4595 BSBPMG512 Manage Project Time

Business, Accounting and Finance
BSBPMG512 - Manage project time
Learner Materials and Assessment Tasks

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Table of Contents
About BSBPMG512 Manage project time ............................................................................................. 3

Develop work breakdown structure with sufficient detail to enable effective planning and control 6
Activity 1 ............................................................................................................................................... 12
Activity 2 ............................................................................................................................................... 23
Estimate duration and effort, sequence and dependencies of tasks, to achieve project deliverables
.............................................................................................................................................................. 25
Activity 3 ............................................................................................................................................... 33
Activity 4 ............................................................................................................................................... 37
Activity 5 ............................................................................................................................................... 53
Use project scheduling tools and techniques to identify schedule impact on project time
management, resource requirements, costs and risks ....................................................................... 55
Activity 6 ............................................................................................................................................... 86
Contribute to achieving an agreed schedule baseline and communication of the schedule to
stakeholders ......................................................................................................................................... 88
Activity 7 ............................................................................................................................................... 92
Implement mechanisms to measure, record and report progress of activities according to agreed
schedule ................................................................................................................................................ 94
Activity 8 ............................................................................................................................................... 99
Activity 9 ............................................................................................................................................. 106
Conduct ongoing analysis to identify baseline variance ................................................................... 108
Activity 10 ........................................................................................................................................... 118
Analyse and forecast impact of changes to the schedule ................................................................. 121
Review progress throughout project life cycle and implement agreed schedule changes ............. 126
Activity 11 ........................................................................................................................................... 134
Develop responses to potential or actual schedule changes and implement them to maintain
project objectives ............................................................................................................................... 137
Review schedule performance records to determine effectiveness of time management activities
............................................................................................................................................................ 140
Activity 12 ........................................................................................................................................... 145
Identify and document time management issues and recommend improvements ....................... 148
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About BSBPMG512 Manage project time
Application
This unit describes the skills and knowledge required to manage time during projects. It involves
determining and implementing the project schedule, and assessing time management outcomes.
It applies to individuals responsible for managing and leading a project in an organisation, business,
or as a consultant.
No licensing, legislative, regulatory or certification requirements apply to this unit at the time of
publication.
Unit Sector
Management and Leadership – Project Management
Elements and Performance Criteria

ELEMENT PERFORMANCE CRITERIA
Elements describe the Performance criteria describe the performance needed to demonstrate
essential outcomes. achievement of the element.
1. Determine project 1.1 Develop work breakdown structure with sufficient detail to enable
schedule effective planning and control
1.2 Estimate duration and effort, sequence and dependencies of tasks,

to achieve project deliverables
1.3 Use project scheduling tools and techniques to identify schedule

impact on project time management, resource requirements, costs
and risks
1.4 Contribute to achieving an agreed schedule baseline and

communication of the schedule to stakeholders
2. Implement project 2.1 Implement mechanisms to measure, record and report progress of
schedule activities according to agreed schedule
2.2 Conduct ongoing analysis to identify baseline variance
2.3 Analyse and forecast impact of changes to the schedule
2.4 Review progress throughout project life cycle and implement

agreed schedule changes
2.5 Develop responses to potential or actual schedule changes and

implement them to maintain project objectives
3. Assess time 3.1 Review schedule performance records to determine effectiveness
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management outcomes of time management activities
3.2 Identify and document time management issues and recommend

improvements
Foundation Skills
This section describes language, literacy, numeracy and employment skills incorporated in the
performance criteria that are required for competent performance.
Skill Performance Description

Criteria
Reading 1.1, 2.1-2.4, 3.1  Identifies, interprets and analyses textual
information obtained from a range of sources
Writing 1.1, 2.1, 2.4, 2.5, 3.2  Drafts and develops documentation required for
project scheduling and reporting using
appropriate formats and language
Oral 1.4, 2.5  Participates in a verbal exchanges using clear and
Communication detailed language and appropriate non-verbal
features to convey expectations and advise others
on progress
Numeracy 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 1.4,  Calculates time requirements for project
2.1-2.5 scheduling
 Uses basic mathematical formula to determine
costs and other necessary resources
Interact with 1.4, 2.5  Actively identifies requirements of important
others communication exchanges, selecting appropriate
channels, format, tone and content to suit
purpose and audience
Get the work 1.1-1.4, 2.1-2.5, 3.1,  Plans and schedules complex activities, monitors
done 3.2 implementation and manages relevant
communication
 Monitors actions against goals, adjusting plans
and resources where necessary
 Uses analytical skills to review and evaluate
process and decide on future improvements
 Uses digital applications to access, organise,
integrate and share relevant information in
effective ways
Unit Mapping Information

Code and title Code and title Comments Equivalence status
current version previous version

BSBPMG512 Manage BSBPMG512A Manage Updated to meet Equivalent unit
project time project time Standards for Training
Packages
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Assessment requirements
Modification History
Release Comments
Release 1 This version first released with BSB Business Services Training Package
Version 1.0.
Performance Evidence
Evidence of the ability to:
 develop a project schedule using project management tools and techniques

 implement, analyse and monitor a project schedule
 conduct a review of project scheduling and recommend improvements for the future.
Note: If a specific volume or frequency is not stated, then evidence must be provided at least once.
Knowledge Evidence
To complete the unit requirements safely and effectively, the individual must:
 explain estimation techniques to determine task duration and resource effort

 explain procedures for identifying critical path
 explain procedures for managing project baselines, establishment and variance
 summarise project life cycle phases and describe each phase
 explain best-practice time management methodologies, their capabilities, limitations,
applications and outcomes
 summarise key tools for project scheduling
 explain work breakdown structures and application to project schedules.
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Develop work breakdown structure with sufficient detail to enable effective
planning and control1
Projects don't just happen they need planning. Involve the whole project team in developing the
plan, not just the project manager. This approach ensures team members' experience gets
considered, and each person has a commitment to and ownership of the plan.
A good project plan provides the following:
 A roadmap (including clear milestones) everyone in the team can follow

 A realistic project timescale
 Details of resource requirements
 Validation of the estimated cost
 Identification of task slippage
 Early warning of problems
It pays to use previous experience and lessons learned from similar projects:
 How long did it take?

 How much did it cost?
 What were the problem areas?
 What were the successful areas?
Running a project without a plan is foolish. Working without knowing where you are going is likely to
lead to problems and possible failure. Running a project without a plan, is like trying to find your way
in a strange city without a map. You'll be wandering around not knowing where you are.
Next, let's look at what's involved in planning a project with your team.
Work Breakdown Structure (WBS)
It is useful to create a Work Breakdown Structure to identify and break down the deliverables in the
project. A WBS is the foundation of project planning. Get the team together and brainstorm all the
deliverables in the project, in no particular order. Write them down on sticky notes and put them on
a whiteboard. Once everyone has thought of as many deliverables as they can, break each
deliverable down into successively smaller chunks of work. Break down the deliverables to a point
where the project manager can easily manage them. Once completed, arrange the sticky notes into
groups under the major areas of activity. Add, change, remove and shuffle the sticky notes until your
WBS is accurate, complete and logical. The purpose of a WBS is to decompose the project
deliverables into easily manageable work packages.
1
Source: Project Smart, as at https://www.projectsmart.co.uk/planning-a-project-using-a-work-breakdown-
structure-and-logic-network.php, as on 30th September, 2016; Bright Hub Project Management, as at
http://www.brighthubpm.com/project-planning/2940-tips-for-building-a-work-breakdown-structure/#imgn_0,
as on 30th September, 2016; For Dummies, as at http://www.dummies.com/careers/project-
management/software-project-management-for-dummies/, as on 30th September, 2016.
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Logic Network (Time Chart)
A Logic Network shows the sequence of activities in a project across time. It indicates which activity
logically precedes or follows another. Create a Start (left) and End (right) sticky note and put them
on a whiteboard. Arrange the WBS sticky notes in the logical sequence of activities from left to right.
Join the notes with an arrow in and out; some may have more than one arrow. All connecting lines
on a network enter at the left (beginning) of the activity box (sticky note) and exit at the right
(ending). Lines do not enter the top or exit the bottom of the activity box. Unconnected lines are not
allowed. All activities must connect to another activity or the start or end of the project. Write the
time every activity will take on each sticky note to calculate the project duration. Once completed,
you have created a Logic Network that will help you understand the dependencies in your project,
timescale, and its workflow. This technique can reveal valuable information that might otherwise get
overlooked.
Milestones
Look for milestones in your Logic Network. A natural milestone may occur any time a series of
parallel activities come together to a point. Control the project by defining a concrete deliverable for
each milestone. A concrete deliverable is something you can see or touch, such as a design
specification, prototype, model or software module.
Using Project Management Software
The information from your WBS and Logic Network can be input into a software package, such as
Microsoft Project to provide a detailed plan. Enter the tasks, predecessors, resources and time
estimates into the software. Once entered, the software will create the charts and graphs
automatically. Don't expect the software to plan or manage the project; it's just a tool.
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Checklist
Here is a checklist to help you create a well thought out, detailed project plan while building a
committed high performing team:
1. Define what needs to be done using a Work Breakdown Structure.

2. Discover the best approach to getting everything done by developing a Logic Network.
3. Develop work and duration estimates of how long each team member needs for each work
package.
4. Calculate how long the project will take to complete its critical path and milestone schedule
using the Logic Network.
5. Calculate and chart the number of people needed and the percentage of each team
member's time for each phase of the project.
6. Adjust and refine the project plan to level individual workloads and smooth out the number
of people needed for the project.
7. Creatively optimise trade-offs to deliver the best results in the shortest time.
8. Use the joint planning process to intensify team members' commitment and ownership.
By working through this process, you will have increased your chances of success by creating an
accurate and realistic plan, while gaining the commitment of your team to deliver a successful
project.
WBS Basics
A work breakdown structure (WBS) is a project management tool designed to capture project tasks
in a visual, organized manner. The WBS was originally developed by the US Department of Defense,
which mandated their use across the DoD. Today, work breakdown structures are widely used for
projects of all types, both business and personal.
On the most basic level, you decompose the project scope in order to create the work breakdown
structure. This takes time in the beginning, but ultimately it affords the project manager better
control of costs and deadlines, thus saving time. When you use the decomposition process to create
your WBS, you are less prone to adding items that are outside of the project scope.
A WBS is Not a To Do List

The example shown below is a simple, task-oriented WBS that resembles a graphical To Do list. A To
Do list like the example below may work for a wedding party, but in the corporate world there is
more to developing and using a WBS than simply creating an expanded To Do list.
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At the beginning of a project, the WBS can serve as a coordinating medium to secure buy-in from
stakeholders, supervisors and team members. As the project progresses, the WBS can give visibility
to important efforts and foster clear ownership by managers and supervisors. At project completion,
the WBS can provide data for performance measurement. That’s more than a To Do list can do.
Considerations When Building a Work Breakdown Structure

There are some aspects of the WBS development to consider before you start, which include:
 As you set up your project WBS, think about how you will want to use it later in the project. For
instance, pay close attention to the indents in your WBS because these eventually end up being
the indent structure in your Gantt schedule.
 Intuitively we gravitate toward developing task-oriented work breakdown structures because
they are easy to understand, and because we tend to think of a project as a collection of tasks. It
usually takes more effort to develop a deliverable-oriented WBS because they include multiple
levels of detail. Yet, taking the time to develop a deliverable-oriented WBS may better serve the
project, especially if extensive project management controls are used.
 Determine whether you want to build a WBS that is process oriented or product oriented.
What’s the difference? If the results you want from your project can be defined in verbs, then
you want a WBS that is process oriented. If you want a WBS that is built on nouns, then it will be
product oriented. Remember that our brains can simultaneously comprehend only 7 to 9 items
at a time. When a project involves hundreds of tasks, they need to be broken into chunks that
we can readily understand and use.
 The process of creating a WBS helps break down the project, which makes it easier to manage –
and master. Be sure there is no overlap in scope definition between two elements of your WBS.
Not only would this result in duplication of effort, but would likely cause confusion regarding
responsibility, authority and cost accounting. To help alleviate this problem, create a WBS
dictionary to describe each component in detail.
Why is a Work Breakdown Structure Important?
A WBS is one of the most critical components of a successful project because it forces the
project team to carefully consider all the pieces of a project. Specifically on large projects, it is
practically impossible for one person to consider all the work necessary to complete the project.
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If the project team does not take the time to decompose the work and consider all the work
components, then it is safe to assume that the project team has not performed due dilegence to
ensure that all the work has been identified.
On many projects, the WBS development exercise is not performed. Rather, the project jumps into
developing a project schedule. All too often, the project seems to be progressing smoothly only to
realize, later, that a key activity or dependency is missing from the project schedule because it was
not considered during the schedule development. And it was not considered during schedule
development because the WBS work decomposition was not performed to try to identify all the
work necessary to deliver the product or service. Or the project schedule underestimated the level
of effort for an activity, thus causing delays and potential cost overruns. Again, the WBS exercise
could help with time estimation and sequencing of activities since all the people involved in
performing the work are colocated for a period of time with the one purpose of identifying all the
work and providing estimates and dependencies on the work.
The WBS exercise of decomposing the work as a team is also a team-building effort. It implicately
creates a sense of agreement as well as accountability among the project team members.
Now, let’s jump into the process of developing a WBS.
The Building Process

Not only do you need the project scope to create your WBS, you need the input from the project
managers and team leaders. Generally, the WBS-building process finds all these people in a room
with plenty of white boards and markers, or pads of paper and sticky notes. Out of this brainstorm
session should come a first draft of the project WBS. It should be one that will foster “buy in"
because the core project personnel participated in its development.
Creating a quality WBS can take a substantial amount of time, but is usually worth the effort because
of the additional clarity it provides for the project manager.
Creating a work breakdown structure (WBS) helps you be both comprehensive and specific when
managing a project: Thinking in detail is critical when planning your project, but you also need to
consider the big picture. If you fail to identify a major part of your project’s work, you won’t have the
chance to detail it. A work breakdown structure is key.
The diagram here shows that the entire project, represented as a Level 1 component, can be
subdivided into Level 2 components, and some or all Level 2 components can be subdivided into
Level 3 components.
You can continue to subdivide all the components in the same manner until you reach a point at
which you think the components you defined are sufficiently detailed for planning and management
purposes. At this point, you now have Level “n” components, where n is the number of the lowest-
level component in a particular WBS branch. Level “n” components are called work packages.
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Develop a work breakdown structure to determine the hierarchy of a project.
Suppose you’re responsible for creating and presenting a new training program for your
organization. To get started, you’d develop a WBS for this project as follows:
1. Determine the major deliverables or products to be produced.
Ask yourself, “What major intermediate or final products or deliverables must be produced
to achieve the project’s objectives?”
You may identify the following items:
o Training program needs statement

o Training program design
o Participant notebooks
o Trained instructor
o Program testing
o Training program presentation
2. Divide each of these major deliverables into its component deliverables in the same manner.
Choose any one of these deliverables to begin with. Suppose you choose Training program
needs statement.
Ask, “What intermediate deliverables must I have so I can create the needs statement?”
You may determine that you require the following:
o Interviews of potential participants

o A review of materials discussing the needs for the program
o A report summarizing the needs this program will address
3. Divide each of these work pieces into its component parts.
Suppose you choose to start with Interviews of potential participants.
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Ask, “What deliverables must I have to complete these interviews?”
You may decide that you have to produce the following deliverables:
o Selected interviewees
o Interview questionnaire
o Interview schedule
o Completed interviews
o Report of interview findings
Types of WBS
Even though the term “Work Breakdown Structure” has been used as a label for all project scope
hierarchical diagrams, there are, in practice, many types other than “deliverable” oriented
structures.
Verb-oriented WBS: a task-oriented WBS defines the deliverable of project work in terms of the
actions that must be done to produce the deliverable. The first word in a given WBS element usually
is a verb, such as, design, develop, optimize, transfer, test, etc.
Noun-oriented WBS: a deliverable-oriented WBS defines project work in terms of the components
(physical or functional) that make up the deliverable. In this case, the first word in a given WBS
element is a noun, such as, Module A, Subsystem A, Automobile Engine, Antenna, etc. Since the
nouns are usually parts of a product, this WBS type is sometimes called a “Product Breakdown
Structure (PBS). Deliverable-oriented WBS structures are the preferred type according to PMI’s
definition.
Time-phased WBS: a “time-phased” WBS is one that is used on very long projects. It breaks the
project into major phases instead of tasks. In this type, a “rolling wave” approach is adopted and
only the near-term phase is planned in detail.
Other WBS types may include organization-types, geographical-types, cost breakdown types, and
profit-centre types.
Activity 1
What is the purpose of a work breakdown structure (WBS)?
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Activity 1
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Activity 1
The more ambitious your project is, the more important it is for you to plan well. Problems created
by poor planning include cost overruns, missed deadlines, inefficient work and low-quality results. A
work breakdown structure is an effective way to map out your project, making it easy to track your
progress and stay on schedule2.
Function
Essentially, a work breakdown structure is a hierarchical map of your project. Writing down your
plan helps you visualize your overall strategy. You can sketch it out in the form of a flowchart or
simply list the tasks in chronological order.
Initial Breakdown
Define your top-level objective. For example, describe the type of marketing campaign you wish to
launch. Meeting this objective means the project has been successful. Next, divide your top-level
objective into its constituent tasks. For instance, your marketing campaign will require a design
phase, followed by production and implementation phases. Call these your midlevel tasks.
2
Source: Chron, as at http://smallbusiness.chron.com/steps-developing-work-breakdown-structure-
33331.html, as on 30th September, 2016.
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Further Breakdown
Divide your midlevel tasks into their constituent tasks. For example, a design phase might consist of
fact-finding meetings with your client to determine the preferred focus of the marketing campaign,
planning sessions with your marketing staff to strategize your advertising approach and a follow-up
meeting with the client to get final approval to implement the campaign. Continue dividing the tasks
until you reach a level of simplification that allows a single worker or dedicated team of workers to
handle each task.
Implementation
Decide how long each task should take. Add up the times to get a rough idea of how long the project
will take. Assign the bottom-level tasks to your employees and set a schedule for them to complete
each task in chronological order. For instance, after one employee finishes meeting with the client to
choose a focus for the campaign, that employee or another can schedule the group marketing-
strategy meeting.
Work Breakdown Structure Levels3
Project Management's first step is creating the work breakdown structure, a step that then enables
subsequent planning of the work processes and schedule for accomplishing the project. When the
work breakdown structure is in place, thoroughly reviewed and finalized, the structure can then be
evaluated to determine the processes needed and the scheduled time and costs for achieving each
of the goals.
The work breakdown structure, though created at the very beginning of the planning process, needs
to be constant during project accomplishment. Work activity schedules will change, budgeted costs
and actual costs will change, but objectives remain constant, barring a complete revision to the
objective and final deliverable.
The determination of project objectives lends itself to a top-down approach, since the primary
objective or end product is the first thing known. Building of the work breakdown structure starts
with Level 1, the top objective, continuing with Levels 2 and below requiring managers and planners
to carefully consider the outcomes that are required at increasingly more distinct levels of detail to
achieve the ultimate objective. Level 2 of the work breakdown structure is necessarily created
before moving down to Level 3, and the thought process should follow in that manner until the
entire work breakdown structure is in place and ready for review.
Project complexity, expected dollar value, and customer expectations for visibility are among the
factors that are considered in determining the number of levels to build into a work breakdown
structure. In turn, the project is managed by different levels of managers, at higher or lower levels of
the work breakdown structure.
After the start of the project, the performance plan framed by the work breakdown structure moves
into project execution.
3
Source: Work Breakdown Structures, as at http://www.workbreakdownstructure.com/how-to-make-a-work-
breakdown-structure.php, as on 30th September, 2016.
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During the execution phase, a Level 3 view provides top managers with sufficient detail for
identifying problem areas. This promotes focusing on the project at an appropriate level of detail,
while avoiding micromanagement tendencies.
Project managers will generally need the work breakdown structure to be broken down below Level
3, especially on a complex project. Doing so allows leaders at all levels to closely monitor efforts
within their respective spans of control. The bottom level of the work breakdown structure consists
of "work packages", which represent the efforts and objectives of a small team of individuals who
are working on a very specific outcome.
The work packages at the lowest level of detail in the work breakdown structure roll up to elements
that are definable outcomes or completed sub-products, which in turn comprise a larger part of the
final products, which is defined at the top of the work breakdown structure.
Every element of the work breakdown structure will be assigned a schedule and dollar budget for
accomplishment, progress against the objective can be evaluated throughout its period of
performance. Problem areas can be identified and process changes or additional resources can be
applied to correct problems as they are encountered.
Careful consideration of objectives and the building of the work breakdown structure to identify
those objectives during project initiation are essential in the planning and management process.
How to Facilitate a Work Breakdown Structure Decomposition Exercise?4
A successfully developed WBS involves the project team, usually sitting in a half-day to multi-day
workshop, to decompose all the work necessary to complete the work.
The main purpose of a WBS excercise is to:
1. Structure and organize the WBS

2. Decompose each WBS component into lower level components by identifying all the
deliverables and activities necessary to complete the WBS component
3. Complete a WBS Dictionary Card for each WBS component that contains a detailed
explanation of the component, level of effort and other information that could help during
project schedule development. (As part of this activity, assigning unique WBS ID numbers to
each WBS component is also critical to keep the WBS Cards organized)
4. Verify that the level of decomposition is sufficient at the Work Package level (the lowest
level of the WBS decomposition) to ensure that the work is not too large or small, but
manageable.
The steps documented in this section are meant to serve as guidance. Depending on the size of the
project and the culture of the organization, there can be variations of this activity. However, this
should provide guidance on how to use the entire project team to develop the WBS.
4
Source: PM Documents, as at http://www.pmdocuments.com/how-to-create-a-work-breakdown-structure-
wbs/, as on 30th September, 2016.
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1. Organize a WBS Workshop
The WBS workshop should include, at a minimum, the key members of the project team. Keep in
mind that the point of the WBS exercise is to consider all the work required to deliver the final
product or service. So you need the people on the team who are actually doing the work to be there
and be actively involved. Stress the importance of this to the project sponsor and to the project
team managers (in a matrixed team, the support of the project team managers is critical since they
are allocating resources to the project).
Identifying the main deliverables of a project is the starting point for deriving a work breakdown
structure5.
This important step is usually done by the project managers and the subject matter experts (SMEs)
involved in the project. Once this step is completed, the subject matter experts start breaking down
the high-level tasks into smaller chunks of work.
In the process of breaking down the tasks, one can break them down into different levels of detail.
One can detail a high-level task into ten sub-tasks while another can detail the same high-level task
into 20 sub-tasks.
Therefore, there is no hard and fast rule on how you should breakdown a task in WBS. Rather, the
level of breakdown is a matter of the project type and the management style followed for the
project.
In general, there are a few "rules" used for determining the smallest task chunk. In "two weeks" rule,
nothing is broken down smaller than two weeks’ worth of work.
This means, the smallest task of the WBS is at least two-week long. 8/80 is another rule used when
creating a WBS. This rule implies that no task should be smaller than 8 hours of work and should not
be larger than 80 hours of work.
One can use many forms to display their WBS. Some use tree structure to illustrate the WBS, while
others use lists and tables. Outlining is one of the easiest ways of representing a WBS.
Following example is an outlined WBS:
5
Source: Tutorials Point, as at
https://www.tutorialspoint.com/management_concepts/work_breakdown_structure.htm, as on 30th
September, 2016.
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There are many design goals for WBS. Some important goals are as follows:
 Giving visibility to important work efforts.

 Giving visibility to risky work efforts.
 Illustrate the correlation between the activities and deliverables.
 Show clear ownership by task leaders.
WBS Diagram
In a WBS diagram, the project scope is graphically expressed. Usually the diagram starts with a
graphic object or a box at the top, which represents the entire project. Then, there are sub-
components under the box.
These boxes represent the deliverables of the project. Under each deliverable, there are sub-
elements listed. These sub-elements are the activities that should be performed in order to achieve
the deliverables.
Although most of the WBS diagrams are designed based on the deliveries, some WBS are created
based on the project phases. Usually, information technology projects are perfectly fit into WBS
model.
Therefore, almost all information technology projects make use of WBS.
In addition to the general use of WBS, there is specific objective for deriving a WBS as well. WBS is
the input for Gantt charts, a tool that is used for project management purpose.
Gantt chart is used for tracking the progression of the tasks derived by WBS.
Following is a sample WBS diagram:
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2. Decompose the Work
Decompose the workshop to manageable components of work called work packages, hopefully
under the guidance and facilitation of the WBS workshop organizer. The following tips help facilitate
the workshop and make the process of collecting the information simpler.
 Break up the team into smaller groups that are organized by level 2 of the WBS (In our
phase-based WBS, level 2 is the Planning, Implementing, Monitoring & Control and
Deployment level. It is much easier to go into the workshop with a high level WBS structure
so that the team doesn't waste valuable workshop time trying to determine the high level
WBS structure.
 Use blank WBS Dictionary cards to collect all the decomposed work elements
 Ensure that the teams assign WBS numbers to all the WBS Dictionary Cards they complete.
 Ensure that there are enough WBS support staff to walk around the room and ensure that
the teams understand how to decompose the work using the WBS Dictionary Cards.
Specifically, if the WBS Dictionary Cards are not assigned WBS Numbers, then the cards will
be difficult to sort correctly when they are collected later.
 A good idea it to provide a table workspace for each team so that they can organize their
dictionary cards on a table.
3. Compile the WBS Information
Compile the collected WBS Dictionary Cards to create a WBS and supporting WBS Dictionary
Document. The WBS Dictionary Document is essentially an organized collection of the WBS
Dictionary Cards.
What Tools Do I Need to Create a Work Breakdown Structure?
There are lots of tools out there to assist with WBS Development. But the work mentioned here can
be performed with Microsoft Office and Excel.
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A WBS Dictionary Document Template is available for download below. Additionally available for
download is a WBS spreadsheet that can be used to compile the WBS Dictionary Card information.
The Four Elements in Each WBS Element6

Each WBS element, when completed should contain the following four items:
1. The scope of work, including any “deliverables.”
2. The beginning and end dates for the scope of work.
3. The budget for the scope of work.
4. The name of the person responsible for the scope of work.
By using a WBS in this manner the project manager can approach a complex project and decompose
it into manageable, assignable portions. There is minimal confusion among project members when
this technique is used.
Mutually-exclusive Elements
In addition to the 100% Rule, it is important that there is no overlap in scope definition between two
elements of a WBS. This ambiguity could result in duplicated work or miscommunications about
responsibility and authority. Likewise, such overlap is likely to cause confusion regarding project cost
accounting. If the WBS element names are ambiguous, a WBS dictionary can help clarify the
distinctions between WBS elements.
It is important that there is no overlap in scope definition between two elements of a WBS.
How Far Down?

The WBS is decomposed down to the work package level. A work package is the lowest level in the
WBS, and is the point at which the cost and schedule for the work can be reliably estimated.2
A question to be answered in the design of any WBS is when to stop dividing work into smaller
elements. If a WBS terminal elements are defined too broadly, it may not be possible to track project
performance effectively. If a WBS terminal elements are too granular, it may be inefficient to keep
track of so many terminal elements, especially if the planned work is in the distant future. A
satisfactory trade-off may be found in the concept of progressive elaboration which allows WBS
details to be progressively refined before work begins on an element of work.
An effective limit of WBS granularity may be reached when it is no longer possible to define planned
outcomes, and the only details remaining are.
One form of progressive elaboration in large projects is called rolling wave planning which
establishes a regular time schedule for progressive elaboration. In reality, an effective limit of WBS
granularity may be reached when it is no longer possible to define planned outcomes, and the only
details remaining are actions. Unless these actions can be defined to adhere to the 100% Rule, the
WBS should not be further subdivided.
6
Source: ANU, as at https://cs.anu.edu.au/courses/comp3120/local_docs/readings/HowToDevelopWBS.pdf,
as on 30th September, 2016.
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The 40-Hour Rule of Decomposition
Another rule-of-thumb for determining how far down a WBS should be decomposed is called the “40
Hour Rule.” Generally, when a project has been decomposed down to an element that has about 40
hours of allocated direct labor, there is no need to decompose further. The 40 Hour Rule is based on
a 40-hour work week. Because of this, most WBS diagrams are not symmetrical. Some legs may go
down to Level-4 while others may go down to Level-5.
The 4% Rule of Decomposition
Gary Heerkens suggests a 4% Rule for decomposing a WBS. With this rule a WBS is adequately
decomposed when the lowest element is about 4% of the total project. 3 For a 26-week schedule,
the lowest element should be about one week. For a $2.6M project, the lowest level should be
about $104K.
WBS Identification Numbering

It is common for WBS elements to be numbered sequentially to reveal the hierarchical structure. For
example 1.3.2 Rear Wheel identifies this item as a Level 3 WBS element, since there are three
numbers separated decimal point. A coding scheme also helps WBS elements to be recognized in
any written context.
Figure 1 WBS Construction Example
The above WBS is from PMI's Practice Standard for Work Breakdown Structures (2nd Edition). This
image illustrates an objective method of employing the 100% Rule during WBS construction.
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Figure 1 shows a WBS construction technique that demonstrates the 100% Rule quantitatively. At
the beginning of the design process, the project manager has assigned 100 points to the total scope
of this project, which is designing and building a custom bicycle. At WBS Level 2, the 100 total points
are subdivided into seven comprehensive elements. The number of points allocated to each is a
judgment based on the relative effort involved; it is NOT an estimate of duration. The three largest
elements of WBS Level 2 are further subdivided at Level 3, and so forth. The largest terminal
elements at Level 3 represent only 17% of the total scope of work. These larger elements may be
further subdivided using the progressive elaboration technique described above.
In this example, the WBS coding scheme includes a trailing "underscore" character ("_") to identify
terminal elements. This is a useful coding scheme because planned project schedule activities (e.g.
"Install inner tube and tire") will be assigned to terminal elements instead of parent elements.
It is recommended that WBS design be initiated with interactive software (e.g. a spreadsheet) that
allows automatic rolling up of point values. Another recommended practice is to discuss the point
estimations with project team members. This collaborative technique builds greater insight into
scope definitions, underlying assumptions, and consensus regarding the level of granularity required
to manage the project.
Another example of a Project WBS using the 100% Method is shown below.
COMMON PITFALLS AND MISCONCEPTIONS

A WBS is not an exhaustive list of work. It is instead a comprehensive classification of project scope.
A WBS is not a project plan or a project schedule and it is not a chronological listing.
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It is considered poor practice to construct a project schedule (e.g. using project management
software) before designing a proper WBS. This would be similar to scheduling the activities of home
construction before completing the house design. Without concentrating on planned outcomes, it is
very difficult to follow the 100% Rule at all levels of the WBS hierarchy. It is not possible to recover
from an improperly defined WBS without starting over, so it is worthwhile to finish the WBS design
before starting a project plan or project schedule.
A WBS is not an organizational hierarchy. Some practitioners make the mistake of creating a WBS
that shadows the organizational chart. While it is common for responsibility to be assigned to
organizational elements, a WBS that shadows the organizational structure is not descriptive of the
project scope and is not outcome-oriented.
Short-term memory capacity should not dictate the size and span of a WBS tree structure. Some
reference material suggests that each WBS level be limited to 5-9 elements because that is a
theoretical limit to short-term memory. It is far more important to construct a logical grouping of
planned outcomes than to worry about the limits of short-term human memory.
WBS updates, other than progressive elaboration of details, require formal change control. This is
another reason why a WBS should be outcome-oriented and not be prescriptive of methods.
Methods can and do change frequently, but changes in planned outcomes require a higher degree of
formality. If outcomes and actions are blended, change control may be too rigid for actions and too
informal for outcomes.
Activity 2
Why do work breakdown structures have levels?
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Activity 2
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Activity 2
Estimate duration and effort, sequence and dependencies of tasks, to achieve

project deliverables7
Part of creating a project plan for any project you manage involves estimating how long each activity
will take to complete. A duration estimate is your best sense of how long you need to actually
perform an activity that’s in the network diagram. The estimate isn’t based on how long you want
the activity to take or how long someone tells you it must take; the estimate is based on how long
you think it really will take.
Overly optimistic or unrealistically short duration estimates can cause an activity to take longer than
necessary for the following two reasons:
 Because unrealistic estimates appear to meet your schedule targets, you don’t seek realistic
alternative strategies that increase the chances of accomplishing activities in their declared
durations.
 If people believe duration estimates are totally unrealistic, they’ll stop trying to achieve
them. When delays occur during an activity, people will accept them as inevitable instead of
seeking ways to overcome them.
The underlying makeup of an activity determines how long it will take to complete. Therefore,
accurately estimating that activity’s duration requires you to describe its different aspects and
determine the effect of each one on the activity’s length.
When estimating an activity’s duration, consider past experience, expert opinion, and other available
sources of information to clarify the following components of the activity:
7
Source: Dummies, as at http://www.dummies.com/careers/project-management/project-management-how-
to-estimate-activity-duration/, as on 30th September, 2016; Investopedia, as at
http://www.investopedia.com/ask/answers/052015/how-do-companies-calculate-estimated-duration-new-
project.asp, as on 30th September, 2016; Mind Tools, as at
https://www.mindtools.com/pages/article/newPPM_01.htm, as on 30th September, 2016.
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 Work performed by people: Physical and mental activities that people perform, such as
writing a report, assembling a piece of equipment, and thinking of ideas for an ad campaign
 Work performed by nonhuman resources: Activities that computers and other machines
perform, such as testing software on a computer and printing a report on a high-speed copy
machine
 Physical processes: Physical or chemical reactions, such as concrete curing, paint drying, and
chemical reactions in a laboratory
 Time delays: Time during which nothing is happening, such as needing to reserve a
conference room two weeks before holding a meeting (Time delays are typically due to the
unavailability of resources.)
Knowing the types of resources an activity requires can help you improve your estimate of the
activity’s duration. For example, not all copy machines generate copies at the same rate. Specifying
the characteristics of the particular machine you’ll use to make copies can improve the activity’s
duration estimate.
To support project work, you may need the following types of resources: personnel, equipment,
facilities, raw materials, information, and funds. For each resource you need, you have to determine
its
 Capacity: Productivity per unit time period

