slight amount of left pedal due to the increase the
collective.
6. 50 feet prior to reaching the desired altitude, begin to level off by applying forward
cyclic and lowering the nose to a 70 KIAS attitude.
7. Once the helicopter has accelerated to 70 KIAS, slowly decrease the collective to
cruise power (manifold pressure setting for level flight at 70 KIAS).
A small amount of right pedal may be needed to trim the aircraft due to the increase
in collective.
8. Throughout the climb and level off, continually cross-check outside references
(attitude and heading) with inside references (flight instruments).
COMMON ERRORS :
● Too much cyclic input.

● Airspeed too slow/fast (may be the result of overcontrolling).
● Overshooting or undershooting desired altitude.
● In the level-off, decreasing power before adjusting the nose to cruising altitude.
● Trim not properly maintained.
NOTES :
● Try using 10% rule for leveling off.

For example if you climbing at 500 feet per minute, initiate the level off procedure 50
feet prior to your desired altitude.
● An increase in power causes the helicopter to start climbing, and only slight back
pressure on the cyclic is required to change from a level to a climb attitude.
● In the process of beginning a climb, all controls are utilized. Each control input
causes something else to change.
● During the level-off, some students have a tendency to decrease power before
adjusting attitude (cyclic) for cruise flight.
● Recommended climb airspeed +/- 10 KIAS (for private) or +/- 5 KIAS (for
commercial).
● Remind the effects of inertia,which require some lead time and efforts (a pilot should
apply control inputs prior to the desired point, be that an altitude or heading).
● Maintain proper ground track with crosswind correction if necessary.
In a turn :
When the helicopter is banked, the rotor disk is tilted sideward resulting in lift being
separated into 2 components :
● Lift acting upward and opposing weight : vertical component of lift.
● Lift acting horizontally and opposing inertia (centrifugal force) is the
horizontal component of lift (centripetal force).
As the angle of bank increases, the total lift force is tilted more toward the horizontal, thus
causing the rate of turn to increase because more lift is acting horizontally, the effect of lift
acting horizontally, the effect of lift acting vertically is decreased.
To compensate for this decreased vertical lift, the AoA of the rotor blades must be
increased in order to maintain altitude.
The steeper the angle of bank, the greater the AoA of the rotor blades required to maintain
altitude.
With an increase in bank and a greater AoA, the resultant lifting force increases and the
rate of turn is higher : collective pitch must be increased in order to maintain altitude
and airspeed while turning.
The turn and/climb descent are usually initiated simultaneously.

Until the student gains proficiency, it may be easier first to establish each maneuver
separately.
Combining turns with climbs/descents introduce new helicopter attitudes and the initial
perception of these attitudes may be difficult for the student to comprehend.
FUNDAMENTALS OF FLIGHT - Straight descents and descending turns
PURPOSE :
Used to descend in altitude at a controlled rate.

The helicopter loses altitude at a controlled rate in a controlled attitude.
HOW ?
1. Clear the airspace around the aircraft by visually scanning for traffic.
2. Instruments check (carb heat up, gages in the green, carb heat gage out of the
yellow arc, fuel, no warning lights, RPM’s in the green).
3. Note the manifold pressure necessary to maintain a 70 KIAS attitude.

Initiate the descent, decrease manifold pressure 4-5” below the cruise power setting
by lowering the collective, which will provide about 500 feet per minute descent.
4. Lowering the collective will reduce torque, requiring a slight amount of right pedal to
maintain aircraft trim.
5. To decelerate, the cyclic must be moved aft.

Apply slight aft cyclic to adjust the attitude of the helicopter to 60 KIAS.
6. To descend with increased airspeed, forward cyclic is all that is required if airspeed
remains under limits.
7. 50 feet prior to reaching the desired altitude, begin to level off by slowly raising the
collective to increase manifold pressure to 1” above cruise power.
Maintain aircraft trim with left pedal.
8. Add a small amount of forward cyclic to re-establish a 70 KIAS cruise speed.
9. Once the helicopter accelerate to 70 KIAS, lower the collective back to cruise power.
COMMON ERRORS :
● Using cyclic inputs that are too large and or aggressive.

● Failure to maintain constant angle of descent during training.
● Airspeed too slow/fast.
● Overshooting or undershooting desired altitude.
● Not properly maintaining trim.
NOTES :
● The total lift and thrust vectoring is controlled by the cyclic. If a certain airspeed is
desired, it will require a certain amount of cyclic and collective movement for level
flight.
● If the cyclic is moved, the thrust versus lift ratio is changed.
● Aft cyclic directs more power to lift, and altitude increases.
● Forward cyclic directs more power to thrust, and airspeed increases. If the collective
is not changed and there is a change only in cyclic, the total thrust to lift ratio does
not change, aft cyclic results in a climb, and forward cyclic results in a descent with
the corresponding airspeed changes.
● Try using 10% rule for leveling off (climb at 500 feet, initiate the level off procedure
50 feet prior to your desired altitude).
● Establish and maintain the normal approach angle, and proper rate of closure.
● Avoids situation that may result in settling with power.
● Maintain proper ground track with crosswind correction if necessary.
● Arrive at your determined altitude +/- 4 feet (for private) or +/- 2 feet (for
commercial).
In a turn :
When the helicopter is banked, the rotor disk is tilted sideward resulting in lift being
separated into 2 components :
● Lift acting upward and opposing weight : vertical component of lift.
● Lift acting horizontally and opposing inertia (centrifugal force) is the
horizontal component of lift (centripetal force).
As the angle of bank increases, the total lift force is tilted more toward the horizontal, thus
causing the rate of turn to increase because more lift is acting horizontally, the effect of lift
acting horizontally, the effect of lift acting vertically is decreased.
To compensate for this decreased vertical lift, the AoA of the rotor blades must be
increased in order to maintain altitude.
The steeper the angle of bank, the greater the AoA of the rotor blades required to maintain
altitude.
With an increase in bank and a greater AoA, the resultant lifting force increases and the
rate of turn is higher : collective pitch must be increased in order to maintain altitude
and airspeed while turning.
The turn and/climb descent are usually initiated simultaneously.

