Influence of Planing Metrocity and Environment PDF

INFLUENCE OF URBAN PLANNING AND METRO
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 Influence on Urban Planning by Kevin A. Lynch
Influence on Urban
Planning by Kevin A.
Lynch
Published by -Thejas Jagannath Category -Urban Planner Published On -
17/02/2019 Last Updated On -17/02/2019
Introduction
Kevin A Lynch was one of the pioneers in urban planning before the profession
was well-known or came into existence. Architecture was a prominent
profession in America during his times and he trained under a few architects
before he taught and trained as an urban planner. He studied under Frank Lloyd
Wright and completed his City Planning degree from MIT which was and is still
one of the most popular and competitive institutions in America. He was known
for his work on the different types of sensory inputs that people receive from
their environment. His most famous work is called The Image of the
City highlighting how people use the city on a daily basis. This was a pioneering
work in the field after which psychological perspectives of urban planning came
into existence with the works of Jane Jacobs, Jan Gehl and similar philosophers
who have closely followed the concepts of Kevin Lynch.
Kevin Lynch’s notable works
His work on City Sense and City Design was the first of its kind to highlight the
importance of design principles in urban planning. Sensory inputs that people
gather in their cities is closely related to the overall urban design principles of
the ways in which the city is structured and functions regularly. Not only is the
design of public spaces important, but also the design of our streets, roads, and
overall infrastructure of the built environment are important in understanding
how we perceive and understand our cities at a psychological level. This
concept is also important for map making and GIS-based design. This book
highlights humanistic philosophies and principles that are still not followed in
many cities around the world. This has given birth to concepts of placemaking
and place design theories that want to make our cities available at a human
scale. Many cities in America that Lynch has researched and explored in his
work, have been at to a certain extent been successful in putting people first in
their humanistic based design of city planning. However, many cities around the
world, including America have become car-dependent and this is one of the
major threats to humanistic and perceptive design principles of city planning.
In the Image of the City, Lynch continues this work on perceptive design
principles but takes his work further by describing exactly how people perceive
their surroundings. The book is the result of a five-year study of particular cities in
USA, namely, Boston, Jersey City and Los Angeles. It focuses on how people who
navigate their cities take in information of the city, and use it to create mental maps in
their brain. Lynch’s conclusion was that people formed mental maps of their
surroundings consisting of five basic elements. He suggests that there are five main
elements to the humanistic design, these are: Paths, Edges, Districts, Nodes,
and Landmarks. Paths and Edges relate to the general structures we pass by
daily such as the streets we walk in, sidewalks and other important features that
make walking a pleasurable activity in the city. He also explains the design function
of each of the five elements to indicate how our cities can be designed to serve the
best use for all human beings. He has even conducted research on children and
compared them with adults to see how people differ in conceptualizing their cities
with age.
Unfortunately, in India, sidewalks and other features that help create a walkable
city needs to be drastically improved to achieve the same quality and function
that people in America and first world nations make use of on a daily basis. This
is because the five nodes that Lynch suggests are mainly controlled by
government organizations who are at the forefront of city building. Cleanliness
of the streets is also a function Lynch highlighted that can impact our perception
and use of the streets on a regular basis. These features give the city a
character and identity that provides for pleasurable activities in a person’s life.
Lynch highlights that imageability and wayfinding within the cities are influenced
not only through maps, but also our everyday perceptions of our streets and
geographical boundaries. In other words, humans create mental maps of their
cities based on the concepts of Paths, Edges, Districts, Nodes, and
Landmarks. For a more detailed understanding of these concepts, please refer
to the book.
Conclusion
Lynch’s works influenced humanistic design planning and environmental

psychology. However, he was a planner who played an important role in
American city design. Very few people had thought about the psychological
importance of our senses in understanding city design before Lynch, and this
contributed to the success and recognition of his work. 21st-century concepts
of placemaking and place design are highly based on Lynch’s work and even
participatory and co-design principles in Urban Planning have the basis in
Lynch’s work. GIS and creative map-making were also tools that were
developed after Lynch’s concepts of mental maps, design and how people
perceive their environment. It is important to understand the ways in which
people perceive their environments to gain a deeper understanding of
constructing cities that impact humans navigate their cities on a daily basis.
Category -Urban Planner