 Availability: When a resource will be available
For example, a copy machine that produces 1,000 copies per minute can complete a job in half the
time a machine that produces 500 copies per minute requires. Likewise, a large printing job can take
half as long if you have access to a copy machine for four hours a day rather than two hours a day.
Different kinds of companies use different techniques to estimate project duration. For internal
projects, estimation requires an understanding of internal labor costs, non-labor costs and, ideally, a
baseline previous project against which the current one can be evaluated. An external project is a
little trickier, since it normally means accounting for unfamiliar resources and external expectations.
Ultimately, project duration estimation is an exercise in resource certainty. It's impossible for a
company to gauge and predict the output correctly if it doesn't understand the inputs. If the
company must account for more resources, it is harder to provide an accurate calculation of the
project duration. Some assumptions need to be made just to finish the process, almost like adding
an algebraic variable into a math equation.
Historical Estimate
A historical estimate is probably the simplest and most widely preferred method of estimating a
project. If a similar project has been completed in the recent past – the same types of inputs and a
similar goal – then the project manager can modify the next project based on past experience.
Suppose a company contracts with local governments to build and maintain new highways. It
receives an order to construct 3.5 miles of highway in a county where it had previously built 2.5
miles in 20 days. Using a historical estimate, the new project should take approximately 40% longer,
or 28 days.
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Unit-Based Estimate
A unit-based process is extremely scalable, which is helpful for companies performing a new kind of
project that has similar input units as past ones. In this method, units usually refer to the number of
products or other marginal inputs.
The tricky part about unit-based estimates is they must be adjusted based on economies of scale.
This might be unfamiliar after new capital equipment has been purchased or if the new project is
much larger or much smaller than anything previously handled.
The continuous evaluation and monitoring of deliverables for a new project is sometimes known as
agile project management.
Step-by-Step Work Breakdown
For particularly complex, large or long projects, estimates may need to be broken down into
separate stages of completion. If there are identifiable milestones, each of those should use its own
duration estimate.
An old adage says that the way to eat an elephant is just one bite at a time. This is the underlying
concept behind a step-by-step estimation process. Sometimes the task of producing the estimate
must be delegated to individual department heads or even individual employees to create (and live
up to) their own time estimates. A company must be careful to avoid building up too much lead time
between separate stages.
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External Factors
Any time a client is involved in a project, he must be asked certain key questions before a company
can provide an accurate time estimate. These include simple things, such as expectations and client
participation, as well as complex elements that include the costs or obstacles the client won't cover.
When Do You Estimate Project Cost and Duration?
Another issue is that you do estimates of cost and duration at different points in the project lifecycle.
You make the first estimates during project initiation. These first estimates, done before the scope
and deliverables are clearly defined, are obviously the riskiest ones to make. It is a difficult situation
because the executive wants precise numbers to rely on and you want to hedge the estimate as
much as possible. The best practice is to state duration and cost estimates in ranges which, during
initiation, are usually + or – 50%. As an example, during initiation you might give an order of
magnitude estimate of a duration between 100 and 150 days and a cost of between $15,000 and
$20,000.
Needless to say, the wide ranges of those estimates do not satisfy executives. However, initiation is
the time of greatest uncertainty about the project and only a foolish project manager
would commit to a precise date or budget.
You continue to estimate project cost and duration at several points; during project planning, and
every week while the project team is executing the plan. The amount of uncertainty in the estimates
decreases as planning is complete and you execute more of the project plan. The estimates at
initiation may be plus or minus 50% but by the time the project is half-complete, the ranges of the
estimates might be plus or minus 5%.
What Techniques Do You Use to Estimate Project Cost and Duration?
Estimate Project Cost and Duration Technique #1: Analogous Estimating
There are three principal project estimation techniques that project managers use to prepare their
cost and duration estimates. The first technique is called analogous estimating and it is based on
information from prior projects that are similar to the current project. At its simplest, these
analogous estimates use the duration and cost data of previous projects or phases within those
projects. You make adjustments up or down for the relative difficulty of the current project.
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Estimate Project Cost and Duration Technique #2: Parametric Estimating
The second project estimation technique is parametric estimating. You use published data about
how much work, duration and cost particular tasks take. As an example, we might find public
information stating that painting an interior wall with an 8-foot high ceiling requires 1.3 hours per
100 feet of wall surface. Using that reference source, you make the duration and cost estimates for
the current project using this data from similar type projects.
Estimate Project Cost and Duration Technique #3: Bottom-Up Estimating
The third project estimation technique is bottom-up estimating where you meet with the people
who will be doing the work and develop estimates based on their judgment. These bottom-up
estimates have many advantages. One is that they are usually more accurate because the team
members have experience doing the tasks. The other is that the team members have some
commitment to the estimates because they helped develop them.
People often underestimate the amount of time needed to implement projects, particularly when
they're not familiar with the work that needs to be done.
For instance, they may not take into account unexpected events or urgent high priority work; and
they may fail to allow for the full complexity of the job. Clearly, this is likely to have serious negative
consequences further down the line.
This is why it's important to estimate time accurately, if your project is to be successful. In this
article, we look at a process for making good time estimates, and we explore some of the estimating
methods that you can use.
Why Estimate Time Accurately?
Accurate time estimation is a crucial skill in project management. Without it, you won't know how
long your project will take, and you won't be able to get commitment from the people who need to
sign it off.
Even more importantly for your career, sponsors often judge whether a project has succeeded or
failed depending on whether it has been delivered on time and on budget. To have a chance of being
successful as a project manager, you need to be able to negotiate sensible budgets and achievable
deadlines.
How to Estimate Time Accurately
Use these steps to make accurate time estimates:
Step 1: Understand What's Required
Start by identifying all of the work that needs to be done within the project. Use tools such as
Business Requirements Analysis, Work Breakdown Structures, Gap Analysis and Drill-Down to help
you do this in sufficient detail.
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As part of this, make sure that you allow time for meetings, reporting, communications, testing and
other activities that are critical to the project's success. (You can find out more on these activities in
our article on Project Management Phases and Processes.)
Step 2: Order These Activities
Now, list all of the activities you identified in the order in which they need to happen.
At this stage, you don't need to add in how long you think activities are going to take. However, you
might want to note any important deadlines. For example, you might need to get work by the
finance department finished before it starts work on "Year End."
Step 3: Decide Who You Need to Involve
You can do the estimates yourself, brainstorm them as a group, or ask others to contribute.
Where you can, get the help of the people who will actually do the work, as they are likely to have
prior experience to draw upon. By involving them, they'll also take on greater ownership of the time
estimates they come up with, and they'll work harder to meet them.
Tip:
If you involve others, this is a good time to confirm your assumptions with them.
Step 4: Make Your Estimates
You're now ready to make your estimates. We've outlined a variety of methods below to help you do
this. Whichever methods you choose, bear these basic rules in mind:
 To begin with, estimate the time needed for each task rather than for the project as a whole.
 The level of detail you need to go into depends on the circumstances. For example, you may
only need a rough outline of time estimates for future project phases, but you'll probably
need detailed estimates for the phase ahead.
 List all of the assumptions, exclusions and constraints that are relevant; and note any data
sources that you rely on. This will help you when your estimates are questioned, and will
also help you identify any risk areas if circumstances change.
 Assume that your resources will only be productive for 80 percent of the time. Build in time
for unexpected events such as sickness, supply problems, equipment failure, accidents and
emergencies, problem solving, and meetings.
 If some people are only working "part-time" on your project, bear in mind that they may
lose time as they switch between their various roles.
 Remember that people are often overly optimistic, and may significantly underestimate the
amount of time that it will take for them to complete tasks.
Tip:
The most reliable estimates are those that you have arranged to be challenged. This helps you
identify any assumptions and biases that aren't valid.
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You can ask team members, other managers, or co-workers to challenge your time estimates.
Methods for Estimating Time
We'll now look at different approaches that you can use to estimate time. You'll probably find it
most useful to use a mixture of these techniques.
 Bottom-Up Estimating
Bottom-up estimating allows you to create an estimate for the project as a whole. To
analyze from the "bottom up," break larger tasks down into detailed tasks, and then
estimate the time needed to complete each one.
Because you're considering each task incrementally, your estimate of the time required for
each task is likely to be more accurate. You can then add up the total amount of time
needed to complete the plan.
Tip 1:
How much detail you go into depends on the situation. However, the more detail you go
into, the more accurate you'll be.
If you don't know how far to go, consider breaking work down into chunks that one person
can complete in half a day, for example. Sure, this is a bit circular, but it gives you an idea of
the level of detail you should aim for.
Tip 2:
Yes, this does take a lot of work, however, this work will pay off later in the project. Just
make sure that you leave plenty of time for it in the project's Design Phase.
 Top-Down Estimating
In top-down analysis, you develop an overview of the expected timeline first, using past
projects or previous experience as a guide.
It's often helpful to compare top-down estimates against your bottom-up estimates, to
ensure accuracy.
Note:
Don't assume that the bottom-up estimates are wrong if they differ widely from the top-
down ones. In fact, it's more likely that the reverse is true.
Instead, use the top-down estimates to challenge the validity of the bottom-up estimates,
and to refine them as appropriate.
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 Comparative Estimating
With comparative estimating, you look at the time it took to do similar tasks, on other
projects.
 Parametric Estimating
With this method, you estimate the time required for one deliverable; and then multiply it
by the number of deliverables required.
For example, if you need to create pages for a website, you'd estimate how much time it
would take to do one page, and you'd then multiply this time by the total number of pages
to be produced.
 Three-Point Estimating
To build in a cushion for uncertainty, you can do three estimates – one for the best case,
another for the worst case, and a final one for the most likely case.
Although this approach requires additional effort to create three separate estimates, it
allows you to set more reasonable expectations, based on a more realistic estimate of
outcomes.
Tip:
In the early stages of project planning, you often won't know who will do each task – this can
influence how long the task will take. For example, an experienced programmer should be able to
develop a software module much more quickly than someone less experienced.
You can build this into your estimates by giving best, worst, and most likely estimates, stating the
basis for each view.
Preparing Your Schedule
Once you've estimated the time needed for each task, you can prepare your project schedule . Add
your estimates to the draft activity list that you produced in the second step, above.
You can then create a Gantt Chart to schedule activities and assign resources to your project; and to
finalize milestones and deadlines.
Tip:
If your project is complex, you might find that identifying the critical path on your plan is helpful.
This will help you highlight the tasks that cannot be delayed if you're going to hit your deadline.
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Key Points
You need to estimate time accurately if you're going to deliver your project on time and on budget.
Without this skill, you won't know how long your project will take, and you won't be able to get
commitment from the people required to help you achieve your objective.
More than this, you risk agreeing to impossibly short deadlines, with all of the stress, pain, and loss
of credibility associated with this.
To estimate time effectively, follow this four-step process:
1. Understand what's required.

2. Prioritize activities and tasks.
3. Decide who you need to involve.
4. Do your estimates.
Use a variety of estimating methods to get the most accurate time estimates.
Activity 3
What is top down cost estimation? Provide an example of when you would use this technique.
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Activity 3
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Activity 3
Estimating8 overall project duration for larger projects is time consuming: when following the
bottom-up approach of the project planning process, we have to estimate the duration of each work
package and then integrate all data into a project schedule, usually, in form of a Gantt chart which
would only be available well into planning phase.
On the other hand, important stakeholders – like a customer or major sub-contractors - ask us
already in definition phase or early planning phase for our estimated duration. Since the bottom-up
approach is not yet finished we start guess work about the project duration. Our stakeholders take it
seriously; they acquire our "guesstimation results" as basis of their further preparation and planning.
Later in planning phase, we come back to them with our "real result", usually longer durations, they
realize that they have to change their plans and might even become angry with us – very
understandable.
How can we resolve this dilemma? - Let us look at an example.
Project duration in a real life example
We slip into the role of a project manager, Adam, who works for construction company YoNIWeBI
(You Name It We Build It). In YoNIWeBI we have a long history of managing all kinds of construction
projects, one of our divisions, AB, providing solutions of planning and constructing large apartment
buildings. Adam joined division AB 10 years ago and managed apartment building projects ever
since.
8
Source: Project Management Know How, as at http://www.project-management-
knowhow.com/project_duration.html, as on 30th September, 2016.
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Division AB very much supports the idea of lessons learned workshops at the end of each project, so
that they have a large number of records available, including information about duration of all kinds
of work packages that are similar in scope.
Just two weeks ago, Adam took over a new project which is still in definition phase. So far, it is clear
that this new project is about another apartment building with 20 floors and six 3-bedroom
apartments on each floor. Besides a meeting with major stakeholders, the customer asks Adam for a
quick estimate of the overall project duration, so that they can kick off discussions with their
financing partners. They would like to know the probability of finishing the project within a certain
period of time.
So, Adam turns to AB's internal data base and finds the following, based upon records of projects of
similar scope and volume:
Probability to complete definition, planning and design phase within
 6 months: 10%
 7 months: 50%
 8 months: 40%
Probability to complete implementation and closure phase within
 10 months: 20%
 11 months: 40%
 12 months: 40%
The question is: what is the probability for an overall duration of the project of 18 months or less?
Applying simple mathematics
Adam remembers some math from high school and comes up with the idea of applying the method
of probability trees. Here is his solution:
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There are 6 different ways we can complete the whole project in 18 months or less, with respective
probabilities:
 6 months + 10 months, probability p = 10% * 20% = 2%

By adding up the probabilities we obtain a probability of 48% for overall project duration of 18
months or less. Exactly this is Adam’s answer for the customer.
Activity 4
How would your account for and schedule for potential project time delays in your planning?
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Activity 4
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Activity 4
Estimating Project Effort9
Many projects start off on the wrong foot because the effort involved in delivering them has been
underestimated. It is human nature to want to deliver something well and quickly, but
underestimating the complexities of a project serves no one. As project managers it is our job to
make sure that the team understands what the users want and how much it will cost to produce
what they want. This is one of the cornerstones of being able to successfully deliver a project.
One of the prerequisites for producing a reasonable estimate is to have spent sufficient time
analysing and understanding the requirements and the proposed solution. Carry out too little
analysis and the estimated solution remains unclear and risky. Carry out too much analysis and the
team will have spent too much time in discussions at the expense of actually starting and delivering
the work. You need to carry out enough analysis that the team has uncovered all the risky areas of
the problem domain and that a robust solution is emerging. At that stage the team should be able to
quantify what is known about the solution and what is unknown.
To become better at estimating project effort, take into consideration the following guidelines;
1. Bear in mind that estimation is an ongoing activity which should take place regularly throughout
the project. In the initial stage a high level estimate may be required in order to determine the
feasibility of a project, whereas later, a more thorough analysis and estimate would take place,
which is then gradually refined. Having said that, always resist the temptation to provide an estimate
without having any detailed requirements or analysis to back it up. If senior management needs a
quick indication of potential costs in connection with an initiative, provide them with a ‘best guess’
and make sure they don’t take it as an official estimate.
2. During the initation phase, when the users are communicating to you what they want and need,
analyse all key requirements, break the effort into manageable pieces and demonstrate or prototype
as much as you can.
9
Source: Susanne Masden, as at http://www.susannemadsen.co.uk/blog/10-guidelines-for-estimating-project-
effort, as on 30th September, 2016.
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Use workshops to illustrate and talk the requirements and proposed solution through in detail with
the team and customer and make sure you are all in agreement about what needs to be delivered
and hence estimated. Carrying out proof of concepts and prototypes will help you validate the user’s
requirements as well as the technical solution.
3. Involve experienced people in the analysis and estimation process and brainstorm with the people
who are actually going to do the work. The more the better. Have different groups of people
estimate the same thing and compare the outcomes. A big disparity between numbers point to
uncertainties in the proposed solution. Ensure you add extra contingency to compensate or spend
more time analysing the uncertain elements.
4. All estimates carry an inherent degree of uncertainty, especially in the early stages of the project
where there are more unknowns. It is crucial that you quantify the percentage of unknowns in your
estimate and compensate with an equivalent level of contingency. Remember that relatively
speaking, you will be much better off over-estimating the effort as this will give you a chance to
come in under budget and thereby over-deliver.
5. Be careful not just to estimate the ‘sunny path’ scenario of a project. Unexpected things always
come up and requirements are often more complex to implement than originally thought. Remind
everyone to be pragmatic and realistic when providing estimates and ask people for best case and
worst case numbers.
6. Make sure you factor in all phases and activities of the project, including analysis, design, build,
unit testing, integration testing, performance testing, user testing, rework, configuration
management, release, handover, post project support, training and documentation and project
closedown. In some cases it may also be appropriate to set aside budget for change requests. Also
include specific time for management activities such as project management, team management,
technical management and test management if it is not already accounted for.
7. Research and experiment with different estimation tools and techniques. Ask around in the
organisation to find out which tools other teams have used. Understanding how estimation tools
work will generally improve your ability to estimate a project even if you end up not making use of
them directly. Estimation tools will help you consider all the different aspects of the project and
automatically add extra contingency the more inexperienced your team is and the more complex the
solution domain and the technology is.
8. Estimate the effort in points or labour-hours as opposed to calendar time to cater for the fact that
your team is never 100% effective. You can then apply a separate conversion factor to translate your
estimated effort into calendar time. This will make it easier to track the accuracy of your estimates
as you move through the project and also enable you to measure the effectiveness of your team.
The translation of effort into calendar time is based on how many effective hours a team member
can spend on project tasks per day. If your team spends 30% of an average day on meetings,
answering queries, checking of emails and time wasting activities, you will need to add a conversion
factor of 1.4 (1/70%).
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9. Add a contingency factor to your estimate to cater for events which you cannot foresee, such as
unexpected problems with the proposed solution or vendor or unexpectedly having to onboard new
or more expensive project resources. Also bear in mind that labour rates and exchange rates may
change as the project progresses.
10. Formally record your estimates and document how you arrived at them. Make the estimated
scope and assumptions clear and also highlight what is out of scope. Not only will this put you in a
better position to defend and adjust your numbers, it will also help you review and improve your
estimation process going forward.
How to Estimate Effort and Duration in Project 201310
Developing accurate estimates — whether for resources, durations, or costs — is one of the most
challenging and contentious parts of managing a project. You should understand the nature of
estimating and the difference between the effort needed to accomplish the work and the duration,
which indicates the number of required work periods (activity duration) in Project 2013.
Several techniques are available to help you develop estimates, depending on the nature of the
work. You can start by looking at the difference between effort and duration and then at the skills
you need to develop accurate estimates.
Effort is number of labor units required to complete a task. Effort is usually expressed as staff hours,
staff days, or staff weeks.
Duration is the total number of work periods (not including holidays or other nonworking periods)
required to complete a task. Duration is usually expressed as workdays or workweeks.
Sometimes, people seem to estimate durations by snatching them out of the air or consulting a
Magic 8 Ball. Estimating is undoubtedly an art and a science.
The art stems from the expert judgment that team members and estimators bring to the process.
Their experience and wisdom from past projects are invaluable in developing estimates, determining
the best estimating method, and evaluating estimates (or the assumptions behind them) to assess
their validity. In addition to the artful contribution of experts, team members, and estimators, a
number of methods comprise the science of estimating.
Analogous estimating is the most common method of estimating. The aforementioned experts
normally conduct this form of estimating. In its most basic form, this method compares past projects
with the current project, determines their areas of similarity and areas of difference, and then
develops an estimate accordingly.
A more robust application determines the duration drivers and analyzes the relationship between
past similar projects with the current project. Duration drivers can include size, complexity, risk,
number of resources, weight, or whatever other aspects of the project influence duration.
10
Source: Dummies, as at http://www.dummies.com/software/microsoft-office/project/how-to-estimate-
effort-and-duration-in-project-2013/, as on 30th September, 2016.
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If you want to use analogous estimating effectively, your projects must be similar in fact, not simply
similar in appearance. A software upgrade may sound similar to someone who is not familiar with
software, but there are vast differences in what a software upgrade entails, so one software upgrade
is not necessarily similar to others.
Parametric estimating uses a mathematical model to determine project duration. Though not all
work can be estimated using this method, it’s quick and simple: Multiply the quantity of work by the
number of hours required to accomplish it.
For example, if a painter can paint 100 square feet per hour and you have 6,000 square feet to paint,
you can assume 60 hours of effort. If three people are painting (60 ÷ 3), the task should take 20
hours, or the equivalent of 2.5 days.
When a lot of uncertainty, risk, or unknown factors surround an activity or a work package, you can
use three-point estimating to produce a range and an expected duration. In this method, you collect
three estimates based on these types of scenarios:
 Best case: In this optimistic (represented by the letter O) scenario, all required resources are
available, nothing goes wrong, and everything works correctly the first time.
 Most likely: The realities of project life are factored into the estimate, such as the extended
unavailability of a resource, a work interruption, or an error that causes a delay. This is the
most-likely (or M) scenario.
 Worst case: This pessimistic (P) estimate assumes unskilled resources, or insufficient
resources, a great deal of rework, and delays.
The simplest way to develop the expected duration is to sum the three estimates and divide by 3.
However, this technique isn’t the most accurate one because it assumes — unrealistically — an
equal probability that the best-case, most-likely, and worst-case scenarios would occur.
In reality, the most-likely estimate has a greater chance of occurring than either the best-case or
worst-case scenarios. Therefore, weight the most-likely scenario and determine the weighted
average.
This step involves estimating the amount of effort required for each activity and then calculating the
total duration. Effort is the work to be done whereas duration is this figure divided by estimated
resources.
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For example,
If there is a requirement to build one hundred meters of wall and a bricklayer can build 5 meters of
wall in a day.
The duration of the task can be calculated by dividing the length of the wall by the number of
bricklayers that will be assigned to the task. Then five bricklayers could be expected to complete the
task in 4 days.
All estimates, are to some extent uncertain at the beginning of a project and need to be
progressively updated as you gain a better idea of how efficiently work is being done and exactly
what resources you have available. The time required to complete an activity depends on the
resources assigned to it but there are some limitations to this. For example,
Suppose it will take one operator with an earthmover four days to dig the foundations of a building.
It is tempting to believe that two operators with an earthmover each could do it in two days.
However, this assumption does not take account of the fact that they would need to spend time
coordinating their efforts and would probably keep getting in each other's way, greatly reducing
their individual efficiency.
When assigning additional resources to an activity, always consider the possibility that it might
reduce the overall efficiency and productivity. Most activities have a threshold beyond which
assigning additional resources does not reduce the duration because of the additional overhead of
communication and coordination.
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The resource calendar, finalized (or modified) during activity resource estimating, contains the type,
quantity, availability, and capability of each resource, including the skills of a human resource, which
must be considered during activity duration estimating.
Capability and quantity of available resources, both human and material, can affect the activity
duration estimate.
Expert judgment using historical information from similar projects can provide duration estimates. It
can also be used to reconcile different estimating methods, and to estimate the whole duration of
an activity when not enough information is available.
This technique can be used to estimate some parameters to be used in other methods. For example,
what percentage of the original activity duration estimate should be used as a contingency reserve,
and in comparing an activity to a similar activity in a previous project during analogous estimation?
Analogous estimating techniques estimate the duration of an activity based on the duration of a
similar activity in a previous project. The accuracy of the estimate depends upon how similar the
activities are and whether the team member who will perform the activity has the same level of
expertise and experience as the team member from the previous project.
Analogous estimating is typically a form of expert judgment that is most reliable when the previous
activities are similar to the current activity and when the team members preparing the estimates
have the necessary experience.
This is a simple technique used to calculate the activity duration when the productivity rate of the
resource performing the activity is available. You can use the following formula: Activity duration =
Units of work in the activity / Productivity rate of the resources.
For example,
If a groundwork gang consisting of six operatives plus their equipment can lay 50 square meters of
reinforced concrete in a day, the duration calculation can be performed as follows:
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Activity duration = 250 square meters / (50 square meters/day) = 5 days
This technique relies on the statistical relationship that exists between a series of historical data and
the variables in question. When this data is being drawn from a large body of historical data taken
from similar projects, then it can yield accurate estimates.
It provides several advantages as an estimating technique for example they:
• Allow estimates to be prepared in much less time than required by more detailed techniques.
• Require quantitative inputs that are linked to algorithms providing quantitative outputs. All costs
are traceable.
• If two estimators input the same values for parameters, they will get the same resulting cost.
• Provide a consistent estimate format and estimate documentation.
• Provide costs for a range of input values, extrapolating to derive costs for projects of a different
size or nature.
• Highlights the design parameters used.
• Able to provide key statistical relationships and metrics for comparison with other projects.
The disadvantages of this method are:
1) Models will not exist for activities until there is a sufficiently large experience base for the activity.
Basing estimates on work that is only vaguely comparable will yield inaccurate estimates.
2) Physical parameters, for example 'number of bricks laid', 'area of trees cleared' or 'number of
widgets produced' are far more meaningful than non-physical parameters for example, the 'number
of lines of code' in a software project.
3) There may be changes in technology or working practices. For example, an electrician's

productivity is constrained by the speed at which he can 'chase out' channels in the walls in which to
lay cables, a job that used to be done with a hammer and chisel. The invention of an affordable
power tool to do this job resulted in a significant increase in the amount of cable that could be laid
per day.
Three point estimates address the issue of uncertainty in estimating the activity duration. This
uncertainty can be calculated by making a three-point estimate in which each point corresponds to
one of the following estimate types:
1) Most Likely Scenario (ML)- the activity duration is calculated in most practical terms by factoring
in resources likely to be assigned, realistic expectations of the resources, dependencies, and
interruptions.
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2) Optimistic Scenario (O) - is the best-case version of the situation described in the most likely
scenario.
3) Pessimistic Scenario (P) - is the worst-case version of the situation described in the most likely
scenario.
We then find the average, but we first weight the Most Likely estimate by 4. The formula is (O +
(4*ML) + P) / 6. We must divide by six because we in effect have six different estimates (although
three of these estimates are the same number). This is because we are averaging (O + ML + ML + ML
+ ML + P) / 6.
Here's an example.
A roofing contractor is replacing all of the tiles on the roof of a house. He estimates that the job will
take his team 10 hours based on the expectation that they will need to replace some of the
underlying timbers. This is his Most Likely Estimate.
If none of the timbers need replacing then the job will take 7 hours, this represents his Optimistic
estimate.
If most of the timbers need replacing then the job will take 16 hours, this represents his Pessimistic
estimate.
This formula is most useful in estimating time or cost of activities for projects that are especially
unique, such as in research and development where there are many unknowns.
This step should include incorporating a time cushion into your schedule; this cushion is usually
called a contingency reserve, time reserve, or time buffer. Its purpose is to accommodate the
possibility of schedule risks. One method of calculating the contingency reserve is to take a
percentage of the original activity duration estimate, although it can also be estimated by using
quantitative analysis methods.
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When more information about the project becomes available, the contingency reserve can be
reduced or eliminated. Usually, while estimating for large projects, managers would like to keep a
buffer of 5% or so of the total estimate for the project to account for project schedule risks, like
delays in procuring hardware or unexpected personnel problems.
Project Sequencing11
To be successful, you should plan your project considering all the available project management skill,
knowledge, and tools and techniques.
You have to document the activity required to fulfill the work package (the lowest manageable level
of the work breakdown structure) and you must know the relationship between these activities. You
need to be aware of the sequences in these activities so that you can monitor and control your
project effectively.
How do you do that? Why is sequencing so important in project management? I’ll answer these
questions below.
The things you’ll need for sequencing work activities:
For sequencing activities, you’ll need to plan according to these four parameters:
 Activity attributes
 Milestone list
 Project scope statement
 Organizational process assets.
PMI recommends all of these categories as inputs for sequencing activities. Without knowing the
project scope statement, you can’t begin sequencing in your project. And once you start the process,
you’ll need a list of activities in your hand.
You will also need to know the characteristics of the activity i.e., what work needs to be done for
each activity. Additionally, you should know the milestone dates for these activities so that you can
give preference to the activity attributes that are important to your clients. The map of this entire
process is called the Network Diagram in project management.
Precedence Diagramming Method

The best way to create an efficient Network Diagram is to follow the Precedence Diagramming
Method (PDM). PDM is a method used for constructing a network diagram that uses boxes (also
known as nodes) to represent activities and arrows to connect boxes with each other, thus creating
a logical relationship between these activities. It is an easy task for a project manager, provided he
or she has good project management knowledge.
11
Source: SimpliLearn, as at http://www.simplilearn.com/network-diagram-concept-article, as on 30th
September, 2016; Free Management eBooks, as at http://www.free-management-
ebooks.com/faqpm/schedule-03.htm, as on 30th September, 2016.
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In this way, you can sequence activities, plan the duration required per activity, and derive the
longest possible path for the project, that is, the Critical Path Method (CPM) of the project.
After calculating the CPM, you can compute total float in your project and the float within a
particular activity. In this way, you can plan ahead and utilize your resources accordingly.
In the PDM, there are four types of dependencies. They are as follows:
Finish to start: An activity must finish before the successor can start.
Finish to finish: An activity must finish before the successor can finish.
Start to start: An activity must start before the successor can start.
Start to finish: An activity must start before the successor can finish. This is a very rare in practice.
Through PDM, you can calculate the best place to use schedule compression.
Suppose you are mid-way through your project and your client asked you to submit deliverables ten
days prior to the delivery schedule. What would you do now?
This is your test as a project manager. It is your responsibility to handle this project effectively.
Remember, there is no change in scope, quality, and resources – and no change in the budget for the
project, either. What should you do? You should check your network diagram and club together the
activities that can be started concurrently. This is called fast-tracking.
You should also analyze your network diagram and identify the activities with the longest float. Once
you’ve done that, you can apply crushing – the process of adding more resources to an activity to
increase the likelihood of its early completion – in your project.
As a project manager, you must update your Network Diagram religiously. If you have created a
Network Diagram with the logical relationship between different activities clearly listed, you will be
able to deliver the output as per your client’s desire and become known for your project
management skills.
Once the activities have been identified the next stage is to sequence them according to their
dependencies. In other words, any relationships between activities need to be identified so that
dependent activities can be scheduled to follow those that they are dependent upon.
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It is important to classify any dependencies properly because they indicate the sequence in which
activities must occur. There are four types of dependency relationships.
A finish-to-start relationship exists if one activity must finish before another activity starts.
A start-to-start relationship exists if one activity cannot start until another activity starts.
A finish-to-finish relationship exists if the one activity cannot finish until another activity finishes.
A start-to-finish relationship exists if one activity must start before another can finish.
Dependencies may be external or internal. For example, an organization may subcontract the
production of some deliverable from a supplier organization and the delivery of this would represent
an external dependency, one that involves some relationship outside of the project and its control.
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Some dependencies may exist within the project. For example, an engineer may only be able to
contribute half of his time to a project, although his skills could potentially be used full time.
The principal output from this process is a network diagram showing the sequence of activities and
their relationships. Always bear in mind that the purpose of this process is simply to find and
illustrate dependencies, there are assumed to be no resource constraints.
There are three interrelated techniques that can be used to sequence activities.
The precedence diagram is a graphical tool for scheduling activities in a project plan. It uses boxes or
rectangles, referred to as nodes to represent activities and connects them with arrows to show the
logical relationships that exist between them. This technique is also called Activity On Node (AON)
and is the method used by most software project management packages.
In this example,
• 'Begin' and 'End' are both milestones.
• Activities A and B are not dependent on each other.
• Activity C is dependent on both A and B (shown as a circle).
Many of the project planning software packages available use this method, which simply plots the
tasks to be completed and connects them with arrows that show the dependencies. Note that each
activity has an input arrow and an output arrow.
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The only two elements that do not are the 'Begin' and 'End' milestones (which are not really
activities). If an activity within a diagram has only one arrow then this is represents an error and
needs to be corrected.
Three types of dependencies are used to define the sequence among the activities:
1) Mandatory
2) Discretionary
3) External
The table below shows the dependency and gives an explanation for this.
Mandatory dependencies are inherent in the work or process e.g. when constructing a new building,
building the walls is dependent on laying the foundations. The project team determines which
dependencies are mandatory to reach during the process of sequencing the activities. They are also
sometimes referred to as hard logic.
Discretionary dependencies are those defined by the project manager and their team. They should
be defined based on best practice or previous experience within the particular area. Discretionary
dependencies are sometimes referred to as preferred logic and based on knowledge of best
practices within a particular application area or some unusual aspect of the project where a specific
sequence is desired even though there may be other acceptable sequences.
Discretionary dependencies should be fully documented since they can create arbitrary total float
values and can limit later share dealing options.
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External dependencies involve a relationship between project activities and non-project activities.
These dependencies are usually outside the project teams control. For example the testing activity in
a software project can be dependent on the delivery of hardware from an external source.
Once the dependencies are agreed they can be mapped into a precedence diagram (on PC, on paper,
or using post-it notes). When drawing the precedence diagram the project team needs to decide:
• Which tasks can only be completed after another task

• Which tasks can be done at the same time
• Which tasks don't depend on other tasks at all (e.g. project review meetings)
It can be useful to work backwards when compiling the precedence diagram and ask yourself what
do we need to have done immediately before this task?
You will then need to apply leads and lags. A lag directs a delay in the successor activity. For
example, an IT project requires two different but similar user interfaces to be designed, interfaces A
and B. Each task is scheduled to take 5 days. There is no reason why these tasks cannot be started at
the same time, but it makes sense to design A first and obtain user agreement before starting work
on interface B which can then be largely based on A.
Therefore, the time between the start dates of the two tasks can be defined as a lag (The project
manager has specified two days in this case). It is important to note that task B does not need to be
completed before task A can begin but because some of the lessons learned in the design stage of
task A can be directly applied to task B it will reduce the overall amount of work required if this lag is
specified.
Lead refers to a relationship whereby the successor activity begins before the predecessor activity
has completed. Lead is only found activities with finish-to-start relationships: A must finish before B
can start. In order to leverage a lead, which will compress the total combined duration of both
activities, the dependency must be discretionary, meaning that there is no physical limitation on
completing A before B begins.
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Standardized schedule network diagram templates can be used to expedite the preparation of
networks of project activities. They can include an entire project or only a portion of it. Portions of a
project schedule network diagram are often referred to as a sub-network or a fragment network.
Sub-network templates are especially useful when a project includes several identical or nearly
identical deliverables, such as floors on a high-rise office building, clinical trials on a pharmaceutical
research project, coding program modules on a software project, or the start-up phase of a
development project.
These give rise to project schedule network diagrams, which are schematic displays of the project's
schedule activities and the logical relationships among them, also referred to as dependencies.
A project schedule network diagram can be produced manually or by using project management
software. It can include full project details, or have one or more summary activities. A summary
narrative can accompany the diagram and describe the basic approach used to sequence the
activities. Any unusual activity sequences within the network should be fully described within the
narrative.
Activity 5
What is a dependency? How can you document your project dependencies?
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Activity 5
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Use project scheduling tools and techniques to identify schedule impact on
project time management, resource requirements, costs and risks12
Scheduling tools and techniques
Project Managers can use a range of tools and techniques to develop, monitor and control project
schedules. Increasingly, many of these can be applied digitally (using programs such as Excel,
Microsoft Project and so on).
GANTT Chart
This is a horizontal bar chart plotted over time (e.g. days, weeks or months). Each activity is shown
as a bar (its length based on a time estimate). Depending on task dependencies and resource
availability, these bars may be sequential, or run in parallel. Each bar is plotted to start at the earlier
possible start date. The plan laid out when the GANTT Chart was created can be compared with
actual times taken (plotted below the planned time bars in the chart).
Schedule Network Analysis
The schedule network is a graphical display (from left to right across a page) of all logical
interrelationships between elements of work — in chronological order, from initial planning through
to project closure. As a project progresses, regular analysis of this network diagram is a check to
ensure the project is proceeding ‘on track’.
12
Source: Skillmaker, as at http://www.skillmaker.edu.au/scheduling-tools-and-techniques-for-project-
management/, as on 30th September, 2016.
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Critical Path Method
The critical path of a project is the sequential string of activities that takes the longest time to
complete, recognising any dependencies between tasks in this sequence (e.g. one cannot start till
another finishes). Arrowed lines represent activities with circles at each end representing milestones
(start and finish).
The critical path method (CPM) determines by adding the times of all activities on the critical path,
the earliest time that the project can be completed
Non-critical activities have an earliest and latest start time (ES and LS, respectively) and an earliest
and latest finish time (EF and LF, respectively). The ES and EF are found by working forwards through
the project network and the LS and LF by working backwards. The difference between the LF and EF
of each activity have zero float; they must be done when planned or the project overall will be
delayed.
PERT (Program Evaluation and Review Technique)
PERT charts differ from CPM charts in the way times are calculated for activities. They allow better
for uncertainty. For each activity, three estimates of time are obtained: the shortest time (SP), the
longest time (LT) and the most likely time (MT).
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The estimate assigned for the activity is a weighted average of these three estimates. The formula is:
Expected time = (SP + 4(MT) + LT) /6.
Schedule Compression
A schedule can be shortened two ways:

• crashing: using more resources than planned on the task
• fast-tracking: adjusting the schedule so, mindful of task dependencies, more activities are done in
parallel than was planned
Risk multipliers
This involves building in a time or resource contingency for tasks considered to be at high risk of
overrun.
Resource tools and techniques
• Levelling: This involves adjusting the activities within the schedule so as to ensure there are
minimal peaks and troughs in resource use. This ensures efficient use of resources. It also allows the
Project Manager to direct resources, where required, to more critical activities.
• Critical chain method: Activities are planned in the light of their latest possible start and finish
dates. The extra time that results between some activities can be used to better use resources.
• Resource histograms: This is a column chart that depicts the resources used on a project over time.
Successful project managers take advantage of comprehensive scheduling tools and techniques to
use resources optimally. By delaying or rescheduling tasks, allocating alternate resources and
adjusting task dependencies, they ensure that the project meets its strategic goal.
Scheduling Software
Successful project managers identify task dependencies to facilitate work execution. Tasks must also
be identified in the proper sequence for completion. Dependencies may include physical limitations,
stakeholder priorities or supplier constraints. To calculate work estimates, project managers
calculate the number of hours, days or weeks required to complete a task. Experienced project
managers rely on their own expertise. New project managers need to consult with peers, superiors
and people actually completing the work to estimate accurately. Time overruns adversely affect the
project.
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Successful project managers use tools, such as Microsoft Project, to create project schedules and
automate scheduling processes. Using these sophisticated tools, project managers resolve issues
that cause delays and impact product or service quality. These articles share tips on creating a
project schedule and ensuring its accuracy. Learn to how to use scheduling software to make your
job easier.
Project Schedule Planning Tools & Techniques13
The project schedule is the time-based and/or sequenced description of all of the project activities.
The time element is one of the triple constraints that every project leader must contend with: scope,
schedule, and resources/budget. There are a variety of techniques for both displaying the project
schedule and analyzing the project schedule. Each technique focuses on a different aspect of the
project. Depending upon the project objectives and major risks, different techniques should be used
by the project leader. A brief description of each technique is listed below along with suggestions for
when, and when not, to use them. The techniques for displaying the schedule are the Milestone
Chart, the Task List, the Gantt Chart (Bar chart), the Network Diagram, the Two Dimensional Task
List, and the Calendar View. The schedule analysis tools are the Critical Path analysis, the Critical
Chain analysis, the PERT analysis, the Resource Leveling analysis, and a variety of Schedule
Acceleration Techniques. For information on creating schedule estimates, please refer to Project
Estimating.
13
Source: Project Management Guru, as at http://www.projectmanagementguru.com/scheduleplan.html, as
on 30th September, 2016.
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Techniques for Displaying Project Schedules
Milestone Chart
The milestone chart is portrayed on a project time line. It displays only the key project milestones.
These milestones are typically associated with some major element of project risk, such as passing a
test or gaining approval from a regulatory agency. Each milestone is represented by a diamond or
triangle. These milestones normally become major reporting points to senior management. Large
complex projects may have hundreds or even thousands of tasks. Senior management usually does
not want to receive status reports at that level of detail, yet they want something more than just a
ï¿½tollgateï¿½ review at the end of a phase. The milestones provide interim reporting points. Also,
when planning a complex project, task leaders can become overwhelmed with all the tasks they
must do. Having a focused sub-project for each milestone gives those task leaders a framework for
planning and tracking project activities. The Milestone Chart is the schedule reporting format that I
use on Full-Scale and Complex projects.
Task List
The Task List is the simplest of the schedule format tools, yet it can be the most powerful and useful
tool with extended members of the project team. A Task List is just an action item list for the team
member that contains all of the tasks that individual is responsible for completing. This provides a
focus for the individual as to what they need to do. This format works very well with extended team
members on large projects. In those cases, the project may contain hundreds of tasks but often the
extended team member is only involved in a small number of those tasks.
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The extended team member can review their task list and understand what they must do on the
project without going through the hundreds of tasks, searching for those requiring their effort. If the
team has many extended team members with limited involvement in the total project, this
technique usually is the best method for communicating and tracking scheduling of the work from
those extended team members.
Gantt Chart (Bar Chart)
The Gantt, or Bar, chart is the most common schedule format used on projects. This format is
excellent for tracking progress or activity for tasks once they have been scheduled. In the Gantt
chart, every task is represented by a bar of a time line chart. The left edge of the bar is located at the
time the task is planned to start and the right edge of the bar is located at the time the task is
planned to end. As the project unfolds, the edges of the bars are often modified to reflect when the
task actually started or ended. This format creates focus for tracking progress because it is clear to
see whether a task should be completed, underway, or pending at any given time. The Gantt chart is
used for daily/weekly tracking of project progress. It is easy to use and maintain. It has become the
most commonly used project schedule chart because of its simplicity and the focus it creates when
tracking the project. If the task estimates are relatively accurate, this is the preferred format.
However, when task duration estimates are not accurate - either due to uncertainty in the amount
of work or uncertainty in the resource availability - the Gantt Chart will be a frustrating and
counterproductive scheduling tool. In those cases I recommend the use of the Network Diagram.
Network Diagram
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The Network Diagram is essentially a flowchart of the project tasks. This format is a foundational
technique for several analytical techniques. The network is created by determining predecessor and
successor relationships and connecting the tasks based upon those relationships. This technique will
create focus on the handoffs. In a complex project with many organizations/individuals involved, this
technique can provide guidance as to who is the internal customer for each task. The technique is
often viewed as a foundational technique since most of the advanced analytical scheduling tools
start with the Network Diagram. When task durations are uncertain, the Network Diagram is often a
better technique to use than the Gantt (bar) chart. The Network Diagram shifts the focus for
uncertain tasks from arbitrary start and end dates to completion of the work and a handoff to the
next task/activity.
2-D Task List
The 2-Dimensional Task List is only needed occasionally. However, in those situations it both
simplifies planning and tracking while improving the ability of the project manager to manage many
of the project tasks effectively. This technique is used for scheduling and tracking a large quantity, or
batch, of items through the same set of project tasks or activities. The 2-D task list is a matrix with
the vertical side being a list of the items in the batch and the horizontal being the set of tasks. The
planned date for task completion of each item through the set of tasks is set in the corresponding
box of the matrix. As a task is completed, normally the background colour of the cell in the matrix is
changed so that it shows completion. This change in colour allows the project manager to quickly
see when one item in the batch starts to fall behind or when many items in the batch become
bottlenecked at one step in the set of tasks. When I use this approach, I will place a summary task on
the project-level Gantt Chart or Network Diagram that represents the activity within the 2-D Task
List. Through the use of the matrix, hundreds of tasks can be tracked efficiently without burdening
one of the other techniques with redundant activities.
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Techniques for Analyzing Project Schedules
Critical Path
The Critical Path method is used to determine what the shortest time is to complete the project, or a
phase of the project. The method analyzes every possible sequence of tasks ï¿½ based upon the
network diagram ï¿½ to determine which sequence is the longest. This sequence is called the critical
path because it sets the minimum time in which the project can be completed. A caution when using
critical path ï¿½ it assumes that you have all the resources you need at all times. This is seldom a
valid assumption, so the minimum time indicated by the critical path is seldom actually achieved on
a project. To determine the critical path, the network diagram is created for the project with the
maximum amount of parallel task as your risk sensitivity can tolerate. Each task duration is
estimated, assuming the task will have the desired resources available when needed. With the
durations and relationships from the network diagram, calculate first the earliest possible start date
and finish date for each task. Then using the calculated project finish date, determine the latest
possible start and finish date for each task that still supports that date. This set of calculations is
normally done by project management software. The sequence of tasks with identical dates for early
start and latest start are the critical path. The tasks have no float or slack - a one day delay on one of
these tasks immediately translates into a one day delay on the project.
Critical Chain
The Critical Chain technique was developed by Eliyahu Goldratt. This technique builds on the analysis
done using critical path and resource levelling techniques. It is used when the resource levelling
technique has delayed the end date of the project. Critical chain reprioritizes the work, applying
principles of the Theory of Constraints, and provides simple tracking principles to accelerate the
project and ease the burden on project management. This is done by determining the best allocation
of the critical or constraining resource and shifting the tracking approach to concentrate on this
resource. The critical chain approach requires the development of the network diagram and the
critical path and resource levelling calculation to have been done. Once this is accomplished, the
constraining resource - or most constrained if there are multiple constraining resources is
determined and a sequence of project tasks that the constraining resource MUST contribute to is
determined. The estimates for those tasks are reviewed and any work that can be shifted to an
unconstrained resource is reallocated. This sequence of tasks, known as the critical chain, is then
scheduled based upon the availability of the constrained resource.
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All other tasks are then scheduled to occur in parallel with the critical chain. These parallel paths are
scheduled so as to ensure there is float, or a buffer, at the end of the path, prior to a handoff into
the critical chain. This buffer float is then tracked by project management to ensure that these tasks
and sequences complete prior to the need for their results by a critical chain task.
PERT
PERT, which stands for Program Evaluation and Review Technique, was developed by the US Navy in
the 1960's as a way to put boundaries around overall project durations. At that time the Navy was
doing development that was on the leading edge of technology and the estimates for task durations
were often very uncertain. Individuals or organizations that were risk adverse would typically set a
conservative schedule, while individuals or organizations that were risk seekers would often set an
aggressive schedule. The final result would usually be between the two estimates. The Navy
established the analysis tool of PERT to determine the best case and worst case boundaries for the
project. In addition, they created a PERT estimate for each task and using the task-level PERT
estimate they would create a project PERT schedule duration. The PERT estimate is a simple risk-
mitigation approach that considers the best case and worst case of a task estimate but also includes
a most likely estimate that is between the two and is heavily weighted. The three estimates are
averaged using the PERT formula to create the PERT estimate for the task. A PERT analysis starts
with a network diagram. Each task duration is estimated three times, the best case, worst case, and
most likely case. A worst case schedule is developed using only worst case estimates. A best case
schedule is developed using only best case estimates. A PERT estimate is determined for each task. A
PERT project schedule is then set using the PERT estimates. This is often considered a "poor man's"
simulation for estimating.
Resource Levelling
Resource Levelling is a technique used to smooth out the peaks and valleys in the required project
resources. This levelling process usually results in changes to the project schedule. Through the use
of levelling, the best allocation of resources assigned to the project can be determined. The resource
levelling technique applies when the project has been planned with a high degree of parallelism.
Usually in this case many of the different parallel paths will have float (unless they are a critical
path). That float is used to reposition tasks so that the resources required to conduct that task are
not needed at the same time on another task. To do resource levelling, first the network diagram is
developed and the task durations and resources requirements for each task are determined. Next
the critical path is calculated. Resources are then assigned to critical path tasks first. Once all critical
path tasks have been fully resourced, then the resources are assigned to the other tasks - using float
to reposition tasks between their earliest start and latest finish time and at a time when resources
are unallocated. If, after using float to reposition tasks, there is still an insufficient amount of
resources at some time in the project, then tasks are stretched or delayed past their latest finish
time until the resources are available. This will extend the end date of the project. This analysis is
typically done using project management software. However, a caution when using software - some
applications do not fully protect the critical path but are quick to start stretching and delaying tasks.
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Schedule Acceleration
Schedule acceleration techniques are used to shorten the overall length of the project. However,
they are not free. While they reduce the planned total duration of the project, they do so by
increasing risk in some other aspect of the project. They need to be deployed carefully, and always
with an update to the project risk management plan. There are five schedule acceleration
techniques - each with its own unique set of risks. Selecting the technique, or combination of
techniques, to be used depends on the characteristics of the activities to be accelerated and the
overall risk sensitivity in the project.
Buffer Management - Buffer management reduces the buffer that is inherent in the estimates of
uncertain activities. When estimating uncertain activities, project managers tend to allow for the
uncertainty by using a conservative estimate. (This is not the same as "padding" an estimate which
just arbitrarily adds time or money to an estimate - rather this is a conscious decision to prepare for
the unknowns associated with the uncertain activity.) Buffer management removes the buffer from
the activity estimate, thereby creating an aggressive activity estimate. The setting of aggressive
activity goals will often result in a reduced activity duration. However, the risk is that now there is a
much higher probability that the activity will finish late as compared to the plan. When this
technique is used, the project manager needs to maintain a project-level schedule reserve to
compensate for the activities that will be late.
Crashing - Crashing accelerates an activity by adding additional resources. Some activity durations
are limited by resource availability - more resources would allow a faster completion. While this is
not true for all activities, it is true for some. (A 72-hour burn-in test on a printed circuit card module
cannot be accelerated by adding additional test technicians - it still takes 72 hours. However a
dedicated courier can deliver a report overnight that would normally take three days to deliver by
mail.) This will often increase the overall cost of the project as the additional resources are often
added at a premium.
Fast-tracking - Fast-tracking accelerates the project by starting activities prior to the completion of
all the predecessor activities. This can only be done when there is a preliminary result of the
predecessor activities. For instance, a preliminary Bill of Materials may be developed during a design
process and raw materials for production may be ordered based upon the preliminary Bill. (This is
often done when ordering Long Lead Material.) If the Bill of Material does not change during the
final design review and baselining process, the project is accelerated. However, if the final Bill of
Material does change, the material ordered from the preliminary Bill may need to be reworked or
scrapped - increasing the effort and cost to the project. This technique is viable when the
predecessor activity has a preliminary deliverable that the project management team believes is
stable.
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Split-to-Phases - The Split-to-Phases technique is used when the project has multiple, separable
objectives. The scope of the project is divided into phases based upon the activities that are unique
to a project objective. This allows a focusing of project resources on the activities supporting one of
the objectives at the expense of the activities supporting a different objective. This will result in an
early completion of a portion of the project, but usually causes a delay in another portion of the
project and often an increase in cost because of activities that must be repeated for each of the
phases. (For instance there may be a User Acceptance Test that would now need to be done twice
instead of just once.) This acceleration technique is appropriate only when the completion of the
first phase is able to immediately start producing some business benefit, without the completion of
the succeeding phases.
Mainline-Offline Scheduling - the Mainline-Offline technique separates the work within an activity
into two components. The first is that which can be done generically without specific knowledge of
the results of predecessor activities. The second is that which can only be done once the predecessor
activities are complete. An example would be creating a project requirements document. A generic
template can be created based upon the general understanding of the project. The specific
requirements are identified based upon meetings with stakeholders or analysis of business
processes. (One of the business benefits of a Project Management Office is that it develops and
maintains these templates and generic activities, allowing projects to be accelerated through the use
of them.) This technique only works with some activities, and requires the foresight to anticipate the
need for the generic portion of the activity to be accomplished prior to the completion of the
predecessor activities. Once an activity has started, there is no advantage to do the activity first in a
generic manner and then in the project specific method.
These methods can be used in a stand-alone manner or in combinations. However, they all result in
some level of increased risk to the project. Whenever a schedule acceleration technique is used, the
risk analysis must be updated to include the risk associated with the technique failing to deliver the
potential benefit.
Comparing Microsoft Project and Open Workbench

Open Workbench is often described as a free alternative to MS Project. In this article, the similarities
and differences of the two applications are discussed.
 Microsoft Project and Open Workbench have long been compared to one another. Open Workbench
intends to pose as a free alternative to the use of Microsoft Project. However, while the two
programs are very similar to one another, they each have a different focus that separates them.
Open Workbench bases schedules on effort while Project bases schedules on duration. What other
similarities and differences exist? Read on and find out.
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 Similarities
MS Project and Open Workbench are similar to one another in that they are both schedule-based
project management software options. Both programs feature the ability to track action items and
milestones as well as track resources, create work breakdown structures, create inter-project
dependencies, track progress, and create various reports. MS Project and Open Workbench also
both keep track of baseline settings for projects (and allow project managers to reset these). A final
feature common to both programs is the ability to identify the critical path.
 Differences
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While there are many similarities between the two programs, it's more important to consider the
differences when making the decision about which of the two to invest in for your company. Here is
a brief list of some of the differences you will find between MS Project and Open Workbench:
 Resource Scheduling - already mentioned, but worth mentioning again. Open Workbench uses
effort-based scheduling. Microsoft Project bases its scheduling on duration - the amount of work
units to be created.
 Inter-Project Dependency Creation - when a project depends upon another project, in MS
Project, the project manager needs to take many steps in order to create the dependency. With
Open Workbench, creating inter-project dependencies is more streamlined. The WBS can be
browsed and dependencies can be linked from there.
 Holiday work - You must adjust the calendar in MS Project if you want to schedule work on a
holiday, whereas this is easier in Open Workbench.
 Role or Resource Replacement - If you have to replace a resource during the course of a project,
it will be easier to accomplish this using Open Workbench because estimates of work are
maintained. If you have to do so in MS Project, the default scheduling takes over, creating more
work for the project manager.
 Schedule Calculation - the ability to calculate a schedule is activated by the user with in Open
Workbench. Constraints can either be included in the calculation or excluded. In MS Project, you
can create a schedule either manually or automatically - and can do so with dependencies or
top-down taken into account.
Open Workbench, because it is resource focused, is also more adept at handling project
management issues such as resource levelling.
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 The Verdict
Both programs are strong tools project managers may want to use. Depending upon whether you
prefer effort-based or duration scheduling you will want to choose the program that works best for
you and your situation. Open Workbench is great for companies that don't have the capital to invest
in Microsoft Project. MS Project, on the other hand is featured in many books that have been
written to help new users get started with the program. Finally, when deciding whether to go with
MS Project or Open Workbench, you should take full advantage of the demo versions and any
resources. Play around with each a little bit with a sample project or two to find out whether the
program works for you and your team.
Gantt Charts are very commonly used in Project Management. Have you ever wondered where they
came from and what they really are? Keep reading to find out more on the definition of a Gantt
Chart.
The Basics
A Gantt Chart is a graphical representation used in project management that will show the length of
time tasks in the project should take, as measured against real time. This helps the project to run
more smoothly because:
 you can easily see the order of tasks.
 you can see project progress in terms of where you are and where you should be, because each
task is given a time allotment.
 helps you see any dependencies that may exist between tasks.
Not only will this help with the planning phase of the project where you must decide the course of
action to take, but it will also help monitor the project and keep it on track.
Free Gantt Chart Tool for Google Spreadsheets

If you need to quickly create a Gantt chart that you can easily share with your team, you may want
to take advantage of Viewpath’s Gantt Chart gadget that works in conjunction with Google
Spreadsheets. Read on to find out how to use this little gem.
Overview of the Google Gantt Chart Tool

More and more people are starting to turn to Google Spreadsheets for their project management
software needs because the application makes it easy to share files with others, can be accessed
from any computer with an Internet connection and is completely free. Another plus for this
software solution is Google has made it easy for third parties to create add-ons (called gadgets) that
extend the capabilities of the application. One of these nice little tools is the Google Gantt Chart
gadget developed by Viewpath.
You can access Google Spreadsheets from the Google Docs[http://docs.google.com/] interface. If
you already have a Google account, you can get started immediately. If you don’t, it only takes a
couple moments to create one. After that, you can follow the steps described in the next section to
create a Gantt chart.
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Step 1: Begin by creating a new Google spreadsheet and entering your data that will be used to
construct the Gantt chart. One example of such is shown below. (Click any image for a larger view.)
In particular, for the Google Gantt chart tool to work correctly, you should include columns with the
following data.
 Unique ID (optional) – This column will contain a unique number assigned to each row of the
table (1, 2, 3, 4, … for example). You only really need to include this column if certain tasks in
your list are dependent on the completion of other tasks and you want this information
reflected in your Gantt chart. If not, you don’t have to worry about this column.
 Name – In this column, include the name or a brief description of each task.
 Start – Enter the proposed start date for the task in this column.
 Finish – This column should contain the proposed or actual completion date of the task.
 Percent Complete – The number in this column should indicate what percentage of the task has
been completed. Tip: Leave off the percent sign in order for the Gantt chart tool to read this field
properly.
 Prerequisites (optional) – Like the Unique ID field, this column is only needed if certain tasks are
dependent on others. If they are, input the Unique ID of any prerequisite task here.
Note that you can give these columns any title you wish and that you can include additional columns
with other project data – just make sure that the above information is included somewhere in the
table.
Step 2: Select all of the data in the chart, including the column headers.
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Step 3: From the Insert menu on the Google spreadsheet toolbar, select Gadget.
Step 4: The Add a Gadget window should now appear on your screen. Click on Charts from the list
on the left side of window and scroll down until you see Gantt Chart. Then, click on the Add to
spreadsheet button.
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Step 5: Now, a window entitled Gantt Chart by Viewpath should appear on your screen. In this
window, input the information to let the Gantt chart tool know where the necessary data is. For
instance, in our example, the task name/description is in Column B, so we choose B from the drop
down list next to Name. Since we highlighted the table information before creating the chart, we
don’t have to worry about the Range field – it will already be pre-filled
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.
Step 6: When finished, click the Apply and close button. The Gantt chart will be added to your
spreadsheet and you can drag it to whatever location suits you. This chart may not look very helpful
at first because it shows the “week" view by default. See the screenshot below for an example.
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If your projects span over a long time period, the weekly view doesn’t give much information at all.
However, you can change this view by clicking on one of the magnifying glasses in the lower left
corner of the Gantt chart.
Clicking on the magnifying glass with the red “minus" sign will display a longer dateline. You can click
again to zoom further out. You can click on the other magnifying glass with the green “plus" sign to
zoom back in again for a closer view that covers a shorter time span.
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Google Gantt Chart Tool vs. Other Software
The biggest competitors for Google Spreadsheets are Microsoft Excel and Quattro Pro. Even though
it is possible to construct a Gantt chart in Excel, the process is not nearly as clear and simple as it is
with the Gantt chart gadget for Google Spreadsheets. Furthermore, it’s not quite so easily to share
and distribute the final work. Things are a little easier in Quattro Pro since this application actually
includes an automated Gantt chart creation tool, but you can still run into some problems with
distribution despite the software’s goal of delivering files in a universal format.
The problem that I have with using Google Spreadsheets to make a Gantt chart is not with the
gadget itself – I think that Viewpath has done a wonderful job. Instead, I have issues with the host
program, i.e. Google Spreadsheets, in terms of the limitations it has in other areas. There’s rarely a
case when creating a Gantt chart is the only thing I want to do with my data. And, to be honest,
those other tasks are handled much better by Excel and Quattro Pro. So, rather than enter my data
into multiple applications, I tend to pick the one that’s going to be easiest to use for all tasks.
With that being said, if you’re only interested in developing a Gantt chart and have all of your other
project management reports taken care of, it’s worth testing out Google Spreadsheets and giving
Viewpath’s Gantt chart tool a try. Besides, it never hurts to have one more weapon in your arsenal,
especially if it’s free.
Project scheduling does not always require expensive project management software. Project
managers can use these tips for using Excel to schedule project tasks instead. They utilize simple
formulas. Using Excel involves listing each project task, identifying the durations and calculating the
total.
 Introduction
By using a project planning form or setting up some simple formulas, project managers can make use
of Microsoft Excel as an effective project management tool to help in project planning and
scheduling. For example, the first column, Column A, of a spreadsheet used for listing project
management tasks can indicate if the task must be completed before the next task can begin.
Tasks on the critical path consist of back-to-back activities without any time in between. Entering
"CP" in this column indicates the task fits this criteria for being on the critical path. Later, if the
project manager needs to shorten a schedule, she knows where to look for critical tasks.
Project task names can be listed in the next column, Column B, and then in subsequent columns, the
project manager can enter details about durations, costs, dependencies, resources and due dates.
For example, Column C might contain information about how long it takes to complete the task in
days.
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Another column might indicate if the task depends on another. For example, components must be
built before the testing of them can begin.
 Determine How Long a Project Takes to Complete

At the end of the column containing information about how long it takes to complete each task, the
project manager can enter a simple Excel formula that adds up all of the values. For example, if the
tasks are listed in rows 2 through 50 of Column C, the Excel formula would be "=SUM(C2:C50)" and
provide the project manager with a project total. By manipulating the values entered, a project
manager can quickly see and analyze the impact. Project managers can adjust the total time allowed
for the project by adding or subtracting days to specific tasks in the project schedule.
 Determine the Impact of Crashing Tasks

Entering revised values indicating how long tasks might take if the schedule gets shortened allows
the project manager to generate a new total duration. The project manager use this information to
communicate to stakeholders that the project can be delivered earlier than previously planned. For
example, by entering reduced durations in Column D, the project manager can use a simple formula
to add up the values and obtain a revised total. For example, if the tasks are listed in rows 2 through
50 of Column D, the Excel formula would be "=SUM(D2:D50)" and provide the project manager with
a new project total. Project managers need to proceed carefully, since crashing a task may make it
occur on the critical path, which makes it required before the next step can occur.
 Determine the Cost Benefits of Crashing Tasks

By entering the dollar value associated with the original duration and the revised duration, the
project manager can indicate how much the project tasks would cost if the schedule was shortened.
Creating a monetary value for the crash reduction often creates a compelling case for shortening the
time allowed to complete the task, assuming it can be done without sacrificing quality significantly.
The project manager can determine the difference between these two values using a simple Excel
formula. The project manager can calculate this dollar value as the difference between the two cost
values. For example, if the original cost is in Column E and the revised cost is in Column F, the project
manager would enter the formula “=E2-F2" in Column G to determine the crash reduction cost value
for the first project task. Then, she could calculate the sum of all values in Column G to determine
the total projected project cost adjustments.
 Conclusion
Project managers can use Microsoft Excel, a tool many people are familiar with, to make effective
project management decisions regarding scheduling. By examining the tasks and identifying the cost
benefits associated with reducing the time permitted to complete the work, the project manager
can schedule the project work with confidence. She needs to be sure the tasks on the critical path
actually shorten the overall project schedule by shortening their duration. Ideally, she should look
for the largest reduction that impacts the least number of tasks. Using Microsoft Excel functions
allows her to generate and examine these values quickly and easily.
Using Scheduling Functions

Project managers conduct resource levelling activities to ensure that people and materials are used
optimally throughout the entire project. The goal is to ensure that the staff, supplies and
infrastructure are neither overused nor underused.
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PMs learn how to recognize the benefits of using different types of scheduling tools. They can
identify the pros and cons of popular project management applications.
Project managers adjust their schedules by delaying or rescheduling tasks, allocating an alternate
resource, modifying the task dependencies or eliminating redundant or unnecessary tasks that add
no value to the customer. Find out how to use PERT and Gantt charts to document your project's
schedule more accurately.
Scheduling Techniques
An effective project manager monitors tasks to determine if their completion is ahead or behind
schedule. If he determines that the project’s finish date is in jeopardy due to incomplete tasks on the
critical path, he remedies the situation by performing tasks in parallel or assigning additional
resources.
Have you ever realized your project will miss a key milestone? Find out how to deliver your product
or service on time by adjusting your schedule and resource allocation. Learn how to crash or
compress the schedule.
Scheduling Tips
Effective project managers use scheduling tools and techniques to fragment the work into smaller
tasks. They assign qualified resources to complete the work in the most optimal way. Because
projects frequently have tight deadlines for completion, successful project managers may need to
schedule tasks concurrently rather than sequentially.
Resource levelling allows a project manager to use the people, machines and materials needed to
complete the project in the most efficient manner. Effective project managers analyze the entire
project first. Then, they break up the project into tasks that the allocated resources can execute to
attain the required outcomes and achieve the project’s strategic objective. Scheduling effectively
involves estimating costs, monitoring progress and evaluating efficiency and quality. Find out what
details you need to include in a schedule to make it useful for team members.
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Mobile Scheduling Applications
For busy project managers, accessing scheduling information on mobile devices has become a necessity. Learn about the
best calendar applications for your mobile phone that allow you to remain connected with your project team, no matter
where you work.
Project management on the go has never been easier than with the iPhone. Here we'll take a look at
10 iPhone applications to help you be more productive--even on your iPhone!
 Many business professionals are now embracing the iPhone, first touted by Mac enthusiasts and
techies. Both the Blackberry and Palm brand of phones were almost exclusively used by companies
because of their security features, which the iPhone lacked, until the launch of the iPhone 3G. Better
security features coupled with the development of numerous applications, has catapulted the
iPhone to the front of the business-user ranks of PDAs.
Developers are beginning to target specific users for their applications, and project managers are
one such group. Collaboration, sharing, and communication are essential functions in project
management and finding the right tools to support those functions can be tedious with the hundreds
of applications available on iTunes. Here, we've put together a list of ten iPhone applications you
may want to check out as most of these apps can now be used with the iPad 2 as well.
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 1. Cisco Webex Meeting Center
Cisco’s Webex Meeting Center is a free iPhone application now in version 4.0 with a file size of 17.4
MB. This app makes it easy to implement conference calls right from your iPhone in 10 different
languages. Your iPhone operating system must be 3.0 or higher and allow you to set up a video or
audio conference, designate a host and each attendee by a single tap on the individual's name.
Webex offers document and note sharing, indicates to all attendees who is speaking and can interact
with any computer, not just Macs.
You can schedule meetings and even cancel a previously scheduled meeting and even change the
host of the meeting all in touch or pinch on your iPhone.
Cisco has updated the app to work on the iPad as well. If you're on the go and need to stay in touch
with your team, this app is a must-have project management tool.
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 2. SmartTime 4
For just $4.99, Left Coast Logic offers up SmartTime 4, now in version 6.0.1 with a file size of 4.9 MB.
The SmartTime application can help you stay organized. SmartTime helps you visually prioritize your
tasks, events, and appointments into a single view. A nice feature of this app is its ability to show you
instantly where you have time slots open for any given day by using its trademarked Floating
Dynamic Day mode. It integrates with Google calender and maps if you need those, offers pop-up
alert reminders and you can shoot off emails to your project team while you're on the go--a great
tool if you manage many projects. For this app for managing projects, your iPhone operating system
must be at least 4.0.
 3. Box.Net
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From Box.net, Inc comes a great, free organizer tool, Box.Net, now in version 2.8.3 with a file size of
26.1 MB. Box.Net is a Web-based service that allows you to upload and store your files from you
Mac or PC to your Box.Net account. The iPhone application connects to your online account, from
which you can view Word documents, PDFs, spreadsheets, presentations, images and more. A great
feature of Box.Net is its ability to share and collaborate with others on a single document, multiple
documents, or files – similar to Google Docs.
You can even save files and docs to your iPhone or iPad and view and edit them when offline. It also
features great tools right from within the app such as accessing FedEx, Zoho spreadsheets, eFax and
more.
 4. FileMagnet
From Magnetism Studios comes FileMagnet, now in version 2.02 with a file size of 2.1 MB--this app
can be used on both the iPhone and the iPad for a cost of only $4.99. If you prefer to keep your files
out of the cloud, try FileMagnet. This project management application for the iPhone allows you to
wirelessly transfer files from your PC or Mac. With FileMagnet, project managers can take their
important presentations or status reports on the road – or golf course. The application is simple to
use, just open FileMagnet on your iPhone and your computer and the two will connect and copy files
automatically.
Even RTF, text and HTML files can be downloaded and this app has a nice password protection
feature if security is important in managing your projects.
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 5. Groups: SMS, Mail & Manage Contacts
From Guided Ways Technology comes this great contact management app appropriately named
Groups: SMS, Mail & Manage Contacts. This productivity app is now in version 2.4.1 with a file size of
7.8 MB. Managing projects means managing multiple teams all of whom a project manager will have
to contact at one time or another. The Contact Groups application helps make managing multiple
contacts easier. The application is priced at $4.99, but comes with robust features such as its ability
to turn your iPhone or iPad into a Rolodex.
Mass e-mail or text everyone on your project team, create groups for dedicated project teams and
merge everyone on your group contact list in a single touch. It also offers map locations for every
one of your contacts and supports both portrait and landscape modes. A great app for the project
manager who wants to get the message out fast--to everyone on the team in an organized fashion.
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 6. OutPost 2 for Basecamp
If you use Basecamp for project management, then you will enjoy the Base Camp iPhone application
– OutPost 2. OutPost 2 now in version 2.2.1 with a file size of 5.9 MB is a pricer iPhone application
for project management at $19.99. The app allows Basecamp users to access their accounts from
their iPhones or iPads. OutPost retains many of the same features as the Web-based application
such as milestones and to-do lists.
OutPost supports multiple Basecamp accounts and includes an address book for easy access to
emailing groups or project teams. It also offers the capability of downloading certain project
elements such as to do lists, where again, you can work with the documents when in an offline
mode.
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 7. ezShare Pro
Antecea Inc’s ezShare Pro allows iPhone users to VPN into their company’s network and access all of
their business files. ezShare can also be used to access files on a FTP server, home computer, Mac
Time Capsule, and Google Docs - project managers will never have to worry about forgetting files
with ezShare. Another useful function of the application is the ability to print any of the accessed
files, regardless of location.
Now in version 3.0.1 with a file size of 8.3 MB, ezShare Pro is also a pricer app at $15.99 but it's
worth it for all the features. You can even view or control your computer's desktop remotely--think
of GoToMyPC here. It comes with a custom .pdf viewer and transferred data is encrypted for extra
security. A great app for the PM who needs to be two places at once!
 8. 1Password
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From Agile Web Solutions comes 1Password--such a popular app the iTunes store says it has over
one million users. Now in version 4.1.2 with a file size of 22.0 MB, 1Password is a safe place to keep
codes, emails, and passwords secure. iPhone applications normally come with Web-based accounts,
but remembering all of those passwords for those accounts can be a headache. 1Password can help
ease the nightmare of password management. The popularity of this app has turned the price from
free to $17.99--most likely because you can use it on the iPad 2. The 1Password app uses a four-digit
unlock code to access all of your websites--you can log in with a single keystroke. The two-layer
defense system of 1Password gives piece of mind to project managers, who are accessing websites
for various projects.
 9. Bento
From Filemaker Inc. comes an app to help you and your projects stay organized. Just released in
March of 2011 and in version 1.2.2 with a file size of 11.5 MB you can organize, track and plan all of
your projects on the go with Bento. It comes with 25 built-in templates (not all for project
management) but most will make your life easier.
Plan events and meeting and create a contact list and mass e-mail your project team. At a price of
only $4.99, Bento is offered up in seven languages so it's great for the global project manager. As
one reviewer put it, "I have everything I need to run my project right in my pocket!"
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 10. SimpleMind eXpress
From XPT Software & Consulting comes SimpleMind eXpress now in version 1.6.6 with a file size of
4.6 MB--and it's free! Need an application that offers brainstorming and idea formulation? There’s
an app for that – SimpleMind eXpress. The free mind-mapping application can be used by project
managers to brainstorm ideas, and solutions to troublesome issues. Simply drag and arrange ideas
and topics on a single mind map or between mind maps. SimpleMind express mind maps can be
shared with others, although it does not support multiple user collaboration.
It requires an operating system of 3.0 or higher, but this iPhone application is a must if your project
team is in to mind mapping!
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Project Management Fundamentals for Schedulers
Successful project managers schedule tasks and resources to enable positive project outcomes.
Need more information about project management fundamentals? Learn more about essential
project management skills to become a more effective scheduler.
Activity 6
What is the purpose of a Gantt chart? Describe one software tool you can use to produce a Gantt
chart.
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Activity 6
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Contribute to achieving an agreed schedule baseline and communication of
the schedule to stakeholders14
When you have finished planning your project, and you have all the scheduled dates, hours, and
costs (and charges if applicable) agreed, why is it a good idea to store these values? We explore the
reasons.
What is a Baseline?
A baseline is a set of stored values. Usually, these will be:
 Original Scheduled Start and Finish Dates

 Planned Effort (may be expressed in hours)
 Planned or Budgeted Cost
 Planned or Budgeted Revenue
Why Baseline?
The main benefits of having a project baseline are:
 Ability to assess performance

 Earned Value calculation
 Improved future estimating accuracy
Assessing Performance
If you know what the plan was, you can compare this with the actuals, and make a judgement on
whether you're on track or not. Your software may have a "traffic light" or similar system to indicate
this. This provides you with variance information which can be useful for future estimating.
For instance, a task was planned to start last week and the planned effort/duration was ten days.
It should, therefore, finish at the end of this week. It is now Monday of week 2. The task started last
Wednesday and, having reviewed the task, you now estimate that it will take another eight days to
complete it.
Planned Start Monday Week 1 Actual Start Wednesday Week 1

Planned Finish Friday Week 2 Scheduled Finish Wednesday Week 3
Planned Duration 10 days Revised Duration 11 days
Hence, on current estimates, the task will take an extra day to complete and will be three days late.
14
Source: Project Smart, as at https://www.projectsmart.co.uk/3-main-benefits-of-project-baselining.php, as
on 1st October, 2016; Skillmaker, as at http://www.skillmaker.edu.au/schedule-baseline/, as on 1st October,
2016.
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This is a somewhat crude way of assessing how well you're doing. If you add a value for progress
(percentage complete), a better measure is to use Earned Value. If you record the actual hours spent
on the task, your software may be able to calculate the percentage complete value.
Earned Value
With Earned Value, you compare the planned hours and costs of work with the actual hours and
costs, taking into account the progress on each task and the project as a whole. It often includes the
calculation of a performance indicator.
This allows you to see trends in performance, and thus to predict potential overruns. At an individual
task level, it is a good indicator of how much time and cost should have been spent so far, compared
to how much time and cost has been spent.
However, it is advisable not to place too much reliance on such forecasts, especially in the early
stages of the project's lifecycle, as few tasks have been started or completed; as time moves
forward, the accuracy of the predictions increases, although you are still reliant on peoples'
assessments of progress.
When a task is completed, the Earned Value figures will be equal to the planned figures, so this
measure cannot be used to enhance estimating accuracy.
Improved Estimating
When you create your plan, you estimate how long each task will take, and how much effort will be
required to complete it. You may also work out the likely costs and if you're charging for work done,
what the revenue will be. How do you do this? The tools most commonly used are previous
experience - plus a device such as a crystal ball!
You can improve the accuracy of your estimating if you have a record of previous estimates
compared with the actual outcome. This can give you a margin of error (perhaps as a percentage)
which you can build into all future estimates.
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If your project management software has a template facility, at the end of each project you can use
the variance data to update the template tasks with revised estimates.
What is the difference between Project Schedule and Schedule Baseline?
 Project Schedule is a "living" document, whereas Schedule Baseline is "frozen".

 Project Schedule is the "actual", whereas Schedule Baseline is the "plan".
 Project Schedule is a Project Document, whereas Schedule Baseline is a part of the Project
Management Plan.
 Project Schedule is updated as the project is being executed, whereas Schedule Baseline is
revised only as a result of an approved change request.
 Schedule performance is measured by comparing the actual (Project Schedule) vs the
baseline (Schedule Baseline).
 At the beginning of project execution, the Project Schedule is the same as the Schedule
Baseline. As work is done on the project, the actual progress is updated on the project
schedule. At any given date, the latest version of the actual (project) schedule is referred to
as the "Project Schedule".
A schedule baseline (sometimes referred to as a target baseline) is the original approved project
schedule, which is agreed by project stakeholders before the project starts. It does not change. It is
a fixed measure which is used as a planning yard mark against which the progress on the actual
project schedule can be measured.
What is the purpose of Schedule Baseline?
A schedule baseline will normally include the expected time scale for delivery of the final project
outcomes, plus related information such as estimated costs and estimated use of resources. It is
important to form the baseline schedule as accurately as possible so that it is a reliable comparative
measure.
Once the schedule has been created, it must be agreed by vested stakeholders, and then effectively
frozen — meaning that it cannot be subsequently changed. It is important to create the schedule
early into the project, so that estimated timescales and resource use are fully understood by all
interested parties.
A schedule baseline may be referred to at any time during a project’s delivery, but it is especially
useful to refer to it whenever the current project schedule is being updated. This will help to
highlight variances in cost, resource usage and expected time frames. Tracking these changes is an
important part of project management, as it allows the manager to understand how the project is
progressing.
Where does the Schedule Baseline fit in the management of Project timelines?
When a project starts, the baseline schedule is the same as the actual schedule. But as
circumstances eventuate, the actual schedule may deviate from the schedule baseline due to factors
such as unforeseen risks eventuating, changes to project scope, and other changes outside the
control of the Project Manager. The actual schedule responds dynamically to those factors affecting
the project.
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The gap between it and the schedule baseline provides a measure of how much the project is ahead
of or behind the originally planned schedule. If the variation is substantial, remedial action is
needed.
What are the components or elements of Schedule Baseline?
A schedule baseline will normally include information such as estimated costs, estimated usage of
resources and an expected time scale for delivery of the final outcome and any other expected
deliverables.
Baseline Planning Process
A project has three constraints: scope, schedule and budget. The scope is what the project is to
accomplish. Constraints guide the project manager in developing the project plan. First, he defines
project requirements that establish the scope. Next, he identifies project activities and their
dependencies. This determines the schedule and resource requirements, including staffing. The
scope, schedule and resource needs establish the budget.
Baseline Information
The baseline project plan is not a separate project plan. Software copies the information into
baseline fields contained in the original project plan. For example, software copies a task’s start and
finish dates into their respective baseline fields. If a project is complex, the project manager might
create multiple baselines as an audit trail for numerous baseline changes occurring during project
execution.
Baseline Updates
During project implementation, a project manager might update baseline information to reflect
current conditions when unforeseen circumstances occur. For example, a union strike might prevent
electricians from performing work. Therefore, the project manager reschedules this effort, as well as
other tasks that must begin after the electrical work is completed.
Variances
A project manager establishes planned start and completion dates for a task. Software calculates the
planned duration of the task. She records the start date in the project plan when the task begins.
Upon the task’s completion, she enters its completion date. The actual duration is compared to the
planned duration to calculate the duration variance. A task’s budget amount, less the task’s total
spent and committed amounts, determines the cost variance.
Project Control
The project manager assesses cost and schedule variances to determine if the project is within
budget and on schedule for completion. For example, schedule variances might indicate that project
team members completed a group of tasks ahead of schedule.
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Therefore, the project manager might assign these members to tasks that are behind schedule. If
cost variances indicate possible budget overruns, he might decrease the project scope to remain
within budget.
Considerations
Project failure might occur as the result of requirements' creep, known as scope creep. This is work
added to a project after it begins, increasing the cost. To address the cost of potential scope creep,
you might include a contingency amount in the project. Typically, this amount represents a percent
of the total estimated project cost.
When putting together your project baselines some things to consider15:
 Start with schedule and cost baselines.