Until the student gains proficiency, it may be easier first to establish each maneuver
separately.
Combining turns with climbs/descents introduce new helicopter attitudes and the initial
perception of these attitudes may be difficult for the student to comprehend.
PERFORMANCES MANEUVERS
● Rapid deceleration - quick stop.
● Straight in autorotation.
● 180° autorotation.
PERFORMANCES MANEUVERS - Rapid deceleration / Quick stops
PURPOSE :
Used to decelerate from forward flight to a hover.

Used to simulate a condition in which a rapid decrease in forward airspeed is required, as in
an aborted takeoff, to stop if something blocks the helicopter flightpath, or simply to
terminate an air taxi maneuver.
Usually practiced on a runway, taxiway or over a large grassy area from over traffic or
obstacles.
The objective : lose airspeed rapidly while maintaining a constant heading, ensuring
adequate tail rotor to ground clearance at all times.
HOW ?
1. Perform a normal takeoff into the wind.

The quick stop should only performed into the wind, as there is a high risk of settling
with power in a downwind condition and LTE.
2. Once a minimum altitude of 25-40 feet is attained, apply additional forward cyclic to
accelerate to 30-40 KIAS while maintaining altitude.
3. Stabilize your helicopter at 25-40 feet and 40 KIAS. The altitude chosen should be
high enough to avoid danger to the tail rotor during the flare, but low enough to stay
out of the hazardous area’s of that helicopter’s (height/velocity diagram throughout
the maneuver).
4. Initiate the deceleration by applying aft cyclic to reduce forward ground speed.
5. Simultaneously, lower the collective as necessary to counteract any climbing

tendency.
6. The timing must be exact.

If too little collective is taken out for the amount of aft cyclic applied, the helicopter
climbs.
If too much downward collective is applied, the helicopter will descend.
A rapid application of aft cyclic requires an equally rapid application of down
collective.
7. As collective pitch is lowered, apply proper antitorque pedal pressure to maintain

heading (right pedal).
8. Because the helicopter is operating on the back side of the power curve as airspeed
is lost, it will begin to settle due to the increased power demand.
9. Slowly increase the collective to control the angle and rate of descent.
10. In addition, as translational thrust is lost, even more antitorque pedal must be applied
and more power produced to provide the antitorque.
11. The angle of descent should be no greater than a steep approach.
12. With the loss of ETL, additional collective will be needed to maintain the rate of
descent.
13. Once the helicopter starts to experience the loss of effective translational lift (ETL),
allow it to settle toward the ground by adding forward cyclic to level flight attitude.
14. Maintain heading with the pedals, and terminate at a stabilized 3 foot hover.
15. Use caution to avoid terminating at high hover or in an extreme tail low attitude.
COMMON ERRORS :
● Initially applying aft cyclic stick too rapidly, causing the helicopter to balloon (climb).
● Waiting too long to apply collective pitch (power) during the recovery, resulting in
excessive manifold pressure or an overtorque situation when collective pitch is
applied rapidly.
● Inability to maintain altitude during the initial flare.
● Improper pedal inputs that correspond to collective inputs, resulting in erratic heading
changes.
● Improper collective and cyclic inputs.
● Failure to control rate of deceleration.
● Stopping forward motion in a tail low attitude.
● Failure to maintain safe clearance over terrain.
● Excessive nose high attitude.
NOTES :
● This maneuver is helpful when learning about coordination.

● Requires a high degree of coordination of all controls.
● Practiced at an altitude that permits a safe clearance between the tail rotor and the
surface throughout the maneuver, especially at the point where the pitch attitude is
highest.
● The altitude at completion should be no higher than the maximum safe hovering
altitude prescribed by the manufacturer (height/velocity diagram).
● Be sure to lead rapid deceleration by lowering the collective.
● During the initial flare to slow the helicopter, the amount of decreased collective is
directly proportional to the rate and amount of aft cyclic used.
● If the collective is lowered too aggressively, a large amount of aft cyclic will be
needed to maintain the altitude.
● The maneuver is conducted in IGE and just above ETL, which facilitate
recovery.
● The student should realize that downwind decelerations or quick stops are not
recommended and that every effort should be made to avoid them (LTE could
occur).
PERFORMANCES MANEUVERS - Straight-in autorotation
PURPOSE :
Used to simulate safely landing the helicopter with a complete power loss.
The most common reason for an autorotation is failure of the engine or drive line, complete
tail rotor failure, fire in flight.
A straight-in autorotation implies an autorotation from altitude with no turns.
HOW ?
Because the angle of approach will increase in high wind situations, the entry point may
need to be varied to ”hit” the spot.
The entry :
1. Instruments check (carb heat full up, gages in the green, carb heat gage out of
yellow arc, no warning lights, RPM’s in the green).
2. Clear the landing spot, traffic.
3. From level flight of 70 KIAS, at or above 500 feet AGL, and heading into the wind.
4. Hand all the way around the throttle, eyes outside on the horizon and keep the
helicopter level at the entry.
Counting down 3-2-1 : Aft cyclic and simultaneously and smoothly lower the
collective to the full down position and coordinate the collective movement with the
right pedal for trim and establish and maintain a 65 KIAS attitude.
5. Reduce the throttle to idle to ensure a clean split/separation of the needles (this
means that the rotor RPM is higher than the engine and a clear indication that the
freewheeling unit will automatically disengages the engine from the main rotor
allowing the main rotor to rotate freely).
The RPM needles will split, establishing an autorotative descent.
The throttle should be retarded to maintain the engine RPM at or below 80% at all
times, but expect the engine RPM to increase if the collective is raised.
Keep the engine RPM at idle by holding the throttle in the idle position.
6. Cross-check the helicopter’s attitude, trim, rotor RPM and airspeed.
7. A slight increase in collective will be necessary to maintain rotor RPM in the green if
high gross weight condition exists.
The glide :
1. After establishing the descent, the airspeed should be 65 KIAS and this attitude
should be maintained throughout the glide.
2. During straight-in autorotative glides, aft cyclic movements will cause an increase
in rotor RPM which can be counteracted by a small increase in collective.
If the collective is increased to control the rotor RPM, retard the throttle slightly to
prevent the correlator from joining the needles.
Avoid a large collective increase, which will result in a rapid decay of rotor
RPM and lead to “chasing the RPM”.
3. Maintain rotor RPM in the green and keep the aircraft in trim during the glide.
4. 200 feet AGL check : RPM’s stabilized in the green, airspeed stabilized 60-70 Kt, line
up on centerline.
Use the cyclic to hold a constant 65 KIAS attitude.
5. Avoid looking straight down in front of the aircraft.