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Imagine the typical car showroom. You might picture a pushy salesman, who tries
to baffle you with auto lingo. Maybe you see rows upon rows of cars in the same
colour, each with a subtle difference that you can’t quite quantify. Perhaps you see
yourself pouring over complicated spec sheets, with the pressure of the next
customer leaning in behind you.
But whatever image springs to mind, you might need to scrap it. That’s because
2016’s customers are thinking of something completely different to the traditional
car showroom. Rather than floor-to-ceiling glass and lines of coffee machines,
they’re dreaming of an altogether different environment. Somewhere to discover
and explore at their own pace. Somewhere that they can access from the comfort of
their own homes.
That’s because the new car showroom isn’t on the outskirts of town anymore. It’s
in our living rooms, on our desktops, on our phones.
Showroom 2.0
Accenture recently reported that some 80% of all research into buying a new car is
conducted online. The average auto customer hits 900 digital touch points over
three months on the journey to purchase, with 71% of those occurring on mobile,
according to Google.
When you think about it, that shouldn’t be altogether unexpected. But you might
be surprised to know that 75% of drivers would consider conducting their entire
car-buying process digitally. That means not stepping foot inside a physical
dealership at all. And in keeping with this, the number of visits to dealerships had
actually fallen from an average 2.2 in 2012 to 1.7 in 2015. Instead, people were
doing more research - and crucially even purchasing - online.
The self-serve element of buying a car is becoming increasingly important and it’s
surpassing the influence of face-to-face interactions with the supposed ‘experts’.
And to keep up, brands need to count their website as their primary showroom.
Sorry, dealerships and salespeople, you’ve been banished to the backseat.
An online journey as smooth as a test drive
Automotive pioneers Tesla are best-in-class when it comes to the smart digital
showroom. As the customer lands on the site, they are greeted with a simple nav to
browse the product range and two large CTA buttons – ‘order your Model S’ or
‘order your Model X’. There’s no messing around – buying the car is front and
centre. One click and customers are directed straight to the design studio, where
they can customise their car.
It follows that the best car websites empower customers to self-serve. By removing
the pressure of the traditional showroom, brands allow customers to explore the
range at their own pace and to understand its features for themselves. In
behavioural terms, this is a psychologically powerful move.
Rather than traditional ecommerce UX – which aims to get customers from landing
page to checkout as quickly as possible – the successful website showroom should
slow down the customer journey. Prioritising discovery and exploration, the
customer journey here should provide relevant information in the correct order, to
guide customers through to purchase on their own individual timescale.
Smart brands don’t take this as an excuse to rest on their laurels though – in fact,
quite the opposite. They are using shortcuts, like pre-completed forms, that can
make the customer’s life easier during the check-out process. Brands can also
reconsider their speccing process.
After all, it’s simple behavioural economics to encourage people to remove items
to make a product ‘cheaper’ - rather than to ask them to add on additional things to
the tune of an additional cost - and play to their sense of value. So whilst most
configurators assume customers want the basic model, and then encourage them to
add on additional features, the opposite process may yield interesting results for
brands willing to take the risk for increased sales.
Reflecting the move online in the real world
But won’t buying always be a fundamentally visceral, physical experience? For

every bold petrolhead who wants the latest exclusive engine, won’t there always be
the safe suburban couple who want the assurance of comfy backseats for their
kids? After all, even Tesla, the gold standard of auto ecommerce, have started
setting up showrooms on the high street to integrate mainstream shopping activity.
So how far can the online experience really take automotive brands?
The argument goes that there are certain aspects of buying a car that can never be
replicated online. Like the customer’s desire to see the car in real life or to
physically touch it. What about the test drive? Or how the customer physically sees
themselves in the car?
Brands are already looking at ways to bridge this gap. And they’re succeeding.
Volvo did just this when they created their first 100% digital launch. The new
XC90 was only available to reserve online and the brand partnered with Google
Cardboard to create a 360° preview of the car. People simply downloaded the app
to experience ‘Volvo Reality’ and complete a full virtual test drive on their phones.
The result – all 1,927of the limited edition cars sold online within 48 hours.
For automotive brands who believe that buying a car will always be a ‘real world’
experience, this should provide something of a wake-up call. The ‘phygital’ –
that’s the merging of the ‘physical’ and ‘digital’, and includes technologies like
AR and VR – can go some way to making up the difference. With VR, we’re
already in the space of customers seeing themselves in their brand new car, without
ever leaving their office or living room.
Or, in the case of Bentley, in the middle of a shopping centre. The brand set up
their luxury studio, which allows customers to design their bespoke Bentley in the
middle of Westfield Stratford. Using the Inspirator app and ‘emotional recognition’
technology, users could watch a personalised film, guided by their own reactions to
it. And once the film finished, users were left with the profile of their bespoke car,
suited perfectly to their unique emotional preferences.
The next leg of the journey
So as the pre-completed form and the virtual test drive steams ahead of the
traditional salesman, brands who refuse to face the music are setting themselves up
for a fall. The traditional dealership isn't dead (yet), but the significant move to
buying online should be a warning to brands to consider a more integrated journey.
The way forward? Think digital first – even when it comes to your showroom.
Otherwise, you’re in danger of getting stuck in the slow lane.
Polly Jones is managing partner at Partners Andrews Aldridge.
This article is about: World, Media, Creative
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Natural environment
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigationJump to search
For the biology term, see Biophysical environment. For other uses, see Environment.
"Natural force" redirects here. For the album by Bonnie Tyler, see Natural Force.
Land management has preserved the natural characteristics of Hopetoun Falls, Australia while allowing
ample access for visitors.
An image of the Sahara desert from satellite of the world's largest hot desert and third-largest desert after
the polar deserts
The natural environment encompasses all living and non-living things occurring naturally,
meaning in this case not artificial. The term is most often applied to the Earth or some parts of
Earth. This environment encompasses the interaction of all living species, climate, weather and
natural resources that affect human survival and economic activity. [1] The concept of the natural
environment can be distinguished as components:
 Complete ecological units that function as natural systems without massive civilized human
intervention, including all vegetation, microorganisms, soil, rocks, atmosphere, and natural
phenomena that occur within their boundaries and their nature.
 Universal natural resources and physical phenomena that lack clear-cut boundaries, such as
air, water, and climate, as well as energy, radiation, electric charge, and magnetism, not
originating from civilized human actions.
In contrast to the natural environment is the built environment. In such areas where man has
fundamentally transformed landscapes such as urban settings and agricultural land conversion,
the natural environment is greatly modified into a simplified human environment. Even acts which
seem less extreme, such as building a mud hut or a photovoltaic system in the desert, the
modified environment becomes an artificial one. Though many animals build things to provide a
better environment for themselves, they are not human, hence beaver dams, and the works
of mound-building termites, are thought of as natural.
People seldom find absolutely natural environments on Earth, and naturalness usually varies in a
continuum, from 100% natural in one extreme to 0% natural in the other. More precisely, we can
consider the different aspects or components of an environment, and see that their degree of
naturalness is not uniform.[2] If, for instance, in an agricultural field, the mineralogic
composition and the structure of its soil are similar to those of an undisturbed forest soil, but the
structure is quite different.
Natural environment is often used as a synonym for habitat, for instance, when we say that the
natural environment of giraffes is the savanna.
Contents
 1Composition
 2Geological activity
 3Water on Earth
o 3.1Oceans
o 3.2Rivers
o 3.3Lakes
 3.3.1Ponds
o 3.4Human impact on water
 4Atmosphere, climate and weather
o 4.1Layers of the atmosphere
 4.1.1Principal layers
 4.1.2Effects of global warming
o 4.2Climate
o 4.3Weather
 5Life
 6Ecosystems
 7Biomes
 8Biogeochemical cycles
 9Wilderness
 10Challenges
 11Criticism
 12See also
 13References
 14Further reading
 15External links
Composition[edit]
A volcanic fissure and lava channel
Main article: Earth science
Earth's layered structure. (1) inner core; (2) outer core; (3) lower mantle; (4) upper mantle; (5) lithosphere;
(6) crust
Earth science generally recognizes four spheres, the lithosphere, the hydrosphere,
the atmosphere, and the biosphere[3] as correspondent to rocks, water, air, and life respectively.
Some scientists include, as part of the spheres of the Earth, the cryosphere (corresponding
to ice) as a distinct portion of the hydrosphere, as well as the pedosphere (corresponding to soil)
as an active and intermixed sphere. Earth science (also known as geoscience, the geographical
sciences or the Earth Sciences), is an all-embracing term for the sciences related to the
planet Earth.[4] There are four major disciplines in earth sciences,
namely geography, geology, geophysics and geodesy. These major disciplines
use physics, chemistry, biology, chronology and mathematics to build a qualitative and
quantitative understanding of the principal areas or spheres of Earth.
Geological activity[edit]
Main article: Geology
The Earth's crust, or lithosphere, is the outermost solid surface of the planet and is chemically
and mechanically different from underlying mantle. It has been generated greatly
by igneous processes in which magma cools and solidifies to form solid rock. Beneath the
lithosphere lies the mantle which is heated by the decay of radioactive elements. The mantle
though solid is in a state of rheic convection. This convection process causes the lithospheric
plates to move, albeit slowly. The resulting process is known as plate tectonics. Volcanoes result
primarily from the melting of subducted crust material or of rising mantle at mid-ocean
ridges and mantle plumes.
Water on Earth[edit]
Coral reefs have significant marine biodiversity.
Most water is found in one or another natural kind of body of water.