 Identify activities and tasks which will be needed to produce each of the deliverables
included on your scope baseline. The detail included in this task list will depend on the
experience of your team, the project’s risk and uncertainties, etc.
 For each task identify the resources needed, if known at this point.
 Make an estimation of how many hours it will take to complete each task.
 Estimate the cost of each task, by using an average hourly rate for each resource you may
require.
 Make sure you consider resource constraints and how much time each resource can
realistically devote to your project.
 Develop a task path by figuring out which tasks are dependent on other tasks.
 Date develop your schedule by putting all tasks and estimates into a calendar showing how
much time each task will take from start date to end.
 Don’t forget to develop a cost baseline, which is a cost-by-time budget.
Activity 7
What is project baselining and when is the baseline developed?
15
Source: Computer Weekly, as at http://www.computerweekly.com/photostory/2240205582/Six-tips-on-
how-to-create-a-clear-project-plan/4/Step-4-How-to-develop-the-project-baselines, as on 1st October, 2016.
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Activity 7
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Implement mechanisms to measure, record and report progress of activities
according to agreed schedule16
The right mix of planning, monitoring and effective management is crucial for completing a project
on time, on budget and with high quality. Incorporating work breakdown structures and project
network diagram into a project plan is a good starting point as these tools identify tasks and
activities and describe the order in which they should happen. On-time delivery is all about
proactive, not reactive, project management.
Progress Measurements
 Define the project's duration, required resources and specific tasks with work breakdown
structures. They use a top-down approach that starts by identifying project deliverables.
Next, break each deliverable down into required tasks. As a final step, break each task into
the steps and the time required to complete it. Analyze and arrange tasks in a project
schedule diagram in the order in which each must occur. Use a flowchart format that
includes numbers to identify task order and arrows to denote the flow of tasks within the
diagram. Make sure to include estimated start and finish times for each activity.
Identify Milestones
 Identify significant points in the execution phase. These project milestones include
deliverables, dates, deadlines and other important events. Get information on outputs and
deadlines from the project schedule diagram and add the dates for team meetings and
progress meetings with stakeholders. You can also include key externals, such as resource
delivery dates, due dates for outsourced tasks and any information that can help determine
whether things are on schedule.
Gantt Chart
 A Gantt chart displays tasks, shows which activities in the project overlap and by how much,
and identifies project milestones in a bar-chart format. Create one using project
management software to better track your project. The program you use will provide
specific directions on how to construct the chart. A completed Gantt chart displays each task
and milestone on the left side. The right side displays a bar whose position and length
represents the start, duration and end date.
Monitoring Progress
 Work-breakdown structures, project diagrams, milestones and Gantt charts won’t help you
measure progress without regular monitoring.
16
Source: eHow, as at http://www.ehow.com/how_7843512_measure-progress-project.html, as on 1st
October, 2016; Project Times, as at https://www.projecttimes.com/george-pitagorsky/measuring-in-progress-
project-performance.html, as on 1st October, 2016.
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Weekly status meetings are vital for identifying weaknesses and spotting potential
bottlenecks early enough to make proactive corrections. Conduct a thorough status review
in which you talk about task assignments due during the current week and within the next
two weeks. Allow team leaders to identify which tasks are on track and which, if any, may
miss the projected deadline. Check off completed tasks and update the progress chart as the
project moves forward.
Measuring performance is a critical factor in optimizing performance. Optimal performance is

sustainably achieving multiple, often conflicting, objectives under changing conditions.
Project performance, on the surface, seems easy to measure; just track time, cost and scope and it’s
done. But when we look more deeply we find that it is not that simple.
First, we find that there is confusion about what we actually want to measure. Is it the success of a
single project, the success of project performance across many projects, or the success of project
management and a project office? If our objective is to measure the success of a single project, are
we looking at the project during its life or at the project after it has been completed?
Once we determine what we really want to evaluate we can identify the key performance indicators
(KPIs) that will tell us whether we have been or are being successful or not and to what degree. KPIs
give managers the most important performance information to enable them to assess the
performance of a project or process. Generally we look for from two to five or so indicators. One is
not enough for any complex process and project performance is a complex process. Too many KPIs
make it difficult to see the big picture clearly. Too few make it difficult to diagnose and correct the
issues that get in the way of optimal performance.
Project and Business Objectives
Keep in mind that KPIs are not objectives. They are readings that enable a manager to assess
performance towards the achievement of objectives. On a personal level we use KPIs such as weight,
blood pressure, and cholesterol level to assess general health. The objective is general health, the
measures are indicators that can be used to determine if we are tracking towards the objective, or
not.
Project objectives are to deliver goods and services, within time, cost, quality and other constraints,
satisfying stakeholder expectations. Project deliverables are used to deliver benefits to satisfy the
needs of sponsors and clients.
Note the difference between project and business objectives. Projects deliver goods and services
that are generally used after the project has ended to achieve business objectives such as reducing
costs and risks, increasing revenues, etc. Projects are initiated to achieve business objectives. Project
objectives are a means to that end.
When measuring project success, particularly when the project is on-going, it is necessary to focus
on the project objectives and performance against schedule and budget estimates. In most cases, we
cannot measure a project’s success in achieving business objectives until well after the project has
ended.
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Further, there are factors that are outside of the control of the project that influence benefits
realization. For example, in product development the performance of sales and marketing, market
conditions, and other factors impact the degree to which expected benefits are achieved.
Project Performance – Schedule and Budget
Performance measurement during a project is to know how things are going so that we can have
early warning of problems that might get in the way of achieving project objectives and so that we
can manage expectations. A secondary benefit is information that can be used to improve the
planning and performance of future projects.
Typical KPIs are schedule and budget compliance, number of scope changes, number of issues and
defects, and stakeholder satisfaction.
There is broad agreement that schedule and budget compliance during the course of the project are
essential indicators. Projects must end and completion time is often closely linked to the business
objectives that drove the project’s initiation. Tracking to a budget in dollars and/or resource time is a
key indicator because it gives us a sense of whether we are performing as we have expected to
perform. In most cases, project sponsors and clients are cost conscious. They want to know how
much they will spend on the project and they want to know it before the project is over.
Assessing the degree to which the project is tracking to its schedule and budget provides an
indication of whether the team is going to meet stakeholder expectations (a critical objective in any
project). It highlights the need to look into the causes of variance. Causes may be poor estimating,
loss of resources, price changes, underperforming resources, too many changes, errors, omissions
and defects, etc. Once the causes are understood a course of action can be decided, either accepting
things as they are or making changes to remediate any problem that has been identified.
As in earned value management we need to combine schedule and budget perspectives to get a true
sense of overall project health. Do not rely on these measures independent of one another, a project
can be under budget because it is behind schedule, because prices have gone down, because
performers have used clever means to get their work done less expensively, or for other reasons. A
stakeholder who is budget oriented can easily get the wrong idea of project health by looking at
standalone budget data.
Quality Deliverables
To effectively measure performance it is necessary to plan so that tasks are defined in terms of
specific deliverables with clearly stated requirements. The availability of an accepted deliverable is
the only measure of the successful completion of a task. It is all too easy to deliver something that
doesn’t work or meet requirements.
Agile project approaches use Velocity as a KPI to measure the team’s rate of progress. Velocity is the
number of features (or use cases, components, deliverables, etc.) delivered versus the number
planned. This is clearly measuring against schedule but highlights the need for linking tasks to
concrete, useful deliverables. Whether or not you are using an Agile approach, it is a best practice to
ensure that task completion is defined as the delivery of a specific and meaningful deliverable.
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Effort and Cost Tracking
Whether you use velocity or earned value you need to account for effort and the cost of other
resources to monitor budget compliance and to estimate to project completion based on current
performance.
Can you measure project performance without tracking effort and cost? Of course you can. It is done
all the time. However, without a sense of the effort/cost being expended, any assessment of
schedule compliance is overly subjective, it is a guess. Capturing and using effort and cost data is
often difficult, requiring appropriate tools and cultural change, but if you want to manage your
project effectively, do it.
Project Performance – Other Indicators
Other indicators, aside from schedule and budget performance, monitor the number and types of
issues, changes, and/or defects and the degree to which they are quickly addressed.
Issues are questions, disputes or problems that arise during a project and that must be addressed to
satisfy stakeholders and ensure that the project is heading in the right direction. Issues vary in
priority, complexity and the amount of time and effort they require. Issues are inevitable, plan for
them and track the effort required to address them against your estimate.
Scope changes result from requests for change in requirements. Changes require analysis, decision
making and execution. Scope changes, particularly those that occur late in project life, are
disruptive. When planning the project it is best to estimate time, effort and cost to create a fund for
expected changes and then to monitor actuals against this fund.
Defects are discovered when testing is performed to validate deliverables. Defects require effort to
determine their cause and correct or accept them. Again, it is best to estimate defects and their
impact in duration and cost and to track against this estimate.
Each of these is a KPI. High instances of each indicate that there will be project schedule and budget
slippage. Issues, changes and defects should be tracked and aged to give management a sense of
what is happening outside of the schedule and budget.
One of the most important and underutilized project performance indicators is stakeholder
satisfaction. During the course of a project assess the degree to which clients, sponsors and
performers are satisfied with responsiveness to their issues, the sense that progress is being made,
the degree to which they are involved, the health of relationships and their general feeling regarding
the project’s performance.
This section has focused in on performance measurement of in-progress projects. The objectives of
performance measurement are 1) to enable project teams to manage stakeholder expectations by
informing stakeholders of where the project is with respect to the plan and where it looks like it is
headed, 2) obtain early warning of problems that might affect the overall performance of the project
and diagnose the situation to determine the most effective course of action.
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Note that achieving business benefits is not a practical KPI for projects while they are in progress.
Benefits do not accrue until after the project has delivered its deliverables and they have been used.
The key performance indicators discussed are schedule and budget compliance, issues, changes,
defects, and stakeholder satisfaction. Combining these into a dashboard and drilling down to assess
their causes and impact helps to ensure project success.
Using Project Deliverables17
"Projects reach 90% complete on time and on budget, at which point they remain 90% complete
forever," or so the saying goes. Percent complete is not a particularly accurate measure of a
project's progress. What does "90% complete" mean? That 90% of the work has been done? That
90% of the problems have been solved? That 90% of the budget has been spent? That 90% of the
hours have been worked? All or none of the above? For some, 90% means there is a progress
payment for stating that the work is 90% complete, whether it is or not.
Intermediate deliverables, which are closely associated with project phases, provide an easy,
accurate measure of a project's progress. Phases are blocks of time representing collections of
related project tasks; deliverables are tangible results typically associated with the completion of
phases. Deliverables can be seen, tested, vetted and, most significantly, used to move the project
further along.
Step 1. Start with the project's phases
This sample shows a project with four straightforward phases: analysis, development,
implementation and documentation.
Step 2: Identify deliverables associated with each phase.
Here, intermediate deliverables have been added and highlighted in yellow. These
deliverables measure progress since it is fairly easy to determine whether they exist or not.
In this example, analysis leads to a set of specifications, development leads to a prototype,
documentation ends with a documentation sign-off, and the final phase, implementation,
ends with a project sign-off.
17
Source: Technical Pathways, as at http://www.technicalpathways.com/Tip_Sheets/Tip_-
_Measuring_Progress/tip_-_measuring_progress.html, as on 1st October, 2016.
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In comparing deliverables and percent complete, note that it would be fairly vague to
estimate this project's percent complete while it is still in the analysis phase. Assume, for
example, that this is a 40-week project and the team is four weeks into a five-week analysis
phase. It would be awkward to say that this project is 10% complete. True, 10% of the
timeline has elapsed, but the full team has yet to be assembled for the resource-heavy later
phases and the full impact of potential problems has yet to be felt. However, it would be
justifiable to look at the nearest deliverable and confidently determine whether or not the
specifications will be signed off in a week. At this point the project is clearly not 10%
complete, but the analysis phase itself may well be 80% complete.
Measuring project productivity in terms of percent complete is an art; measuring

productivity in terms of phases and their deliverables is reasonably exact. Percent complete,
as noted in the opening paragraph, can mean many things, but a deliverable is either there
or it isn't. In brief, it is more productive focus the team on the current work and next
deliverable than on the ultimate end of the project. After all, the project can never end
without its intermediate deliverables in place.
Activity 8
Select, and describe in detail, one method of measuring project progress.
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Activity 8
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Activity 8
Project Progress Report18
The Project Progress Report is produced by the Project Manager in agreement with the Project
Sponsor. It should establish:
 What progress has been made, what work is left remaining, and what the issues are.
For some projects progress is reviewed at regular intervals, whereas for others such reviews are
carried out at natural breakpoints in the project such as end-of-stages or major milestones, probably
specified by the Project Manager in the Project Plan.
Although standard formats exist, in practice the format of the Project Progress Report is often
chosen to suit the particular project and sponsor. We discuss two types:- the Highlight Report and
the full Project Progress Report.
Highlight Report
This report focuses on simply reporting the key progress and issues:
 What has been done?

 What activities are delayed or in advance?
18
Source: Lindsay Sherwin, as at http://www.lindsay-
sherwin.co.uk/project_framework/htm_4_control_and_reporting/05_project_progress_report.htm, as on 1st
October, 2016.
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 How is the expenditure going against budget?
 How does the completion date look?
 Any other issues?
 What action is needed from the Sponsor or Project Board.
A typical layout might be:
Highlight Report
1. Project Details
Name of project, start date, dates covered by report, Project Manager, Project
Sponsor.
2. Project Status
Comparison of original completion date and budget with latest forecast.
3. Tasks and work completed during period
4. Tasks and work expected to be completed during the next period
5. Issues, problems and risks that affect the project
6. Actions to be taken by sponsor and others
Full Project Progress Report
For many projects the Highlight Report would work fine. However it does assume that everyone at
the project review knows what the project is about, is well organised, and has the original project
plan to hand. Where this may not apply, many project managers find it sensible to include further
information - certainly the original terms of reference but possibly also further information from the
project plan. A typical format is given below.
Project Progress Report
1. Title of project,
2. Background to the Project
3. Terms of Reference & Key Objectives
4. Project Status Summary - time and costs
5. Project Manager Summary
6. Risk Assessment
7. Updated Time Schedule
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Project Progress Report
1. Title of project,
Together with the names of the Project Manager and Project Sponsor. It is also usual to have "Date
of Report" and "Dates of Period Covered".
2. Background to the Project
A brief description of the background to the project including how the project came about, what the
project is about, why we are undertaking the project, and what in very broad terms the outcome of
the project will be to the organisation.
3. Terms of Reference & Key Objectives
First, a brief (5 to 10 line) overall definition and description of the project and its aims including
some reference to likely timescales, budget and resources, and what the project will aim to deliver.
Then a statement of what the project is to deliver - the key objectives. The latter is often done as a
listing the main stakeholders of the project with a statement for each of what the project will aim to
deliver to them.
4. Project Summary Status
A brief statement of how project completion dates compares with project plan estimate, and how
total expenditure is expected to meet budget.
5. Project Manager Summary
A succinct bullet-point summary of the key events since the last project review, and the key events
to take place before the next project review.
6. Risk Assessment Update
The main risks - implementation issues which may delay the project. This was done for the Project
Plan, but it should now be updated. Again, the priority items should be identified with suggestions
as to how they could be averted or their impact lessened.
One of the simplest and best ways of doing this is to create a ‘risk register’ identifying all the events
that could cause problems for the project, and then mapping these onto a Hi-Lo diagram. Possibly
summarised in a table as follows:
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7. Updated Time Schedule
In most cases a simple update of the time schedule shown in the Project Plan is sufficient. Again this
will show the key activities which need to take place and estimates of when the activity needs to be
carried out, with key milestone dates. Best done with one of the planning techniques - Gantt Charts,
Milestone Plans, Stages Diagram, or even Critical Path Analysis if the project warrants it.
Creating a weekly status report19
When you write your weekly status report, remember that it’s your best opportunity to address any
concerns of your project sponsor. It’s also an opportunity to get support and decisions that you need
to finish the project successfully. Let’s think about the sponsor’s perspective of a new project
manager with whom he or she is not familiar.
Weekly Status Report – Address Sponsor’s Concerns
Here’s what the sponsor is concerned about:
 Does this project manager have control of what’s happening on the project?
 Does he know about any problems or will he be surprised down the road?
 Where are we today and what’s the forecast of costs and finish date?
 Do the team members understand what the PM expects of them?
Those are very reasonable questions and concerns for a project sponsor so you need to write your
status report to answer those questions. If you can provide answers to those questions, you will go a
long way in building your credibility with the sponsor and gaining their support for the things you
need to finish the project successfully.
Weekly Status Report – What to Include
Before you start to put together a massive data dump, here are some things to keep in mind as you
decide what to include:
 The project sponsor and other stakeholders are not familiar with all the details of your
project. Don’t assume they know as much about it is you do. The best approach is to assume
that they know the name of the project and nothing more.
19
Source: 4PM, as at http://www.4pm.com/how-to-write-a-weekly-status-report/, as on 1st October, 2016.
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 The sponsor and stakeholders have a limited amount of time to spend and they’re not going
to sit through a 30-slide PowerPoint show or a deep dive into the project data.
 They are primarily interested in learning if the project will finish on time and within budget.
The best technique is to answer those questions in the first 60 seconds. If the news is good,
it will relieve their concerns. If the news about budget and completion date is bad, you will
come across as being very frank and forthright about the problems. Then you can
immediately launch into discussing solutions.
 You should give a very short summary of the forecasted completion date and cost. Then
identify the following:
o the tasks that are experiencing problems
o what will happen to the completion date and cost if we don’t fix them
o what you can do about those problems
o what the results will be after your corrective action.
When you take this approach, you are answering three of those four questions the sponsors always
have. As importantly, you are answering them in the first few minutes of your status report. You are
hiding nothing. They know as much about the problem(s) when you’re done as you do. There are
problems on all projects. But if the sponsors think you know what’s going on and that you’ll frankly
tell them about it, you will be successful.
Don’t be alarmed if some of the stakeholders or even the sponsor get up and leave after you answer
all their questions in the first few minutes. These are busy people and that just means you did your
job right.
Weekly Status Report – Show You Are in Control
For those people who stay beyond the opening minutes, you should demonstrate that you are in
control of the project and all the project team members know what you expect of them. Your status
report can:
 list the major accomplishments or activities for the preceding reporting period
 identify the objectives for the next reporting period
 identify issues or challenges to the project’s success.
Many project managers miss the opportunity to help the sponsor and stakeholders report on project
progress. Remember, they usually must prepare a report for their boss detailing how the project
manager and team are performing during that reporting period.
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The report may also include details related to the triple constraints (yes, there are six):
 Time (schedule)
 Cost (budget)
 Quality (deliverables)
 Resources (staff)
 Scope (objectives or activities)
Risk (may include issues or challenges).
Activity 9
Who would you circulate weekly status reports to and why?
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Activity 9
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Conduct ongoing analysis to identify baseline variance20
Projects by definition are time bound endeavors. When the project schedule is correctly created it
sets the bounds for when the project will be completed and how much it will cost. These
boundaries are sometimes referred to as cost and schedule baseline. The baseline is the agreed to
cost and schedule by the project manager and project sponsor.
When you get into the execution phase of a project it is important to monitor your performance. As
the project manager you need to be aware of how well you are progressing towards achieving your
delivery date and operating within your approved budget. If you start to see a variance from your
baseline plan you need to take corrective action.
In order to perform variance analysis you need to have a properly loaded schedule. By properly
loaded I mean a resource loaded and balanced schedule. Named resources are assigned to each task
along with their respective cost. Many organizations treat compensation as private information so
you will most likely load in a blended rate for the resource based on their skills and the department
they report to. During the creation of your schedule there are a few principles you should adhere to
which will make your tracking and reporting efforts a little easier. Make sure all your tasks are
logically linked with a predecessor and successor task. By linking all tasks in the project you are
able to perform critical path analysis. Each of your task should be broken down to durations of no
more than 80 hours. By bounding your tasks to no greater than 80 hours you can quickly identify
variances if they occur and address them before things get to far off track.
There are two easy variance calculations to perform which will give insight into your project
performance, Schedule Variance and Cost Variance.
Schedule variance will tell you how you are performing against the baselined schedule. This
calculation will inform you if you are on track to meet your delivery date. You calculate schedule
variance by subtracting Planed Value from your Earned Value (SV=EV – PV). Earned Value (EV) is
the budget associated with the work that has been completed at the point in time you are
performing your variance analysis. Planned Value (PV) is the budget for the work planned to be
completed at the time of your analysis. If the result of your calculation is a positive number then
you are ahead of schedule, a negative number means you are behind schedule and 0 means you are
on schedule.
Cost variance lets you see how well you are managing to the approved budget. Cost variance is
calculated by subtracting Actual Cost of work performed to date form the Earned Value (CV = EV –
AC). If the result of your calculation is a positive number you are under planed costs which is always
a good thing. If the result is a negative number you are over planned costs and 0 means you are on
target.
20
Source: Filtered, as at http://learn.filtered.com/blog/project-variance-analysis, as on 1st October, 2016;
Rational Plan, as at http://www.rationalplan.com/projectmanagementblog/managing-projects-using-project-
baselines/, as on 1st October, 2016; Urish Arora, as at http://projectserver-
nirvana.com/index.php?view=article&catid=71%3Aproject-monitoring-and-
control&id=175%3Avariance&format=pdf&option=com_content&Itemid=98, as on 1st October, 2016
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Your ability to calculate meaningful variance data is dependent upon two things. First, that you have
properly developed your schedule and second, your team is providing timely and accurate status
updates.
Tracking projects using baselines
The key to effective progress tracking is the baseline plan. To track a project, you must have
something to compare against. The baseline plan contains the original or planned estimates against
which you can track the project’s actual progress. Managing a project often requires to compare it to
earlier versions of it. As the project progresses, the manager may also want to save an interim plan
periodically.
When to create a baseline?
Usually a baseline is created immediately after the project plan is finished and approved. Enter tasks,
establish dependencies, and assign resources and costs. Once the schedule gets adjusted as best as
possible, and before starting tracking, save the baseline plan. In certain cases when the project
planning stage is long, or the project has begun but approved changes occur, the project manager
can save multiple baselines to record the changing baseline values over time. This is useful for future
experience to avoid what was bad planned.
Do project baselines change?
The key to working with baselines is to not adjust the baseline every time there is a slight change to
the schedule. Ideally, once the project baseline is stored it should not be changed. However, it is
sometimes inevitable to adjust it due to a new requirement that implies a major change to scope or
cost. Also in rare cases the project was not well scheduled since the initial phase. In these cases the
best solution is to keep the initial baseline and to save the adjusted schedule as a new baseline. This
way there will be several interim baselines that can be used to remember the potentially bad project
management or the team members that did not deliver as promised.
Although the initial baseline is the output of the planning phase the rest of intermediary baselines
are referred and updated during execution and control phase.
Are baselines helpful?
A baseline is an essential tool for tracking the project progress. Using the original estimates as
reference points, the project managers can compare against them the actual state of the project.
This has two important consequences:
 Managers can see how good the estimates were and if the trend of project development is a
good one. Baseline information that is significantly different from current data indicates that
the original plan was inaccurate and this should trigger a warning for the future.
 It provides relevant information regarding the quality, experience and knowledge of the
project manager. A well done initial project plan will indicate a well prepared manager. By
using baselines you can make improvements to future projects by learning from present
mistakes.
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With the help of project management software it is easier to manage project baselines and the
managers can calculate variances between baseline estimates and project actual data. Having a
baseline allows you to monitor the project performance and to improve the quality of future
estimates.
Variances are the difference between scheduled and baseline values. In Project, variance fields like
Cost Variance and Finish Variance are scheduled value minus baseline value, like Cost–Baseline Cost.
If the scheduled cost is greater than the baseline cost, the positive variance shows that the task is
over budget. Likewise, if the scheduled finish date is later than the baseline finish date, the positive
variance indicates that the task is behind schedule. In other words, positive variances are bad;
negative variances are good.
In simple terms it is the difference between what you thought would happen (as recorded in the
project plan) and what really happened (as recorded by your tracking efforts). For example after
stakeholders approve a project plan, they expect the project to follow that plan. If it doesn’t, the
stakeholders expect an explanation of the difference between planned and actual performance
(called variance). Variance is the foundation to a variety of project performance measures like
earned value and the schedule performance index. To calculate variance, you must first save the
original planned values in your Project schedule.
When calculating variances (whether the schedule is early or late or costs are over or under), Project
only uses the first baseline (the one named Baseline, not Baseline1) saved. So, if the project schedule
and other parameters change dramatically, as when a project is put on hold and later revived, you
will get more valid variance data by clearing and resetting the baseline.
Types of Variance
Schedule variance: The SV in project is earned value minus planned value (BCWP – BCWS), the
difference between how much work you’ve completed and how much you planned to complete. If
SV is positive, more work is complete than you planned, so you’re ahead of schedule. Schedule
variance is caused by tasks that have slipped from their planned start or finish dates (as recorded in
a baseline).Schedule and cost variance are closely related—if a project plan has one, it likely has the
other. Schedule variance will almost certainly appear in any lengthy project.
Cost variance: The CV in Project is earned value minus the actual cost—in other words, the
difference between the baseline and actual cost of the work performed (BCWP – ACWP). If CV is
positive, then the baseline cost is greater than the actual cost; the project is under budget.
Closure reports also include quantitative data like cost and schedule variances or project-specific
measures like quality-oriented success criteria.
TIP: A variance that’s equal to zero (0) can mean one of two things: A task is exactly on track—or you
forgot to set a baseline. During project execution, tasks that go exactly according to plan produce
zero variance. But if every task has zero variance, the problem is the absence of a baseline. When
calculating variances (whether the schedule is early or late or costs are over or under), Project only
uses the first baseline (the one named Baseline, not Baseline1) saved. So, if the project schedule and
other parameters change dramatically, as when a project is put on hold and later revived, you will
get more valid variance data by clearing and resetting the baseline.
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In project management, we generally look for variance that can have an adverse effect on a project,
such as variance that pushes out the finish date or increases the cost of a project. However, the term
variance refers to any difference between planned and actual schedule events—even differences
that have a helpful effect, such as an earlier finish date or a lower-than-expected cost. Should you
have the good fortune of managing a project that experiences such helpful variance, the techniques
described here will help you identify the beneficial variance as well as any adverse variance. Your
focus as a project manager is basically the same regardless of the nature of the variance—watch for
it, and when it does occur, communicate it and its effects to project sponsors and other stakeholders
and (if it’s adverse variance) mitigate against it according to the nature of the project.
MS Project - Status Reporting21
After creating a project plan and baselines, the project begins. At this stage, the project manager
would be focusing on collecting, monitoring, analyzing project performance, and updating project
status by communicating with the stakeholders.
When there is a difference between what is planned and the actual project performance, it is called
a Variance. Variance is mostly measured in terms of Time and Cost.
Task Slippage
There are several ways to view task with variance.
Method 1 − Graphical View by Tracking Gantt
Click View tab → Task Views group → Gantt Chart dropdown → Tracking Gantt.
By comparing the currently scheduled Gantt bars with baseline Gantt bars, you can see what tasks
started later than planned or took longer to complete.
21
Source: Tutorials Point, as at
https://www.tutorialspoint.com/ms_project/ms_project_status_reporting.htm, as on 1st October, 2016.
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Method 2 − Graphical View by Detail Gantt
Click View tab → Task Views group → Other Views → double-click Tracking Gantt.
Method 3 − Variance Table
Click View tab → Data group → Tables → Variance.
Method 4 − Filters
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Click View tab → Data group → Filters → More
Filters → choose filter as Late tasks, Slipping task, etc.
MS Project 2013 will filter the task list to show only the tasks filtered in this process. So if you select
Slipping Task, you will view only incomplete tasks. Any task that is already completed will not show
up.
Task Costs
To examine cost in a project life cycle, you should be aware of these terms and what they mean in
MS Project 2013 −
 Baseline costs − All planned costs as saved in baseline plan.

 Actual costs − Costs that have been incurred for tasks, resources, or assignments.
 Remaining costs − Difference between baseline/current costs and actual costs.
 Current costs − When plans are changed due to assigning or removing resources, or adding
or subtracting tasks, MS Project 2013 will recalculate all costs. This will appear under the
fields labeled Cost or Total Cost. If you have started to track actual cost, it will include actual
cost+ remaining cost (uncompleted task) per task.
 Variance − Difference between Baseline Cost and the Total Cost (current or scheduled cost).
Click View Tab → Data group → Tables → Cost.
You will be able to view all relevant information. You can also use filters to see tasks that have run
over budget.
Click View tab → Data group → Filters → More Filters → Cost Overbudget → Apply.
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Resource Cost
For some organizations, resources costs are primary costs, and sometimes the only cost, so these
need to be closely watched.
Click View tab → Resource Views group → Resource Sheet.
Click View tab → Data group → Tables → Cost.
We can sort the Cost column to see which resources are the most and least costly.
Click the AutoFilter arrow in Cost column heading, when the drop-down menu appears, click on Sort
Largest to Smallest.
You can use the AutoFilter feature for each of the columns, By sorting Variance column, you will be
able to see the variance pattern.
Project Report
Project 2013 comes with a set of predefined reports and dashboards. You’ll find all of these on the
Report tab. You can create and customize graphical reports for your project as well.
Dashboard Reports
Click Report → View Reports group → Dashboards.
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Resource Reports
Click Report → View Reports group → Resources.
Cost Reports
Click Report → View Reports group → Costs.
Progress Reports
Click Report → View Reports group → In Progress.
Custom Reports
Click Report → View Reports group → New Report.
There are four options.
 Blank − Creates a blank canvas. Use the Report Tools - Design tab to add charts, tables, text,
and images.
 Chart − Creates a chart comparing Actual Work, Remaining Work, and Work by default. Use
the Field List pane to pick different fields to compare. The look of the chart can be changed
by clicking on Chart Tools tabs, Design, and Layout tabs.
 Table − Creates a table. Use the Field List pane to choose what fields to display in the table
(Name, Start, Finish, and % Complete appear by default). Outline level box lets you select
how many levels in the project outline the table should show. The look of the table can be
changed by clicking on Table Tools tabs, Design, and Layout tabs.
 Comparison − Creates two charts side-by-side. Charts will have the same data at first. You
can click one of the charts and pick the data you want in the Field List pane to begin
differentiating them.
Suppose you are managing a construction project, and the client comes and asks you to update him
about the current status and progress of the project.
What does the client mean by asking for the status and progress of the project, and how will you get
this information?
The client is asking about the cost incurred to date, work completed, and how are you performing in
terms of cost and schedule. Put more simply, the client is asking you to provide him with the
project’s earned value, planned value, actual cost, Schedule Variance, and Cost Variance.
Earned value is the value of the work actually completed to date, planned value is the money that
you should have spent as per the schedule, and actual cost is the amount spent on the project to
date
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Schedule Variance tells you whether you are behind or ahead of schedule, and Cost Variance tells
you whether you are under budget or over budget. These variances give you important information
about the project’s progress, and it is your job to monitor these variances regularly.
Variance analysis is a key to the success of your project. A successful project must finish on time and
within the approved budget. With the help of these variances, you can easily monitor your project
performance and take corrective action whenever required. Variance analysis tells you if you are
going in the correct direction or not.
Schedule Variance (SV)22
It is very important for you to keep your project on schedule. Not only does it help you complete
your project on time, but it also helps you avoid unnecessary cost overrun due to slippage of
schedule. Because as you go over the stipulated time, your costs start rising exponentially.
For example, let’s say that you have rented some equipment for a certain duration of time.
However, if you need this equipment for extra time, you may end up paying more because the
equipment may not be available at the previously negotiated price, or you may need to rent this
equipment from other suppliers on an urgent basis at a higher price.
So, you can see that Schedule Variance is a very important analytical tool for you. This tool gives you
information if you are ahead of schedule or behind the schedule in terms of dollars. Schedule
Variance is a measure of the schedule performance of a project.
Formula for Schedule Variance (SV)
Schedule Variance can be calculated by subtracting planned value from earned value.
Schedule Variance = Earned Value – Planned Value
SV = EV – PV
From the above formula, we can conclude that:
 If Schedule Variance is positive, this means you are ahead of schedule.

 If Schedule Variance is negative, this means you are behind schedule.
 If Schedule Variance is zero, this means you are on schedule.
 When the project is completed Schedule Variance becomes zero, because at the end of the
project all Planned Value has been earned.
Example of Schedule Variance (SV)
You have a project to be completed in 12 months and the cost of the project is 100,000 USD. Six
months have passed and 60,000 USD has been spent, but on closer review you find that only 40% of
the work has been completed so far.
22
Source: PM Study Circle, as at https://pmstudycircle.com/2012/05/schedule-variance-sv-cost-variance-cv-in-
project-cost-management/, as on 1st October, 2016.
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Find the project’s Schedule Variance (SV), and deduce whether you are ahead of schedule or behind
schedule.
Given in the question:
Actual Cost (AC) = 60,000 USD
Planned Value (PV) = 50% of 100,000
= 50,000 USD
Earned Value (EV) = 40% of 100,000
= 40,000 USD
Now,
Schedule Variance = Earned Value – Planned Value
= 40,000 – 50,000
= – 10,000 USD
Hence, the project’s Schedule Variance is -10,000 USD, and since it is negative, you are behind
schedule.
Cost Variance (CV)
Cost Variance is equally as important as Schedule Variance. You must complete your project within
the approved budget. It is bad for you and your client if the project cost exceeds its boundary.
It is all about the money and the clients are very cautious about what they are spending.
Organizations are also very sensitive towards it because any deviation from the cost baseline can
affect their profit, and in the worst case they may have to put more money into the project to
complete it. This is especially detrimental if the contract is fixed price.
Cost Variance deals with the cost baseline of the project. It gives you information about whether
you’re over budget or under budget in terms of dollars. Cost Variance is a measure of cost
performance of a project.
Formula for Cost Variance (CV)
Cost Variance can be calculated by subtracting actual cost from earned value.
Cost Variance = Earned Value – Actual Cost
CV = EV – AC
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From the above formula, we can conclude that,
 If Cost Variance is positive, this means you are under budget.