Continually cross-check attitude, trim, rotor RPM and airspeed.
The flare :
At approximately 40 feet AGL, begin the flare with aft cyclic to reduce forward
airspeed and to decrease the rate of descent.
1. The amount of flare will depend on wind conditions and gross weight and should
gradually be increased so that ground speed and rate of descent are significantly
decreased.
2. Too much flare will cause the helicopter to balloon up, resulting in a high vertical
descent as airspeed is lost.
If light weight, lower the collective may be done to prevent the balloon up.
3. Prior to the bottom of the flair, increase the throttle to normal operating speeds (R22 :
increase the throttle above 80% and allow the governor to manage the throttle up to
104%.
Do this once the flare has been established to help ensure the engine and rotor RPM
needles meet up at 104%).
The power recovery :
1. At a skid height of approximately 8 to 10 feet, begin to level the helicopter with

forward cyclic.
Extreme caution should be used to avoid an excessive nose-high / tail-low
attitude below 10 feet.
2. Just prior to achieving a level attitude and with the nose still slightly up, increase the
collective while maintaining heading with the left pedal.
3. Verify the RPM is at normal operating speeds.
4. Do not allow the helicopter to descend below 3 feet during the power recovery.
Strong headwinds cause the glide angle to be steeper due to the slower ground speed (ex :
if the helicopter is maintaining 60 Kt indicated airspeed and the wind is 15 Kt, then the
ground speed is 45 Kt, the angle of descent will be much steeper, although the rate of
descent remains the same).
COMMON ERRORS :
● Lowering the nose too abruptly when power is reduced, thus placing the helicopter in
a dive.
● Diving towards the ground.
● Applying up-collective pitch at an excessive altitude, resulting in a hard landing, loss
of heading control and possible damage to the tail rotor and main rotor blade stops.
● Improper engine and rotor RPM control.
● Uncoordinated flight controls.
● Improper attitude and airspeed during descent.
● Improper judgment and technique during termination.
● Failing to level the helicopter or achieve the manufacturers preferred landing attitude.
● Failure to maintain correct heading with pedals.
● Chasing RPM and airspeed.
● Fixation on one part of the scan.
● Ground track not followed. Failure to minimize or eliminate lateral movement during
ground contact.
● Failure to go around if not within limits and specified criteria for safe autorotation.
NOTES :
● Perform practice autorotations to a known area free of obstructions, where a safe