Oceans[edit]
Main article: Ocean
An ocean is a major body of saline water, and a component of the hydrosphere. Approximately
71% of the Earth's surface (an area of some 362 million square kilometers) is covered by ocean,
a continuous body of water that is customarily divided into several principal oceans and
smaller seas. More than half of this area is over 3,000 meters (9,800 ft) deep. Average
oceanic salinity is around 35 parts per thousand (ppt) (3.5%), and nearly all seawater has a
salinity in the range of 30 to 38 ppt. Though generally recognized as several 'separate' oceans,
these waters comprise one global, interconnected body of salt water often referred to as
the World Ocean or global ocean.[5][6] The deep seabeds are more than half the Earth's surface,
and are among the least-modified natural environments. The major oceanic divisions are defined
in part by the continents, various archipelagos, and other criteria: these divisions are (in
descending order of size) the Pacific Ocean, the Atlantic Ocean, the Indian Ocean, the Southern
Ocean and the Arctic Ocean.
Rivers[edit]
Main article: River
A river is a natural watercourse,[7] usually freshwater, flowing toward an ocean, a lake, a sea or
another river. A few rivers simply flow into the ground and dry up completely before reaching
another body of water.
Rocky stream in the U.S. state of Hawaii
The water in a river is usually in a channel, made up of a stream bed between banks. In larger
rivers there is also a wider floodplain shaped by waters over-topping the channel. Flood plains
may be very wide in relation to the size of the river channel. Rivers are a part of the hydrological
cycle. Water within a river is generally collected from precipitation through surface
runoff, groundwater recharge, springs, and the release of water stored in glaciers and
snowpacks.
Small rivers may also be termed by several other names, including stream, creek and brook.
Their current is confined within a bed and stream banks. Streams play an important corridor role
in connecting fragmented habitats and thus in conserving biodiversity. The study of streams and
waterways in general is known as surface hydrology.[8]
Further information: Stream
Lakes[edit]
Lácar Lake, of glacial origin, in the province of Neuquén, Argentina
Main article: Lake