 If Cost Variance is negative, this means you are over budget.
 If Cost Variance is zero, this means you are on budget.
Example of Cost Variance (CV)
You have a project to be completed in 12 months and the cost of the project is 100,000 USD. Six
months have passed and 60,000 USD has been spent, but on closer review you find that only 40% of
the work has been completed so far.
Find the project’s Cost Variance (CV), and deduce whether you are under budget or over budget.
Given in the question:
Actual Cost (AC) = 60,000 USD
Earned Value (EV) = 40% of $100,000
= 40,000 USD
Now,
Cost Variance = Earned Value – Actual Cost
CV = EV – AC
= 40,000 – 60,000
= –20,000 USD
Hence, the project’s Cost Variance is -20,000 USD, and since it is negative, you are over budget.
Activity 10
What is meant by schedule variance?
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Activity 10
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Activity 10
Project management is about figuring out what you want to accomplish, creating a to-do list of work
that needs to be done to get you there, determining how long it will take, and calculating how much
it's going to cost. Sounds simple, huh? But the really hard part is keeping track of it all. Is the
project running on time? Will it be done ahead of schedule? Is it under budget? Will it still be under
budget when all the work is done?
One way to evaluate a project's health is to track the difference between the original project plan
and what is actually happening. This gap is better known as variance, a comparison of the intended
or budgeted amount and the actual amount spent. Variance analysis is the practice of comparing
actual project results to what was planned or expected. It's a way to quantify how well ― or how
badly ― a project is progressing.
Planning for variances: Establish baselines
To determine project variances, you need to put a stake in the ground as your starting point: this is
your baseline. Without this, you are chasing and attempting to control a moving target. Two key
baselines to establish before you can put variance tracking and reporting into play are cost and
schedule. But before you can get there, you'll want to nail down the project scope.
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Using a work-breakdown structure to create scope
The scope baseline includes all project deliverables; as such, it identifies all the work to be done. One
way to document scope is to create a work-breakdown structure (WBS), a hierarchical view of
project deliverables. Each level down the hierarchy represents an increasingly detailed description of
deliverables. For example, a WBS for construction of a new house would include the foundation,
framing, roof, and electrical and plumbing systems, as well as landscaping plans, architectural
drawings, and inspection permits.
Establishing schedule and cost baselines
The schedule and cost baselines are established only after scope is determined. Without a clear
picture of what the project will produce, you cannot determine how long it will take or how much it
will cost.
The schedule baseline is the approved project schedule, the basis for measuring and reporting
schedule performance. The cost baseline is the approved time-phased budget, against which cost
performance will be measured. It's determined by adding the costs for a specific project period or
phase, which requires assigning costs to project tasks. Allocating costs to project components may
be time consuming, but it will enable you to perform more detailed and accurate cost-performance
reporting, something your stakeholders and project sponsor will be very interested in.
To establish schedule and cost baselines:
1. Develop the schedule by identifying the activities and tasks to produce each deliverable in
the WBS.
2. Identify resources for each task. Consider constraints or how much time each person can
realistically devote to this project.
3. Estimate how long (in hours or days) it will take to complete each task.
4. Estimate the cost of each task, using an average hourly, or daily, rate for each resource, plus
any fixed costs associated with the task.
5. Determine which tasks are dependent on others and then develop the critical path.
6. Develop the cost baseline; this is a time-phased budget to measure the project's cost
performance. To do this, add the estimated costs, by task or by time period.
Analyse and forecast impact of changes to the schedule23
The project manager’s responsibility in the project change management process is important from
several perspectives. First, you need to ensure your stakeholders and team members submit change
order requests and go through the change management process. You should never allow
stakeholders to make changes to team members’ assignments, the specifications of deliverables, or
to add new deliverables or tasks without going through the change management process. By
adhering to this requirement, you prevent scope creep. That’s where the project plan changes
without explicit analysis, approval and control.
23
Source: 4PM, as at http://www.4pm.com/change-requests-4pm-com/, as on 1st October, 2016.
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Second, your job is not to prevent changes to the project. You should encourage people to come up
with new ideas and better ways of doing things because that improves the project. By encouraging
change requests, you maintain good relationships with the project stakeholders.
Third, a consistent project change management process built around change order requests ensures
that all ideas are treated the same. Requiring change order requests whenever someone wants to
alter the scope, duration, or budget is a best practice. It allows you and the sponsor to consider the
consequences of that change on the rest of the project. Without change order requests, seemingly
inconsequential changes to the scope can cause substantial increases in the duration and/or the
budget that no one anticipated.
Fourth, a little bit of thought about consequences, especially unintended consequences, is worth the
time invested in the analysis. Many people can request a change to a project but you, the project
manager, should always assess the impact of that change on the project’s scope, duration, cost, risk,
quality, and resources. You should also include your recommendation on whether the sponsor
should accept or reject the change order request.
Project Change Management Process
It’s very easy to go too far with paperwork in the project change management process. The point is
not to make change control a bureaucratic jungle of forms and procedures. You want to make it easy
and straightforward so you can promptly process change order requests and give decision-makers
the data they need. As importantly, the change management process should not aim at reducing
everything to a single piece of paper. It’s wise for you, or others engaged in evaluating change order
requests, to actually talk with the people who submitted it. Stakeholder management is most
effective when people feel that you are listening to their ideas or the problems they have identified.
Below is a bare bones change order request with the key elements you and sponsor need. A
stakeholder does not have to fill out this form. An effective processes is for you to use it as a guide in
your discussion with the stakeholder about a change.
Project Change Management: Minimum Change Order Request Elements
The dates of each step and the identity of the people should be included in
the change control process.
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1. DESCRIPTION of the change. The focus should be on the specifics of how a change order
request will alter a deliverable’s specification or the process used to produce it.
2. REASON the project plan should change. Include specifications of the problems this change
order request will solve.
3. SCOPE- Impact of the change order request on the project scope. The project plan is a
pyramid of deliverables with the scope at the top. The deliverables throughout this pyramid
support the higher-level deliverables above them. You need to analyze changes to lower-
level deliverables in relation to the impact the changes will have on the higher-level
deliverables.
4. RESOURCES & WORK – You need to assess, and usually re-estimate, the work required in the
tasks affected by the change order request. That should include a description of changes
required in the skill sets of the people working on the tasks affected by the change.
5. COST – You should estimate the cost impact of the change request in terms of materials,
equipment and supplies as well as changes to existing contracts and the cost of the people
assigned to the task.
6. DURATION & SCHEDULE – You should use project software to model the impact the change
order request will have on the duration of the affected tasks. The software will determine if
the change will affect tasks on the critical path and how the change will ripple through the
project and affect the overall completion date.
7. RISK – You should review the list of identified risks and determine if the change request
affects any of the existing risks or creates new risks.
8. QUALITY – You should assess whether the change order request will affect the quality or
specifications of any of the project deliverables.
It is a useful stakeholder management tactic to include the person making the change request in the
analysis. At the very least, you should review the analysis with them before passing it on to the
project sponsor. It’s best if the requester can agree with your analysis. But it’s also important that
you know where you disagree before passing the change request on to the decision-maker(s).
Project Change Management Process Steps
Step 1: As the project manager, you receive a change order request. The first step is always to see if
the situation can be resolved with corrective action that would not change the project plan or any of
its components.
Step 2: If corrective action fails or is not an option, you analyze the change order request.
You document each of the items listed above and make your recommendation for approval or
rejection of the request. You should complete the analysis in a timely manner and include
quantification of the impact of the change on the project scope, budget, duration, etc. as detailed
above.
Step 3: You forward your analysis of the change order request to the project sponsor with your
recommendation for approval or rejection of the request.
Step 4: The sponsor decides whether to approve or reject the change order request and the
consequences. You document the result.
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Step 5: If the sponsor approves the change request, you implement it by changing the project
budget, schedule and scope as necessary. Then you alter the team member assignments to reflect
the changes. You follow these same steps for all change order requests.
Step 6: You should archive the change order request and all supporting documentation. This
information is invaluable for handling future requests.
Construction Project Example24
A Time Impact Analysis is a method used to determine extent of impact from potential delay in
construction process. Time Impact Analysis could be one of the preferred methods to promote
negotiation and later agreements on delay claims. Time impact analysis is done using existing
schedules, analyzed with all related input entered into the schedule to demonstrate the reason or
possible effects on schedule.
Time Impact Analysis is usually performed by a project scheduler and can be used on the vast
majority of construction projects. This schedule analysis method involves the insertion or addition
of activities indicating delays or changes into an updated schedule representing progress up to the
point when a delay event occurred to determine the impact of those delay activities.
Time Impact Analysis Expectations
A Time impact analysis will be applied to forecast the construction process and analyze what is going
on and what the outcome will be. It requires a CPM schedule that is able to show the pure CPM
calculation differences between a schedule that does not include a delay and one that does include
an activity modelling a delay. A time impact analysis is required to calculate with a standard
method the results to the actual project delay.
The analysis is not the project reality simulation, it is intended to understand the time impact
caused by a single event or series of events, and how they will impact the project schedule.
It is a great tool on projects that are currently ongoing and will present a real-time idea of how the
contract adjustment is required. The final result of the time impact analysis must be presented
shortly after completion to the contractor; otherwise, he might present an additional time extension
claim of constructive acceleration.
It is the best technique for determining the amount of Extension of Time that the Contractor
should have been granted at the time that an excusable risk occurred.
Time Impact Analysis Uses
Time impact analyses are used on these occasions:
1. When the contractor has not been able to provide remediation instructions and it is not able
to redeploy his workforce.
24
Source: The Balance, as at https://www.thebalance.com/critical-path-method-scheduling-844481, as on 1st
October, 2016
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2. . Time impact analysis is an excellent tool to measure actual delays on events that are
undergoing construction activities.
3. The analysis could be used when delays are already being expected due to external or
internal circumstances.
4. Time impact analyses are used to model delays on short or simple construction activities. If
delays are longer than usual additional methods and tools must be used in conjunction with
the TIA.
Time Impact Analysis: When to Avoid It
Time impact analysis should not be used or will not present the best results when:
1. It must be avoided if your actual project schedules have not been updated. TIA will not
present a real outcome when data input on the analysis has not been updated with real data
from the construction activities.
1. Work plans based upon resource considerations are more easily adjusted without detriment
to the project completion or planned expenses than those based upon physical constraints.
2. Time impact analysis should be avoided when mitigation work has already been started. If
the constructions schedule has been altered, the less effective the modeling of the delay will
be.
Time Impact Analysis Procedure
A time impact analysis requires the following steps:
1. The delay should be described as simply as possible with the fewest number of activities
reflecting the project delay.
2. Select the schedule to impact. The schedule should be latest updated schedule of the
project.
3. Add the impact activities and make the necessary adjustments to project schedule.
4. Recompute the CPM and note a change in the project completion date.
5. Determine the amount of project delay.
6. Determine the actual dates of the delay using the original schedule
Time Impact Analysis Checklist
When performing a time impact analysis be sure to:
1. Study and understand the scope of the directed change or analyze the extent of the delay
being found.
2. It is important to analyze all documents, field directions, contract clauses, drawings, orders,
specifications and conditions that could exert any kind of influence to the expected delay.
3. Identify and describe the condition encountered before performing the time impact analysis.
4. Identify all related construction activities that are or could be affected under the expected
delay.
5. After a complete analysis of the construction schedule, determine all related dates, start,
duration and finish, for all affected activities.
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6. Prepare a complete set of documents that define when the delay started, what actions took
place at that moment, and demonstrate the effects of the delay on the actual updated
schedule and how the remaining activities should be altered, if required, to complete the
project on time.
7. The time impact analysis could present you with the overall schedule result incorporating
drawings, contract requirements, and any type of document that support final conclusions.
It is important to highlight extraordinary measures required to bring the project back on
schedule.
8. Be certain that actual delays are result of the change directive or delay, not from a non-
excusable cause.
Review progress throughout project life cycle and implement agreed

schedule changes25
Understanding the project management life cycle is invaluable for successfully guiding your project
from its initial stages to completion.
The Five Steps in the PM Life Cycle
No matter what project it is that you’re preparing for, the project management life cycle can assist
you and your team in narrowing the project's focus, keeping it's objectives in order and finishing the
project on time, on budget and with a minimum of headaches.
Every project management life cycle contains five steps: Initiation, Planning, Execution,
Monitoring/Control and Closure. No one step is more important than the other and each step plays a
crucial role in getting your project off the ground, through the race, down the stretch and across the
finish line.
1) Initiation
In this first step you provide an overview of the project in addition to the strategy you plan on using
in order to achieve the desired results. During the Initiation phase you’ll appoint a project manager
who in turn - based on his or her experience and skills - will select the required team members.
25
Source: Bright Hub Project Management, as at http://www.brighthubpm.com/monitoring-projects/1907-
successfully-guide-your-projects-to-completion-with-the-pm-life-cycle/#imgn_0, as on 1st October, 2016;
Project Management Guru, as at http://www.projectmanagementguru.com/controlling.html#forecast, as on
1st October, 2016..
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And lest you think you need to be a Bill Gates or Donald Trump in order to see your project take on a
life of its own, fear not: there are some great technological tools available to get you through the
Initiation phase of the project management life cycle.
2) Planning
The all-important second step of any successful project management life cycle is planning and should
include a detailed breakdown and assignment of each task of your project from beginning to end.
The Planning Phase will also include a risk assessment in addition to defining the criteria needed for
the successful completion of each task. In short, the working processis defined, stake holders are
identified and reporting frequency and channels explained.
3 & 4) Execution and Control
Steps Three and Four take you into deeper water. When it comes to the project management cycle,
execution and control just may be the most important of the five steps in that it ensures project
activities are properly executed and controlled. During the Execution and Control phases, the
planned solution is implemented to solve the problem specified in the project's requirements. In
product and system development, a design resulting in a specific set of product requirements is
created. This convergence is measured by prototypes, testing, and reviews. As the Execution and
Control phases progress, groups across the organization become more deeply involved in planning
for the final testing, production, and support.
5) Closure
By the time you reach Step Five - Closure - the project manager should be tweaking the little things
to ensure that the project is brought to its proper conclusion. The Closure phase is typically
highlighted by a written formal project review report which contains the following elements: a
formal acceptance of the final product (by the client), Weighted Critical Measurements (a match
between the initial requirements laid out by the client against the final delivered product), lessons
learned, project resources, and a formal project closure notification to higher management.
The Project Management Cycle saves time and keeps everyone on the team focused. Fortunately,
modern technology provides a variety of templates that will take you from start-to-finish, which
makes the Project Management Cycle user friendly no matter what your level of management
experience may be!
Project Management Monitoring and Controlling Tools & Techniques
Monitoring and Controlling a project is the process or activities whereby the project manager tracks,
reviews and revises the project activities in order to ensure the project creates the deliverables in
accordance with the project objectives. Because of the unique and temporary nature of projects,
they require active control. Unlike a process where the same set of activities have been performed
repeatedly so that habits and expectations are stable, a project is inherently unstable. The activities
are unique to the project or the sequence of activities and resources are only temporarily assigned
and associated with the project and are redeployed when the project completes. Habits and
patterns are not established before everything changes.
The primary results of the Monitoring and Controlling processes are the project performance reports
and implementing project changes. The focus for project management is the analysis of project
performance to determine whether a change is needed in the plan for the remaining project
activities to achieve the project goals.
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In my experience, almost every project will require a change to the plan at some point in time.
Traditional projects are the most stable projects because the requirements and the activities are
clear and well understood. Adaptive and Extreme projects are the least stable. They require very
close control and will require numerous changes - if for no other reason the project manager will
need to refine the activities of later phases based upon the results of early activities.
Tools and techniques that are used by project managers to conduct the Monitoring and Controlling
of a project fall into one of four general categories. The first is the collection of project performance
information. Techniques supporting this category are Pulse Meetings, Variance Reports, and
Program Reviews. The second category is the analysis of the project performance to determine
whether a project change is needed. Techniques that are used in this category are Technical
Reviews, Project Forecasting and Problem Solving. The third category is reporting on project
performance. Techniques that support this activity include the use of a Project Management
Information System, Management Reviews, and Dashboards. The final category is the management
of project change. The technique I commonly use in this category is the maintenance of a Change
Management Log. There are two areas of project management tools and techniques that closely
support the Monitoring and Controlling process but are also used more broadly throughout the
project lifecycle..
Pulse Meetings
Pulse meetings are short team status meetings where the project management team is able to
gather project performance information about the activities that are underway. These meetings
should occur frequently and can either be face-to-face or virtual. Normally they are only a few
minutes in duration. During the meeting, the beginning and completion of project activities is
reported.
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In addition, the status of any activities that are underway is communicated to the rest of the project
management team. Issues on any of the ongoing activities are identified, however, the issue
resolution occurs at a separate meeting with the appropriate individuals present. The issue
resolution meeting may immediately follow the Pulse meeting, but it is clearly a separate meeting
and those project team members who are not needed for issue resolution do not need to attend.
The frequency of the Pulse meeting is determined based upon the status of the project. When in an
Extreme mode, the Pulse meeting may be happening several times a day. Projects that are running
smoothly may only need to have a Pulse meeting once a week.
Variance Reports
Variance reports are formal reports generated by the PMIS, by the Earned Value Management
System, one of the other business management systems - such as the quality control system, or by a
project supplier. Variance reports compare what has actually happened on a project against what
was expected to have happened on the project. A variance report typically indicates both the
absolute value of the difference and a percentage representation of the difference.
The actual performance achieved on a project activity (such as cost or duration) seldom precisely
matches the estimated performance set at the time of project planning. The page on Estimating
explains why project estimates are seldom precisely accurate. However, since the estimates often
aren't accurate, it is imperative for the project management team to identify the variances in order
to know what is actually happening on the project. The variances can uncover both positive and
negative project risk.
Project variance reports often are expressed with two references. The first reference is what was
supposed to have happened since the last reporting cycle. This is often called the "Current Period"
variance. It is an indication of how well the project resources were able to conduct project activities
in accordance with the project plan in the recent past. The second reference is what was supposed
to have been done on the project since it started. This is often called the "Cumulative" variance. It is
an indication of how well the project resources have been able to conduct project activities
throughout the project lifecycle. The cumulative variance will have embedded in it any previous
variances - either positive or negative. The current period variance provides a clear representation of
what is happening right now on the project. The cumulative variance eliminates the effects of any
short term conditions, either good or bad, that effected the project during the most recent reporting
period. Both variances provide useful information.
Program Reviews
Program Reviews are meetings with the project team members and sub-project leaders that review
the current status of the program as compared to the original program plan. These are most often
used on Full-scale and Complex projects. Unlike the Pulse Meetings which focus on day-to-day
activities, the Program Reviews focus on the big picture and emphasize the integration between
activities and between sub-projects encompassed within the program. The question being asked is
whether the program activities and the sub-projects are likely to interfere with each other.
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In addition, when I have a supplier who is a major contributor on the program and is performing
customized work on this program, I will conduct Program Reviews with the supplier for their portion
of the program. Program Reviews are sometimes combined with Management Reviews. I do not
recommend this approach. The danger with this approach is that key stakeholders and managers
may intimidate some project team members from providing a frank and honest appraisal of the
status of program work.
Technical Reviews
Technical Reviews are formal meetings conducted with subject matter experts who are not
members of the proejct team. These are in-depth reviews focused upon a technical aspect of the
project. Examples would be Desgin Reviews, Code Reviews, Security Reviews, or Production
Readiness Reviews. The reviewers should perform an in-depth analysis of the project deliverables
and activities to determine whether the project work has been accomplished completely and
correctly. These reviews will normally generate a list of actions that must be completed. These
actions may require additional testing or analysis. In some cases it may even require redesigns of
systems, software, processes or products. The results of these reveiws are normally reported to
senior management at the next Management Review. In many cases, the technical review must be
completed before a project can proceed to a toll-gate meeting. When the Technical Review is linked
to a toll-gate meeting, the action items do not need to be completed prior to the toll-gate. However,
any open action item is listed on the risk register and the plan for resolving that action item is
included in the project plan for the next phase.
Project Forecasting
Project Forecasting consists of taking the project status information and extrapolating the current
project performance to the end of the project. Forecasts can be made with respect to project
duration, overall project cost, performance/quality level of project deliverables, or any combination
of these. A key element in forecasting is to review the risk events that occurred and the remaining
risk triggers. A deeper discussion of this is found on the Project Risk Management page. A caution
when doing forecasting, ensure you have adequate information to realistically forecast performance.
My personal rule of thumb is that I wait until an activity, phase, or deliverable is at least 25%
complete before I try to forecast. Prior to that point I stick with the original estimate, modified by
any appropriate risk mitigation activities that have occurred.
When forecasting project duration, the key is to understand the schedule performance and schedule
risk of the activities on the critical path. Those activities will be the ones that drive the project
completion date. On a resource constrained project, or a project with unpredictable resource
availability, this can be very difficult because the lack of resources causes the critical path to vary. I
have not found a good robust tool for forecasting schedule in this condition. It generally comes
down to expert judgment and gut feel. When it is vital for the project to complete by a certain date, I
often will convert my schedule tracking to a countdown mode where everything is measured in
terms of how many days before project completion. Also, I will Pulse the project more frequently in
order to quickly assess when I believe we are falling behind.
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If that sounds like micro-management it is because that is micro-management.
When forecasting total project cost, I prefer to use the forecasting methods that are embedded in
the Earned Value Management system. Unfortunately, many organizations do not have the financial
systems in place that enable earned value management. When that is the case, I am forced to rely
on trend forecasting - which is sometimes called "straight-line" forecasting. Trend forecasting takes
the current project spending and extrapolates that rate of spending until the end of the project. This
provides a rough forecast, but it does not take into account the effect that different activities may
require resources that spend at different levels. The resources that perform the remaining activities
may be higher or lower cost than the preceding resources. Also, it does not take into account that
the project may be ahead or behind schedule. If the project is ahead of schedule, the spending done
to achieve that condition inflates the extrapolated value of the project final cost. If the project is
behind schedule, the lack of spending creates an extrapolated value of total project cost that is too
low.
When forecasting the performance or quality of project deliverables, I rely heavily on prototypes and
preliminary analysis. When the project does not have these, the risk that the project will not achieve
the desired performance or quality established at the time of project planning is higher. If
performance is the most important attribute of the project deliverables, then the risk of missing the
forecast project duration or cost is much higher. The principle involved is the "Rule of Ten's."
According to this principle, the cost to correct a technical issue goes up by a factor of 10 as the
project moves from one phase to the next. Therefore it is imperative that performance issues be
identified as early as possible.
Problem Solving Problem Solving is a very broad topic. There are dozens of approaches to problem
solving. My rule of thumb with respect to this technique is that if you have a process that works for
you, use it! I recommend you have an agreement with your project core team members or key
project stakeholder concerning the problem solving process that will be used. Will it be team-based
or individually driven? Will you use a process that relies on data from past projects or only on data
from this project?
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Once a root cause is determined, how will recovery actions be identified and approved? As I said,
there are many problem solving methods and their answer for these questions and others is
different. From my standpoint, the most important point is that you have a process to address
issues, rather than jumping to conclusions or worse yet, ignoring the problem until it is a crisis.
If you don't already have a problem solving process, may I suggest this one that I refer to as CIV2:
1. Clarify: Clarify the problem. In which part of the project did it occur? Who was involved? When did
it happen?
2. Investigate: Investigate the details about what happened. Gather data from both the project
activity and the surrounding environment. Determine the root cause(s) of the problem.
3. Evaluate: Evaluate the options to address the problem. Consider the impact on the project
objectives that each potential solution would likely have. What new risks are associated with each
potential solution.
4. Choose: Choose among the viable solution/recovery paths. If necessary, coordinate the decision
with key stakeholders. This must be done whenever the solution will impact a boundary condition of
the project.
5. Implement: Implement the selected solution/recovery path. Modify the project plan with respect
to any changes in scope, resources, or scheduled dates of any activities. Update the risk register.
6. Validate: Validate that the solution/recovery path is achieving the desired results.
Project Management Information System
The Project Management Information System (PMIS) is the set of communicating methods used by
the project team to share plans and results of project activities. The PMIS can either be a physical
system or an electronic system. Either way, the PMIS is used as the clearing house of information on
the project including; project plans, project status, project risks, project changes, project meetings,
and any other information that project management team believes is relevant to the project team.
Management Reviews
Project Management Reviews are formal documented meetings with the project team and key
stakeholders that review the current status of the project as compared to the original project plan.
Unlike the Pulse Meetings and Program Reviews which are data gathering meetings that focus on
understanding the current status of the project, the Management Reviews are with key stakeholders
with the emphasis being on whether the project performance is adequate for the project to deliver
on the overall project objectives. Often if the project has encountered issues, such as resource
constraints or scope creep, the stakeholders conducting the review are able to provide assistance to
the project team to overcome these issues.
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The format for these reviews is usually set by the stakeholders and addresses the topics that are
most important to them. The review may be a formal stand-up meeting, it may be an informal
discussion setting, a written report, or an update to an electronic dashboard. Regardless of the
method used, these are formal status reporting meetings and need to be treated as such. The
project manager should keep an Action Item list or Stakeholder Issue log for any questions that arise
in these reviews. Also minutes from these meetings should be maintained as part of the project
records.
Project Dashboards
Dashboards have proliferated as more organizations start to manage projects within the context of a
portfolio of projects. A dashboard is a great method for capturing a snapshot of a project and
presenting that to stakeholders. Dashboards contain a small subset of project status information
that is used as indicators of whether the entire project is on track. The dashboard information is
used to make decisions concerning changes to projects or to the project portfoliio.
Within a project team, Dashboards were used by project managers to focus the project team on the
few key items that would drive project performance. Therefore the current critical path activity is
tracked for schedule status, the current activity with the most uncertainty in resource requirements
is tracked for cost status, and the most challenging activities are tracked for project
performance/quality. This is an excellent use of dashboards, especially when working with a virtual
project team.
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As more organizations decided to manage their projects as a portfolio of projects, they have
recognized the need to have a means of measuring the projects in the portfolio both against each
other and with respect to their objectives. The dashboard offers that mechanism as each of the
projects report on key metrics that are used by the senior management or Project Management
Office to check the status of the projects. Often the dashboard measures the status through the
"Red light - Green light" method. This type of scoring uses colours to indicate project status on the
key measures. A "Green light" indicates that everything on the project is going according to plan. A
"Yellow light" indicates that there are some problems, but the project team is working the situation
and should be able to contain the problem. A "Red light" indicates that the problem is so severe, the
project team cannot resolve the problem and achieve the project objectives without help from the
stakeholders. The senior management team and PMO use the Dashboard to make resource
allocation decisions and to call special Project Management Reviews.
Change Management Log
This tool is very straight-forward. The need for it increases as the project complexity increases. I
can't imagine running a Complex project without one, but I have never used one on a Simple project.
The necessity on a Complex project is because these projects are managed as a set of Focused and
Full-scale sub-projects. The boundaries between these sub-projects will inevitably need to change as
projects progress. Sometimes the changes are due to shifting milestones. Sometimes the changes
are the result of activity deliverables that are passed between the projects. In any case, the changes
in one sub-project cascades into changes in another sub-project. The Change Management Log
tracks the implementation of the change across the sub-projects. It can also track the
implementation of the change within a project, especially if the project activities are conducted in
multiple locations or if there are multiple phases underway at one time. Using the Change
Management Log is similar to using an action item list. Each item is tracked to ensure it has been
completed.
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Activity 11
Summarise the 5 phases in the project life cycle.
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Activity 11
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Activity 11
Develop responses to potential or actual schedule changes and implement

them to maintain project objectives26
Project duration is the number one challenge for most project managers. For many executives the
most important metrics are the project duration and the resulting finish date. Project managers
must have tools to use to shorten the duration of the project without increasing the cost or reducing
the scope. Tools like critical path are an essential weapon in your tool kit when dealing with
demands to shorten the duration of the project.
Project managers deal with the project duration during the initiation and planning phases. Once
they begin to execute the project plan, they often receive requests to finish earlier. Those requests
usually result in increases to cost or changes to scope so they are difficult to manage. There is a right
way and a wrong way to manage these requests. Unfortunately, project managers often handle
requests to finish earlier the wrong way. They try to prevent any change to the project plan.
They trigger a great deal of conflict by simply denying requests. That produces unhappy users or
customers who simply go over the PM’s head.
26
Source: Microsoft, as at https://support.office.com/en-us/article/Integrate-variance-tracking-into-your-
project-change-management-process-58908699-6304-4fde-ae72-0c26b4e4d927, as on 1st October, 2016.
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The better way to handle these requests is to welcome changes and discuss the impact of
implementing the duration or scope change with the stakeholders. This usually includes increasing
the resources on the project team and often the cost of those resources. This information allows the
stakeholders to make an informed decision. The project sponsor also has this information to use
when the request comes to their attention.
Responding to variances: Change control
After you have established scope, schedule, and cost baselines, create the steps the team will take
to manage variances for these plans. This information becomes your project change management
plan. This plan defines when you determine a project change request (PCR) is required, how to
document variances and submit for approval, and what happens after a change request is approved.
Variance calculations are used to determine if a PCR is needed and if the project schedule or cost
baselines will be changed. Variances may be either positive or negative:
 A positive variance indicates that the project is ahead of schedule or under budget. Positive
scenarios might enable you to reallocate money and resources to those in the negative
territory.
 A negative variance is your indicator that the project is behind schedule or over budget and
that you need to take action. You might have to increase your budget or accept reduced
profit margins.
Variance thresholds are an important component of any project change management plan. They
constitute the material changes to the project, and therefore necessitate documentation and
approval in a PCR. Not all PCRs will result in re-establishing scope, schedule, or budget. This is a
significant task, one that can require considerable time to complete, and you'll be obliged to get
approval up and down the project organization.
Tracking cost and schedule variances throughout the life cycle of the project helps you identify weak
spots ― areas with repeated changes ― and respond accordingly. For example, if you see that the
testing team is encountering continual delays, you may need to assign additional resources to stay
on schedule.
Taking it one step further: Earned-value analysis
No discussion about project variances is complete without mentioning earned value, a project
management technique for estimating cost and schedule at a given time. Earned-value analysis
compares the work finished with the established baselines. It helps you evaluate current project
performance and make course corrections where needed.
To perform earned-value analysis, you must have a WBS, a detailed project schedule, and a budget
(by phase or time period) for the work planned.
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Asking the earned-value questions
At any point, earned-value analysis measures project health by asking three key questions:
 Planned value: What is the amount needed for the work?

 Earned value: What did you actually complete?
 Actual cost: How much did it cost you to complete the work?
Planned value (PV) is the budgeted cost of planned tasks. Earned value (EV) is the sum of all the
budgeted costs of completed work. Actual costs (AC) are what was spent on the work produced.
Learning about earned-value analysis
The easiest way to describe earned value is through example. Let's say you're managing a four-
month project with a budget of $100,000. You're three months into it, and you realize that the team
has completed only half the work, thus the EV is $50,000. Based on the project schedule, about 75
percent of the work should be done by now, thus the PV is $75,000. You also know that the team
has spent $90,000 so far, thus the AC is $90,000.
Using these numbers, you can calculate cost and schedule variances. The cost variance (CV)
measures the difference between the actual costs of work performed and the project budget:
CV = EV – AC
The schedule variance (SV) measures actual progress against the project schedule:
SV = EV – PV
Using the example above, the cost variance for this project is $50,000 – $90,000 = $40,000. The
schedule variance is $50,000 – $75,000 = $25,000.
Any project manager could see that the project has spent 90 percent of its budget and has
completed only 50 percent of the work. The project is behind schedule and will be over budget by
the time it's complete, so change is required. The project manager should reduce scope, extend the
schedule, or obtain more funding to complete the work.
Getting started with variance tracking
Integrating variance tracking into your project management is fairly straightforward, but it requires a
systematic approach. After you have your project assignment, work with your sponsor to establish
the scope, budget, and schedule. Then work with your team to create a robust change management
plan, which identifies variance thresholds and describes how to deal with variances if they exceed
threshold values. After you develop the WBS and define the detailed project schedule, you can
establish the project schedule and budget. After all the components are in place, you're ready to
start tracking variances and put your change management plans into practice.
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Review schedule performance records to determine effectiveness of time
management activities
Project Trade-Offs – Scope, Time, Cost, Risk, Quality
Project managers use trade-offs during project planning and every week during the life of the project
whenever they have a variance or a change request.
Here is an example of a project trade-off. The sponsor demands an earlier finish date and the
project manager says, “Yes I can shorten the duration of the project by two weeks. But to do that, I
will need to have two additional engineers for the month of April.” A trade-off has two sides. First,
there’s the positive side where the PM shortens the duration of the project. Second, there’s the
negative side where the project manager says they need two additional engineers for the month of
April. Trade-offs are part of the language good project managers use. You must build the project
plan with quantified measurable outcomes. And the schedule must have work estimates and
accurate precedence relationships. Then you can model every change with a compensating trade
off.
When project sponsors want to make a change, successful project managers never say, “Oh no, we
can’t add that to the project.” What they say is, “Certainly I can add that to the project, but I will
need three more people full time.” Or the negative side of the trade-off could be, “We will have to
increase the budget by $10,000” or “We’ll have to reduce the savings in our scope by $6,000.” This is
the language of trade-offs. The project manager is not saying no. Instead, they are telling the
sponsor or stakeholder what it will “cost” to bring about the change they want. Trade-offs maintain
the feasibility of the project. Merely shortening the duration does not.
Project Trade-off Language
Successful project managers use trade-offs between the scope, schedule, cost, risk and quality when
they assess problems and changes to the project plan. When anyone wants to add or change
something in your existing project plan, you should always assess the impact on all of the project’s
dimensions. If the change is significant enough to require a change order, you should document the
project trade-offs. That trade-off information allows the sponsor or customer to decide if the change
is worth making. You should also use trade-offs when a status report shows variances to the plan
and their proposed corrective action.
Here’s a detailed example of using project trade-offs. Let’s say the schedule has a task that was
originally underestimated. Now the team member working on that task says it’s going to take 160
more hours of work and two weeks longer than originally planned. The PM agrees with the new
estimate and quantifies and documents the impact of that increased time on the project budget.
The remaining 160 hours of work will take 4 weeks at the rate of 40 hours a week with the one team
member. That will take the task duration four weeks beyond the baseline plan. Because the task is
on the critical path, it will cause a 4-week delay of the project completion date.
Knowing that the sponsor will not accept that slippage, the project manager then develops
alternative trade-offs for dealing with the situation. First, the PM looks at the trade-off that comes
from adding one contractor to the task.
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Then the existing team member would do 80 hours of work and the contractor would do the other
80. If each worked 40 hours a week, they could finish the task in two weeks rather than four weeks.
The cost for hiring the contractor is $100 an hour so the project budget would increase by $8,000.
The project manager would present this trade-off as reducing the duration by two weeks for a cost
of $8,000.
The project manager decided to also model the trade-off of hiring two contractors. Then the PM
could divide the 160 hours’ worth of work among three people. Each person would have to
complete 53 hours of work, which would take each of them 1.3 weeks. That duration is a material
reduction from the first trade-off. Now we come to the matter of the cost and this is the part people
usually get wrong. Adding the second contractor would not double the $8,000. The contractors
together would do approximately 160 hours’ worth of work at $100 an hour. So the fees for the
contractors in this example would be $16,000. That gives the PM a second trade-off to present to
the sponsor.
There are many other types of trade-offs the project manager could use. They might reduce the
scope of the project, which usually reduces the amount of work and the duration. There are also
trade-offs for quality and risk that could be considered. With this explanation of how trade-offs
work, let’s talk about how we use the idea of trade-offs in managing the project.
4-Corners™ Tradeoffs
We can think of a project as having four corners:
 project scope (including deliverable quality),