landing to the surface can be made at any time.
● It is extremely important to enter the maneuver with proper level attitude, as
this will provide a better chance of success for the remainder of the maneuver.
● Be especially aware and caution by making power recoveries or go-arounds if
any doubt exist.
● When entering the autorotation, look outside at the horizon during the entry.
● When lowering the collective, a small amount of aft cyclic will be needed to maintain
the attitude.
● A headwind is a contributing factor in accomplishing a slow touchdown from an
autorotative descent and reduces the amount of deceleration required.
● The lower the speed desired at touchdown is, the more accurate the timing and
speed of the flare must be, especially in helicopters with low inertia rotor systems.
● If too much collective pitch is applied too early during the final stages of the
autorotation, the kinetic energy may be depleted, resulting in little or no
cushioning effect available.
This could result in a hard landing with corresponding damage to the helicopter.
It is generally better practice to accept more ground run than a hard landing with
minimal groundspeed.
● Care must be taken in the execution of the flare, with abrupt aft cyclic the
helicopter will settle too rapidly that the tail rotor strikes the ground.
● Don’t forget to add left pedal at the end of the autorotation when you are increasing
the collective.
● Demonstrate how aft cyclic movements cause a temporary increase in rotor RPM.
● Select a suitable touchdown area.
● Highlight the student’s understanding of the wind’s effects as related to
airspeed versus ground speed, and the amount of flare necessary to slow for
the landing.
● Establishes proper aircraft trim and autorotation airspeed +/- 5 Kt.
● Maintains RPM within normal limits.
● Compensates for wind speed and direction as necessary to avoid undershooting or
overshooting the selected landing area.
● Utilizes proper deceleration and collective pitch application to a hover.
● Comes to a hover within 200 feet (for private) or 100 feet (for commercial) of a
designed point.
When the helicopter’s engine fails or the throttle is closed in flight, the rotor drag becomes
unopposed. If no remedial action is taken, the blades slow down, coning angles increases,
total rotor thrust becomes grossly inadequate and a large rate of descent ensues.
By lowering the collective pitch, lift and drag are reduced, and the helicopter begins an
immediate descent, thus producing an upward flow of air through the rotor system.
This upward flow of air through the rotor provides sufficient thrust to maintain rotor RPM
throughout the descent.
The primary way to control the rate of descent is with your airspeed.
When landing from an autorotation, the only energy available to arrest the descent rate and
ensure a soft landing is the kinetic energy stored in the rotor blades.
A greater amount of rotor energy is required to stop a helicopter with a high rate of
descent than is required to stop a helicopter that is descending more slowly.
Therefore, autorotative descents at very low or very high airspeeds are more critical
than those performed at the minimum rate of descent airspeed.
Each type of helicopter has a specific airspeed and rotor RPM at which a power off glide is
most efficient.
In general, rotor RPM maintained in the low green area gives more distance in an
autorotation.
PERFORMANCES MANEUVERS - 180° autorotation
PURPOSE :
A turn, or a series of turns, can be made during an autorotation in order to land into the
wind or avoid obstacles.
To simulate safely landing the helicopter by turning 180° with a complete power loss.
This will allow for a turn into the wind from a downwind situation.
HOW ?
Looking for 800 feet AGL and 70 Kt, ask clearance to tower in traffic pattern of the airport.
The entry :
8. Instruments check (carb heat full up, gages in the green, carb heat gage out of
yellow arc, no warning lights, RPM’s in the green).
9. Clear the landing spot, traffic.
10. From level flight of 70 KIAS, at altitude above 800 feet AGL, and heading into the
wind.
11. Hand all the way around the throttle, eyes outside on the horizon and keep the
helicopter level at the entry.
Counting down 3-2-1 : Aft cyclic and simultaneously and smoothly lower the
collective to the full down position and coordinate the collective movement with the
right pedal for trim and establish and maintain a 65 KIAS attitude.
12. Reduce the throttle to idle to ensure a clean split/separation of the needles (this
means that the rotor RPM is higher than the engine and a clear indication that the
freewheeling unit will automatically disengages the engine from the main rotor
allowing the main rotor to rotate freely).
The RPM needles will split, establishing an autorotative descent.
The throttle should be retarded to maintain the engine RPM at or below 80% at all
times, but expect the engine RPM to increase if the collective is raised.
Keep the engine RPM at idle by holding the throttle in the idle position.
13. Cross-check the helicopter’s attitude, trim, rotor RPM and airspeed.
14. A slight increase in collective will be necessary to maintain rotor RPM in the green if
high gross weight condition exists.
In a non wind or headwind condition, establish the ground track approximately 200 feet
away from the touchdown point.
If a strong wind exists, it is necessary to move the downwind leg closer or farther out.
Start the entry when abeam the intended touchdown point.
The glide :
1. After establishing the glide to the proper attitude (65 KIAS attitude), begin a 180° turn
by adding lateral cyclic in the direction of the turn.
2. The proper angle of bank will be determined by wind velocity, but use caution to
avoid an excessively steep turn.
The steeper the turn, the more RPM will increase due to Coriolis effect in the main
rotor blades.
3. Throughout the turn, it is important to maintain the proper attitude and airspeed with
the cyclic and to keep the aircraft in trim.
Changes in the aircraft’s attitude and the angle of bank will cause corresponding
change in rotor RPM.
4. Adjust the collective as necessary in the turn to maintain rotor RPM in the green.
Raise the collective to lower RPM, in the turn and lower the collective to raise RPM
after the turn.
Continually cross-check the rotor RPM when maneuvering in autorotative turns as
the low inertia rotor system can allow rapid increases in rotor RPM.
5. If the collective has been increased to load the rotor during the turn, it must be
lowered on roll out to prevent decay in RPM.
6. The turn should be completed and the helicopter aligned with the intended
touchdown area prior to passing through 200 feet AGL.
The flare :
At approximately 40 feet AGL, begin the flare with aft cyclic to reduce forward
airspeed and to decrease the rate of descent.
4. The amount of flare will depend on wind conditions and gross weight and should
gradually be increased so that ground speed and rate of descent are significantly
decreased.
5. Too much flare will cause the helicopter to balloon up, resulting in a high vertical
descent as airspeed is lost.
If light weight, lower the collective may be done to prevent the balloon up.
6. Prior to the bottom of the flair, increase the throttle to normal operating speeds (R22 :
increase the throttle above 80% and allow the governor to manage the throttle up to
104%.
Do this once the flare has been established to help ensure the engine and rotor RPM
needles meet up at 104%).
The power recovery :
5. At a skid height of approximately 8 to 10 feet, begin to level the helicopter with

forward cyclic.
Extreme caution should be used to avoid an excessive nose-high / tail-low
attitude below 10 feet.
6. Just prior to achieving a level attitude and with the nose still slightly up, increase the
collective while maintaining heading with the left pedal.
7. Verify the RPM is at normal operating speeds.
8. Do not allow the helicopter to descend below 3 feet during the power recovery.
Strong headwinds cause the glide angle to be steeper due to the slower ground speed
(ex : if the helicopter is maintaining 60 Kt indicated airspeed and the wind is 15 Kt, then the
ground speed is 45 Kt, the angle of descent will be much steeper, although the rate of
descent remains the same).
COMMONS ERRORS :
● Excessive RPM build during the turn.