A lake (from Latin lacus) is a terrain feature, a body of water that is localized to the bottom
of basin. A body of water is considered a lake when it is inland, is not part of an ocean, and is
larger and deeper than a pond.[9][10]
A swamp area in Everglades National Park, Florida, US.
Natural lakes on Earth are generally found in mountainous areas, rift zones, and areas with
ongoing or recent glaciation. Other lakes are found in endorheic basins or along the courses of
mature rivers. In some parts of the world, there are many lakes because of chaotic drainage
patterns left over from the last Ice Age. All lakes are temporary over geologic time scales, as they
will slowly fill in with sediments or spill out of the basin containing them.
Ponds[edit]
Main article: Pond
A pond is a body of standing water, either natural or man-made, that is usually smaller than
a lake. A wide variety of man-made bodies of water are classified as ponds, including water
gardens designed for aesthetic ornamentation, fish ponds designed for commercial fish breeding,
and solar ponds designed to store thermal energy. Ponds and lakes are distinguished from
streams by their current speed. While currents in streams are easily observed, ponds and lakes
possess thermally driven micro-currents and moderate wind driven currents. These features
distinguish a pond from many other aquatic terrain features, such as stream pools and tide pools.
Human impact on water[edit]
Humans impact the water in different ways such as modifying rivers (through dams and stream
channelization), urbanization, and deforestation. These impact lake levels, groundwater
conditions, water pollution, thermal pollution, and marine pollution. Humans modify rivers by
using direct channel manipulation.[11] We are building dams and reservoirs and manipulating the
direction of the rivers and water path. Dams are good for us, some communities need the
reservoirs to survive. However, reservoirs and dams may negatively impact the environment and
wildlife. Dams stops fish migration and the moving of organisms down stream. Urbanization
effects the environment because of deforestation and changing lake levels, groundwater
conditions, etc. Deforestation and urbanization go hand in hand. Deforestation may cause
flooding, declining stream flow, and changes in riverside vegetation. The changing vegetation
occurs because when trees cannot get adequate water they start to deteriorate, leading to a
decreased food supply for the wildlife in an area.[11]
Atmosphere, climate and weather[edit]
Atmospheric gases scatter blue light more than other wavelengths, creating a blue halo when seen from
space.
A view of Earth's troposphere from an airplane
Lightning is an atmospheric discharge of electricity accompanied by thunder, which occurs

during thunderstorms and certain other natural conditions.[12]
The atmosphere of the Earth serves as a key factor in sustaining the planetary ecosystem. The
thin layer of gases that envelops the Earth is held in place by the planet's gravity. Dry air consists
of 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen, 1% argon and other inert gases, such as carbon dioxide. The
remaining gases are often referred to as trace gases,[13] among which are the greenhouse
gases such as water vapor, carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, and ozone. Filtered air
includes trace amounts of many other chemical compounds. Air also contains a variable amount
of water vapor and suspensions of water droplets and ice crystals seen as clouds. Many natural
substances may be present in tiny amounts in an unfiltered air sample,
including dust, pollen and spores, sea spray, volcanic ash, and meteoroids. Various
industrial pollutants also may be present, such as chlorine (elementary or in
compounds), fluorine compounds, elemental mercury, and sulphur compounds such as sulphur
dioxide [SO2].
The ozone layer of the Earth's atmosphere plays an important role in depleting the amount
of ultraviolet (UV) radiation that reaches the surface. As DNA is readily damaged by UV light, this
serves to protect life at the surface. The atmosphere also retains heat during the night, thereby
reducing the daily temperature extremes.
Layers of the atmosphere[edit]
Main article: Earth's atmosphere
Principal layers[edit]
Earth's atmosphere can be divided into five main layers. These layers are mainly determined by
whether temperature increases or decreases with altitude. From highest to lowest, these layers
are:
 Exosphere: The outermost layer of Earth's atmosphere extends from the exobase upward,
mainly composed of hydrogen and helium.
 Thermosphere: The top of the thermosphere is the bottom of the exosphere, called
the exobase. Its height varies with solar activity and ranges from about 350–800 km (220–
500 mi; 1,150,000–2,620,000 ft). The International Space Station orbits in this layer, between
320 and 380 km (200 and 240 mi).
 Mesosphere: The mesosphere extends from the stratopause to 80–85 km (50–53 mi;
262,000–279,000 ft). It is the layer where most meteors burn up upon entering the
atmosphere.
 Stratosphere: The stratosphere extends from the tropopause to about 51 km (32 mi;
167,000 ft). The stratopause, which is the boundary between the stratosphere and
mesosphere, typically is at 50 to 55 km (31 to 34 mi; 164,000 to 180,000 ft).
 Troposphere: The troposphere begins at the surface and extends to between 7 km
(23,000 ft) at the poles and 17 km (56,000 ft) at the equator, with some variation due to
weather. The troposphere is mostly heated by transfer of energy from the surface, so on
average the lowest part of the troposphere is warmest and temperature decreases with
altitude. The tropopause is the boundary between the troposphere and stratosphere.
Other layers
Within the five principal layers determined by temperature there are several layers determined by
other properties.
 The ozone layer is contained within the stratosphere. It is mainly located in the lower portion
of the stratosphere from about 15–35 km (9.3–21.7 mi; 49,000–115,000 ft), though the
thickness varies seasonally and geographically. About 90% of the ozone in our atmosphere
is contained in the stratosphere.
 The ionosphere, the part of the atmosphere that is ionized by solar radiation, stretches from
50 to 1,000 km (31 to 621 mi; 160,000 to 3,280,000 ft) and typically overlaps both the
exosphere and the thermosphere. It forms the inner edge of the magnetosphere.
 The homosphere and heterosphere: The homosphere includes the troposphere,
stratosphere, and mesosphere. The upper part of the heterosphere is composed almost
completely of hydrogen, the lightest element.
 The planetary boundary layer is the part of the troposphere that is nearest the Earth's
surface and is directly affected by it, mainly through turbulent diffusion.
Effects of global warming[edit]
The retreat of glaciers since 1850 of Aletsch Glacier in the Swiss Alps (situation in 1979, 1991 and 2002),
due to global warming
Main article: Effects of global warming