 duration
 risk
 cost (human resources and materials).
Think of a project like a tube of toothpaste. When an executive squeezes on a project’s duration
corner by cutting the due date by a month, the toothpaste compensates by oozing out from one of
the other corners. When the sponsor squeezes the duration, it will deliver less scope, cost more, or
have a higher risk of failure. Changes in one corner always impact at least one other corner. We
have those effects whether people recognize or not. It is not realistic to assume that making
arbitrary changes to one corner of the project, like the duration, can happen without any
compensating effects through the rest of the project.
Why don’t sponsors recognize the impact? Because in most projects only one, or at most two, of
these corners is measurable. The completion date is always measurable and is often rock solid. In
some situations, we have a project budget that is also measurable. But most internal projects have
no other measurable dimensions. Even with the two measured dimensions of duration and budget,
the business value of the project (the scope) and the risk of not delivering that scope on time are
usually unmeasurable. So executives continue to make arbitrary changes to the duration and the
budget and think that it will have no impact on the scope of the project. Just think about what
happens when a project manager goes back to his team and says, “We have to finish two weeks
earlier.” What will the team members do? They will look for shortcuts. The quality may go down and
the level of deliverables produced may suffer as a result. They also take shortcuts that increase the
risk of the project failing. But no one knows.
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Therefore, project sponsors assume there’s no risk from their arbitrary reductions in duration or
budget. They are 100 percent confident in delivering the scope within the duration and/or budget.
Now every project manager knows100 percent confidence is ridiculous. Particularly because most
organizations have a project failure rate above 50 percent. Yet few project managers give
their sponsors the opportunity to make decisions about the level of confidence they want.
There is a better approach. If you have a quantified measure of the project’s scope (the business
value) and you follow best practices when building the project schedule and budget, you can present
your sponsor with quantified trade-offs between the “4-Corners” ™ of the project plan. This data-
based decision making and “fine-tuning” is a good platform for approval. It is far better than
arbitrary changes to one or more of the “4-Corners”™ without any offsetting changes to the others.
You will also use these quantified trade-offs every time there is a variance to the plan. Your status
reports should include trade-off analyses between the “4-Corners.”™ That gives executives data to
evaluate the alternatives for taking advantage of opportunities and recovering from problems.
This project trade-offs approach is inconvenient for executives who want to make a change to just
one corner. If they do that, you will have projects that aren’t feasible, are late, over budget and
achieve less than planned. Arguing with the project sponsor doesn’t work, particularly when they are
your superior or your customer. What does work is using decision-making data. That’s the benefit of
using project trade-offs.
Foundation for Project Trade-Offs For Scope, Budget & Duration
1. The foundation for developing alternative combinations of scope, budget and duration is
building a project plan and schedule using best practices. The requirements are that you
define every deliverable and every task in the work breakdown structure (WBS) with
acceptance criteria. That way there’s no ambiguity about the progress or the completion.
You base the project plan and schedule on work estimates, not just start and finish dates.
With those components in place, you can offer the sponsor and decision-makers alternatives
and trade-offs between scope, budget and duration.
2. During the initial presentation of the project plan, you should model at least three project
trade-offs or alternative ways of doing the project. Starting from the base design, you
construct three project trade-offs to finish at least 20% earlier than the base design. You also
construct three alternatives that collectively lower the cost of the project by 20%. Having
these options available during the project presentation gives you the ability to answer the
question that executives often ask, “How can we do this cheaper and faster?”
3. When your weekly status report shows variances from the plan, you should use project
trade-offs to model alternative corrective actions to address the variances.
4. When you have change requests, you should assess the impact of the change on the project
scope, budget and duration and then present trade-offs between those constraints.
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Managing Change Requests27
When working on any project, expect change. While change can have a significant impact on a
project, it’s change requests that aren’t appropriately approved, incorporated, and communicated
that cause significant issues and have negative impacts that often spiral out across the organization.
In this article, we look at how to manage change requests so that an informed decision can be made
about whether or not to approve them, and how change can be incorporated into a project with as
little disruption as possible.
Step 1 – Determine the Scope of the Change
The first question to consider is what exactly the scope of the change request is. A change request
could be related to the business, stakeholder, or functional requirements. This step looks a lot like
discovering new requirements for the project in the first place. You’ll want to involve all impacted
stakeholders in eliciting the requirements of the change, analyze those requirements, and then
validate them.
Along with identifying what the change is, you’ll want to identify the benefit of making change or the
business need driving the change as well. This will help your change approval team determine
whether or not the proposed change is worth the effort. But we’re getting a step or two ahead of
ourselves. Before the change request form can be submitted for approval, you’ll need to understand
what it will take to implement the change. That’s covered in Step 2.
Step 2 – Determine the Scope of Incorporating the Change
Once you understand what the proposed change is and why it’s important, your project team will
need to formulate a response to the proposed change. This typically means identifying the impact of
the change on the technical design and project schedule, putting together a high-level
implementation plan, and determining the level of effort to make the change. With this information
in hand, often documented in a Change Request Form, you’ll be able to articulate whether the
change impacts the project budget, schedule, or scope.
Sometimes there are multiple options for incorporating the change. For example, one approach
could be to trade-off the change for a lower-priority requirement and not impact the schedule or
scope. Another approach could involve delays to the the schedule and an increased budget, but keep
the original scope intact. Often during this step, one or more business stakeholders are involved to
evaluate trade-offs and solution approaches. The goal in this step is to present the information your
change approval team needs to make an informed decision about whether or not to approve the
change. Let’s look at that step next.
27
Source: Bridging the Gap, as at http://www.bridging-the-gap.com/how-to-manage-change-requests/, as on
2nd October, 2016.
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Step 3 – Gain Approval or Rejection of the Change
With the scope of the change, benefits of the change, and information about what it will take to
implement the change in hand, the change request form is ready to be presented to the change
approval team. One thing to keep in mind is that most organizations have various levels of
approvals.
 A change requiring an hour of work might be approved within the project team by the
primary business sponsor.
 A change requiring a week of work might be approved by a mid-level management team
who can authorize changes that have minor impacts to other projects on the roadmap.
 A change to a primary business requirement requiring a month or more of work might be
approved at the executive level because it impacts high-level organizational initiatives.
While realistic, these are hypothetical examples. More mature organizations will have specific
criteria in place outlining what stakeholder group can approve what kinds of changes. More informal
organizations will figure this out as they go along. Provided the change is approved, it’s time to act
on the implementation plan and communicate the change throughout the project team.
Step 4 – Communicate and Implement an Approved Change Request
Once a change request is approved, the project team needs to be notified and project deliverables
need to be updated. Consider the following potential updates, depending on the degree of the
impact and the state of your project:
 Requirements Documentation
 Technical Design Documentation
 Software or Programming Code
 Project Plans and Schedules
 Test Plans or Test Cases
 Training Documentation
 Business Process Documentation
Often these updates are facilitated by a formal change notification process, where the project
manager or business analyst notifies the project team of the change and each document owner
incorporates the appropriate adjustments into their deliverables.
Manage Change or It Will Manage You!
While “change” is often thought of as a dirty word, the reality is that change happens for legitimate
business reasons. In today’s fast-moving and competitive marketplace, it’s unrealistic to expect
stakeholders to have perfect knowledge of what they want or need to achieve business objectives.
Yes, we want to avoid drastic changes not tied to business objectives, but we don’t want to do so at
the expense of ignoring real opportunities to deliver more value to the organization.
The most important thing is that an informed decision is made about if and how to incorporate the
change. Steps 1 and 2 support the discovery of information for an informed decision to be made by
the appropriate people in your organization.
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The second, and nearly equally important thing is that change is managed in such a way that
everyone involved understands what the change is, why it’s important, and what impact it has.
Activity 12
As a Project Manager, how would you process a change request that you received?
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Activity 12
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Activity 12
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Identify and document time management issues and recommend
improvements
Common Time Management Problems at the Project/Task Management Level28
Effective project and task management is becoming increasingly important in work settings because
it is an essential part of knowledge work, but it’s also proving useful in our everyday life.
The main goals of the project management level are to help you get a clear understanding of all the
projects that you are currently working on, help you plan and organize your projects and track them
to completion.
The primary purpose of the task management level is to help you determine the best way to use
your time at any given moment during the day based on all the different things you need to get
done.
Let’s start by reviewing some common problems at these levels. My plan is to eventually provide
links to the causes and cures for each of these ailments.
Stress, Anxiety and Overwhelm
The first common problem is feeling stressed, anxious or overwhelmed by all the things that we
need to do and all the demands on our time and attention. In my experience, we feel stressed and
overwhelmed for three main reasons.
First, we feel overwhelmed when we have too many things going on at the same time and we feel
like we don’t have a good handle on them. There are only so many things that we can keep track of
using only our memory; when they start exceeding our capacity, we start to feel anxious because we
realize that we can’t keep up. The anxiety is telling you that the challenges you are facing may be
beyond your ability to manage them.
Second, we feel overwhelmed when there are too many new demands on our time or attention.
These things could be new projects, new requests, new information you need to process, new
emails, unexpected errands, a crisis, etc. If you don’t have a good way to process all this new stuff, it
is only natural to feel overwhelmed as you see things piling up.
Third, we often feel overwhelmed when faced with a large new project or task and we don’t have
clarity about what needs to be done, how to go about doing it, or where to start. We feel
overwhelmed because we are unable to take that important first step.
28
Source: Time Thoughts, as at
http://www.timethoughts.com/timemanagement/ProjectTaskTimeManagementLevelCommonProblems.htm,
as on 2nd October, 2016.
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These feelings of anxiety and overwhelm can skyrocket when the three factors combine together at
the same time. When we already feel that we are having trouble keeping track of all the things we
need to do, are having problems managing all the new stuff popping into our lives, and are then
faced with large complex projects, it is easy to feel completely paralyzed.
Root-cause worst practices: Using your memory to keep track of things, Attempting too much,
Inadequate Workflow Management.
Running Out of Time
Another common problem is running out of time before completing an important project. As the
deadline approaches, you may find yourself having to work late nights and weekends just to keep
up; even then you may still miss the deadline. While it is normal for this to happen every once in a
while, if it happens regularly and has become your normal routine, it may represent a real problem
in the way you manage your projects.
Root-cause worst practices: Poor planning, Perfectionism and gold-plating, Wishful thinking,
Procrastination, Attempting too much, Always saying 'Yes'.
Forgetting To Do Important Things
Have you ever gotten emails from your boss or a co-worker asking you about a task you were
supposed to be working on, but you forgot about it and haven’t even started it yet? Have you
promised your boss you would take care of something important but forgot to do it? Have you
missed important appointments or meetings? Have you forgotten about an important action item or
idea you got during a meeting only to remember it months later?
Root-cause worst practices: Using your memory to keep track of things.
Too Much Work
Do you feel overloaded with too much work? Is your schedule so crammed full of activities that you
don’t have any time to breathe? Overload is a common problem for people that have difficulty with
the project and task management levels because it is very easy to fall into the trap of attempting to
do too much. Overload is also a natural result of many of the other problems at this level.
Root-cause worst practices: Attempting too much, Always saying 'Yes', Perfectionism and gold-
plating, Wishful thinking.
Trouble Starting New Projects
Do you have problems getting started when you are assigned a new project? Do you have trouble
figuring out what you need to do? Do you find yourself procrastinating and putting it off? Do you
have problems figuring out how to get it done?
Root-cause worst practices: Poor planning.
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Easily Sidetracked
A related problem to having trouble getting started is having trouble finishing projects. There are
several reasons why this happens: getting sidetracked, becoming uninterested, avoiding the dirty
work, trouble with details, etc. People that are capable of starting and completing important
projects are more valuable to an organization than those that can do either but not both.
Root-cause worst practices: Drifting into trivia.
Routinely Working on Unimportant Things
Do you feel busy during the day but realize when it’s time to leave that you really didn’t make that
much progress? Do you routinely leave for home without accomplishing what you set out to do that
day? Are your projects consistently behind schedule? If this happens to you regularly, you may be
spending too much of your time working on lower priority items instead of focusing on the tasks
with the greatest payoff. This is one of the most common problems for the task and project
management levels.
Root-cause worst practices: Drifting into trivia, Poor planning, Always saying 'Yes'.
Getting Stuck in Crisis Mode
Do you spend more than half your time dealing with crisis after crisis? Do you find it difficult to plan
because there is always something unexpected that comes up? Getting stuck in crisis mode is
problematic because each “crisis” steals your time and attention away from important things that
may not seem as urgent. It is also more difficult to do meaningful planning in the chaotic work
environment that results from constantly putting out fires.
Root-cause worst practices: Management by crisis, Wishful thinking.
Constant Time Pressure
Do you feel under intense time pressure as deadlines approach? Do you have trouble starting your
projects early enough to avoid the late time crunch? Time pressure is often a symptom of underlying
problems at the tactical time management level, particularly if it is a recurring or chronic problem.
Root-cause worst practices: Poor planning, Attempting too much, Always saying 'Yes', Perfectionism
and gold-plating, Wishful thinking.
Trashing
Trashing is a term that was first used to describe what happened to large time-sharing mainframe
computers when there were too many people trying to use them at the same time. These systems
made it appear to each of the users that they were the only ones using the system by giving each
one a small slice of time in charge of the computer and quickly switching between all of them. The
act of switching from one user to another imposes some overhead on the computer.
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The problem comes when there are too many people trying to use the computer at the same time
and the time slices are not adjusted properly. When this happens, the computer spends more time
switching between the users than doing actual work and can make the whole system slow to a crawl;
people would say the computer was “trashing.” Trashing occurs when the unproductive overhead
associated with doing something is greater than the actual work performed. An example of trashing
in time management occurs when you spend more time organizing, cleaning your desk, or making
and rearranging lists than actually doing useful work.
Root-cause worst practices: Overscheduling and overorganization, Efficiency Trap.
Disorganization - Lack of Adequate Organization
Disorganization is a common problem that silently steals your time minutes at a time. The Wall
Street Journal reported that the average U.S. executive wastes six weeks per year searching for
misplaced information. That ends up being about five hours wasted each week. The US News and
World Report found that the average American spends one year of their life looking for lost or
misplaced items in the office.
There is a saying that if you throw a frog into a boiling pot of water, the frog will immediately jump
out; if however, you put a frog into a pot of cool water and slowly raise the temperature, the frog
will get boiled. Because disorganization steals your time slowly over a long period of time, it is like
slowly raising the temperature on the frog. You don’t do anything about it because you don’t realize
how much time you are really losing to it, just like the frog doesn’t realize it’s getting boiled.
Root-cause worst practices: Piles of Paper, Poor planning, Inadequate workflow management.
Inadequate Workflow Management
Workflow management is one of the aspects of knowledge work that traditional forms of time
management have been unable to address adequately.
‘Workflow’ refers to the way in which work flows through an organization from one person to the
next. In an assembly line or factory environment, workflow is tightly controlled as part of the
manufacturing process. Work arrives in well-defined units and is passed from one individual to the
next in a very predictable manner.
Workflow in knowledge work is very different. New work can arrive in many different ways. You can
receive an email, a phone call, a memo, a drop-in visitor, or an action item in a meeting; you can also
create work for yourself as you discover and define the tasks needed to complete a project, or you
get an idea on how to reduce costs or improve a product.
In addition, knowledge work tends to flow from one person to another much more readily than
manual work. You may get a request from a coworker that needs your help, you may need answers
from an expert in another group, you may rely on the work products of other people to complete
your own work, or others may need your work before they can proceed.
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With all these different sources of work and interdependencies between people and groups,
workflow management becomes increasingly important for knowledge workers. Without it, it is very
easy to get overwhelmed with all the numerous demands of your time, and things can easily start to
fall through the cracks.
Combined with using your memory to keep track of things, inadequate workflow management leads
to forgotten requests, incomplete work, misplaced information, and general feelings of anxiety and
overwhelm. Inadequate workflow management is a combination of the following factors.
Using Your Memory to Keep Track of Things
Many people use their memory to keep track of active projects, things they need to do, and
commitments they’ve made.
They behave as if their brain is a computer capable of storing and recalling every detail of their work
and personal life.
The reality is that our brain is not like a computer at all. When you rely on your memory to “remind”
you of things you are working on, commitments you’ve made, things that still need to be done, or
where you need to be at some future time, you are putting a tremendous strain on it.
This is increasingly true as our work shifts away from the predictable routine of manual work into
the highly variable knowledge work.
Your memory is just not made for storing and recalling this type of information. Your brain has to
work extra hard to try to remember all these things, and there is a point at which it cannot handle it
any more.
This is where the common feelings of overwhelm and anxiety come from.
Relying on your memory to keep track of your projects and tasks is a worst practice for several
reasons:
 It leads to feelings of anxiety and overwhelm well before you reach your real limit. Most
people are capable of working productively on several large projects and an assortment of
smaller tasks and errands all at the same time. However, by keeping all this information in
your head, your memory places an artificial limit how much you can handle. Having to
remember a large number of small details can easily overwhelm most people.
 You might forget important projects, tasks, or commitments. When you keep track of
things using your memory, it is easy for them to fall through the cracks. Sometimes they are
trivial things, but they can easily be important or even critical. The more stuff you need to
remember, the more likely it is that you will forget something important, and the harder
your brain has to work to make sure that doesn’t happen.
 It is difficult to plan things solely in your head. It may be possible to do it for small projects,
but for any reasonable sized project, it becomes increasingly difficult. Even if you could plan
a complex project in your head, why would you want to? Could you remember all the details
the next day? How about the next week?
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 You waste time recalling previous decisions and plans. People waste countless minutes
trying to remember where they left off on a project, or what they need to work on next.
Even more time is wasted rethinking decisions and plans that they’ve already made but can’t
remember in detail. These lost minutes can add up to hours and weeks over the course of a
year.
 It creates distractions and preoccupation. Using your memory to keep track of details can
make it difficult to get fully focused and absorbed in your work. It is difficult to concentrate
when your brain keeps nagging you about something you need to do. This “nagging,” or
general feeling of preoccupation, is your brain’s natural way of trying to make sure it doesn’t
forget something important. When we are concentrating, we can only focus on a couple of
things at most. When your brain is nagging you about something completely unrelated, it
has the side-effect of breaking your concentration and prevents you from being as
productive as you could be.
Keeping track of things using your memory is a very common problem that traps you using several of
the worst practice snares.
Attempting Too Much
In time management, the word ‘overload’ describes the condition of having too much work; more
work than what we can normally handle. Overload can be the result of external circumstances such
as a big deadline, a coworker’s resignation, or a major crisis, but it is often self-inflicted.
There are times when we get overloaded due to extenuating circumstances beyond our control and
we have to put in extra time and effort to get through it; but these should be exceptions and not the
rule. If you are consistently getting overloaded at work or in your other activities, the most likely
cause is you.
One of the self-inflicted causes of overload is attempting to do too much. People attempt too much
for three main reasons.
The first is the same one that leads to overly optimistic schedules: underestimating how much time
tasks will really take and overestimating how much we can do.
This has been called the superman (or supermom) syndrome and comes from a sense of 'I can do it
all myself, now get out of my way!'
Recent research suggests that many people believe they will have more free time in the future to
accomplish their work because they don't expect to be as busy as they are now. They cannot foresee
all the tasks they will be working on and tend to ignore the fact that new and pressing demands on
their time may also "pop-up" unexpectedly in the future.
As a result, they over-commit their time and end up attempting to do too much.
Other major psychological factors that play a role in attempting too much are an unhealthy need for
overachievement, wanting to be productive all the time (with no downtime), insecurity outside of
work, a desire to please others, perfectionism and gold-plating.
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The second main reason people attempt too much is the related worst practice of always saying 'yes'
to requests for your time. As more and more commitments start to pile up, your inability to say 'no'
to new requests eventually leads you to attempt to do too much.
The third main reason people attempt to do too much is guilt. Guilt is a powerful emotion that can
have a great deal of influence over our thoughts and actions. Guilt is not always a bad emotion: it
can warn you that you are doing something that is weighing on your conscience and deserves
further consideration.
The problem with tasks that are only done out of guilt is that they often don’t really resolve the
underlying problem, and can lead you to sacrifice your own long-term well-being for the temporary
relief from the guilt you are feeling. Since all these extra tasks you are doing can keep you very busy,
they can be a way to avoid facing the real issue.
The first step in overcoming the worst practice of attempting too much is to realize that you can do
almost anything you want, but you cannot do everything. At some point, you have to choose what
you are going to give up in order to accomplish what is truly important and meaningful in your life.
Unless you accept the fact that you cannot do everything as a fundamental truth, you will continue
falling into the worst practice of attempting too much and all the negative consequences that come
with it.
The best practices of prioritizing and Workload Management are valuable tools that can help you
decide which tasks are truly important and which tasks need to go.
If you are constantly overloaded and you don’t think that you are attempting too much, you could
still be partially at fault. Even when it seems that all the causes of your overload are external
circumstances such as impeding deadlines, too many demands from your boss or co-workers, or a
big crisis, if overload keeps happening to you over and over again you have some responsibility in
the matter.
Overload is an unfortunate side-effect of many of the other worst practices discussed here. You may
need to address some of the other worst practices before your workload will stabilize to normal
levels.
Always Saying Yes
Saying ‘yes’ to requests for your time is not always a bad practice. In fact, the better you are at
managing your time and your projects, the more likely it is that you will be chosen to handle
important tasks that need to be completed quickly with quality and care.
Taking on and completing important projects can be very rewarding and can lead to promotions and
bonuses. The problem occurs when you say ‘yes’ to almost any request no matter what it is, who is
asking, or how much work you already have on your plate.
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Always saying ‘yes’ is a major source of overload and stress, and it can lead you away from your
priorities into less important tasks. If you want to avoid the work and stress associated with
attempting too much, you need to decide carefully whether to accept new tasks.
People that say ‘yes’ when they should be saying ‘no’ usually do it for one of two reasons. The first is
that many say ‘yes’ automatically without thoroughly thinking about the request.
This could be a reaction you save for certain people like your boss, or a family member, or the
president of your volunteer group, or it could just be your normal way of dealing with requests.
Perhaps you feel good about serving and feel that by accepting the extra responsibility you are
making a difference. Maybe you feel that taking on the extra work is the best way to get that
promotion you’ve been waiting for.
Both of these are perfectly valid reasons for accepting a new project; but when you accept every
task thrown at you, you will quickly reach the point of attempting too much for your own good.
When you do, your overload will produce stress, lower your physical and mental wellbeing, and
reduce your productivity and effectiveness.
People that say ‘yes’ automatically usually don’t realize how much each new commitment is costing
them. Remember that you can do almost anything, but you cannot do everything.
Whenever you accept a new task or responsibility, you are always giving up something else. You
could be giving up your free time, or an extra twenty minutes of sleep, or time that you would have
spent with your family, or exercising.
Without realizing it, you could be choosing to spend your valuable time doing trivial things instead of
what is most important to you. Let me repeat this: Every time you choose to do something, you
always give up something else you could do with that time.
There is a saying that if you throw a frog into a boiling pot of water, the frog will immediately jump
out; if however, you put a frog into a pot of cool water and slowly raise the temperature, the frog
will get boiled.
If someone came to you and gave you twenty projects to work on over the next couple of weeks all
at the same time, you would certainly take notice and have to at least consider what you would have
to give up to complete the extra work. However, when the new tasks come in slowly, trickling in one
at a time, it is more difficult to realize what you are giving up until you’ve already overcommitted.
If you want to escape from the worst practice of always saying ‘yes,’ your first step has to be to
promise yourself to consider each request carefully before accepting it, instead of doing it
automatically.
Make it your new habit to always stop and think before accepting a request no matter what it is or
who is asking. Then at least you will be making an informed conscious decision fully aware of what
you are giving up in order to accept the extra responsibility.
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The second reason people say ‘yes’ when they should be saying ‘no’ has to do with their internal
motives. If you have taken the first important step and are now considering each request before
accepting, but you still find yourself overloaded because of saying ‘yes’ too much, you may be facing
a psychological barrier that is holding you back.
The most common ones are a desire to please, fear of rejection, and guilt. You may be saying 'yes'
because of a payoff you are receiving (feeling useful), or because it is the path of least resistance
(don't want to confront the asker.)
Mahatma Gandhi said, "A 'No' uttered from deepest conviction is better and greater than a 'Yes'
merely uttered to please, or what is worse, to avoid trouble."
Perfectionism and Gold-Plating
Perfectionism is the practice of continuing to work on a project or task well past the point where the
extra effort is adding meaningful value.
Perfectionism is a worst practice because it steals your time and energy working on things that don’t
give you a good return on your investments; time and energy that you could have spent doing more
valuable things.
For example, preparing a presentation can vary from a simple bullet list to a very fancy PowerPoint
presentation with all sorts of backgrounds, fonts, colorful graphics, and animation effects. You could
spend hours adding and then mercilessly editing all this fancy fluff to what could have been a simple
presentation.
Is the time spent doing this worth it? It may be worth it if it’s a client presentation where millions are
at stake, but what about a small presentation for a group of co-workers?
Just because it’s possible to add all these fancy things to the presentation and spend a lot of time
trying to get it just right doesn’t mean that you should. It all depends on whether they really add
value or are just an excuse to avoid doing something more important.
The easiest way to avoid falling into the trap of perfectionism is to catch yourself when you are
starting to do it, realize what you are doing, and stop.
This is easier to do when you have a clear understanding of what it is you are trying to accomplish,
and you have established completion criteria for your projects and tasks so you can easily tell when
you should be done.
The best practices of prioritizing, Five Power Questions, and Workload Management provide more
information on how you can overcome perfectionism and gold-plating.
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Wishful Thinking
Wishful thinking is assuming that things will just work out when you have no good reason to think
that they will.
Wishful thinkers may ignore evidence that things are not going according to plan (if they even have a
plan) and are, in fact, getting worse. It goes beyond reasonable optimism and squarely into the
realm of denial.
There is an old joke about an optimist who is falling from a 100-story building. As he passes the 50th
floor, he says to himself "Well, so far, so good!" That's just wishful thinking.
Wishful thinking is a big problem for all types of projects. In many cases, it causes more problems
than all the other worst practices combined, and leads to colossal project failures.
Some examples of wishful thinking: ignoring a problem employee and hoping that the issue with
solve itself, expecting a newly formed team to meet an important deadline without doing any
planning, ignoring signs that a project is in trouble and falling behind schedule hoping that things will
straighten out by themselves, planning a big product launch with a schedule so aggressive that it
would only work if everything falls perfectly into place and nothing unexpected happens, etc.
There are three main reasons people fall into wishful thinking.
The first reason is lack of experience. People that lack experience may not realize that there are
certain gotchas in a project and therefore assume that things are going to work out well without any
special attention. They simply don’t know any better.
The second reason occurs when they are overwhelmed or feel uncomfortable about a part of the
project. For example, when there is a lot of uncertainty in a certain area or they don’t know how to
manage a piece of the project, it is natural for some people to feel uncomfortable.
Instead of doing the research, working out the details, and planning these aspects of the project—
which may be the ones that need the most attention—many people hope for the best and focus on
the other areas of the project they are more comfortable with. This is a classic form of self-denial.
The third reason is overconfidence. Many wishful thinkers overestimate their ability to handle a
particular task or project or underestimate the difficulties and obstacles they are likely to face.
Either way, they end up setting themselves up for eventual failure.
The best way to counteract wishful thinking is through careful planning and preparation. If you don't
have enough experience for a particular project, do some research or ask someone who does.
The best practice of Risk Management can also help you avoid underestimating the potential
difficulties or obstacles facing your projects.
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Creating overly optimistic schedules is a form of wishful thinking so prevalent that it deserves its
own mention. Overly optimistic schedules are either imposed on you by someone else (your boss,
marketing department, the project manager, etc.) or are self-imposed.
If someone else imposes the schedule on you, it is usually because of a deadline. The deadline may
well be due to a real event (a trade show, a competing product, etc.) but it could also very easily be a
date that was pulled out of thin air without sufficient thinking, planning or information.
If you believe that a schedule imposed on you is overly optimistic and you are in charge of the
project, you basically have two choices: accept the schedule and face the consequences of trying to
meet it, or do your best to convince your boss that the schedule is unrealistic and needs to be
corrected.
Self-imposed overly optimistic schedules occur because people tend to underestimate how much
work it will take to complete a project and overestimate how much work they can accomplish in a
typical day.
When these two factors combine as a form of overconfidence, the result is overly optimistic
schedules, which can be a source of frustration and lead to other project management problems.
It is often difficult to estimate accurately how long tasks will take at the very start of a project, which
is when most schedules are constructed. If the schedule is not updated as you learn more about the
project and what it will take to complete it, or when more work is added, you are left with an overly
optimistic schedule.
Estimating how long tasks really take is a skill that you can improve with practice. The best practices
of Project Planning and Weekly Reviews can help you overcome this form of wishful thinking.
Poor Planning
You’ve probably heard the saying “if you fail to plan, you plan to fail.” At the project/task levels, poor
planning is one of the main reasons projects fail, fall behind schedule or miss their deadlines.
Without adequate planning, it is difficult to really understand what it will take to complete a project
successfully. Lack of planning leads to inadequate preparation, unexpected problems, and poor
execution.
Poor planning is a worst practice because:
 If you don’t have written plans, you are using your memory to keep track of things. Planning
is an excellent tool for getting things out in the open. Good planning forces you to think
about your projects before you set about doing them and to put your thoughts down on
"paper" (not necessarily real paper, software works great for this too.) This alone can help
you prevent many project failures and delays.
 Without plans, it is difficult—sometimes even impossible—to get a clear picture of all the
things that you are working on and what still needs to be done.
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Planning allows you to identify all your projects and tasks and gain a much better
understanding of what it will really take to complete them. Without planning, you won’t
have a clear idea of what you need to do and you won’t be able to prioritize your time
properly. How can you prioritize your time if you don’t even understand what you are trying
to accomplish? When you don’t have clear priorities, you are much more vulnerable to
distractions and unexpected events.
 Lack of preparation - Imagine that you and your friends are going on a two-week long
hiking/camping/rafting trip to the wilderness. Would you do any planning? Of course you
would. You plan so that you are fully prepared for the trip: you know where you are going,
how to get there, how to get back, what obstacles to avoid, what type of terrain you will be
facing, how many and what kind of supplies you need to make your journey, etc. Reasonable
people would never venture out into the wilderness without proper planning and
preparation because it could easily cost them their lives. The location and duration of the
trip makes a big difference in the type and level of preparation that is required. Lack of
adequate preparation in your own projects can easily cause them to fail or fall deep behind
schedule.
 Lack of risk management - Without proper planning, it is difficult to anticipate and avoid
major problems and risks. Without actively monitoring and avoiding these risks, they can
easily sidetrack or even cause your project to fail.
Planning is one of the most important activities in time management—it has been estimated that
every minute spent planning can save three in execution—and yet it is one of the least practiced.
In fact, for most people, this worst practice is not poor planning, but no planning at all.
There are many reasons people give for not planning: not enough time, don’t really need it, won’t
work for me, it’s too constraining, my work is too unpredictable, I’m a creative type, etc.
All these reasons are merely excuses and rationalizations. The real reason people don’t plan is
usually one of the following:
 They don’t understand the value. As I said before, many people get into a worst practice
because they don’t know any better. They don’t know what their lack of planning is costing
them. People who don’t understand the value of planning often claim that they don’t need
to plan because they are doing well without any planning. The reality is that they are doing
well despite their lack of planning, not because they are not planning. Effective planning
would make them even more productive and capable of achieving even better results.
 Immediate Gratification. Planning is a practice that doesn’t provide immediate results; it
takes time for your planning efforts to pay off. People that want to get their payoff now will
find it difficult to escape their practice of poor planning. No planning is the path of least
resistance.
 They don’t know how to plan effectively. This is probably the most common reason why
people don’t plan: they just don’t know how to do it well. Planning is a skill that is learned;
there are good ways to do it, and there are bad ways to do it. Just because you can make a
list doesn't mean you know how to plan. People that think they know how to plan but really
don’t may honestly believe that they don’t have enough time to plan, or that they don’t
need to plan, or that planning doesn’t work for them.
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All of these statements may be true of poor planning, which can often be worse than no
planning. However, these statements don’t hold true for effective planning.
 They haven’t eliminated obstacles to effective planning. Other worst practices at the
project/task management level may be blocking or undoing the effectiveness of your
planning efforts. You need to get rid of these obstacles before you will see all the benefits of
your planning.
The best way to escape the practice of poor planning is to learn how to plan effectively and to do it
consistently.
Drifting into Trivia
Drifting into trivia is a phrase coined by Peter Drucker and describes the practice of drifting from
important and valuable tasks into less important tasks.
There are many opportunities during each day for us to drift into trivia: remembering a phone call
we need to make, coming across a piece of paper reminding us of some other project, getting an
email asking us a question, a call from a colleague, a drop-in visitor, etc. Before you know it, the
important task that you were working on has been hijacked by a much less important errand.
If you find yourself routinely working on unimportant things, you may be drifting into trivia more
often than you think. The hardest part about this worst practice is realizing that you are doing it.
Drifting into trivia is an easy way to escape doing an important but unpleasant task by jumping at the
first chance to do something else, even when that something else is not at all important.
Drifting into trivia is not always easy to spot. Sometimes the work that you drift into seems
important, but if you take a step back and reflect on what you are really trying to accomplish, you
realize that the work doesn’t really serve your objectives and is merely distracting you from what
you really need to do.
Spending more time playing with the fonts and graphs of a marketing report than working on the
actual content, or working on a report that no one needs, are both examples of drifting into trivia in
the guise of doing productive work.
The key to escaping from this worst practice is to resist the temptation offered by the less important
distraction and continue working on your important tasks. The best way to resist is to have clear
priorities and objectives. When your priorities are clear, you will be able to tell when that tempting
distraction is less important. You will realize immediately that by doing it you would be drifting into
trivia.
Another useful tool is to use the Weekly Planning best practice to schedule project blocks, which are
thirty to ninety minutes of uninterrupted time that you allocate to your top-priority projects ahead
of time. If something trivial comes up during one of your project blocks, you can postpone it until
after your block is done.
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Management by Crisis
Management by crisis is a phrase used to describe the common problem of allowing unexpected
events, interruptions, problems, or emergencies to dictate your priorities and actions.
Effective crisis management is an important best practice; it is an essential skill of effective time
managers because unexpected things do happen in every project. Sometimes we do need to react
quickly to a crisis and contain it before it does more damage. The problem comes when crisis
management becomes the routine rather than the exception. If you spend more of your time putting
out fires than doing your work, you are managing by crisis.
When crisis management becomes the routine, it can easily lead to urgency addiction. People that
are addicted to urgency enjoy putting out fires, they like stepping in and solving problems, and their
bosses often reward them for doing so. They have no incentive to avoid or prevent the fires because
they get a payoff every time they put one out.
To eliminate the worst practice of management by crisis you need to take two important steps. First,
you must distinguish between a real crisis, which is something important that requires your
immediate attention, and other lesser problems, events, or interruptions that do not qualify as a
true crisis.
The second key step is to realize that when crisis management becomes the routine rather than the
exception, it’s usually pointing to a more fundamental problem that needs to be solved. There is an
old Chinese proverb that says: "The superior doctor prevents sickness. The mediocre doctor attends
to impending sickness. The inferior doctor treats sickness." Don't just treat the symptoms of the
latest crisis, cure the underlying disease and prevent it from recurring.
Overscheduling and Overorganization
Overscheduling is the practice of trying to plan your days, weeks, or projects with too much detail.
Overscheduling is usually an overcompensation to doing little or no planning by going to the other

extreme. The problem with this practice is that the extra details being added to your plans don’t add
any real value—they don’t make the plan any better—and in fact make it confusing and overly
complicated.
Complicated plans and schedules tend to be inaccurate and difficult to follow leading to frustration.
Here is an example of an overscheduled day:
- Wake up at 7:30am
- 7:30am Shower (10 minutes)
- 7:40am Breakfast (10 minutes)
- 7:50am Commute to work (20 minutes)
- 8:10am Read email (20 minutes)
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- 8:30am Voicemail (20 minutes)
- 8:50am Faxes (10 minutes)
- 9:00am – Call Steve regarding memo (5 minutes)
- 9:05am Prepare memo for John (15 minutes)
- 9:20am Coffee break (5 minutes)
- 9:25am Research for presentation (20 minutes)
- 9:45am Call Mike about presentation (5 minutes)
- 9:50am Prepare presentation (1 hour)
- 10:50am Bathroom break (5 minutes)
- 10:55am Prepare for team meeting
...
You get the idea. People not familiar with daily planning can easily fall into the trap of attempting to
plan their time this way.
There are several problems with this schedule:
 It contains irrelevant tasks (shower, breakfast, commute, bathroom break, coffee break) that
don’t add any value to the plan. These tasks don’t have to be included in your schedule since
they are either part of your normal routine (shower/breakfast) or not relevant (bathroom
break).
 Many entries in the schedule are for small tasks that would be better of scheduled as part of
larger projects. For example, the tasks ‘Research for presentation’, ‘Call Mike about
presentation’, and ‘Prepare presentation’ are all part of the ‘Marketing Presentation’
project. The extra level of detail in the schedule does not add significant value as long as
these tasks are recorded as part of the project plan.
 The entries are scheduled in a way that makes it very difficult to adapt the plan to changing
circumstances. The tiniest interruption at the wrong time could throw off the entire
schedule. Try to leave some extra buffer time around scheduled activities to account for
unexpected interruptions. Using project blocks as part of Weekly Planning is a good way to
do this.
 The estimates leave no room for error. If a task takes just a bit longer than the specified
amount, the whole schedule is thrown off. This is another problem of scheduling specific
tasks rather than projects.
No wonder some people claim they have no time to plan, or that planning doesn’t work for them, or
that it’s too restrictive.
If this is what their plans look like, all of these things are true. The best practices of Effective To-Do
List, Weekly Planning and Daily Planning help you plan your time without overscheduling.
As we’ve seen with overscheduling, when you take a good practice to the extreme sometimes you
get a worst practice.
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Overorganization turns practices like planning, writing things down, and thinking things through into
liabilities that hinder, rather than enhance, your productivity.
Overorganization is a good example of gold-plating, trashing and drifting into trivia applied to
organization and time management.
When you spend all your time planning and organizing rather than doing, you are gold-plating your
time away just like when you play with fonts instead of writing the report.
An example of overorganization while planning is breaking even a simple task down into smaller and
smaller steps. In theory, you could continue breaking up tasks into smaller steps almost indefinitely.
At some point, you just have to stop planning and start doing.
For example, you could break down the task of sending an email into: researching the contents,
creating an outline, first draft, editing, proofreading, and sending. The question you need to ask
yourself is this: does breaking this task up into smaller steps add any value? In this case, it does not.
Overorganization is one of those activities that may seem important—you are planning and getting
better organized after all—but on closer inspection is really a waste of time because the extra effort
is not helping you achieve what you want.
The main causes of overorganization are the same ones as gold-plating. Overorganizers may enjoy
the practice of planning and organizing so much that they continue doing it even when it starts
distracting them from other more important activities they should be doing instead.
They are more interested in feeling organized than getting things done.
Overorganizers may also use the excuse of planning and organizing as a way of avoiding an
unpleasant task, or as a way to avoid confronting an uncomfortable issue.
Finally, overorganization may be a sign of perfectionist tendencies where a person feels that they
need to plan every single detail and prepare for all possible contingencies in order to avoid making
mistakes.
Overorganization can easily lead to the condition known as analysis paralysis, where you get stuck
planning, organizing, and preparing and never get around to doing anything. Winston Churchill is
quoted as saying “The maxim ‘nothing avails but perfection’ can be spelled PARALYSIS.”
To stop overoganizing, you first need to be aware that you are doing it. If you feel you are
susceptible to overorganization, use questions to catch yourself during your planning periods. "Is my
planning adding any value?" If the answer is no, then it is time to stop planning and start doing.
For many people, overorganization is just a bad habit. The good news is that, like any other bad
habit, you can replace it with a much more effective habit once you are aware of it.
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Business, Accounting and Finance BSBPMG512 MANAGE PROJECT TIME
BSBPMG512 Manage project time
Determine project
schedule
Implement project
schedule
Assess time
management outcomes
PROJECT TIME MANAGEMENT ACTIVITY DEFINITION

PROCESSES • An activity or task is an element of work normally found on
• Activity definition: Identifying the specific activities that the the WBS that has an expected duration, a cost, and resource
project team members and stakeholders must perform to
produce the project deliverables. requirements.
• Activity sequencing: Identifying and documenting the • Project schedules grow out of the basic documents that
relationships between project activities.
• Activity resource estimating: Estimating how many initiate a project.
resources a project team should use to perform project • The project charter includes start and end dates and budget
activities.
information.
• Activity duration estimating: Estimating the number of
work periods that are needed to complete individual • The scope statement and WBS help define what will be done.
activities.
• Activity definition involves developing a more detailed WBS
• Schedule development: Analyzing activity sequences,
activity resource estimates, and activity duration estimates to and supporting explanations to understand all the work to be
create the project schedule. done, so you can develop realistic cost and duration
• Schedule control: Controlling and managing changes to the estimates.
project schedule.
ACTIVITY LISTS AND MILESTONES

ATTRIBUTES • A milestone is a significant event that normally has no duration.
• An activity list is a tabulation of activities to be included on a • It often takes several activities and a lot of work to complete a
project schedule. The list should include: milestone.
• The activity name
• An activity identifier or number
• Milestones are useful tools for setting schedule goals and monitoring
progress.
• A brief description of the activity
• Activity attributes provide more information about each • Examples include completion and customer sign-off on key
activity, such as predecessors, successors, logical relationships,
documents and completion of specific products.
leads and lags, resource requirements, constraints, imposed
dates, and assumptions related to the activity.
ACTIVITY SEQUENCING THREE TYPES OF
DEPENDENCIES
• Involves reviewing activities and determining dependencies.
• Mandatory dependencies: Inherent in the nature of the work
• A dependency or relationship relates to the sequencing of project being performed on a project; sometimes referred to as hard
activities or tasks. logic.
• You must determine dependencies in order to use critical path • Discretionary dependencies: Defined by the project team;
analysis. sometimes referred to as soft logic and should be used with
care because they may limit later scheduling options.
• External dependencies: Involve relationships between

project and non-project activities.
WBS
• Purpose
WORK BREAKDOWN
• Definition
STRUCTURE
• Structure
• Guidelines
• Work Packages
• Implementation
• Exercise
WBS - PURPOSE WBS - DEFINITION
• To plan a project, the total scope of work must be:

• A deliverable oriented grouping of project elements which
• identified organizes and defines the total scope of the project. Each
descending level represents an increasingly detailed
• subdivided into manageable segments definition of a project component.
• assigned to individuals responsible to do the work
• documented
GUIDELINES - CONTINUED
WBS - GUIDELINES
• Include three types of project work
• Should reflect how the Project Manager plans to manage the • Product
project
• Specifically assigned to a physical product as a unique
• Emphasis must be on meeting project objectives deliverable
• The larger or more complex the project, the more levels in the • This subset is sometimes referred to as the product
WBS breakdown structure
• Integration
• If work is needed that requires effort or funding, it should be
included in the WBS • When products are brought together as a unit
• It should reflect the total effort • Can be at any level
• Support
• Level of Effort, Administration, Expenses,
Improvement Practices, Contractor Management
WBS - STRUCTURE
GUIDELINES (CONT)
01 June,2000
Project Management Group
• Sometimes the top level in the WBS should be the project PROJECT
phases
MAJOR PRODUCT PRODUCT PRODUCT PRODUCT PROJECT
TASKS 'A' 'B' 'C' INTEGRATION SUPPORT
• Often though, a work breakdown structure is constructed for

each phase
MINOR SUB-ELEMENT SUB-ELEMENT
TASKS
WORK WORK WORK WORK

PACKAGES PACKAGE PACKAGE PACKAGE
sub tasks within work package
TYPICAL WBS
Page 1
WBS - PRODUCT WBS - INTEGRATION

01 June,2000 01 June,2000
PROJECT PROJECT
PRODUCT
PRODUCT PRODUCTS INTEGRATION
SYSTEM
MAJOR MAJOR INSTALLATION
DESIGN
ELEMENT ELEMENT
Specifically identifiable to a physical product as a unique deliverable Can exist at any level when a number of products are brought together as a
system or unit.
i.e. Design Package; Drawings; Hardware; Software; Test Equipment;
Documentation. i.e. System Design; Software Module Integration; Hardware Integration /
Assembly; Installation.
WBS - PRODUCT WBS - PRODUCT INTEGRATION

Page 1
Page 1
TYPICAL INTEGRATION WBS - SUPPORT
ELEMENTS Thursday, May
08, 2003
• Regulatory • Quality Assurance

PROJECT
• Permitting • Communications
• Legal • Systems Engineering PRODUCTS
PROJECT
SUPPORT
• Intellectual Property • Purchasing PROJECT CONTRACTOR

MANAGEMENT MANAGEMENT
• Logistics • Hazard Analysis Management

Management
Planning & Control
• SOP’s • Value Improving Practices Documentation

Support
Technical Support
• Training • Others? Expenses
• Spares Philosophy and

Provisioning
• HES WBS - PROJECT SUPPORT
Page 1
WBS - WORK PACKAGES HOW TO BUILD A WBS

• Begin with the Charter, focusing on Objectives and Deliverables
• Lowest agreed level for management purposes
• Break the main product(s) down into sub-products
• Enables delegation of responsibility and authority
• Set the structure to match how you’ll manage the project
• Results in ownership and accountability
• Lowest level not too detailed, not too large
• Building block of the Project Baseline Plan • Is there a need for Integration?
• Provides a common basis for • Identify support activities
• Estimation of Scope, Time, Resources, and Risk • Check for completeness - is all the effort included?
• Comparison between plan and actual • Develop a coding structure if needed
• Assign work package managers
SUGGESTED WBS TEMPLATE

PROCESS ESTIMATING PROJECTS
Work Breakdown Structure Templates

• Estimating
• The process of forecasting or approximating the time and cost of
Project Manager
Obtain template as
Yes Revise / add WBS
Does WBS
template exist?
Yes
starting point for
planning
Plan and execute
project
Do lessons learned
WBS revision /
addition useful?
Revise WBS
template
template completing project deliverables.
No
No
• The task of balancing expectations of stakeholders and need for
control while the project is implemented.
Manager(s)
Functional
Review WBS
template and
suggest revisions
• Types of Estimates
• Top-down (macro) estimates: analogy, group consensus, or
Project Owner
Review WBS
template and
suggest revisions
mathematical relationships
• Bottom-up (micro) estimates: estimates of elements
End
of the work breakdown structure
WHY ESTIMATING TIME AND COST ARE ACTIVITY RESOURCE ESTIMATING
IMPORTANT
• Before estimating activity durations, you must have a good idea of the
• To support good decisions. quantity and type of resources that will be assigned to each activity
• To schedule work. • Consider important issues in estimating resources

• How difficult will it be to do specific activities on this project?
• To determine how long the project should take and its • What is the organization’s history in doing similar activities?
cost. • Are the required resources available or need to be acquired?
• To determine whether the project is worth doing. • A resource breakdown structure is a hierarchical structure that
• To develop cash flow needs. identifies the project’s resources by category and type
• To determine how well the project is progressing.