● Allowing the nose to drop during the turn.
● Allowing the nose to climb during the turn.
● Improper engine and rotor RPM control (chasing airspeed and/or RPM).
● Failure to maintain autorotation airspeed.
● Uncoordinated flight controls (out of trim).
● Improper judgement and technique during termination.
● Failure to maintain correct heading with pedals during the turn and recovery.s and
specified criteria. for safe autorotation.
● Failure to go around if not within limit.
NOTES :
● During a turn, rotor increases due to the increased G loading, which induces a
greater airflow through the rotor system. The RPM’s builds rapidly and can easily
exceed the maximum limit if not controlled by use the collective.
● The tighter, steeper the turn is and the heavier the gross weight is, the higher the
RPM is.
● Ensure the student is aware that, during the turn, the rotor RPM must be
closely monitored as it has a tendency to build during the turn.
● If the collective pitch was increased to control RPM, it may need to be lowered
on rollout to prevent a decay in RPM.
● Airspeed is unreliable until the turn is completed.
● Cyclic input has a great effect on the rotor RPM.
An aft cyclic input loads the rotor, resulting in coning and an increase in rotor RPM.
A forward cyclic input unloads the rotor, resulting in a decrease in rotor RPM.
● Selects a suitable touchdown area.
● Initiates the maneuver at the proper point.
● Establishes proper aircraft trim and autorotation airspeed +/- 5 Kt.
● Maintains rotor RPM within normal limits.
● Compensates for windspeed and direction as necessary to avoid undershooting or
overshooting the selected area.
● Utilizes proper deceleration and collective pitch application to a hover.
● Initiate an immediate power recovery if the helicopter is not aligned with the
touchdown point or if the rotor RPM and/or airspeed are not within proper
limits.
● Comes to a hover within 200 feet (for private) or 100 feet (for commercial) of a
designated point.
EMERGENCY OPERATIONS
● Power failure at a hover.
● Power failure at altitude.
● Settling with power.
● Low rotor RPM recovery.
● Anti-torque system failure.
● Dynamic rollover.
● Ground resonance.
● Low “G” conditions.
● Systems and equipment malfunctions.
● Emergency equipment and survival gear.

EMERGENCY OPERATIONS - Power failure at a hover
PURPOSE :
Also called hovering autorotation is practiced to make the correct response when
confronted with engine stoppage or certain other emergencies while hovering.
Is used to simulate landing the helicopter from a hover with a complete power failure.
Practiced to develop the automatic response and coordination required to maintain heading
and cushion the landing.
HOW ?
1. Instruments check (gages, fuel, carb heat……..),
2. Begin from a stabilized 3 foot hover, headed into the wind.
3. Eyes outside in front of the helicopter and pick a non moving reference point at least
50 feet away.
4. Position your left hand all the around the throttle, so the throttle can easily be rolled
off into the overtravel spring position.
This disengages the driving force of the engine from the rotor, thus eliminating torque
effect.
5. Countdown “ Hover autorotation in 3-2-1” : firmly roll off the throttle into the overtravel
spring while simultaneously adding right pedal to maintain heading.
6. The loss of tail rotor thrust will cause a left drift when the throttle is rolled off.
Compensate for this drift with right lateral cyclic.
7. Do not adjust the collective pitch on entry : wait.
8. Keep a level attitude and ensure a vertical descent with cyclic control while
maintaining heading with the pedals.
9. Use caution not to raise or lower the collective when rolling off the throttle.
Be aware that as the helicopter loses RPM the low RPM warning system will be on
(light and horn).
10. When the aircraft has settled to approximately 1 foot, fully increase the collective to
slow the descent and cushion the landing while continuing to hold the throttle firmly
in the spring loaded override position (to prevent the engine from re-engaging).
11. As the skids touchdown, apply slight forward cyclic.
12. When the weight of the helicopter is entirely resting on the landing gear, cease
application of upward collective.
Once firmly on the ground, lower the collective full down.
Caution : Avoid any sideward or rearward movement on touchdown to prevent the

possibility of a rollover.
Helicopters with low inertia rotor systems settle immediately.

Helicopters with high inertia rotor systems settle more slowly after the throttle is closed.
COMMONS ERRORS :
● Failure to maintain heading.

● Failure to roll the throttle completely to idle.
● Failure to compensate for drift prior to touchdown.
● Improper application of collective pitch, resulting in a hard touchdown.
● Failure to touchdown in a level attitude.
● Too much corrective right lateral cyclic.
NOTES :
● For a power failure at a hover while in IGE, the collective is not lowered but
held in place and increased to cushion the landing.
● When first learning this maneuver, it may be helpful to keep 3 to 5 KIAS of forward
speed.
● This focuses attention on keeping the helicopter straight down the taxiway and
should eliminate most if not all sideward or rearward movement.
● The timing of collective pitch control application and the rate at which it is applied
depend upon the particular helicopter being used, its gross weight, and the existing
atmospheric conditions.
● The timing of the collective pitch is a most important consideration.
If it is applied too soon, the remaining RPM may not be sufficient to make a
soft landing.
If collective pitch is applied too late, surface contact may be made before
sufficient blade pitch is available to cushion the landing.
● The collective must not be used to hold the helicopter off the surface, causing a
blade stall.
Low rotor RPM and ensuing blade stall can result in a total loss of rotor lift allowing
the helicopter to fall to the surface and possibly resulting in blade strikes to the tail
boom and other airframe damage such as landing gear damage, transmission mount
deformation, and fuselage cracking.
● Determines that the terrain below the aircraft is suitable for a safe touchdown.
Ensure the surface area is a flat, smooth and hard surface.
● Performs autorotation from a stationary or forward hover into the wind at
recommended altitude and RPM while maintaining established heading +/- 10°
(for private) or +/- 5° (for commercial).
● Touchdown with minimum sideward movement and no rearward movement.
EMERGENCY OPERATIONS - Power failure at altitude
PURPOSE :
Used to simulate an emergency situation and develop the student’s reaction time planning
and judgement in case of a power failure.
Practiced to develop the automatic response and coordination.
HOW ?
1. Clear the area.
2. Instruments check (carb heat up, gages in the green, carb heat out of the yellow arc,
fuel, no warning lights, RPM’s in the green).
3. During cruise flight (at an altitude above 1000 feet), with the student at the controls,
the CFI will initiate the forced landing by announcing “engine failure” and rolling
the throttle down slightly to simulate aircraft yaw.
The CFI should never “chop” the throttle.
4. The student will immediately lower the collective full down and coordinate the right
pedal for trim and aft cyclic to maintain attitude.
This should be accomplished quickly enough to prevent the rotor RPM from decaying
below 90%.
5. As the rotor RPM builds back in the green, increase the collective as necessary to
maintain rotor RPM in the green (hold the throttle against the detent position). Once
established in an autorotative descent, select an intended landing area.
6. Maneuver the helicopter as necessary to align the aircraft with the intended landing
area, generally headed into the wind.
7. If necessary, use changes of the collective and cyclic to maintain the rotor RPM in
the green arc while maneuvering.
8. Adjust the airspeed to 65 KIAS.