The dangers of global warming are being increasingly studied by a wide global consortium of
scientists. These scientists are increasingly concerned about the potential long-term effects of
global warming on our natural environment and on the planet. Of particular concern is
how climate change and global warming caused by anthropogenic, or human-made releases
of greenhouse gases, most notably carbon dioxide, can act interactively, and have adverse
effects upon the planet, its natural environment and humans' existence. It is clear the planet is
warming, and warming rapidly. This is due to the greenhouse effect, which is caused by
greenhouse gases, which trap heat inside the Earth's atmosphere because of their more
complex molecular structure which allows them to vibrate and in turn trap heat and release it
back towards the Earth.[14] This warming is also responsible for the extinction of natural habitats,
which in turn leads to a reduction in wildlife population.The most recent report from the
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (the group of the leading climate scientists in the
world) concluded that the earth will warm anywhere from 2.7 to almost 11 degrees Fahrenheit
(1.5 to 6 degrees Celsius) between 1990 and 2100.[15] Efforts have been increasingly focused on
the mitigation of greenhouse gases that are causing climatic changes, on developing adaptative
strategies to global warming, to assist humans, other animal, and plant species, ecosystems,
regions and nations in adjusting to the effects of global warming. Some examples of recent
collaboration to address climate change and global warming include:
Another view of the Aletsch Glacier in the Swiss Alps, which because of global warming has been
decreasing
 The United Nations Framework Convention Treaty and convention on Climate Change, to
stabilize greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent
dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system.[16]
 The Kyoto Protocol, which is the protocol to the international Framework Convention on
Climate Change treaty, again with the objective of reducing greenhouse gases in an effort to
prevent anthropogenic climate change.[17]
 The Western Climate Initiative, to identify, evaluate, and implement collective and
cooperative ways to reduce greenhouse gases in the region, focusing on a market-based
cap-and-trade system.[18]
A significantly profound challenge is to identify the natural environmental dynamics in contrast to
environmental changes not within natural variances. A common solution is to adapt a static view
neglecting natural variances to exist. Methodologically, this view could be defended when looking
at processes which change slowly and short time series, while the problem arrives when fast
processes turns essential in the object of the study.
Climate[edit]
Worldwide climate classifications map
Main article: Climate

Climate looks at the statistics of temperature, humidity, atmospheric pressure, wind, rainfall,
atmospheric particle count and other meteorological elements in a given region over long periods
of time.[citation needed] Weather, on the other hand, is the present condition of these same elements
over periods up to two weeks.[citation needed]
Climates can be classified according to the average and typical ranges of different variables,
most commonly temperature and precipitation. The most commonly used classification scheme
is the one originally developed by Wladimir Köppen. The Thornthwaite system,[19] in use since
1948, uses evapotranspiration as well as temperature and precipitation information to study
animal species diversity and the potential impacts of climate changes.[20]
Weather[edit]
A rainbow is an optical and meteorological phenomenon that causes a spectrum of light to appear in the
sky when the Sun shines onto droplets of moisture in the Earth's atmosphere.
Main article: Weather

Weather is a set of all the phenomena occurring in a given atmospheric area at a
given time.[21] Most weather phenomena occur in the troposphere,[22][23] just below
the stratosphere. Weather refers, generally, to day-to-day temperature and precipitation activity,
whereas climate is the term for the average atmospheric conditions over longer periods of
time.[24] When used without qualification, "weather" is understood to be the weather of Earth.
Weather occurs due to density (temperature and moisture) differences between one place and
another. These differences can occur due to the sun angle at any particular spot, which varies by
latitude from the tropics. The strong temperature contrast between polar and tropical air gives
rise to the jet stream. Weather systems in the mid-latitudes, such as extratropical cyclones, are
caused by instabilities of the jet stream flow. Because the Earth's axis is tilted relative to its
orbital plane, sunlight is incident at different angles at different times of the year. On the Earth's
surface, temperatures usually range ±40 °C (100 °F to −40 °F) annually. Over thousands of
years, changes in the Earth's orbit have affected the amount and distribution of solar energy
received by the Earth and influence long-term climate
Surface temperature differences in turn cause pressure differences. Higher altitudes are cooler
than lower altitudes due to differences in compressional heating. Weather forecasting is the
application of science and technology to predict the state of the atmosphere for a future time and
a given location. The atmosphere is a chaotic system, and small changes to one part of the
system can grow to have large effects on the system as a whole. Human attempts to control the
weather have occurred throughout human history, and there is evidence that civilized human
activity such as agriculture and industry has inadvertently modified weather patterns.
Life[edit]
There are many plant species on the planet.
An example of the many animal species on the Earth

Main articles: Life, Biology, and Biosphere
Evidence suggests that life on Earth has existed for about 3.7 billion years.[25] All known life forms
share fundamental molecular mechanisms, and based on these observations, theories on the
origin of life attempt to find a mechanism explaining the formation of a primordial single cell
organism from which all life originates. There are many different hypotheses regarding the path
that might have been taken from simple organic molecules via pre-cellular life to protocells and
metabolism.
Although there is no universal agreement on the definition of life, scientists generally accept that
the biological manifestation of life is characterized
by organization, metabolism, growth, adaptation, response to stimuli and reproduction.[26] Life
may also be said to be simply the characteristic state of organisms. In biology, the science of
living organisms, "life" is the condition which distinguishes active organisms from inorganic
matter, including the capacity for growth, functional activity and the continual change preceding
death.[27][28]
A diverse variety of living organisms (life forms) can be found in the biosphere on Earth, and
properties common to these organisms—plants, animals, fungi, protists, archaea, and bacteria—
are a carbon- and water-based cellular form with complex organization and
heritable genetic information. Living organisms undergo metabolism, maintain homeostasis,
possess a capacity to grow, respond to stimuli, reproduce and, through natural selection, adapt
to their environment in successive generations. More complex living organisms can communicate
through various means.
Ecosystems[edit]
Rainforests often have a great deal of biodiversity with many plant and animal species. This is the Gambia
River in Senegal's Niokolo-Koba National Park.
Main article: Ecosystem

An ecosystem (also called as environment) is a natural unit consisting of all plants, animals and
micro-organisms (biotic factors) in an area functioning together with all of the non-living physical
(abiotic) factors of the environment.[29]
Central to the ecosystem concept is the idea that living organisms are continually engaged in a
highly interrelated set of relationships with every other element constituting the environment in
which they exist. Eugene Odum, one of the founders of the science of ecology, stated: "Any unit
that includes all of the organisms (i.e.: the "community") in a given area interacting with the
physical environment so that a flow of energy leads to clearly defined trophic structure, biotic
diversity, and material cycles (i.e.: exchange of materials between living and nonliving parts)
within the system is an ecosystem."[30]
Old-growth forest and a creek on Larch Mountain, in the U.S. state of Oregon
The human ecosystem concept is then grounded in the deconstruction of the

human/nature dichotomy, and the emergent premise that all species are ecologically integrated
with each other, as well as with the abiotic constituents of their biotope.
A greater number or variety of species or biological diversity of an ecosystem may contribute to
greater resilience of an ecosystem, because there are more species present at a location to
respond to change and thus "absorb" or reduce its effects. This reduces the effect before the
ecosystem's structure is fundamentally changed to a different state. This is not universally the
case and there is no proven relationship between the species diversity of an ecosystem and its
ability to provide goods and services on a sustainable level.
The term ecosystem can also pertain to human-made environments, such as human
ecosystems and human-influenced ecosystems, and can describe any situation where there is
relationship between living organisms and their environment. Fewer areas on the surface of the
earth today exist free from human contact, although some genuine wilderness areas continue to
exist without any forms of human intervention.
Biomes[edit]
Map of terrestrial biomes classified by vegetation
Main article: Biome

Biomes are terminologically similar to the concept of ecosystems, and are climatically and
geographically defined areas of ecologically similar climatic conditions on the Earth, such
as communities of plants, animals, and soil organisms, often referred to as ecosystems. Biomes
are defined on the basis of factors such as plant structures (such as trees, shrubs, and grasses),
leaf types (such as broadleaf and needleleaf), plant spacing (forest, woodland, savanna), and
climate. Unlike ecozones, biomes are not defined by genetic, taxonomic, or historical similarities.
Biomes are often identified with particular patterns of ecological succession and climax
vegetation.
Biogeochemical cycles[edit]
Chloroplasts conduct photosynthesis and are found in plant cells and other eukaryotic organisms. These
are chloroplasts visible in the cells of Plagiomnium affine — many-fruited thyme-moss.
Main article: Biogeochemical cycles

Global biogeochemical cycles are critical to life, most notably those
of water, oxygen, carbon, nitrogen and phosphorus.[31]
 The nitrogen cycle is the transformation of nitrogen and nitrogen-containing compounds in

nature. It is a cycle which includes gaseous components.
 The water cycle, is the continuous movement of water on, above, and below the surface of
the Earth. Water can change states among liquid, vapour, and ice at various places in the
water cycle. Although the balance of water on Earth remains fairly constant over time,
individual water molecules can come and go.
 The carbon cycle is the biogeochemical cycle by which carbon is exchanged among the
biosphere, pedosphere, geosphere, hydrosphere, and atmosphere of the Earth.
 The oxygen cycle is the movement of oxygen within and between its three main reservoirs:
the atmosphere, the biosphere, and the lithosphere. The main driving factor of the oxygen
cycle is photosynthesis, which is responsible for the modern Earth's atmospheric
composition and life.
 The phosphorus cycle is the movement of phosphorus through the lithosphere, hydrosphere,
and biosphere. The atmosphere does not play a significant role in the movements of
phosphorus, because phosphorus and phosphorus compounds are usually solids at the
typical ranges of temperature and pressure found on Earth.
Wilderness[edit]
A conifer forest in the Swiss Alps (National Park)

The Ahklun Mountains and the Togiak Wilderness within the Togiak National Wildlife Refuge in the U.S.
state of Alaska
Main article: Wilderness

Wilderness is generally defined as a natural environment on Earth that has not been significantly
modified by human activity. The WILD Foundation goes into more detail, defining wilderness as:
"The most intact, undisturbed wild natural areas left on our planet - those last truly wild places
that humans do not control and have not developed with roads, pipelines or other industrial
infrastructure."[32] Wilderness areas and protected parks are considered important for the survival
of certain species, ecological studies, conservation, solitude, and recreation. Wilderness is
deeply valued for cultural, spiritual, moral, and aesthetic reasons. Some nature writers believe
wilderness areas are vital for the human spirit and creativity.[33]
The word, "wilderness", derives from the notion of wildness; in other words that which is not
controllable by humans. The word's etymology is from the Old English wildeornes, which in turn
derives from wildeor meaning wild beast (wild + deor = beast, deer).[34] From this point of view, it
is the wildness of a place that makes it a wilderness. The mere presence or activity of people
does not disqualify an area from being "wilderness." Many ecosystems that are, or have been,
inhabited or influenced by activities of people may still be considered "wild." This way of looking
at wilderness includes areas within which natural processes operate without very noticeable
human interference.
Wildlife includes all non-domesticated plants, animals and other organisms. Domesticating wild
plant and animal species for human benefit has occurred many times all over the planet, and has
a major impact on the environment, both positive and negative. Wildlife can be found in all
ecosystems. Deserts, rain forests, plains, and other areas—including the most
developed urban sites—all have distinct forms of wildlife. While the term in popular culture
usually refers to animals that are untouched by civilized human factors, most scientists agree
that wildlife around the world is (now) impacted by human activities.
A view of wilderness in Estonia
Challenges[edit]
Before flue-gas desulfurization was installed, the air-polluting emissions from this power plant in New
Mexico contained excessive amounts of sulfur dioxide.
Amazon rainforest in Brazil. The tropical rainforests of South America contain the largest diversity of
species on Earth, including some that have evolved within the past few hundred thousand years.[35][36]
See also: List of environmental issues and World Scientists' Warning to Humanity
It is the common understanding of natural environment that underlies environmentalism — a
broad political, social, and philosophical movement that advocates various actions and policies in
the interest of protecting what nature remains in the natural environment, or restoring or
expanding the role of nature in this environment. While true wilderness is increasingly
rare, wild nature (e.g., unmanaged forests, uncultivated grasslands, wildlife, wildflowers) can be
found in many locations previously inhabited by humans.
Goals for the benefit of people and natural systems, commonly expressed by environmental
scientists and environmentalists include:
 Elimination of pollution and toxicants in air, water, soil, buildings, manufactured goods, and
food.
 Preservation of biodiversity and protection of endangered species.
 Conservation and sustainable use of resources such as water,[37] land, air, energy, raw
materials, and natural resources.
 Halting human-induced global warming, which represents pollution, a threat to biodiversity,
and a threat to human populations.
 Shifting from fossil fuels to renewable energy in electricity, heating and cooling, and
transportation, which addresses pollution, global warming, and sustainability. This may
include public transportation and distributed generation, which have benefits for traffic
congestion and electric reliability.
 Shifting from meat-intensive diets to largely plant-based diets in order to help
mitigate biodiversity loss and climate change.[38]
 Establishment of nature reserves for recreational purposes and ecosystem preservation.
 Sustainable and less polluting waste management including waste reduction (or even zero
waste), reuse, recycling, composting, waste-to-energy, and anaerobic digestion of sewage
sludge.
 Reducing profligate consumption and clamping down on illegal fishing and logging.[39]
 Slowing and stabilisation of human population growth.[40]
Criticism[edit]
In some cultures the term environment is meaningless because there is no separation between
people and what they view as the natural world, or their surroundings.[41] Specifically in the United
States, many native cultures do not recognize the "environment", or see themselves as
environmentalists.[42]
See also[edit]
 Conservation movement
 Gaia hypothesis
 Index of environmental articles
 List of environmental issues
 List of environmental websites
 Natural capital
 Natural history
 Natural landscape
 Sustainability
 Sustainable agriculture
 Timeline of environmental history
References[edit]
1. ^ Johnson, D. L.; Ambrose, S. H.; Bassett, T. J.; Bowen, M. L.; Crummey, D. E.; Isaacson, J. S.;
Johnson, D. N.; Lamb, P.; Saul, M.; Winter-Nelson, A. E. (1997). "Meanings of Environmental
Terms". Journal of Environmental Quality. 26 (3): 581–
589. doi:10.2134/jeq1997.00472425002600030002x.
2. ^ Symons, Donald (1979). The Evolution of Human Sexuality. New York: Oxford University Press.
p. 31. ISBN 0-19-502535-0.