• To develop time-phased budgets and establish the project
baseline.
ACTIVITY DURATION ESTIMATING THREE-POINT ESTIMATES

• Duration includes the actual amount of time worked on an activity
• Instead of providing activity estimates as a discrete number,
plus elapsed time
such as four weeks, it’s often helpful to create a three-point
• Effort is the number of workdays or work hours required to estimate
complete a task • An estimate that includes an optimistic, most likely, and
• Effort does not normally equal duration pessimistic estimate, such as three weeks for the optimistic, four
weeks for the most likely, and five weeks for the pessimistic
• People doing the work should help create estimates, and an expert estimate
should review them
• Three-point estimates are needed for PERT and Monte Carlo
simulations
FACTORS INFLUENCING THE ESTIMATING GUIDELINES FOR TIMES,

QUALITY OF ESTIMATES COSTS, AND RESOURCES
Planning Horizon 1. Have people familiar with the tasks make the estimate.
Other 2. Use several people to make estimates.
Project
(Nonproject) Duration 3. Base estimates on normal conditions, efficient methods,
Factors
and a normal level of resources.
Quality of 4. Use consistent time units in estimating task times.
Organization Estimates People 5. Treat each task as independent, don’t aggregate.
Culture
6. Don’t make allowances for contingencies.
Padding Project Structure

7. Adding a risk assessment helps avoid surprises
Estimates and Organization to stakeholders.
TOP-DOWN VERSUS BOTTOM-UP TOP-DOWN VERSUS BOTTOM-UP
ESTIMATING
ESTIMATING
• Top-Down Estimates Conditions for Preferring Top-Down or Bottom-up Time
• Are usually are derived from someone who uses experience and Cost Estimates
and/or information to determine the project duration and total
cost. Condition Macro Estimates Micro Estimates
• Are made by top managers who have little knowledge of the Strategic decision making X
processes used to complete the project. Cost and time important X
• Bottom-Up Approach High uncertainty X
• Can serve as a check on cost elements in the WBS Internal, small project X
by rolling up the work packages and associated cost accounts to Fixed-price contract X
major deliverables at the work package level. Customer wants details X
Unstable scope X
ESTIMATING PROJECTS: TOP-DOWN APPROACHES FOR

PREFERRED APPROACH ESTIMATING PROJECT TIMES AND
COSTS
• Make rough top-down estimates.
• Consensus methods
• Develop the WBS/OBS.
• Make bottom-up estimates. • Ratio methods Project Estimate

Times
• Develop schedules and budgets. • Apportion method Costs
• Reconcile differences between top-down • Function point methods for software and
system projects
and bottom-up estimates
• Learning curves
APPORTION METHOD OF ALLOCATING SIMPLIFIED BASIC FUNCTION POINT COUNT

PROJECT COSTS USING THE WORK PROCESS
BREAKDOWN STRUCTURE FOR A PROSPECTIVE PROJECT OR
DELIVERABLE
EXAMPLE: FUNCTION POINT COUNT METHOD BOTTOM-UP APPROACHES FOR
ESTIMATING PROJECT TIMES AND
COSTS
• Template methods
• Parametric procedures applied to

specific tasks
• Range estimates for

the WBS work packages
• Phase estimating: A hybrid
SUPPORT COST ESTIMATE WORKSHEET PHASE ESTIMATING OVER PRODUCT LIFE

CYCLE
TOP-DOWN AND BOTTOM-UP ESTIMATES LEVEL OF DETAIL

• Level of detail is different for
different levels of management.
• Level of detail in the WBS varies
with the complexity of the project.
• Excessive detail is costly.
• Fosters a focus on departmental outcomes
• Creates unproductive paperwork
• Insufficient detail is costly.
• Lack of focus on goals
• Wasted effort on nonessential activities
CREATING A DATABASE FOR
REFINING ESTIMATES ESTIMATING
• Reasons for Adjusting Estimates
• Interaction costs are hidden in estimates.
• Normal conditions do not apply.
• Things go wrong on projects.
• Changes in project scope and plans.
• Adjusting Estimates
• Time and cost estimates of specific activities are adjusted as the
risks, resources, and situation particulars become more clearly
defined.
GANTT CHARTS
SCHEDULE DEVELOPMENT
• Gantt charts provide a standard format for displaying project
• Uses results of the other time management processes to determine schedule information by listing project activities and their
the start and end date of the project corresponding start and finish dates in a calendar format
• Ultimate goal is to create a realistic project schedule that provides • Symbols include:
a basis for monitoring project progress for the time dimension of • Black diamonds: milestones
the project • Thick black bars: summary tasks
• Important tools and techniques include Gantt charts, critical path • Lighter horizontal bars: durations of tasks
analysis, critical chain scheduling, and PERT analysis • Arrows: dependencies between tasks
FIGURE 6-5: GANTT CHART FOR GANTT CHART FOR SOFTWARE LAUNCH
PROJECT X PROJECT
Note: Darker bars would be red in Project 2007 to represent critical tasks
ADDING MILESTONES TO GANTT SMART CRITERIA
CHARTS
• Milestones should be:
• Many people like to focus on meeting milestones, especially
• Specific
for large projects
• Measurable
• Milestones emphasize important events or accomplishments
• Assignable
on projects
• Realistic
• Normally create milestone by entering tasks with a zero
• Time-framed
duration, or you can mark any task as a milestone
Project Time Management
BEST PRACTICE BEST PRACTICE (CONTINUED)

• Schedule risk is inherent in the development of complex systems
• Luc Richard, the founder of www.projectmangler.com, suggests that • The five key points of using project milestones include the
project managers can reduce schedule risk through project following:
milestones, a best practice that involves identifying and tracking 1. Define milestones early in the project and include them in the
significant points or achievements in the project Gantt chart to provide a visual guide
2. Keep milestones small and frequent
3. The set of milestones must be all-encompassing
4. Each milestone must be binary, meaning it is either complete or
incomplete
5. Carefully monitor the critical path
SAMPLE TRACKING GANTT CHART CRITICAL PATH METHOD (CPM)

• CPM is a network diagramming technique used to predict total
project duration
• A critical path for a project is the series of activities that
determines the earliest time by which the project can be
completed
• The critical path is the longest path through the network diagram
and has the least amount of slack or float
• Slack or float is the amount of time an activity may be delayed
without delaying a succeeding activity or the project finish date
CALCULATING THE CRITICAL DETERMINING THE CRITICAL PATH
PATH FOR PROJECT X
• First develop a good network diagram

• Add the duration estimates for all activities on each path
through the network diagram
• The longest path is the critical path
• If one or more of the activities on the critical path takes longer
than planned, the whole project schedule will slip unless the
project manager takes corrective action
MORE ON THE CRITICAL PATH USING CRITICAL PATH ANALYSIS

• A project team at Apple computer put a stuffed gorilla on the top of the TO MAKE SCHEDULE TRADE-OFFS
cubicle of the person currently managing a critical task
• Free slack or free float is the amount of time an activity can be
• The critical path is not the one with all the critical activities; it only
accounts for time delayed without delaying the early start of any immediately following
• Remember the example of growing grass being on the critical path for activities
Disney’s Animal Kingdom
• Total slack or total float is the amount of time an activity may be
• There can be more than one critical path if the lengths of two or more
paths are the same delayed from its early start without delaying the planned project
finish date
• The critical path can change as the project progresses
• A forward pass through the network diagram determines the early
start and finish dates
• A backward pass determines the late start and finish dates
CALCULATING EARLY AND LATE START FREE AND TOTAL FLOAT OR

AND FINISH DATES SLACK FOR PROJECT X
HOW TO FIND THE CRITICAL HOW TO FIND THE CRITICAL
PATH PATH
• General Foundry’s network with expected activity times • To find the critical path, need to determine the following quantities
for each activity in the network
A 2 C 2 F 3 1. Earliest start time (ES): the earliest time an activity can begin
without violation of immediate predecessor requirements
2. Earliest finish time (EF): the earliest time at which an activity can
E 4 H 2
Start Finish
end
3. Latest start time (LS): the latest time an activity can begin without
delaying the entire project
B 3 D 4 G 5
4. Latest finish time (LF): the latest time an activity can end without
delaying the entire project
Figure 13.3

PATH PATH
• In the nodes, the activity time and the early and late start and
• At the start of the project we set the time to zero
finish times are represented in the following manner
• Thus ES = 0 for both A and B
ACTIVITY t
ES EF
LS LF
A t=2
 Earliest times are computed as ES = 0 EF = 0 + 2 = 2
Earliest finish time = Earliest start time
+ Expected activity time
Start
EF = ES + t
B t=3
Earliest start = Largest of the earliest finish times of ES = 0 EF = 0 + 3 = 3
immediate predecessors
ES = Largest EF of immediate predecessors

PATH PATH
• General Foundry’s ES and EF times • Latest times are computed as
A 2 C 2 F 3 Latest start time = Latest finish time

0 2 2 4 4 7 – Expected activity time
LS = LF – t
E 4 H 2
Start 4 8 13 15 Finish Latest finish time = Smallest of latest start times
for following activities
LF = Smallest LS of following activities
B 3 D 4 G 5
0 3 3 7 8 13
 For activity H
Figure 13.4 LS = LF – t = 15 – 2 = 13 weeks

HOW TO FIND THE CRITICAL
HOW TO FIND THE CRITICAL PATH
PATH • Once ES, LS, EF, and LF have been determined, it is a simple matter to
• General Foundry’s LS and LF times find the amount of slack time that each activity has
A 2 C 2 F 3
0 2 2 4 4 7 Slack = LS – ES, or Slack = LF – EF
0 2 2 4 10 13
• From Table 13.3 we see activities A, C, E, G, and H have no slack time

E 4 H 2
Start 4 8 13 15 Finish
• These are called critical activities and they are said to be on the critical
4 8 13 15
path
B 3 D 4 G 5 • The total project completion time is 15 weeks
0 3 3 7 8 13
1 4 4 8 8 13 • Industrial managers call this a boundary timetable
Figure 13.5

PATH PATH
• General Foundry’s schedule and slack times • General Foundry’s critical path
EARLIEST EARLIEST LATEST LATEST
START, FINISH, START, FINISH, SLACK, ON CRITICAL
ACTIVITY ES EF LS LF LS – ES PATH? A 2 C 2 F 3
A 0 2 0 2 0 Yes 0 2 2 4 4 7
0 2 2 4 10 13
B 0 3 1 4 1 No
C 2 4 2 4 0 Yes
E 4 H 2
D 3 7 4 8 1 No Start 4 8 13 15 Finish
4 8 13 15
E 4 8 4 8 0 Yes
F 4 7 10 13 6 No
B 3 D 4 G 5
G 8 13 8 13 0 Yes 0 3 3 7 8 13
1 4 4 8 8 13
H 13 15 13 15 0 Yes
Table 13.3 Figure 13.6
USING THE CRITICAL PATH PROJECT CRASHING

TO SHORTEN A PROJECT SCHEDULE
• Three main techniques for shortening schedules • Projects will sometimes have deadlines that are
• Shortening durations of critical activities/tasks by adding more impossible to meet using normal procedures
resources or changing their scope • By using exceptional methods it may be possible to finish
• Crashing activities by obtaining the greatest amount of schedule the project in less time than normally required
compression for the least incremental cost
• However, this usually increases the cost of the project
• A 2 week task with one person working 50% could be shortened to 1
week if the person is assigned 100% - no increase in cost • Reducing a project’s completion time is called crashing
• Or, a temporary worker could be hired to work in parallel with the
other worker to speed up the task (at a cost)

PROJECT CRASHING FOUR STEPS TO PROJECT
CRASHING
• Crashing a project starts with using the normal time to create
the critical path 1. Find the normal critical path and identify the critical
• The normal cost is the cost for completing the activity using activities
normal procedures
• If the project will not meet the required deadline, 2. Compute the crash cost per week (or other time period) for
extraordinary measures must be taken all activities in the network using the formula
• The crash time is the shortest possible activity time and will
require additional resources
• The crash cost is the price of completing the activity in the
earlier-than-normal time
Crash cost – Normal cost
Crash cost/Time period =
Normal time – Crash time
FOUR STEPS TO PROJECT GENERAL FOUNDRY EXAMPLE

CRASHING • General Foundry has been given 14 weeks instead of 16
weeks to install the new equipment
3. Select the activity on the critical path with the smallest • The critical path for the project is 15 weeks
crash cost per week and crash this activity to the • What options do they have?
maximum extent possible or to the point at which your • The normal and crash times and costs are shown in Table
desired deadline has been reached 13.9
• Crash costs are assumed to be linear and Figure 13.11
4. Check to be sure that the critical path you were shows the crash cost for activity B
crashing is still critical. If the critical path is still the • Crashing activity A will shorten the completion time to 14
longest path through the network, return to step 3. If but it creates a second critical path B,D,G,H because
not, find the new critical path and return to step 2. when you recalculate the LF and LS times for B and D they
now match the EF and ES
• Any further crashing must be done to both critical paths
GENERAL FOUNDRY EXAMPLE GENERAL FOUNDRY EXAMPLE

• Crash and normal times and costs for activity B
• Normal and crash data for General Foundry
Activity
TIME (WEEKS) COST ($) Cost
CRASH COST CRITICAL Crash
ACTIVITY NORMAL CRASH NORMAL CRASH PER WEEK ($) PATH?
Crash Cost – Normal Cost
$34,000 – Crash Cost/Week =
A 2 1 22,000 23,000 1,000 Yes Normal Time – Crash Time
Crash
B 3 1 30,000 34,000 2,000 No Cost $33,000 – $34,000 – $30,000
=
3–1
C 2 1 26,000 27,000 1,000 Yes $32,000 – $4,000
= = $2,000/Week
D 4 3 48,000 49,000 1,000 No 2 Weeks
$31,000 –
E 4 2 56,000 58,000 1,000 Yes Normal
$30,000 –
F 3 2 30,000 30,500 500 No
Normal
G 5 2 80,000 86,000 2,000 Yes Cost –
H 2 1 16,000 19,000 3,000 Yes | | | |

0 1 2 3 Time (Weeks)
Figure 13.11 Crash Time Normal Time
Table 13.9
USING THE CRITICAL PATH IMPORTANCE OF UPDATING
TO SHORTEN A PROJECT SCHEDULE CRITICAL PATH DATA
• Fast tracking activities by doing them in parallel or • It is important to update project schedule information to meet time
overlapping them instead of doing them in sequence goals for a project
• Instead of waiting for all analysis to be completed before • The critical path may change as you enter actual start and finish
starting coding, some coding could begin for those tasks that dates
have been fully analyzed • If you know the project completion date will slip, be proactive and
• Drawback – starting a task too soon could lengthen the project negotiate with the project sponsor and stakeholders
because other tasks whose analysis has not been completed
could impact this task and cause rework
CRITICAL CHAIN SCHEDULING CRITICAL CHAIN SCHEDULING

• Critical chain scheduling • Attempts to minimize multitasking
• A method of scheduling that considers limited resources when • When a resource works on more than one task at a
creating a project schedule and includes buffers to protect the time – people are assigned to multiple tasks within
project completion date
the same project or different tasks on multiple
• Based on the Theory of Constraints (TOC) projects
• A management philosophy developed by Eli Goldratt and • Someone assigned to three tasks, tries to please
introduced in his book The Goal and Critical Chain everyone and works a little on each task and then
• Like a chain with its weakest link, any complex system at any goes back to finish the first one
point in time often has only one aspect or constraint that
limits its ability to achieve more of its goal • This can actually delay the completion of tasks as compared
to working on each task in sequence
• For the system to attain any significant improvements, that
constraint must be identified and the whole system must be • Multitasking also often involves wasted setup time, which
managed with it in mind increases total duration
• For example, two tasks originally scheduled to be done
in parallel, require the same resource 100% of the time.
CCS acknowledges that either one of the tasks must be
delayed or a similar resource must be found in order to
keep to the original schedule
MULTITASKING EXAMPLE
CRITICAL CHAIN SCHEDULING
• Critical Chain Project Management (CCPM), developed by Eliyahu M.
Goldratt, is a method of planning and managing projects that puts more
emphasis on the resources required to execute project tasks.
• This is in contrast to the more traditional Critical Path and PERT
methods, which emphasize task order and rigid scheduling.
• A Critical Chain project network will tend to keep the resources levelly
loaded, but will require them to be flexible in their start times and to
quickly switch between tasks and task chains to keep the whole project
on schedule.
• Typically, CCPM case studies report 95% on-time and on-budget
completion when CCPM is applied correctly.
BUFFERS AND CRITICAL CHAIN BUFFERS AND CRITICAL CHAIN
• In traditional estimates, people often add a • Critical chain scheduling removes buffers from individual
buffer to each task and use it if it’s needed or tasks and instead creates:
not • A project buffer or additional time added before the project’s due
date
• A buffer is additional time to complete a task • Feeding buffers or additional time added before tasks on the
• This time is added to when there is critical path that are preceded by non-critical-path tasks
multitasking, distractions, interruptions, fear • The tasks estimates in critical chain scheduling should be
that estimates will be reduced and Murphy’s shorter than traditional estimates because they do not
Law include their own buffers
• Not having tasks buffers should mean less occurrence of
• Murphy’s Law states that if something can go Parkinson’s Law - work expands to fill the time allowed
wrong, it will • Feeding and project buffers protect the date that really needs to be
met – the project completion date
EXAMPLE OF CRITICAL CHAIN EXAMPLE OF CRITICAL CHAIN

SCHEDULING
SCHEDULING
Critical Path = Task1+Task2+Task3+

Lag+ Task6 =
5+4+2+1+8 = 21 Days.
EXAMPLE OF CRITICAL CHAIN EXAMPLE OF CRITICAL CHAIN SCHEDULING

SCHEDULING
Remove safety time and reduce tasks durations by 50%.

Critical Path = Task1+Task2+Task3+ Project Duration = Task1+Task2+Task3+ Task6 = 3+2+1+4 = 10 Days.
Lag+ Task6 = Note:
5+4+2+1+8 = 21 Days. • All safety time durations are removed. For example 1 day lag after Task 2 and 4 days after
Task5 are removed.
• All tasks durations are reduced to half (50%). For example Task 1 is 3 Days instead of 6 days.
EXAMPLE OF CRITICAL CHAIN SCHEDULING EXAMPLE OF CRITICAL CHAIN SCHEDULING
Create schedule on Late Finish dates and Remove resource constraints and identify critical Add Project Buffer of 50% of the tasks duration and add Feeder buffer to non critical
chain. chain.
Project Duration = Task1+Task2+Task5+ Task6 = 3+2+2+4 = 11 Days. Project Duration = Task1+Task2+Task5+ Task6 + PB = 3+2+2+4+5 = 16 Days.
Note: Note:
• Task3, Task4 and Task 5 are moved to start from Late Finish dates. • Project Buffer (PB) = 50% of Project Duration (11 Days) = 5.5 Days = 5 Days (Rounded).
• Task2 and Task5 are to be done by resource R2 and so that aligned to remove resource • Feeder Buffer (FB) for non critical tasks on chain. For example Task 4 is added 2 days
constraints. FB.
COMPARISON OF CPM AND CCPM PROGRAM EVALUATION AND

RESULTS REVIEW TECHNIQUE (PERT)
• According to the results we found above, project • PERT is a network analysis technique used to estimate project
duration when there is a high degree of uncertainty about the
duration by CPM traditional approach is 21 days individual activity duration estimates
and the project duration for the same amount of • PERT uses probabilistic time estimates
• Duration estimates based on using optimistic, most likely, and
work by using CCPM is 16 Days. pessimistic estimates of activity durations, or a three-point estimate
• PERT attempts to address the risk associated with duration estimates by
developing schedules that are more realistic
• Using CCPM:
• It involves more work than CPM since it requires
• Project Duration can be reduced by 25-40%. several duration estimates
• Resources can be utilized effectively.
• Project is fully focused on both critical and non critical tasks
PERT FORMULA AND EXAMPLE SCHEDULE CONTROL

• PERT weighted average =
optimistic time + 4X most likely time + pessimistic time • Perform reality checks on schedules
6
• Allow for contingencies
• Example:
PERT weighted average = • Don’t plan for everyone to work at 100%
8 workdays + 4 X 10 workdays + 24 workdays = 12
days 6 capacity all the time
where optimistic time= 8 days, • Hold progress meetings with stakeholders
most likely time = 10 days, and
pessimistic time = 24 days
and be clear and honest in
Therefore, you’d use 12 days on the network diagram communicating schedule issues
instead of 10 when using PERT for the above example
SCHEDULE CONTROL (CONTINUED) REALITY CHECKS ON
• Goals are to know the status of the schedule, influence SCHEDULING
factors that cause schedule changes, determine that the
schedule has changed, and manage changes when they • First review the draft schedule or estimated completion date in
occur the project charter
• Prepare a more detailed schedule with the project team
• Tools and techniques include:
• Make sure the schedule is realistic and followed
• Progress reports
• A schedule change control system • Alert top management well in advance if there are schedule
problems
• Project management software, including schedule comparison
charts like the tracking Gantt chart • Verify schedule progress – just because a team member says a
• Variance analysis, such as analyzing float or slack task was completed on time doesn’t always mean that it was
• Performance management, such as earned value
ACTİVİTY SEQUENCİNG ACTİVİTY SEQUENCİNG

(INPUTS)
• Involves identifying and documenting interactivity logical
• Activity list
relationships.
• Product description
• Activities must be sequenced accurately to support later
development of realistic and achievable schedule. • Mandatory dependencies
• In this phase, a network diagram will be generated to • Discretionary dependencies

identify sequence. • External dependencies
• Milestones

(INPUTS) (INPUTS)
• Activity list: • Mandatory dependencies:
• List of activities for producing deliverables. • Those that are inherent in the nature of work being done.
• Product description: • For instance, implementation should be started before testing.
• Product characteristics may affect sequencing, • Also called hard logic.
• So they should be reviewed to ensure accuracy.
(INPUTS) (INPUTS)
• Discretionary dependencies: • External dependencies:
• Those that are defined by the project management • Those that involve a relationship between project activities
and nonproject activities.
team.
• For instance, programming language software should be
• Should be used with care,
delivered before implementation starts.
• Since they may limit later scheduling options.
• Also called;
• Soft logic,
• Preferred logic or
• Preferential logic.

(INPUTS) (TOOLS & TECHNİQUES)
• Milestones: • Precedence diagramming method (PDM)
• Deadlines that are forced by the stakeholders’ requirements. • Arrow diagramming method (ADM)
• Milestone events need to be part of activity sequencing to
• Conditional diagramming method
assure that requirements for meeting milestones are met.
• Network templates

(TOOLS & TECHNİQUES) (TOOLS & TECHNİQUES)
• Precedence diagramming method (PDM):
• Precedence diagramming method (PDM):
• A method of constructing a project network diagram;
• Has the ability to illustrate four types of task
• That uses boxes or rectangles (nodes) to represent
dependencies among activities.
activities, and
• Types of dependencies:
• Connects them with arrows that show dependencies.
• Finish-to-start
• Start-to-start
A D • Finish-to-finish
Dummy node F Dummy node
• Start-to-finish
Start B E End
C G
• Precedence diagramming method (PDM): • Precedence diagramming method (PDM):
• Finish-to-start: • Start-to-start:
• One activity cannot start until another activity has been • The start of sucessor depends on the start of
completed. predecessor.
• For instance, programmers cannot start programming
• For instance, programming cannot start until some
until programming language has been chosen.
portion of program design is decided on.
• The most commonly used logical relationship type.
Designing
Programming
P.L. chosen Programming

• Precedence diagramming method (PDM): • Precedence diagramming method (PDM):
• Start-to-finish:
• Finish-to-finish: • Completion of the successor activity depends on
• Completion of successor activity depends on the the beginning of the predecessor.
completion of the predecessor. • For instance, backuping first version of code
segment cannot be completed until programming
• For instance, testing a system cannot be finished begins.
until programming is completed. • Rarely used.
Programming
Programming
Backuping code
Testing

• Arrow diagramming method (ADM):
• Arrow diagramming method (ADM):
• Another network diagramming technique that
represents project activities as arrows and connects • Uses only finish-to-start dependencies.
them at nodes to show their dependencies. • May require use of dummy activities to define all logical
relationships correctly.
C=1
4
2 H=5
A=2 C
2 4 E
D=1 A
1 E=5 6 7
I=3
G=2 1 Dummy activity 6
B=3
3 J=4 B F
F=2 5 3 5
D
• Conditional diagramming method: • Network templates:
• Used for defining nonsequential activities such as • Standardized networks can be used to accelarate preparation
conditional branches and loops. of network diagrams.
• Portions of networks are offen reffered to as subnets or
fragnets.
Perform Implementation Yes
Completed?
Start testing No End
implement implement
ation Perform ation
implementation

(OUTPUTS) (OUTPUTS)
• Project network diagram • Project network diagram:
• May include full project details or have summary activities.
• Activity list updates
• Any unusual sequence should be fully described.
• Activity list updates:

• Activity definition process may generate updates to activity
lists.
SCHEDULE DEVELOPMENT SCHEDULE DEVELOPMENT

(INTRODUCTİON) (INPUTS)
• Project network diagram
• Means determining start and finish dates for project
• Activity duration estimations
activities.
• Resource requirements
• Schedule development process must often be iterated a • Resource pool description
number of times prior to determination of final project • Calenders
schedule. • Constraints
• Assumptions
• Leads and lags
• Risk management plan
• Activity attributes
(INPUTS) (INPUTS)
• Project network diagram: • Resource pool description:
• Shows activity sequencing. • Stores knowledge of what resources will be available at what
• Activity duration estimations: times and in what patterns.
• Shows number of work periods required for each activity. • For instance, a shared or critical resources can be difficult to
schedule
• Resource requirements: • Since their availability may be highly variable.
• Include number of resources assigned to tasks.

(INPUTS) (INPUTS)
• Resource pool description: • Calenders:
• Amount of detail may vary in time. • Project and resource calenders identify periods when
• For instance, work is allowed.
• For preliminary schedule, • Project calenders affect all resources (e.g. 5 day work in
a week).
• One may only need to know number of consultants
required. • Resource calenders affect a specific resource or a
• For final schedule, category of resources (e.g. A staff may be on vacation, a
half-time staff).
• One may need to know which specific consultants are
required.

(INPUTS) (INPUTS)
• Constraints: • Constraints:
• Factors that will limit the development options. • Major time constraints:
• Major time constraints: • Imposed dates:
• Imposed dates
• Restrics activities as to;
• Key events or milestones • Start no earlier than a specific date or
• Finish no later than a specific date.
(INPUTS) (INPUTS)
• Constraints: • Assumptions:
• Major time constraints: • Factors that are accepted as true.
• Key events or milestones:
• Completion of certain deliverables by a specific
date may be requested
• By customer, sponsor or Other stakeholders.
• Once scheduled,
• These days become expected, and
• Often may be moved with great difficulty.

(INPUTS) (INPUTS)
• Lead time:
• Lag time:
• Time required by one task before another task can
• Time delay between completion of one task and start of
begin.
its successor.
• For instance, in start-to-start relation,
• Testing can only be started after some portion of code is • For instance, in finish-to-start relation,
implemented. • Testing can only be started after implemention and
compiling code are completed.
Implementation Development
Implementation Testing
Testing Quality Inspection
Lag time (Compiling)

Lead time Lead time

(INPUTS) (TOOLS & TECHNİQUES)
• Risk management plan: • Matematical analysis
• A plan for detecting, monitoring risks and minimizing • Duration compression
their impacts. • Simulation
• Activity attributes: • Resource leveling
• Attributes of activities including; • Project management software
• Responsibility (who),
• Coding structure
• Geographic area or building (where),
• WBS classification (which branch),
• Activity type (other details),
• Matematical analysis: • Matematical analysis:

• Involves calculating; • Most widely known techniques:
• Theoretical early and late start and finish dates for • Critical path method (CPM)
all project activities
• Graphical evaluation and review technique (GERT)
• Without regard for any resource pool limitations.
• Program Evaluation and Review Technique (PERT)
• Result is not a schedule,
• But indicate time periods within which activity could
be scheduled
• Given resource limits and other known constraints.

• Matematical analysis:
• Critical path method (CPM): • Matematical analysis:
• Calculates a single, deterministic early and late start and
finish date for each activity; • Graphical evaluation and review technique (GERT):
• Based on deterministic network logic and duration • A network analysis technique that allows probabilistic
estimates. network logic and duration estimates.
• Nowadays, not considered as a generally accepted and
Late start Early finish
Early start Late finish used scheduling technique.
1 3 5 6
D=1
2 6 7
4

• Matematical analysis:
• Program Evaluation and Review Technique (PERT):
• Matematical analysis: • Optimistic, most likely and pessimistic durations are
• Program Evaluation and Review Technique (PERT): used.
• Uses a weighted average duration esti\mate to calculate
activity durations.
• Nowadays, seldomly used.
• Duration compression: • Duration compression:
• A special case of mathematical analysis; • Crashing:
• That looks for ways to shorten project schedule. • Dedicating extra resources to an activity in an attempt to
• Techniques: finish activity sooner than its normal schedule.
• Crashing • For example, hiring an extra personnel for an activity.
• Fast tracking

• Duration compression: • Simulation:

• A process of calculating different scenarios and their effects
• Fast tracking: on the project schedule.
• Means performing activities in parallel that would • Scenarios, Project and activity durations, are generated using
normally be done in sequence. different assumptions, constraints and resource allocations.
• For instance,
• Starting to write code before design is completed.
• Often results in rework and usually increases risks.

• Simulation: • Simulation:
• Common used types are:
• Monte Carlo simulations:
• Monte Carlo simulations
• Probabilistic analysis used to calculate a distribution of
• What-if analysis. likely results.
• In our case, we analyze likely task and project durations.
• Simulation: • Simulation:
• What-if analysis:
• What-if analysis:
• Tries to assess the feasibility of schedule under
• A process of evaluating alternative scenarios
unsuitable conditions.
• By observing how changes to selected factors affect
• Helps preparing contingency/response plans for risks.
other factors and outcomes.
• For instance, asks “what if a major component for a
system is delayed”.

• Resource leveling:
• Resource leveling:
• Matematical analysis produce early-start schedules,
• Any form of network analysis where resource management • But these schedules may not be feasible during some periods of
issues drive scheduling decisions. time because of high resource requirements that exceeded
available amount within the project.
• Resource leveling techniques reschedule activites in order to
reduce resource requirements.

• Resource leveling: • Resource leveling:
• For instance, • Allocate scare resource to critical path activities first
• If we have one person and two tasks that were scheduled approach can be applied;
at the same time, • To develop a schedule that reflects such contraints.
• Resource leveling may push one of the tasks further in the • Often results in a project duration longer than the
future. preliminary schedule.
Implementing A Implementing A
Implementing B Implementing B
Initial schedule Resource leveled schedule

• Project management software:
• Widely used to assist with schedule development.
• Coding structure:
• These products automate calculation of matematical analysis • Use coding structures to help identifying,
and resource leveling, sorting, categorizing activities.
• Therefore allow rapid consideration of schedule alternatives.
• For instance,
• Code:
• Project phase,
• Activity responsibility,
• Schedule level, etc.

(OUTPUTS) (OUTPUTS)
• Project schedule • Project schedule:
• Supporting detail • Includes at least planned start and expected finish dates for
each activity.
• Schedule management plan
• Remains preliminary until resource assignments are
• Resource requirement updates confirmed.
(OUTPUTS)
(OUTPUTS)
• Supporting detail:
• Schedule management plan:
• Includes at least documentation of all identified
• Defines how changes to schedule will be managed.
constraints and assumptions.
• Resource requirement updates:
• For instance;
• Resource leveling may have significant effects on resource
• Resource histograms
requiements.
• Alternative schedules
• Schedule contingency reserves
SCHEDULE CONTROL SCHEDULE CONTROL
(INPUTS)
• Influencing factors that create schedule changes to ensure
• Project schedule
that changes are agreed upon.
• Performance reports
• Determining that schedule has changed.
• Change requests
• Managining actual changes when and as they occur.
• Schedule management plan
• Should be integrated with other control processes (e.g.
integration change control, scope change control...).

(INPUTS) (INPUTS)
• Project schedule: • Change requests:
• The approved project schedule is called the schedule • May occur in many forms
baseline. • May require extending schedule or
• Basis for measuring and reporting project performance. • May allow accelerating it.
• Performance reports: • Schedule management plan:
• Provide information on schedule performance. • Defines how changes to schedule will be managed.
• For instance, which dates have been met and which have not.

• Schedule change control system • Schedule change control system:
• Performance measurement • A system that defines procedures by which project schedule
may be changed.
• Additional planning
• Includes tracking systems, paperwork...
• Project management software
• Performance measurement:
• Variance analysis • Any technique to asses magnitude of variations that occur.
• Helps to decide if schedule variations requires corrective
actions.
• Additional planning: • Project management software:
• If any changes are required on schedule, • Very useful for;
• Includes revising activity durations, activity sequences, • Tracking planned dates versus actual dates,
and alternative schedules.
• Forecasting effects of schedule changes.

(TOOLS & TECHNİQUES) (OUTPUTS)
• Schedule updates
• Variance analysis:
• During schedule monitoring, regularly performing • Corrective actions
variance analysis is important. • Lessons learned
• Includes comparison of planned and actual or forcast
start and finish dates
• In order to see affects of variations.
• Particular attention should be given to critical and sub-
critical activities.

(OUTPUTS) (OUTPUTS)
• Schedule updates: • Lessons learned:
• Any modification to schedule information. • Causes of variances,
• Approved schedule updates are called revisions. • Reasoning behind corrective actions,
• Corrective actions: • Other types of lessons learned should be documented for the
future use.
• Anything done to bring expected future performance in line
with baseline schedule.
MONITORING AND CONTROL PROJECT CONTROL: THE BIG PICTURE …
Detect
deviations Given
Project is
Off-track
Monitoring Control
1. Measurement 1. Actions
2. Performance Analysis) 2. Revised Plans, Cash Flows, Schedules, etc.
Correct
Deviations
Given Resources for

Given PC (the 4-M’s)
Project is
Off-track Project is
Off-track
Monitoring indicates that:

- Project is behind time-schedule, and/or
- Project has exceeded budget, and/or
- Quality of materials or finished work is below standard, and/or
- Productivity is lower than as planned, etc.
Resources for Resources for

Given PC (the 4-M’s) Given PC (the 4-M’s)
Mechanism and
Elements of PC
Project is Project is
Off-track Off-track
Adjust the
resources
Adjust the project

characteristics: size,
scope, etc
Resources available to the Project Manager for Project Control:
- Money
- Manpower (labor)
- Materials
- Machinery (Equipment)
Resources for
Given PC (the 4-M’s) Resources for
Mechanism and Given PC (the 4-M’s)
Elements of PC Mechanism and
Project is Elements of PC
Off-track Project is
Off-track
Adjust the
resources Adjust the
resources
Adjust the project
characteristics: size, Adjust the project
More labor? Better labor? scope, etc characteristics: size,
Better supervision? scope, etc output
resources More materials? Better materials?
More equipment? Better equipment? Project
More money? brought
Reduce project size? Reduce project scope? back on-
project Was the Project Control successful? How can we tell?
Terminate project? track
Resources for
How can we tell
Given PC (the 4-M’s)
Elements and
Project is
Mechanism of PC when Project Control is
Off-track
Adjust the needed?
resources
Adjust the project

characteristics: size,
scope, etc
output
Project
brought
back on-
track
HOW CAN WE TELL WHEN PROJECT

CONTROL IS NEEDED?
GENERAL CLUES (Meredith and Mantel, 2006)

Is Project Control is needed now?
How can we tell?
• Performance
- Unexpected technical problems arise
- Insufficient resources are unavailable when needed
General Clues Specific Clues - Quality or reliability problems occur
- Owner/Client requires changes in technical
specifications
Performance Cost Time “Primitive” Other
and Quality Indicators Indicators - Inter-functional complications and conflicts arise
- Market changes that increase/decrease the project’s
value
GENERAL CLUES (Meredith and Mantel, 2006) GENERAL CLUES (Meredith and Mantel, 2006)
 Cost  Time
- Technical difficulties that require more resources - Technical difficulties require more time to solve
- Scope of work increases - Scope of work increases
- Bid amount (accepted for the contract award) is - Unexpected utilities needing relocation
too low
- Task sequencing not done right
- Reporting of the monitoring results are poor/late
- Required material, labor/equipment unavailable
- Project budgeting for contractor cash flows not when needed
done right
- Key preceding tasks were not completed on time.
- Changes in market prices of the inputs
SPECIFIC CLUES SPECIFIC CLUES

JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN
planned
 “Primitive” indicators: Activity 1 actual  “Primitive” indicators:
– More resources or less – More resources or less
Program
resources haven been used Activity 2
resources haven been used (schedule)
than planned than planned
Progress
$ (actual)
Activity 3
– Activities are taking long – Activities are taking long
than planned NOW
than planned
70% Program
(schedule)
– Cost of activity (or of – Cost of activity (or of
project to date) is higher 50%
project to date) is higher Progress
than expected Legend than expected (actual)
planned
actual
now time
SPECIFIC CLUES
SPECIFIC CLUES
Why are they “primitive”?