9. Prior to passing through 100 feet, align the aircraft with the touchdown area, at 65
KIAS, with rotor RPM in the green range and the aircraft in trim.
10. Execute a termination with power recovery as with a straight in autorotation, or an

immediate power recovery, as directed by the CFI.
CAUTION : CFI should never “chop” or rapidly roll the throttle all the way
down.
COMMON ERRORS :
● Failure to recognize the emergency.

● Failure to maintain proper rotor RPM.
● Poor selection of landing sites or fixation on one site.
● Improper attitude during auto entry and descent.
● Incorrect use of flight controls during power recovery.
NOTES :
● Establishes an autorotation and selects a suitable landing area.

● Establishes proper aircraft trim and autorotation airspeed +/- 5Kt.
● Maintains rotor RPM within normal limits.
● Compensates for wind speed and direction as necessary to avoid undershooting or
overshooting the selected landing area.
● Terminates approach with a power recovery at a safe altitude when directed by the
examiner.
Review the Emergency procedure R22 (POH) with student
Power failure above 500 feet AGL.
1. Lower collective immediately to maintain rotor RPM.
2. Establish a steady glide at approximately 65 KIAS (For maximum glide distance :

airspeed at 75 KIAS, rotor RPM 90 %, best glide ratio is about 4:1 or one nautical
mile per 1500 feet AGL).
3. Adjust collective to keep RPM between 97 and 110% or apply full down collective if
light weight prevents attaining above 97%.
4. Select landing spot and if altitude permits, maneuver so landing will be into wind.
5. A restart may be attempted at pilot’s discretion if sufficient time is available (air

restart procedure : mixture full rich, primer (if installed) down and locked, throttle
closed then cracked slightly, actuate starter with left hand). Do not attempt restart if
engine malfunction is suspected or before safe autorotation is established.
6. If unable to restart, turn unnecessary switches and fuel valve off.
7. At about 40 feet AGL, begin cyclic flare to reduce rate of descent and forward
speed.
8. At about 8 feet AGL, apply forward cyclic to level ship and raise collective just
before touchdown to cushion landing.
9. Touchdown in level attitude with nose straight ahead.

EMERGENCY OPERATIONS - Settling with power
PURPOSE :
To demonstrates the dangerous results of operating at low airspeeds, moderate to high

power settings, and high rates of descent.
Settling with power is most dangerous when it happens at relatively low altitudes.
The maneuvers that most commonly can result in settling occur during a steep approach
with a tail wind, or an out of ground effect (OGE) hover without precise altitude control.
This maneuver should be demonstrated at an altitude that will allow recovery to be

completed no less than 1000 feet AGL.
Settling with power is a condition in which the helicopter descends vertically at a high rate of
speed even though power is being used.
This condition is also described as vortex ring state.
3 conditions must exist to create this dangerous situation :

1. Airspeed must be less than ETL.
2. Using 20-100% of engine available power.
3. Near vertical descent of at least 300 feet per minute.
HOW ?
1. Scan for traffic prior to initiation. Perform a 360° clearing turn.
2. Looking for 2000 feet AGL (no lower than 1500 feet AGL).
3. Clear area.
4. Turn into a tail wind.
5. Instruments check (carb heat full up, gages in the green, carb heat gage out of the
yellow arc, fuel, no warning lights, RPM’s in the green).
6. Decrease airspeed to 40 Kt by applying aft cyclic while maintaining this altitude.
7. Select the collective to 17-18 inches manifold pressure.
8. Continuously slow down to 0 Kt airspeed.

The turbulence begins.
9. The aircraft will begin to vibrate, this first set of vibration is the transverse flow effect
and the lost of ETL.
This is the beginning of settling with power.
Application of additional up collective will increase the vibration and sink rate. (As the
power is increased, the rate of sink of the aircraft in the column of air will increase).
Once the condition is well developed, a rate of sink in excess of 2000 per minute can
result.
10. A recovery should be initiated at the first sign of a rapid increase in the rate of
descent on the vertical speed indicator (VSI) or a sensation of falling.
11. To recover, simultaneously, apply forward cyclic to increase airspeed while lowering
the collective (if altitude permits).
12. This moves the helicopter out of its downwash and into translational lift.
13. Indicated airspeed alive, vibrations are gone (rotor system is in clear air).
2 indications that you are out of vortex ring state are that the trim strings will
straighten up with the flow of air over the fuselage and the airspeed indicator will
rapidly increase from near zero to your indicated airspeed.
At this point the helicopter is out of settling with power but may still be in a descent.
14. The collective should be raised to a normal climb power setting to help arrest the rate
of descent and left pedal.
The raising of the collective and increase in airspeed up 5’ T/O will help facilitate the
recovery.
The recovery is complete when the aircraft accelerate to the normal climbing
airspeed and a normal climb is established on the VSI.
15. Turn into the wind.

Minimize loss of altitude : recovery must be made with no more than 100 feet loss in
altitude.
COMMON ERRORS :
● Failure to recognize conditions that are conducive to development of settling with

power.
● Adding too much forward cyclic.
● Flying out of trim after the helicopter has recovered.
NOTES :
● The more altitude we have, the safer you are.