3. ^ Earth's Spheres Archived 2007-08-31 at the Wayback Machine. ©1997-2000. Wheeling Jesuit
University/NASA Classroom of the Future. Retrieved November 11, 2007.
4. ^ Wordnet Search: Earth science[dead link]
5. ^ ""Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2012-07-14. Retrieved 2012-07-15.". The
Columbia Encyclopedia. 2002. New York: Columbia University Press
6. ^ "Distribution of land and water on the planet Archived May 31, 2008, at the Wayback
Machine". UN Atlas of the Oceans Archived September 15, 2008, at the Wayback Machine
7. ^ River {definition} from Merriam-Webster. Accessed February 2010.
8. ^ http://ga.water.usgs.gov/edu/hydrology.html/ |date=June 20, 2019
9. ^ Britannica Online. "Lake (physical feature)". Retrieved 2008-06-25. [a Lake is] any relatively
large body of slowly moving or standing water that occupies an inland basin of appreciable size.
Definitions that precisely distinguish lakes, ponds, swamps, and even rivers and other bodies of
nonoceanic water are not established. It may be said, however, that rivers and streams are
relatively fast moving; marshes and swamps contain relatively large quantities of grasses, trees,
or shrubs; and ponds are relatively small in comparison to lakes. Geologically defined, lakes are
temporary bodies of water.
10. ^ "Dictionary.com definition". Retrieved 2008-06-25. a body of fresh or salt water of considerable
size, surrounded by land.
11. ^ Jump up to:a b Goudie, Andrew (2000). The Human Impact on the Natural Environment.
Cambridge, Massachusetts: This MIT Press. pp. 203–239. ISBN 0-262-57138-2.
12. ^ NGDC - NOAA. "Volcanic Lightning". National Geophysical Data Center - NOAA.
Retrieved September 21, 2007.
13. ^ Joe Buchdahl. "Atmosphere, Climate & Environment Information Programme". Ace.mmu.ac.uk.
Archived from the original on 2010-10-09. Retrieved 2013-03-09.
14. ^ "Climate Change". sites.google.com. Retrieved 2019-01-08.
15. ^ Forthofer, Ron. "It's Time To Act On Global Warming". Boulder Daily Camera. Archived from the
original on 2013-06-16. Retrieved 2013-10-28.
16. ^ United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change Retrieved August 2008.
17. ^ Kyoto Protocol from United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, Retrieved
August 2008.
18. ^ Western Climate Initiative, Retrieved on Feb 12, 2009.
19. ^ C. W. Thornthwaite, "An Approach Toward a Rational Classification of Climate", Geographical
Review, 38:55-94, 1948
20. ^ García, Carmen Isabel Luján (2013-06-19). English for geographers. Editorial Club
Universitario. ISBN 9788499485676.
21. ^ Merriam-Webster Dictionary. Weather. Retrieved on 2008-06-27.
22. ^ Glossary of Meteorology. Hydrosphere. Archived 2012-03-15 at the Wayback
Machine Retrieved on 2008-06-27.
23. ^ Glossary of Meteorology. Troposphere. Archived 2012-09-28 at the Wayback
Machine Retrieved on 2008-06-27.
24. ^ "Climate". Glossary of Meteorology. American Meteorological Society. Retrieved 2008-05-14.
25. ^ "History of life through time". University of California Museum of Paleontology.
26. ^ "Definition of Life". California Academy of Sciences. 2006. Archived from the originalon 2007-
02-08. Retrieved 2007-01-07.
27. ^ The Concise Oxford Dictionary. English Edition 1991
28. ^ "Merriam-Webster Dictionary". Merriam-Webster Dictionary. Retrieved 2009-06-21.
29. ^ Christopherson, Robert W. (1996). Geosystems: An Introduction to Physical Geography.
Prentice Hall. ISBN 0-13-505314-5.
30. ^ Odum, E. P. (1971). Fundamentals of Ecology (Third ed.). New York: Saunders. ISBN 0-7216-
6941-7.
31. ^ Smil, V. (2000). Cycles of Life. New York: Scientific American Library. ISBN 978-0-7167-5079-6.
32. ^ "The WILD Foundation". Wild.org. Archived from the original on 2012-12-04. Retrieved 2013-03-
09.
33. ^ No Man's Garden by Daniel B. Botkin p155-157
34. ^ wilderness. CollinsDictionary.com. Collins English Dictionary - Complete & Unabridged 11th
Edition. Retrieved November 29, 2012.
35. ^ "Why the Amazon Rainforest is So Rich in Species : News". Earthobservatory.nasa.gov. 2005-
12-05. Archived from the original on 2011-02-25. Retrieved 2013-03-09.
36. ^ "Why The Amazon Rainforest Is So Rich In Species". Sciencedaily.com. 2005-12-05.
Retrieved 2013-03-09.
37. ^ Escolero, O.; Kralisch, S.; Martínez, S.E.; Perevochtchikova, M. (2016). "Diagnóstico y análisis
de los factores que influyen en la vulnerabilidad de las fuentes de abastecimiento de agua potable
a la Ciudad de México, México" (PDF). Boletín de la Sociedad Geológica Mexicana (in
Spanish). 68 (3): 409–427.
38. ^ Drayer, Lisa (January 2, 2019). "Change your diet to combat climate change in 2019". CNN.
Retrieved February 14, 2019.
39. ^ Plumer, Brad (May 6, 2019). "Humans Are Speeding Extinction and Altering the Natural World
at an 'Unprecedented' Pace". The New York Times. Retrieved June 14, 2019.
40. ^ Ripple WJ, Wolf C, Newsome TM, Galetti M, Alamgir M, Crist E, Mahmoud MI, Laurance WF
(13 November 2017). "World Scientists' Warning to Humanity: A Second
Notice". BioScience. 67 (12): 1026–1028. doi:10.1093/biosci/bix125. It is also time to re-examine
and change our individual behaviors, including limiting our own reproduction (ideally to
replacement level at most)...
41. ^ Jamieson, Dale. (2007). The Heart of Environmentalism. In R. Sandler & P. C. Pezzullo.
Environmental Justice and Environmentalism. (pp. 85-101). Massachusetts Institute of
Technology Press.
42. ^ Davis, T. (2000). Sustaining the Forest, the People, and the Spirit. (pp. 1-24). State University of
New York.

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