Used for plotting the Used for plotting
- May be biased. Program S-curve the EVA S-curve
Work Work
Schedule Performed
- Do not consider that progress may be (WS) (WP)
overestimated or underestimated due to: Budgeted Cost (BC) BCWS BCWP
- execution of unscheduled work done, or

Actual Cost (AC) ACWS ACWP
- execution of more work of low value and less work of
high value Used for plotting the
Progress S-curve
SPECIFIC CLUES
$max • So we know Project Control is needed (at

time t) particularly when:
- RVt is –ve,
TIME VARIANCE
BCWS
- RIt < 1
ACWPt - CVt is –ve
RESOURCE FLOW VARIANCE
BCWSt COST VARIANCE - CIt <1
SCHEDULE VARIANCE
BCWPt
- SVt is –ve
ACWP
- SIt is < 1
BCWP - TVt is –ve
- TIt is < 1
t-p t tmax Time
now
Any Questions?
Student Assessment Information
The process you will be following is known as competency-based assessment. This means that
evidence of your current skills and knowledge will be measured against national and international
standards of best practice, not against the learning you have undertaken either recently or in the
past. (How well can you do the job?)
Some of the assessment will be concerned with how you apply the skills and knowledge in your
workplace, and some in the training room.
The assessment tasks utilized in this training have been designed to enable you to demonstrate the
required skills and knowledge and produce the critical evidence required so you can successfully
demonstrate competency at the required standard.
What happens if your result is ‘Not Yet Competent’ for one or more assessment tasks?
The assessment process is designed to answer the question “has the participant satisfactorily
demonstrated competence yet?” If the answer is “Not yet”, then we work with you to see how we
can get there.
In the case that one or more of your assessments has been marked ‘NYC’, your Trainer will provide
you with the necessary feedback and guidance, in order for you to resubmit/redo your assessment
task(s).
What if you disagree on the assessment outcome?
You can appeal against a decision made in regards to an assessment of your competency. An appeal
should only be made if you have been assessed as ‘Not Yet Competent’ against specific competency
standards and you feel you have sufficient grounds to believe that you are entitled to be assessed as
competent.
You must be able to adequately demonstrate that you have the skills and experience to be able to
meet the requirements of the unit you are appealing against the assessment of.
You can request a form to make an appeal and submit it to your Trainer, the Course Coordinator, or
an Administration Officer. The RTO will examine the appeal and you will be advised of the outcome
within 14 days. Any additional information you wish to provide may be attached to the form.
What if I believe I am already competent before training?
If you believe you already have the knowledge and skills to be able to demonstrate competence in
this unit, speak with your Trainer, as you may be able to apply for Recognition of Prior Learning
(RPL).
Credit Transfer
Credit transfer is recognition for study you have already completed. To receive Credit Transfer, you
must be enrolled in the relevant program. Credit Transfer can be granted if you provide the RTO with
certified copies of your qualifications, a Statement of Attainment or a Statement of Results along
with Credit Transfer Application Form. (For further information please visit Credit Transfer Policy)
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LEARNING OUTCOMES
The following critical aspects must be assessed as part of this unit:
1. Interact with customers, collect the necessary information and match customers' needs to
company products or service
2. Sell products and services including matching customers' requirements to company products and
services and finalise and record the sale
LEARNING ACTIVITIES
Class will involve a range of lecture based training, activities, written task, case study and
questioning.
STUDENT FEEDBACK
We welcome your feedback as one way to keep improving this unit. Later this semester, you will be
encouraged to give unit feedback through completing the Quality of Teaching and Learning Survey
LEARNING RESOURCES
Other Learning Resources available to students include:
 Candidate Resource & Assessment: BSBPMG512 Manage project time.

 Presentation handout
 PPT Presentation
TEXTBOOKS
You do not have to purchase the following textbooks but you may like to refer to them:
Unit Code(s) Unit Title Reference Book/ Trainer & Learner Resource
BSBPMG512 Manage project time  The Business Communication Handbook 7th

edition
 The Principles of Project Management
(Merri Williams)
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 Project Management in Practice by Neil D.
Pearson
 Trainer and Learner Resources by LRES
Training Management
Additional Reference Texts
ASSESSMENT DETAILS
Assessment Summary
The assessment for this unit consists of the following items.
Knowledge Assessment
Task 1: Project Time Management
Formative Activities
In addition to the two assessment tasks, students will be required to complete activities as outlined
by their trainer/assessor – these will be taken from class resources, Enhance Your Future Learner
Guides.
Referencing Style
Students should use the referencing style outlined by the Trainer when preparing assignments. More
information can be sought from your Course Trainer.
Guidelines for Submission

1. An Assignment Cover Sheet (or cover page) must accompany all assignments at front to
confirm it is your own assessment/ work.
2. All assignments must be within the specified timeframe (please refer to Due Date).
Assignment Marking
Students should allow 14 days’ turnaround for written assignments.
Plagiarism Monitoring
Students should use the referencing style outlined by when preparing assignments. More
information can be sought from your Trainer.
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Marking Guide
C Competent: for students who have achieved all of the learning outcomes specified for that
unit/module to the specified standard.
NYC Not Yet Competent: for students who are required to re-enrol in a unit/ module in their
endeavour to achieve competence
S Satisfactory: has achieved all the work requirements
NS Not Satisfactory: has not achieved all the work requirements
Every student at Danford College can expect to have “timely fair and constructive assessment of
work.” Assessment tasks must be marked in such a way that the result reflects how well a student
achieved the learning outcomes and in accordance with the assessment criteria. In addition to the
final result, returned assignments must be accompanied by feedback that clearly explains how the
marking result/s was derived (summative), as well as how the student can improve (formative).
Refer to observation checklist below and/or consult your trainer/assessor for marking criteria for
this unit.
STUDENTS’ RIGHTS AND RESPONSIBILITIES

It is the responsibility of every student to be aware of all relevant legislation, policies and procedures
relating to their rights and responsibilities as a student. These include:
 The Student Code of Conduct
 The College’s policy and statements on plagiarism
 Copyright principles and responsibilities
 The College’s policies on appropriate use of software and computer facilities
 Students’ responsibility to attend, update personal details and enrolment
 Course Progress Policy and Attendance
 Deadlines, appeals, and grievance resolution
 Student feedback
 Other policies and procedures.
 Electronic communication with students
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International Students Please also refer to ESOS framework for further details
https://internationaleducation.gov.au/Regulatory-Information/Education-Services-for-Overseas-
Students-ESOS-Legislative-Framework/ESOS-Act
ADDITIONAL INFORMATION
Contacts:
If you have a query relating to administrative matters such as obtaining assessment results, please
contact your Course co-ordinator.
Deferrals/Suspensions/Cancellations
Danford College will only allow deferrals/student requested suspensions under exceptional
compassionate circumstances. Once a student has commenced studies, students are not allowed to
take leave unless there are compelling and compassionate reasons. Please refer to the College’s
Deferment, Suspension and Cancellation Policy available in the Student Handbook and at Student
Administration. This policy has been explained to you at Orientation.
Course Progress Policy

You are expected to attend all classes and complete your units of study satisfactorily, within your
term. Your Course Trainer will make a report to the Course co-ordinator if there are any concerns
about your progress. The Course Progress Policy is available to you in the Student Handbook and at
Student Administration or on college website www.danford.edu.au.
Assessment Conditions
Assessment must be conducted in a safe environment where evidence gathered demonstrates

consistent performance of typical activities experienced in the management and leadership – project
management field of work and include access to workplace documentation, including:
 examples of project schedules, reports and feedback from project stakeholders regarding
time management
 case studies and, where possible, real situations
 interaction with others.
Assessors must satisfy SRTO2015/AQF assessor requirements.
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Lesson/Session Plan
For face-to-face classroom based delivery as per timetable.
Delivery Day Delivery Topics Activities to be undertaken

1 Introduction to BSBPMG512 Manage Work through corresponding sections
project time and Assessment of Learner Materials and Assessment
Requirements Overview (Page 3) Tasks
Develop work breakdown structure Activity 1 (Page 12)
with sufficient detail to enable Commence Written Questions
effective planning and control (Page 6) PowerPoint Presentation – Slides 1 –
23
2 How to Facilitate a Work Breakdown Work through corresponding sections

Structure Decomposition Exercise? of Learner Materials and Assessment
(Page 16) Tasks
Activity 2 (Page 23)
Continue with Written Questions
3 Estimate duration and effort, Work through corresponding sections

sequence and dependencies of tasks, of Learner Materials and Assessment
to achieve project deliverables (Page Tasks
25) Activity 3 (Page 33)
Commence Task 1 – Project Time
Management
PowerPoint Presentation – Slides 24 -
44
4 Estimating Project Effort (Page 39) Work through corresponding sections
of Learner Materials and Assessment
Tasks
Continue with Task 1 – Project Time
Management
5 Use project scheduling tools and Work through corresponding sections

techniques to identify schedule impact of Learner Materials and Assessment
on project time management, Tasks
resource requirements, costs and risks PowerPoint Presentation – Slides 45 -
(Page 55) 98
6 Techniques for Analyzing Project Work through corresponding sections
Schedules (Page 62) of Learner Materials and Assessment
Tasks
7 Using Scheduling Functions (Page 75) Work through corresponding sections
of Learner Materials and Assessment
Tasks
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Delivery Day Delivery Topics Activities to be undertaken
8 Contribute to achieving an agreed Work through corresponding sections
schedule baseline and communication of Learner Materials and Assessment
of the schedule to stakeholders (Page Tasks
88) PowerPoint Presentation – Slides 99 -
156
9 Implement mechanisms to measure, Work through corresponding sections
record and report progress of of Learner Materials and Assessment
activities according to agreed schedule Tasks
(Page 94) Activity 8 (Page 99)
PowerPoint Presentation – Slides 157 -
168
10 Conduct ongoing analysis to identify Work through corresponding sections
baseline variance (Page 108) of Learner Materials and Assessment
Tasks
11 MS Project - Status Reporting (Page Work through corresponding sections
111) of Learner Materials and Assessment
Tasks
12 Analyse and forecast impact of Work through corresponding sections
changes to the schedule (Page 121) of Learner Materials and Assessment
Review progress throughout project Tasks
life cycle and implement agreed Activity 11 (Page 134)
schedule changes (Page 126)
13 Develop responses to potential or Work through corresponding sections
actual schedule changes and of Learner Materials and Assessment
implement them to maintain project Tasks
objectives (Page 137) Activity 12 (Page 145)
Review schedule performance records PowerPoint Presentation – Slides 169 -
to determine effectiveness of time 189
management activities (Page 140)
14 Identify and document time Work through corresponding sections

management issues and recommend of Learner Materials and Assessment
improvements (Page 148) Tasks
Complete Written Questions
15 ASSESSMENT Complete Task 1 – Project Time
Management
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Knowledge Assessment (Written Tasks)
1. Why do we use WBS for Project Management?
2. As a project manager, in which document do you track the schedule progress such as activities
completed, activities in progress, actual start and finish dates, percentage complete, hours spent,
resource allocations, etc.?
(a) Project Schedule
(b) Schedule Baseline
(c) Schedule Management Plan
(d) Schedule Network Diagram
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3. What is a project baseline and what does it include?
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4. Describe how to use milestone tracking as a means of measuring project progress.
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5.What is the percent complete approach to measuring project progress?
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6. What is cost variance?
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7. What happens during the Execution phase of a project?
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8. John is managing a project. The project is three quarters done when the site engineer reports
that due to inherent complexities in a certain task the deliverables would get delayed. This would
involve additional analysis and then implementation. He requests that this new work that was not
envisaged earlier be added to the scope and also the time be added to the schedule. You and the
site engineer have analysed the impact of this change to cost, and have written up a change
request approval from the change control board. Just today you have received approval from the
change control board – what should be the immediate course of action?
(a) Start work immediately
(b) Ascertain the impact of this change to scope, schedule and cost before making any change
(c) Perform quality assurance
(d) Make sure that the scope baseline and schedule baseline are updated to reflect the approved
change before implementing the change.
9. The Project Time Management Process consists of following seven processes:

a. Define Activities
b. Develop Schedule
c. Plan Schedule Activities
d. Sequence Activities
e. Estimate Activity Durations
f. Estimate Activity Resources
g. Control Schedule
The correct sequence is:

(a) a-b-c-d-e-f-g
(b) c-a-d-f-e-b-g
(c) b-a-c-d-e-f-g
(d) b-c-a-d-f-e-g
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10. The representation of the plan for executing the project's activities including durations,
dependencies, and other planning information, used to produce project schedules along with
other scheduling artifacts is known as:
(a) Schedule Compression
(b) Schedule Model
(c) Schedule Data
(d) None of the above
11. The method of estimating project duration or cost by aggregating the estimates of the lower-
level components of the WBS is known as:
(a) Alternative Analysis
(b) Bottom-up Estimating
(c) Parametric Estimating
(d) Three-point estimating
12. During project execution, a work item has taken twice as long as the estimation. The estimates
were provided for by the Project Architect and an external consultant. The client has asked if the
deadline can be brought forward by a week. Which of the following actions can you take?
(a) Use the Triangle of Constraints to understand and explain to the client that if the deadline is
brought forward the scope and/or cost will increase.
(b) Analyze the risk and add it to the Risk Breakdown Structure.
(c) Use the Delphi Method to determine if this request can be accommodated.
(d) Provide the client with the new schedule and communicate the risk of bringing forward the
deadline.
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13. During a work breakdown structure meeting you have decomposed the deliverable into work
packages and created your WBS dictionary. However, you now want to decompose the work
packages to assist you in estimating, executing and control the project. These decomposed work
packages are called?
(a) Milestones
(b) Work Packages can't be decomposed into smaller units
(c) Activities
(d) Control Accounts
14. As the project manager of a project, you have needed to estimate certain activity duration
before all project team members were acquired. On acquisition of the project team, you find that
the actual competency levels of the acquired team members are much lower than what you had
anticipated. In such a case, you will:
(a) Make no changes to the schedule.
(b) Make changes to activity duration and schedule incorporating the changed competency levels.
(c) Inform the customer that the project is behind schedule.
(d) Ask the project team members to meet the original schedule by putting in overtime if required.
15. A project manager has finalized scope baseline and started to define activities using company's
templates and procedures. What is missing to complete the work?
(a) Organizational process assets.
(b) Enterprise environmental factors.
(c) Requirements documentation.
(d) Activity list.
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Task 1 – Project Time Management
Assuming your organization was awarded the following tender:
ATM ID: NAA RFT 20xx/1058

Agency: National Archives of Australia
Category: 81110000 - Computer services
Close Date & Time: 15-Aug-20xx 2:00 pm (ACT Local Time)
Publish Date: 15-Jul-20xx

Location: ACT Canberra
ATM Type: Request for Tender
APP Reference: NAA20XX-1
Multi Agency Access: No
Panel Arrangement: No
Description:
A service provider is being sought for the technical upgrade of the Archives’ website Destination:
Australia. In order to ensure the best value for money and optimal functionality (for the website and
related exhibition interactive) going forward, it is necessary for the website to be transferred from a
proprietary CMS to a commonly available CMS (including, but not limited to, an Open Source CMS).
The website will enable the National Archives of Australia to collect user contributed data about the
photographic collection featured on the site. The interface must be modern, engaging and user-
friendly, designed to meet the needs of people of all ages, and differing levels of computer and
English literacy. The website must interact successfully with an exhibition interactive via an existing
API. There is an option for hosting, maintenance and support services to be provided from contract
execution until 31 December 2019.
Timeframe for Delivery: November/December 20XX with a possible extension of up to 3 years for
hosting and maintenance.
The Requirement
The National Archives of Australia (Archives) (the Customer) is responsible under the Archives Act
1983 (Cth) for the preservation and storage of Commonwealth records, including the archival
resources of the Commonwealth.
This procurement request relates to the website redevelopment and hosting and maintenance
services for website Destination: Australia. The current website is located at
https://www.destinationaustralia.gov.au
The photographs showcased on this website are part of the Immigration Photographic Archive
(Series A12111). This collection comprises more than 22,000 black-and-white and colour
photographs taken by government photographers between 1946 and 1999 to record the arrival and
settlement of migrants in Australia after World War II. The photographs were used in newspapers,
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magazines, posters, brochures and displays to promote Australia as a prosperous welcoming nation
to potential migrants and to reassure the Australian public that new migrants would readily settle
into the Australian way of life.
In 2014, Destination: Australia was upgraded to encourage users to upload their own photographs
and stories to share their migrant experience, further adding rich personal context to the Archives’
collection. These ‘Feature Stories’ are also available (via an API) in a ‘Globe’ interactive in the
Archives’ exhibition A Ticket to Paradise?, which is touring nationally from April 2016 to September
2019.
Required
 Redevelopment of existing website Destination: Australia
 Software to be either open source or common-use proprietary Content Management System
(CMS)
 One website prototype round, with testing and feedback
 Website testing including content review
 Final revisions
 Final testing and bug fixes
 Website handover
 Final documentation including website style guides, master templates, admin user
guidelines, technical specifications. This must be written in English with clear instructions for
non-technical experts to operate the CMS.
Optional
 External hosting and ongoing support with a service level agreement (3 years).
 Updates and post implementation changes in response to user feedback
Required deliverables
API compatibility
 The website must continue to work with the pre-existing API linking the content with an
exhibition interactive
 The administrator account to the Destination: Australia CMS must have a check box function
that allows the administrator to select which feature stories will be published through the
API to the exhibition interactive.
 The API must be able to draw all user-added content in the selected feature stories,
including photographs, through to the linked exhibition interactive.
 The website will support sourcing and storing its data from the Archives’ API, according to
API calls provided by the Archives, to ensure valid, up to date data is displayed on the
website.
 The website must successfully GET, POST and PUT and DELETE data using the API within
agreed timeframes.
 Data from the API contains a mix of official records and user generated content
 API compatibility and function must be maintained at all times until December 2019
 The successful supplier will be provided with further documentation on the API.
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Accessibility/compatibility
 All elements of the solution must comply with the relevant Australian Government
mandatory criteria including meeting Web Content Accessibility Guidelines (WCAG) 2.0 – to
Level AA. Refer to the Australian Government Digital Transformation Office website for more
information – https://www.dto.gov.au/standard/design-guides/
 Any online forms should include identifying mandatory fields, error validation and error
suggestion on input fields (e.g. include @ for email addresses), as per the WCAG 2.0 Level
AA.
 All elements of the solution must display consistently across popular Windows, Macintosh
and Linux browsers including Internet Explorer (V9 up), Firefox, Chrome, Safari and Opera.
 Code to ensure ease of use and accessibility from desktop, tablet and smart phone / mobile
platforms using responsive interface design.
Privacy, security and intellectual property

 Data captured in online forms should reflect the Australian Privacy Principles (which unify
the National Privacy Principals and the Information Privacy Principles) and security
obligations of (ASD). Including any updates to how data should be stored according to the
Australian Privacy Principles or security obligations.
 Website security appropriate to support administration module, members’ pages, API
developer key hidden and enables encryption of stored data including indexes and
registered user’s personal details e.g. email address.
Hosting
 The website application must be built to be hosted externally to the Archives’ IT
infrastructure taking into account data sovereignty, data protection controls (see the
Australian Government Protective Security Policy Framework (PSPF) and Information
Security Manual) and compliance with the Privacy Act.
 Please see ‘Optional Deliverables’ for information on the optional hosting component of this
procurement process.
Aesthetic design
 The aesthetic design of the website must be maintained for the upgraded website.
 Style guides and other necessary components will be provided to the successful Supplier.
Content Management System

 The website must support formats to enable crowd sourced data and display of collection
data including images.
 The solution must provide an easy way for administrators to view and record user-generated
activity across the site from within the administration CMS.
 The website’s supporting CMS or web application must have both a design and source
interface enabling recognition of user contributed data and has the ability to manage full
user administration and content moderation in-house. This must include tasks such as
updating all content (including descriptions on collection photographs), monitoring and
moderating user-generated data and where necessary, blocking, removing, editing and/or
extracting user-generated data.
 Administration module must be secure
 Administration page displays name (as well as screen ID) of contributing users
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 The solution must support Google Analytics for website visitor statistics and pre-scripted
database reports for listing and exporting all user generated content.
 The website must comply with records management requirements to enable the website to
be archived with user-generated data extracted (e.g. XML, CSV format and image formats)
with relevant references for future re-purposing.
Email notifications to administrator

 Email notification to be sent to destinationaustralia@naa.gov.au when a user adds a
comment, tag, person, location to a collection photograph, or adds a feature story.
Notifications should include a hyperlink to the new content in the CMS administrator
account.
 Email notification to be sent to destinationaustralia@naa.gov.au when a user reports
comments or other content. Notifications must include a direct hyperlink to the reported
content.
Public user login

 Website users have the option of browsing and searching the website without registration.
Anyone wishing to input data to the website must register and login with a unique email
address and passphrase.
 Existing usernames and passwords must carry over to the redeveloped site
 Profile must include an online form for users to contact Archives to remove or edit their
user-added content
 Optional: ability for the user to ‘link’ together multiple stories that they have contributed by
the user, or to allow sorting by tag with user name. The published feature story page would
display a link to take viewers to the related stories.
Navigation
 Website navigation must align with pre-existing information architecture for Destination:
Australia.
 Breadcrumbs must be added to the top of each page to enhance user navigation
Search function
 Ability to query search and return search results, this will be supported through the API calls,
and the interface will need to be configured to return merged search requirements and
apply search parameters (e.g. filters) for the Discovering Anzacs interface.
 Required: free text feature stories and comments contributed by users must be posted back
to the API to become searchable on Destination: Australia.
 User-added tags on stories must be posted back through the API to become searchable.
 User-added locations on stories must be searchable and clickable to sort stories by place
 Adding terms to the search parameters should refine the search (it currently expands the
result field)
 The website must include all images within the A12111 series/collection, and search results
must display all relevant images. Check that search picks up all photographs in collection (or
that Destination: Australia captures all images in A12111) – e.g. searching for “Petrus
Mouwmans” does not give a result, although it is listed in RecordSearch: A12111,
1/1963/14/9.
 Results distinguish between feature stories, collection items and user added photographs.
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 Results able to be sorted by category (feature story, collection item) or by date range
(earliest to latest or vice versa)
 Image title to appear at the top of the results display (currently “view this photograph”).
 Hit highlighting - the search interface will support search term (eg. keyword, name) hit
highlighting using bold or similar
Updates/fixes to ‘add your story’ form (see Attachment B for images of changes)
 All free text fields must allow users to copy and paste text from other programs.
 The fields ‘Year’, ‘Country of origin’, ‘Theme’ and ‘Photos’ (at least one) must be compulsory
Adding images
 ‘Add photos’ must be moved to location above ‘Add Your Story’
 When adding an image from the website, the citation and image caption must also be
imported. The citation (e.g. NAA: A12111, 2/1969/4A/18) must be locked in, with the option
for the user to personalise the caption.
 When adding an image from the website, users must be able to search by collection control
symbols and non-consecutive key words.
 When adding an image from the website, user has the ability to refine the search using date
range.
 When adding an image from the website, clicking ‘enter’ after typing keyword must initiate
the search (currently takes user to blank error page).
 ‘Add image from website’ search must return all results available through Destination:
Australia.
 The website must perform checks to ensure the user is uploading an accepted size and
format (e.g. png, jpeg) and provide error messages where limits are exceeded.
 Optional: add a new function to allow users to select from their ‘Favourite’ images to add to
their story.
 Optional: users able to crop images before they upload.
Add your story

 ‘Add your story’ text field must allow simple formatting: paragraph breaks, italics.
 Must display Latin diacritics (accents e.g. acute é, grave è, circonflex ê, caron č; dots e.g.
diaeresis ë; cedilla ç, ogonek ą).
Feature story publishing process

 Selecting ‘Preview’ must save a copy that allows for the user to return and edit content. This
draft copy must not be publicly available at this stage.
 Selecting ‘Save your story’ (on contribution form page) or ‘Save and submit’ (on preview
page) submits the story to the CMS and publishes the feature story on the live website
 Stories are automatically published on submission.
Feature story display page (front end)

 On published feature stories, viewers must be able to click on categories (year, country, tags,
locations) to bring up a list of any other stories/images with the same user-added metadata
 Must display Latin diacritics (accents e.g. acute é, grave è, circonflex ê, caron č; dots e.g.
diaeresis ë; cedilla ç, ogonek ą)
 Must display simple formatting: line breaks, italics
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 Images must be able to open for larger display in a lightbox, with accompanying caption
 Optional: where a user has added a photograph from the website, the image on the
published feature story page links back to the image display page for the particular record
(i.e. with metadata, comments, tags etc).
 Optional: if users add data to ‘location’, map with tagged locations should be shown on
published feature story page.
Record display page (front end)

 Required: create ‘order record’ button that takes the user through to PhotoSearch result for
that image and the associated ‘ordering images’ text box.
Home page
 Optional: preview of ‘Feature stories’ displays feature stories at random
Testing
 The Supplier must outline the project plan and team roles and the testing strategy and plan.
It should also include any handover files and documentation to be provided for
implementation.
 Extensive testing will be required prior to the website launch. This includes iterative testing
during development, implementation of changes and subsequent re-testing.
 On implementation and handover the Destination: Australia website should be fully
functional and populated with relevant content and data. As part of the website handover,
training sessions and support documentation for nominated administrators will also be
required.
 Testing must include success of API calls to/from the Destination: Australia website for
creation, deletion, updates and retrieval of data in conjunction A Ticket to Paradise? ‘globe’
interactive.
 The National Archives will determine when the website is ready to be launched and the
date. However, the supplier must be able to meet the nominal launch date of 25 October
2016.
Acknowledgements
The banner (visible on all pages) must include:
 Destination: Australia web tile

 Multi-agency logo for the National Archives of Australia and the Department of Immigration
and Border Protection (to be provided by the Customer)
 The following tagline:
o ‘The National Archives acknowledges the support of the Department of Immigration
and Border Protection for the Destination: Australia website’, with the text
‘Department of Immigration and Border Protection’ hyperlinked to the website
https://www.border.gov.au/
Progress meetings and reports
The successful Supplier will be required to:

 Attend the project kick-off meeting (face-to-face / teleconference)
 Attend regular updates at an agreed time and day, at least fortnightly.
185 | P a g e
 Attend scheduled project meetings to report at key milestones or deliverables throughout
the project.
 Communicate any issues which may impact agreed project tolerances as they occur
 Attend project wrap-up meeting with final deliverables and website handover including
report/documentation.
 Work collaboratively with National Archives staff and Suppliers to meet expectations and
resolve issues.
Optional
 Should the option of host services be agreed to by the Customer, the Supplier must attend
ongoing support meetings or maintain regular communication as required, up until the end
of the contract.
Project Management Requirements

 The Archives will nominate a Project Manager who will be responsible for liaison with the
successful supplier in relation to management of the contract and overall service delivery.
 Potential Suppliers must specify all staff and subcontractors proposed to complete the work.
 The successful Supplier will be required to nominate a Project Manager as the primary point
of contact for the Archives. This person will be responsible for the management of the
contract as a whole and for liaison with the Archives’ Project Manager.
After delivery
The Supplier must commit to providing defect resolution in the post-launch period, up to 30 April
20xx, in response to Archives user testing and feedback. In this period the Supplier must complete
full internal testing and bug fixes before any solution release for publishing.
Optional deliverables
Hosting and maintenance

The Potential Supplier should provide a response for an optional service level agreement, to host the
website externally to the Archives’ infrastructure, provide ongoing maintenance and support until 31
December 2019.
 The website application must be hosted externally to the Archives’ IT infrastructure taking
into account data sovereignty, data protection controls (see the Australian Government
Protective Security Policy Framework (PSPF) and Information Security Manual) and
compliance with the Privacy Act.
 Quality of service requirement in order to maintain its effectiveness; available 99% of up
time annually and has appropriate back-up (with equal features to meet above-mentioned
data security and privacy requirements) scalability options and recovery processes.
 Response time for issues to be negotiated and confirmed with the successful Supplier.
Capability to function with future API’s

Potential to link with National Archives’ and external sources’ collections and data, via API’s that
may be developed in the future.
186 | P a g e
Your task is to:
 develop a project schedule using project management tools and techniques

 implement, analyse and monitor a project schedule
 conduct a review of project scheduling and recommend improvements for the future.
As such, you are required to produce the following for the project:
(a) develop a work breakdown structure for the project.
(b) Provide a schedule for your project. You may choose to do this using a simple table or Gantt
chart software such as MS Project. You need to include:
 Unique identifier for each row (task/phase/milestone)

 Phases
 Descriptive task names
 Milestones
 Duration and effort
 Sequence/dependencies
 Start and end dates
 Resources
(c) Provide a critical path analysis for your project. Describe how it helped you make decisions on
your schedule.
(d) Discuss how you will communicate the schedule baseline to stakeholders.
(e) Provide a tracking schedule with actuals showing variance with original plans – show a variation
between planned and actuals. You may choose to do this using a simple table or Gantt chart
software such as MS Project or similar such as open project.
(f) To show evidence of replanning to bring project back to original timeframe, what options are
available to bring the project back on schedule? What option was selected and why?
(g) What processes will you put in place to:

 Measure
 Record
 Report progress of activities
in relation to the schedule?
(h) Describe what you would need to do to implement any agreed schedule changes.
187 | P a g e
(i) Review your project performance in terms of time management. Would your time management
activities be considered effective? Why/why not?
1. (j) List all time management issues you may have experienced on the project (in the table below)
including a recommendation for future projects.
Date Description of Recommended Action for next Lesson Learnt

problem/opportunity time/project Raised By
All components must be completed.
188 | P a g e
BSB51415 DIPLOMA OF PROJECT MANAGEMENT
College Copy
Unit Code and Title: BSBPMG512 Manage project time
Assessment task Due Dates
Assessment 1 Due Date:
I Student ID acknowledge receiving the
Student Assessment Information Pack, which contains:
o Assessment Due Date Sheet

o Time table /Training Plan
o Lesson Plan
o Student Assessment Information Guide
o Assessment Cover Sheets
o Feedback form
o Student Resource
o Internet Access for online Business Environment Simulation with Login Key or access to college
simulated business documents on internal intranet.
Student Signature:
Date :
189 | P a g e
BSB51415 DIPLOMA OF PROJECT MANAGEMENT
Student Copy
Unit Code and Title: BSBPMG512 Manage project time
Assessment task Due Dates
I Student ID acknowledge receiving the
Student Assessment Information Pack, which contains:
o Assessment Due Date Sheet

o Time table / Training Plan
o Lesson Plan
o Student Assessment Information Guide
o Assessment Cover Sheets
o Feedback form
o Student Resource
o Internet Access for online Business Environment Simulation with Login Key or access to college
simulated business documents on internal intranet.
Student Signature:
Date :
190 | P a g e
ASSESSMENT SUMMARY / COVER SHEET
This form is to be completed by the assessor and used a final record of student competency.
All student submissions including any associated checklists (outlined below) are to be attached to
this cover sheet before placing on the students file. Student results are not to be entered onto the Student
Database unless all relevant paperwork is completed and attached to this form.
Student Name:
Student ID No:
Final Completion Date:
Unit Code: BSBPMG512
Unit Title: Manage project time
Unit
Assessors Name:
Outcome
C NYC
Result: S = Satisfactory, NYS = Not Yet Satisfactory, NA = Not Assessed
 Knowledge Assessment - Questions and Answers
S | NYS | NA
 Task 1 S | NYS | NA
Is the Learner ready for assessment? Yes No

Has the assessment process been explained? Yes No
Does the Learner understand which evidence is to be collected and
Yes No
how?
Have the Learner’s rights and the appeal system been fully
Yes No
explained?
Have you discussed any special needs to be considered during
Yes No
assessment?
I agree to undertake assessment in the knowledge that information gathered will only be used for
professional development purposes and can only be accessed by my manager and the RTO:
Learner Signature:
Date:
I have received, discussed and accepted my result as mentioned above for
this unit assessment and I am aware about my rights to appeal.
Assessor Signature:
Date:
I declare that I have conducted a fair, valid, reliable and flexible
assessment with this student, and I have provided appropriate feedback.
191 | P a g e
ASSESSMENT COVER SHEET
Unit BSBPMG512 Manage project time
Course BSB51415 DIPLOMA OF PROJECT MANAGEMENT
Student Name: Student ID:
Group: Date
Title of Assignment: Knowledge Assessment - Questions and Answers
Assessor Name:
This cover sheet must be attached to your assignment.
Declaration:
1. I am aware that penalties exist for plagiarism and unauthorized collusion with other
students.
2. I am aware of the requirements set by my educator with regards to the presentation of
documents and assignments.
3. I have retained a copy of my assignment.
Student Signature:___________________________
Date:________________________________________
192 | P a g e
QUESTION & ANSWER CHECKLIST
S NYS
Learner’s name:
Assessor’s name:
Question Correct ()
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
Feedback to Learner:
Assessor’s Signature:
Date:
193 | P a g e
ASSESSMENT COVER SHEET
Unit BSBPMG512 Manage project time
Course BSB51415 DIPLOMA OF PROJECT MANAGEMENT
Student Name: Student ID:
Group: Date
Title of Assignment: Task 1
Assessor Name:
This cover sheet must be attached to your assignment.
Declaration:
1. I am aware that penalties exist for plagiarism and unauthorized collusion with other
students.
2. I am aware of the requirements set by my educator with regards to the presentation of
documents and assignments.
3. I have retained a copy of my assignment.
Student Signature:___________________________
Date:________________________________________
194 | P a g e
TASK 1 CHECKLIST
S NYS
Learner’s name:
Assessor’s name:
Observation Criteria S NS
Developed work breakdown structure with sufficient detail to enable
effective planning and control
Estimated duration and effort, sequence and dependencies of tasks, to
achieve project deliverables
Used project scheduling tools and techniques to identify schedule
impact on project time management, resource requirements, costs and
risks
Contributed to achieving an agreed schedule baseline and
communication of the schedule to stakeholders
Implemented mechanisms to measure, record and report progress of
activities according to agreed schedule
Conducted ongoing analysis to identify baseline variance
Analysed and forecasted impact of changes to the schedule
Reviewed progress throughout project life cycle and implement agreed
schedule changes
Developed responses to potential or actual schedule changes and
implemented them to maintain project objectives
Reviewed schedule performance records to determine effectiveness of
time management activities
Identified and documented time management issues and recommend
improvements
Feedback to Learner:
Assessor’s Signature:
Date:
195 | P a g e
Student Feedback Form
Unit BSBPMG512 - Manage project time
Student Name: Date
Assessor Name:
Please provide us some feedback on your assessment process. Information provided on this form is
used for evaluation of our assessment systems and processes.
This information is confidential and is not released to any external parties without your written
consent. There is no need to sign your name as your feedback is confidential.
Strongly Strongly
Agree
Disagree Agree
I received information about the assessment
1 2 3 4 5
requirements prior to undertaking the tasks
The assessment instructions were clear and easy to

1 2 3 4 5
understand
I understood the purpose of the assessment 1 2 3 4 5
The assessment meet your expectation 1 2 3 4 5

My Assessor was organised and well prepared 1 2 3 4 5
The assessment was Fair, Valid, Flexible and Reliable 1 2 3 4 5
My Assessor's conduct was professional 1 2 3 4 5

The assessment was an accurate reflection of the unit
1 2 3 4 5
requirements
I was comfortable with the outcome of the assessment 1 2 3 4 5
I received feedback about assessments I completed 1 2 3 4 5
Great
The pace of this unit was: Too Slow Too Fast
Pace
Comments:
196 | P a g e

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BSBPMG512 - Manage project time

Learner Materials and Assessment Tasks

About BSBPMG512 Manage project time ............................................................................................. 3

Management and Leadership – Project Management

Elements and Performance Criteria

1.2 Estimate duration and effort, sequence and dependencies of tasks,

1.3 Use project scheduling tools and techniques to identify schedule

1.4 Contribute to achieving an agreed schedule baseline and

2.2 Conduct ongoing analysis to identify baseline variance

2.3 Analyse and forecast impact of changes to the schedule

2.4 Review progress throughout project life cycle and implement

2.5 Develop responses to potential or actual schedule changes and

3.2 Identify and document time management issues and recommend

Skill Performance Description

Unit Mapping Information

current version previous version

Evidence of the ability to:

 develop a project schedule using project management tools and techniques

 explain estimation techniques to determine task duration and resource effort

A good project plan provides the following:

 A roadmap (including clear milestones) everyone in the team can follow

 How long did it take?

Work Breakdown Structure (WBS)

Using Project Management Software

1. Define what needs to be done using a Work Breakdown Structure.

A WBS is Not a To Do List

Considerations When Building a Work Breakdown Structure

Why is a Work Breakdown Structure Important?

Now, let’s jump into the process of developing a WBS.

The Building Process

1. Determine the major deliverables or products to be produced.

You may identify the following items:

o Training program needs statement

You may determine that you require the following:

o Interviews of potential participants

Suppose you choose to start with Interviews of potential participants.

What is the purpose of a work breakdown structure (WBS)?

Work Breakdown Structure Levels3

How to Facilitate a Work Breakdown Structure Decomposition Exercise?4

The main purpose of a WBS excercise is to:

1. Structure and organize the WBS

Following example is an outlined WBS:

 Giving visibility to important work efforts.

Therefore, almost all information technology projects make use of WBS.

Following is a sample WBS diagram:

3. Compile the WBS Information

What Tools Do I Need to Create a Work Breakdown Structure?

The Four Elements in Each WBS Element6

How Far Down?

WBS Identification Numbering

Figure 1 WBS Construction Example

COMMON PITFALLS AND MISCONCEPTIONS

Why do work breakdown structures have levels?

Estimate duration and effort, sequence and dependencies of tasks, to achieve

 Capacity: Productivity per unit time period

Step-by-Step Work Breakdown

When Do You Estimate Project Cost and Duration?

What Techniques Do You Use to Estimate Project Cost and Duration?

Estimate Project Cost and Duration Technique #1: Analogous Estimating

Estimate Project Cost and Duration Technique #3: Bottom-Up Estimating

Why Estimate Time Accurately?

How to Estimate Time Accurately

Use these steps to make accurate time estimates: