Power Transformer Health Monitoring: A shift from
off-line to on-line detection
Ehnaish Aburaghiega Dr. Mohamed Emad Farrag
Glasgow Caledonian University Glasgow Caledonian University
UK UK
Ehnaish.Aburaghiega@gcu.ac.uk Mohamed.Farrag@gcu.ac.uk
Abstract- Transformers are an important part of the electrical
power system network, therefore, its fault detection is vital. Off-
line methods are commonly used for their fault detection. These
methods have associated costs derived from the necessity of
taking the transformer out of service. The application of on-line
methods reduces the expected costs and the possibility of
unpredicted failures. In the present study, off-line and on-line
methods are applied to the detection of short circuits in
transformers, demonstrating the possibility of moving from off-
line to on-line methods. Short circuits between sections in a
transformer winding, between winding and core and between
windings have been considered. PSPICE software is used to
simulate the transformer for both detection methods. A
comparison of the fault indication in both techniques proves the
possibility of moving from off-line to on-line method. Sweep
Frequency Response Analysis (SFRA) is considered an accurate
technique for off-line tests. The changes in the windings
inductance and capacitance affect the number of poles in the
system response, so the number of poles will indicate the number
of healthy sections. For on-line method, measurement of
primary/secondary voltage/current is used to determine the
measurable values which would result from a range of internal
short circuit faults. From the simulated results, it is found that
primary current can be used as the main indicator for the
primary winding short circuits; a combination of secondary
voltage and primary current is found to be useful for detecting
secondary winding faults. Secondary winding voltage can be the
main indicator for the cross windings short circuits.
Index Terms—Power Transformer monitoring, off-line and on-
line method, SFRA, Section-to-section faults
I. INTRODUCTION
Power transformer failures have a high financial impact in
the distribution and transmission companies, due to failure to
meet commercial contract and transformer replacement cost.
The majority of the transformers in service in the network
have been installed since 1970 [1]. Power transformer
reliability is dependent on the condition of its insulation
system. Most transformer failures are caused by the electrical,
thermal and mechanical stresses [2], [3] that appears in the
transformer under certain operating conditions. 70%-80% of
power transformer faults occur as result of internal short
circuit and, as indicated in research papers such as [4], [5],
[6], the very high current under short circuit conditions leads
to high mechanical force on the windings, These forces cause
changes in the dimensions through axial or radial deformation
[7]. Internal faults such as winding faults can lead to massive
damage in a short time [8] and are the most likely cause of
978-1-4673-9682-0/15/$31.00 ©2015 IEEE
Dr. Donald M Hepburn Dr. Belen Garcia
Glasgow Caledonian University Universidad Carlos III de
UK Madrid, Spain
D.M.Hepburn@gcu.ac.uk bgarciad@ing.uc3m.es
disruption in transformer operation and power supply
interruption. The investigation of condition monitoring and
evaluation techniques of power transformers has become a
subject of interest for many researchers, e.g. [9]. Improving
understanding of the relationship between transformer fault
types and their indicators will help asset managers to
maintain equipment. In this study, an off-line and an on-line
method for detecting and identifying internal faults are
investigated. SFRA is applied as an off-line method to
investigate the indicators of short-circuit conditions that may
be expected to occur between sections and between winding
to core. The method correlates the frequency response of the
winding, which is affected by the transformer construction
and resulting coil parameters of resistance, inductance and
capacitance. It can provide an indication for winding and core
conditions by relating changes in frequency response to
changes in coil parameters. In addition, the possibility of
moving to an on-line method is considered through
determining the impact of short-circuit occurring between
sections in one winding, between windings and core and
between both windings on the measurement of voltages and
currents for the standard AC frequency.
II. OFF-LINE FAULT DETECTION METHOD
SFRA is an advanced method for defining transformer
health conditions, by applying low and constant voltage with
varying frequencies to the transformer windings, the ratio of
the measured input and output signals gives the required state
of the transformer [10]. This method must integrate the
measurement and analyze the data while the device is not
connected to the electrical supply in order to provide winding
health conditions [11]. Typically the SFRA method consists
of measuring the transformer response in a range of
frequency from 0.1 Hz to 5 MHz (based on the transformer
construction), to find the resonant frequencies of the winding.
The identification of changes to these frequencies from a
known baseline measurement, or in comparison with
transformers of the same type, allows the detection of
changes in the geometry of the winding.
A. Winding Model and faults
A transformer model has been implemented in PSPICE
based on the data for transformer following the example of
[12], the transformer is iron-core insulated winding. The
transformer is modeled as 5 sections of coil that are
connected in series (Fig. 1). Each section is represented by
lumped resistances, inductances for iron core and series
capacitances between sections and shunt capacitances
between sections and core. Winding insulation is made from
(paper) with thickness of 0.1 mm and air insulation was
considered to be between discs and core, so any two sections
that are adjacent to each others are insulated by solid paper.
Model parameters are given in Table I.
C. SFRA response for Short Circuit Tests
 One section short circuited
In practical cases, a damaging in the insulation between any
two sections leads to the current by-passing parts of the
winding. In this investigation this type of fault is called a
short circuit between two sections.
To investigate this type of fault, the same SFRA
procedure that was applied to investigating a healthy winding
is applied to study section to section faults and a section to
ground fault. The following scenarios are investigated:
1) Short circuit between two adjacent sections.
2) Short circuit between sections and the core.

Figure 4 compares SFRA output for faults at different

locations: the upper figure is from a short circuit between
Fig. 1. Winding Model (5-Sections) sections 1 and 2, the middle figures is a short circuit between
TABLE I
sections 2 and 3 and the lower figure a short circuit between
MODEL PARAMETERS sections 3 and 4. As can be seen, all faults lead to the same
No Component Code Value reduction in number of poles (from 5 to 4), independently of
1 Section Resistance R 0.0194 Ω fault location. This is due to the fact that the number of poles
2 Section Inductance L 0.3655mH is related to the number of RLC sections in the network,
3 Series capacitance Cs 0.914pF
4 Shunt capacitance Cg 0.011nF
equivalent to healthy sections in the winding.

B. Healthy winding
The model is initially run as a healthy winding connected to a
constant resistive load of 100 Ω and with a fixed supply of voltage
230 V to obtain the SFRA response of a healthy winding, which will
be later compared to those of faulty models. The output voltage is
measured on the load side. Any change of any section’s impedance
leads to changes in the winding impedance which theoretically
impacts on the measured voltage.

Figure 2 shows the SFRA output of the healthy transformer

between 0.1 Hz to 5MHz. As can be seen, five healthy sections
results in a response which has 5 peaks in frequency, i.e. 5-Poles.

Fig. 4. Comparison of SFRA response for one short circuited section in

different positions

 Two and more sections short circuited

In the second set of tests, the number of sections short
circuited was increased, considering 2, 3 and 4 sections.
Fig. 2. Peak voltages versus sweeping frequency
Table II compares the number of poles and their frequencies
Due to the nature of R-L-C circuits, resonance will occur for healthy winding and transformers with shorted sections.
at the defined frequencies. Figure 3 shows the non-linear As can be seen, as the number of shorted sections increases
increase in frequency of each pole for the healthy model. the number of resonant peaks decreases. The number of poles
and their frequencies provide an indication of the fault type.
TABLE II
POLE RESONANT FREQUENCIES (IN MHZ) FOR HEALTHY & FAULTY WINDINGS
Pole Number 1 2 3 4 5
Healthy winding 0.1*10-7 1.5 2.7 3.6 4.1
1 Section is shorted 0.1*10-7 1.8 3.2 4.0 -
2 Sections are shorted 0.1*10-7 2.4 3.8 - -
3 Sections are shorted 0.1*10-7 3.2 - - -
Fig. 3. SFRA frequencies-poles for healthy winding 4 Sections are shorted 0.1*10 -7 - - - -
D. Inspection of resonant frequencies and voltage defined constant load. The model parameters are shown in
As can be seen in Fig. 5, the change in number of poles and Table IV and the load parameters can be seen in Table V.
shift in their frequencies is an indicator of the health of a
transformer winding. The greater the number of shorted
sections, the fewer the number of poles and greater the
resonant frequency shifts. Note that the first pole’s frequency
is constant for all cases.

Fig. 5. Pole resonant frequencies for healthy and un-healthy windings

E. Number of poles
Table III indicates the number of poles for the different Fig. 6. Model of two windings transformer connected to a load
conditions that have been simulated. Note that the change in TABLE IV
SFRA response is the same for shorting the relevant section POWER TRANSFORMER MODEL PARAMETERS
to ground (core) as intra-turn shorting. Components Values
TABLE III Primary section resistance RP 1.2 Ω
HEALTHY AND UN-HEALTHY WINDING CONDITIONS 1.2 Ω
Secondary section resistance Rs
Number
Cases Condition Primary section inductance LP 7.2H
of Poles
1 Healthy winding 5 Secondary section inductance LS 7.2H
2 One section is shorted or section 4 to ground 4 Primary and secondary series capacitance C S 1 , C S 2 0.0133nF
3 Two sections are shorted or section 3 to ground 3 Primary and secondary shunt capacitance C g 1 , Cg 2 3nF
4 Three sections are shorted or section 2 to ground 2 Capacitance between windings C w 5nF
5 Four sections are shorted or section 1 to ground 1
TABLE V
III. ON-LINE FAULT DETECTION METHOD
LOAD PARAMETERS
In this case, internal fault detection is investigated by using the Total impedance 11309.7 Ω
Total reactance 6784.3Ω
measurement of both voltages and current in both transformer
Resistance 9048.9 Ω
windings for 50 Hz frequency and connected to constant load. Faults Inductance 27.9 H
between sections in one winding, between sections and ground and Capacitance 1.59µF
between two windings were studied. The impact of the faults on the Power factor 0.8
primary and secondary voltages and currents is considered, to detect
internal short circuit using measurable parameters. The simulation was run for both healthy and faulty
transformers and the primary and secondary voltage and
A. Healthy Transformer Model current were recorded. The measured parameters for healthy
A modified version of the transformer model set out in [13] transformer can be seen in Table VI.
and used in [14] is used. This model is a one to one power
transformer having two interleaved windings of five sections B. Faulty Transformer model
that contain twenty turns. Each section is represented by a Referring to the equivalent circuit of the transformer
lumped resistance, an inductance and a shunt and a set of winding, healthy winding impedances are constant. In an
series capacitances. Primary and secondary windings are unhealthy winding the values will vary from these, as is the
linked by mutual inductance that is dependent on the case when the transformer suffers from a short circuit or
transformer construction. The model modification considers mechanical deformation causing changes in winding
iron core instead of air core which increases the magnetic link impedance. Due to the changes induced by the faults, it is
between the windings and gives a truer indication of a power expected that the primary/secondary voltages/currents would
transformer construction. Insulation materials considered are deviate from the operating values under known load
paper of thickness of 0.1 mm wrapped around the conductor conditions. Interpreting the measurable signatures is to be
and oil to provide insulation and cooling. The construction of used to identify the un-healthy conditions of the transformer.
the healthy model and the connection to the load is shown in Figure 7 indicates the current flow during short circuit
Figure 6. The system is simulated using 230 V, 50 Hz supply between sections in each winding and between windings.
on the primary and the secondary side is connected to a A short circuit occurring between nodes 2 and 3 is equivalent
to removing one section from the overall model and, agreement with the work carried out in [15] and the
accordingly, the ratio of number of turns, the winding simulation conducted in [16].
TABLE VI
impedances and mutual inductance will be different . MEASURED PARAMETERS FOR PRIMARY WINDING FAULTS
In theory shorting one section in the transformer primary Vin Iin Vout Iout
No Case
winding will have the same impact irrespective of its actual (Volts) (Amps) (Volts) (Amps)
location. Similarly, a short across one section of the 1 Healthy Transformer 229.99 0.022 229.798 0.02
secondary will produce similar, but different, measurable 2 Section 1 to 2 229.99 9.599 229.809 0.02
3 Section 2 to 3 229.99 9.599 229.809 0.02
changes. Simulations were run for both healthy and damaged 4 Section 3 to 4 229.99 9.599 229.809 0.02
transformers and measured values in both transformer sides 5 Section 4 to 5 229.99 9.599 229.809 0.02
are taken to consider the relationships between transformer 6 Section 4 to Ground 229.99 9.599 229.809 0.02
health and measurable parameters. Table VI shows the 7 Section 1 to 3 229.99 25.572 229.803 0.02
measured parameters for healthy and damaged transformers, 8 Section 2 to 4 229.99 25.572 229.803 0.02
9 Section 3 to 5 229.99 25.572 229.803 0.02
with the faults outlined in the following sections. 10 Section 3 to Ground 229.99 25.572 229.803 0.02
11 Section 1 to 4 229.99 57.518 229.801 0.02
12 Section 2 to 5 229.99 57.518 229.801 0.02
13 Section 2 to Ground 229.99 57.518 229.801 0.02
14 Section 1 to 5 229.99 153.35 229.796 0.02
15 Section 1 to Ground 229.99 153.35 229.796 0.02

Fig. 8. Impact of shorted primary sections on primary current

 Secondary Winding Faults

Simulation of short circuits in the secondary winding used
Fig. 7. Short circuit current flow between sections and windings the same scenarios as were applied to the primary winding.
Table VII shows the 14 faults simulated and the impact of the
different faults on voltage and current values.
C. Windings Short Circuit Test
Again, it can be seen that, for a defined fault, location has no
 Primary Winding Faults effect on the measured values. However, as was discussed for
The inter-turn short circuit faults that are expected to occur in this the primary winding faults, the greater the number of shorted
winding and their locations have been investigated. Short circuit sections the greater the effect on the operational values.
between sections or between section and core occur because of In this case, the output voltage, the input current and the
degradation of the insulation. As the model contains five sections, output current are affected. Figure 9 indicates that the input
the maximum number of shorted sections that can be considered is current increases and output voltage decreases as the number
four. In addition, possible short circuits from section to core have of sections short circuited increases.
also been considered. This makes a total of 14 possible faults in the
primary winding: the faults are listed, along with the simulation TABLE VIII
output, in Table VI. To investigate whether the fault location has any MEASURED PARAMETERS FOR SECONDARY WINDING FAULTS
impact on the measurable voltages and currents, the primary and Vin Iin Vout Iout
No Case
(Volts) (Amps) (Volts) (Amps)
secondary voltages and currents have been measured for the 14
1 Healthy Transformer 229.99 0.022 229.798 0.02
cases and compared with the healthy values. 2 Section 1 to 2 229.99 6.396 153.25 0.013
Table VI shows the different faults and their impact on the on the 3 Section 2 to 3 229.99 6.396 153.25 0.013
measurable parameters. As can be observed the values of voltages 4 Section 3 to 4 229.99 6.396 153.25 0.013
and currents are not affected by the location of the shorted sections, 5 Section 4 to 5 229.99 6.396 153.25 0.013
but they are affected by the number of shorted sections. The greater 6 Section 4 to Ground 229.99 6.396 153.25 0.013
7 Section 1 to 3 229.99 10.955 98.532 0.008
is the number of shorted sections the higher is the input current. This 8 Section 2 to 4 229.99 10.955 98.532 0.008
can also be observed clearly in Fig. 8. 9 Section 3 to 5 229.99 10.955 98.532 0.008
It should be noted that although the value of secondary 10 Section 3 to Ground 229.99 10.955 98.532 0.008
voltage varies with the number of shorted sections, in practice 11 Section 1 to 4 229.99 14.376 57.487 0.005
the slight change would be difficult to detect. In consequence 12 Section 2 to 5 229.99 14.376 57.487 0.005
13 Section 2 to Ground 229.99 14.376 57.487 0.005
the primary current is considered the fundamental variable for
14 Section 1 to 5 229.99 17.038 25.555 0.002
detecting faults in the primary winding. This result is in 16 Section 1 to Ground 229.99 17.038 25.555 0.002
 TABLE IX
MEASUREMENT PARAMETERS FOR SHORT CIRCUIT BETWEEN DISSIMILAR
LOCATIONS IN THE WINDINGS
Vin Iin Vout Iout
No Fault
(Volts) (Amps) (Volts) (Amps)
1 1P-2S 229.99 1.393 279.2 0.024
2 2P-3S 229.99 1.94 275.86 0.024
3 3P-4S 229.99 3.216 268.144 0.024
4 1S-2P 229.99 0.923 186.152 0.016
5 2S-3P 229.99 1.288 183.937 0.016
Fig. 9. Impact of shorted secondary sections on secondary voltage and 6 3S-4P 229.99 2.139 178.804 0.016
primary current
Figures 11 and 12 show the changes in input current and output
D. Inter-winding Short Circuit Test voltage respectively, indicating how a short circuit between
The probability of short circuit between primary and secondary windings and locations affects the parameters.
windings may be low compared to faults within the primary and/or
secondary sections, however, for some constructions it is possible.
As such, this type of fault will change the transformer operation
from magnetic to direct electrical coupling between windings,
because current will travel directly between the two windings.
Therefore, this kind of short circuit is different to the cases discussed
previously. The faults conditions between windings are divided, and
investigated, as follows:-

 Similar sections short circuit Fig. 11. Primary current for short circuit between dissimilar primary and
secondary windings
A short circuit taking place between any two sections having
similar locations in different windings, ( such as, section 1 primary
winding and section 1 in secondary winding, etc ), does not affect
the ratio of turns in the transformer. It can be seen that this type of
fault has no effect on the input and output currents and has minimal
effect on the output voltage. The small change in output voltage is
graphed in Figure 10: this change in voltage would be difficult to
measure in practice.
Fig. 12. Secondary voltage for short circuit between dissimilar primary and
secondary windings

 Short Circuit between dissimilar winding sections, 2 and 3

sections.
The simulation carried out for a short circuit which traversed two
and three sections in primary-secondary arrangement. Table X and
Table XI show the short circuit faults across two and three sections,
Fig. 10. Secondary voltage for short circuit between similar sections in
primary and secondary windings
and the simulation results, respectively. The values in both Table X
and Table XI indicate that input current and output voltage are the
 One section cross-over short circuit most significant indicators of a fault. The magnitudes of voltage and
Short circuit between dissimilar sections in primary and secondary current are significantly different from those in previous fault
windings are considered, e.g. section 1 primary winding and section conditions and could be helpful in identifying the fault.
2 secondary winding (1 P - 2 S) are connected by a current path, etc.
Cross-over faults between two un-like section locations will affect TABLE X
MEASUREMENT PARAMETERS FOR SHORT CIRCUIT BETWEEN WINDINGS
the transformer turn ratio, due to the direct connection between the ACROSS TWO SECTIONS
two affected sections. The simulated values, shown in Table IX, Vin Iin Vout Iout
No Fault
suggest that this type of fault does affect the measurable parameters (Volts) (Amps) (Volts) (Amps)
and that the changes in input and output might be used to identify 1 1P-3S 229.99 1.393 279.2 0.024
the fault. For the short circuits between higher voltage sections in 2 2P-4S 229.99 1.94 275.86 0.024
3 1S–3P 229.99 0.923 186.152 0.016
primary coil to lower sections in secondary coil (shown in yellow in 4 2S-4P 229.99 1.288 183.937 0.016
Table X), the input current and output voltage become higher, with a TABLE XI
slight increase in output current compared to the healthy state. For MEASUREMENT PARAMETERS FOR SHORT CIRCUIT BETWEEN WINDINGS
the short circuits between higher voltage sections in secondary coil ACROSS OVER THREE SECTIONS

to lower sections in primary coil (shown in orange in Table X), the No Fault Vin Iin Vout Iout
(Volts) (Amps) (Volts) (Amps)
input current and output voltage are again affected in comparison to 1 1P-4S 229.99 34.541 367.751 0.032
the healthy state. 2 4P-1S 229.99 8.627 91.979 0.00807
E. Summary of applying On-line method current are considered to be strong contenders to detect the
Table XII summarizes the major and minor variables that could be secondary winding faults and (iii) a short circuit between two
used to detect the type of short circuit that exists in a transformer. windings can be determined from the output voltage and the
input and output currents. It has been shown fault type is
TABLE XII more easily determined than the fault location as, for most
HEALTHY AND UNHEALTHY CONDITIONS OF POWER TRANSFORMER USING
faults, location does not affect the measurable parameters
ON-LINE METHOD
Case High priority indicators Low priority indicators considered. However, in the case of a short circuit between
Healthy transformer Primary and secondary two windings, the measured values would give information
-
voltage and current on fault location.
Primary winding Primary current Secondary current Measuring on-line voltages and currents can be used to
faults
Secondary winding Secondary voltage and Secondary current
indicate faults that may occur within a winding and between
faults primary current windings of a power transformer during normal operation.
Short circuit between Secondary Voltage Primary and secondary This method also provides an ability to define fault severity
windings current from external measurements. Comparison of both methods
proves the possibility of shifting from off-line to on-line
IV. COMPARISON OF OFF-LINE AND ON-LINE METHODS method for power transformer condition monitoring and fault
diagnosis.
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