● If in a strong headwind situation, rearward fight in relation to the ground may be
necessary to lose ETL.
● Selects an altitude that will allow recovery to be completed no less than 1000 feet
AGL.
● Promptly recognizes and recovers at the onset of settling with power.
● Utilizes the appropriate recovery procedure.
● Adding collective while the helicopter is descending vertically only aggravates the
situation.
EMERGENCY OPERATIONS - Low RPM recognition and recovery
PURPOSE :
To recognize and recover from low rotor RPM.

Low RPM can occur such as pulling more collective pitch than power available, when
operating at high density, high weight, high temperature (or rolling the throttle the wrong
way).
HOW ?
In hover :
1. CFI : turn the governor off and slowly decrease the throttle to 95 % and raise
collective to maintain altitude, left pedal to maintain heading.
2. The low RPM condition will be recognized by :

a. A noticeable decrease in engine noise.
b. Aircraft vibration and cyclic stick shake.
c. The low rotor RPM warning horn and light will engage (R22 around 97%).
3. CFI demonstrate the further increase in vibration and decrease in engine noise by
decreasing the RPM to 90% RPM.
This is to show that the helicopter is able to continue to fly even at low RPM settings.
4. Hover setup.
5. Upon recognizing the low RPM condition, simultaneously add throttle and lower the
collective to regain operating RPM (this reduces main rotor pitch and drag).
6. Once RPM is regained, slowly raise the collective to reduce the sink rate while
closely monitoring the RPM.
7. Small control inputs.

Continue recovery until RPM in middle of green
In flight :
1. Upon recognizing the low RPM condition, simultaneously add throttle and lower the
collective to regain operating RPM (this reduces main rotor pitch and drag) and aft
cyclic.
2. Once RPM is regained, slowly raise the collective to reduce the sink rate while
closely monitoring the RPM.
3. Small control inputs.

Continue recovery until RPM in middle of green
4. Once the sink rate has been eliminated, raise the collective and climb back to
previous altitude to fully recover from the low RPM situation.
Great care should be exercised when operating at low RPM settings.
COMMON ERRORS :
● Failure to recognize conditions that are conducive to development of low rotor RPM.
● Failure to detect the development of low rotor RPM and to initiate prompt corrective
action.
● Improper use of controls (by increasing collective to stop descent).
● Over-speeding engine and rotor RPM by adding too much throttle.
NOTES :
● As soon as a low rotor RPM condition is detected, apply additional throttle if it is

available.
● If there is no throttle available, lower the collective (the amount the collective can be
lowered depends on altitude).
● On the ground, practice the throttle control a few times with the governor off to
familiarize the student with throttle travel.
● Practice slowly rolling the throttle down to 95% and back up to normal speed (R22 :
104%).
● Hear the decrease/increase of the RPM and pay attention to the yaw movement
of the nose.
● Any time rotor RPM falls below the green arc and there is power,
simultaneously add throttle and lower the collective.
● If in forward flight, gently applying aft cyclic causes more air flow through the rotor
system and helps increase rotor RPM.
● At low RPM, the engine cannot develop full power, and the high limit is imposed by
engine structural limits. If the engine and main rotor RPM are allowed to get too low,
tail rotor RPM is also greatly reduced.
● At the low limit on the rotor tachometer, the rotor may not produce enough lift to
sustain level flight. The high limit of rotor RPM is imposed to protect the structural
integrity of the rotor and drive components.
● Low inertia rotor systems can become unrecoverable in 2 seconds or less if
the RPM is not regained immediately.
● Before the student is allowed to solo, the techniques for recovery from low rotor RPM
in both a hover and in flight must be practiced.
● Low or inadequate rotor RPM is an indicator of probable overloading or engine
performance problems.
● Show the student that increased awareness to higher density altitude at the time this
maneuver is performed and note to the student that recoveries at higher altitudes
may not be possible.
EMERGENCY OPERATIONS - Antitorque system failure
PURPOSE :
To become familiar with the recognition of the following types of tail rotor failures and the
techniques used to perform a proper landing for each :
● Tail rotor failure during hover.

● Tail rotor failure during forward flight :
○ Complete loss of tail rotor function and component parts (catastrophic failure).
○ Loss of antitorque pedal function (neutral pedal).
○ Loss of antitorque pedal function (stuck right, left pedal).
HOW ?
Each manufacturer has recommended recovery techniques.

Be familiarize with the emergency procedure in the POH.
Usually when there is a loss of tail rotor failure, the helicopter should be placed in
autorotation.
During a hover :
1. Failure is usually indicated by a right yaw that cannot be stopped by applying left
pedal.
2. Immediately close throttle and perform a hovering power off landing autorotation.
3. Keep the helicopter level with the cyclic and increase the collective just before
touchdown to cushion landing.
During flight :
1. Complete loss of tail rotor function and component parts is the most serious form of
tail rotor failure.
2. It is usually indicated by a right yaw and extremely lost low attitude because of the
change of CG.
3. Immediately close the throttle and perform an autorotation.
4. If there are no suitable places to land, may achieve forward flight with lower power
settings and using the vertical fin to help with directional control.
See POH, emergency procedure R22 : Loss of tail rotor thrust during forward flight.
NOTES :
● Tail rotor drive system failure include driveshaft failures, tail rotor gearbox failures, or
a complete loss of the tail rotor itself. In any of these cases, the loss of antitorque
normally results in an immediate spinning of the helicopter’s nose (in the right
in a counterclockwise rotor system).
● The severity of the spin is proportionate to the amount of power being used and the
airspeed.
● An antitorque failure with a high power setting at a low airspeed results in a severe
spinning to the right.
● At low power setting and high airspeed, the spin is less severe.
● High airspeed tend to streamline the helicopter and keep it from spinning.
● If a tail rotor failure occurs, power must be reduced in order to reduce main rotor
torque.
● If a complete tail rotor occurs while hovering, enter a hovering autorotation by rolling
off the throttle.
● If the helicopter has enough forward airspeed when the failure occurs, the vertical
stabilizer may provide enough directional control to allow the pilot to maneuver the
helicopter to a more desirable landing sight.
● Cares must be taken not to lose too much forward airspeed because the streamlining
effect diminishes as airspeed is reduced.
● If failure occurs in forward flight, enter a normal autorotation by lowering the
collective and rolling off the throttle.
● A mechanical control failure limits or prevents controls of tail rotor thrust and is
usually caused by a stuck or broken control rod or cable. While the tail rotor is still
producing antitorque thrust, it cannot be controlled by the pilot.
EMERGENCY OPERATIONS - Dynamic Rollover
DEFINITION :
A helicopter is susceptible to a lateral rolling tendency : dynamic rollover, when the

helicopter is in contact with the surface during takeoff or landing. (skids contacts a fixed
object, soft asphalt or mud….)
To occur, some factor must cause the helicopter to roll or pivot around a skid or landing
gear wheel, until its critical rollover angle is reached (5-8° depending on helicopter, winds
and loading).
Beyond this point, main rotor thrust continues the roll and recovery is impossible. After
this angle is achieved, the cyclic does not have sufficient range of control to eliminate the
thrust component and convert it to lift. Because it becomes a horizontal thrust component
and make this effect dynamic.
If the critical rollover angle is exceeded, the helicopter rolls on its side regardless of the
cyclic correction is made.
RECOVERY :
Quickly reducing the collective pitch.
NOTES :
Critical conditions :
● Right skid, since translating tendency adds to the rollover force.
● Right lateral center of gravity (CG).
● Crosswinds from the left.
● Left yaw inputs.
EMERGENCY OPERATIONS - Ground Resonance
DEFINITION :
Hazard associated with an articulated rotor system (usually designs with 3 or more main
rotor blades) are subject to ground resonance, a destructive vibration phenomenon that
occurs at certain rotor speeds when the helicopters is on the ground.
Hard contact with the ground on one corner (and usually with wheel type landing gear)
can send a shockwave to the main rotor head, resulting in the blades system moving
from their normal relationship to each other because of the drag hinge.
The unbalanced rotor system vibrates at the same time frequency or multiple of the
airframe’s resonant frequency and the harmonic oscillation increases because the engine is
adding power to the system, increasing the magnitude (or amplitude) of the vibrations until
the structure fail.
RECOVERY :
If the RPM is low, the only corrective action to stop ground resonance is to close the
throttle immediately and fully lower the collective to place the blades in low pitch.
If the RPM is in the normal operating range, fly the helicopter off the ground.

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FLIGHT MANEUVERS

● Vertical takeoff / Vertical landing

TAKEOFFS - LANDINGS AND GO-AROUNDS​ :

● Normal and crosswind takeoff and climb

● Rapid deceleration - Quick stop

● Power failure at a hover

● Confined area operation

● Vertical takeoff and landing.

6. If the helicopter moves : stop raising collective.

10. The helicopter should rise vertically.

12. Establish a 3’ hover.

● Failure to ascend vertically at a suitable rate.

Used to transition the helicopter from a stabilized hover to the surface.

1. From a stabilized 3 foot hover. Headed into the wind.

2. Lower the collective slightly to establish a slow rate of sink.

5. As the helicopter descends, additional downward pressure on the collective may be

7. Continue to lower the collective smoothly until is full down.

● Touching down with forward movement.

● Failure to descend at a controlled rate :

1. Starts from a stationary position on a smooth surface.

3. Pedals maintain the heading.

4. Cyclic maintains ground track.

5. Collective controls starting, stopping and rate of speed.

6. Surface taxi at a speed no greater than a slow walk.

● As it accelerates, it is important to remove the additional forward cyclic in order to

5. Cyclic controls the flight path and speed.

6. Pedals controls heading.

7. To stop : apply cyclic opposite of the direction of movement.

10. Never crab into the wind.

Improper control of heading and track resulting in excessive heading change.

● Fix any mistakes as you go and use small controlled inputs.

3. Maintain heading with pedals.

4. Maintain altitude with collective.

5. Maintain ground track with cyclic.

7. Adjust collective to maintain altitude.

Be aware of dynamic rollover characteristics and mast bumping.

Landing from a slope​ :

6. Maintain heading with pedals. Control attitude with cyclic.

10. Slowly lower the collective to the hard stop.

12. Check stability with forward / aft cyclic (slow movements).

13. Check stability with left / right pedals (slow movements).

15. Check the skids.

● Failing to consider wind effects during the approach and landing.

It’s the reverse of a slope landing.

1. Clear area and skids.

3. Apply lateral cyclic into the slope (upslope).

4. Slowly begin to increase the collective.

5. As the downslope skid becomes light, neutralize any aircraft movement.

● Rushing the maneuver.

● Rushing may result in overcontrolling the helicopter.

● Normal and crosswind takeoff and climb.

● Maximum performance takeoff and climb.

● Normal and crosswind approach.

● Shallow approach and running landing.

● Approach and landing with simulated powerplant failure - multiengine helicopter.

4. 3 foot hover height.

5. Nose into the direction of takeoff (upwind).

6. Radio call (clearance from the tower, UNICOM frequency).

14. Keep an altitude of 10 feet and airspeed of 50 KIAS (height/velocity diagram).

16. Adjust collective 5’ T/O, be aware to not exceed approved limits.

18. If crosswind : climb at least 300 feet before turning crosswind.

● Forgetting before takeoff checks.

Used to climb at a steep angle to clear barriers in the flightpath.

3. Clear the aircraft left, right, skids and overhead.

TAKEOFFS - LANDINGS AND GO-AROUNDS :

Landing from a slope :

○ Scan : to correct a deviation, it must first be recognized. Most students tend to

○ Kinesthesia : the sense of motion and pressure changes through nerve

1. Perform a normal takeoff into the wind.

11. The angle of descent should be no greater than a steep approach.

The power recovery :

The power recovery :