Design of Reinforced Concrete Structure - Volume 3 - DR. Mashhour A. Ghoneim PDF

DESIGN OF REINFORCED CONCRETE STRUCTURES First Edition-2008 Volume 3 Mashhour Ghoneim Mahmoud EI-Mihilmy Lares Pla ee Coy ogee eg att) Concrete Structures fori MUU Cairo UniversityDESIGN OF REINFORCED CONCRETE STRUCTURES PED CU emt Ue Ug Features Reflects the very latest Egyptian Code provisions (ECP 203- 2007) and includes all major changes and additions. Numerous illustrations and figures for each topic. Good theoretical background for each topic with code provisions. Extensive examples in each chapter utilizing SI units. All examples are worked out step-by-step ranging from simple to advanced. Full reinforcement details for every example. = Numerous design charts. Volume 3 covers the following topics: Reinforced Concrete Frames, Arches and Arched Slabs Design of Deep Beams and Corbels Deflections of Reinforced Concrete Members Crack Control of Reinforced Concrete Members Design of Shallow Foundations and Pile Caps Design of Raft Foundations Strut-and-Tie Model for Reinforced Concrete Members Fundamentals of Prestressed Concrete Flexural Design of Prestressed Concrete Members Shear and Torsion in Prestressed Concrete Analysis of Continuous Prestressed Beams aes a Cha Ced a] AT-MDESIGN OF REINFORCED CONCRETE STRUCTURES Volume 3 Mashhour Ahmed Ghoneim Professor of Concrete Structures Cairo University Mahmoud Tharwat El-Mihilmy Associate Professor of Concrete Structures Cairo University First Edition 2008 First Pri 1 September 2006 Second Print: September 2007PREFACE Teaching reinforced concrete design, carrying out research relevant (0 the behavior of reinforced concrete members, as well as designing concrete structures motivated the preparation of this book. This volume is considered part of a series of books that covers the subject of Reinforced Concrete Design. The success and the positive feedback that we have received from our students and colleagues have provided the inspiration for us to proceed with volume three. Due to the numerous changes in the provisions of the 2007 edition of the Egyptian Code of Practice ECP 203, the publication of this volume became more of a necessity than mere addition. ‘The first vol _.e covers the fundamentals of reinforced concrete design and the design of beams whereas the second volume focuses primarily on the design of slabs, columns and frames. This third volume covers the following topics: ‘+ Arches, Special Types of Frames and Vierendeel. ‘+ Deep Beams and Corbels. + Control of Deflections and Cracking. ‘+ Design of Shallow and Deep Foundations. + Strut-and-Tie Model. * Prestressed Conerete. Numerous illustrative examples are given, the solution of which has been supplied so as to supplement the theoretical background and to familiarize the reader with the steps involved in actual design problem solving, To ensure the accuracy, all of the examples in this book are solved and verified using EXCEL, spread sheet programs that were prepared exclusively for this book. In writing the book, the authors are conscious of a debt to many sources, to friends, colleagues, and co-workers in the field. Finally, this is as good a place as any for the authors to express their indebtedness to their honorable professors of Egypt, Canada and the U.S.A. Their contributions in introducing the authors to the field will always be remembered with the deepest gratitude. ‘The book is aimed at two different groups. First, by treating the material in a logical and unified form, it is hoped that it can serve as a useful text for undergraduate and graduate student courses on reinforced concrete. Secondly, as a result of the continuing activity in the design and construction of reinforced concrete structures, it will be of value to practicing structural engineers. The authors strongly recommend that the Code be utilized as a companion publication to this book.TABLE OF CONTENTS = 41. ARCHES, SPECIAL TYPES OF FRAMES AND TRUSSES 1.1 Introduction. 1.2 Reinforced Conerete Arches 1.2.1 General 1.2.2 Design of the Arch with a Tie. : 1.2.3 Layout of a Hall Covered by Arched Girders. 1.3 Saw-tooth Roof Structures. 1.3.1 North Direction Normal to the Span. = 13.1.1 Frames as the Main Supporting Elements 13.1.2 Arches as the Main Supporting Elements 1.3.2 North Direction is Parallel to the Span 1.3.2.1 Frames as the Main Supporting Elements. 144 Vierendeel Girders E : = 1.5 Expansion and Settlement Joints. 1.5.1 Expansion Joints 1.5.2 Settlement Joints 1.6 End gables ‘Example 1.1: Structural system for workshop. [Example 1.2: Structural system for car maintenance workshop. Example 13: Structural system for medical faci Example 1.4: Structural system for textile factory Example 1.5: Structural system of a factory Example 1.6: Arch with a Tie Example 1.7: Frame with the north direction is normal 0 span. Example 1.8: Frame with north direction is parallel to the span... 1.7 Arched Slab Systems wn... 17.1 Introduction. 17.2 Steuetural system of the Arched Slab... 1.7.3 Structural Analysis of Arched Slabs 1.73.1 Circular Arched Slabs ... 1.7.3.2 Parabolic Arched Slabs .. Example 1.9: Circular arched slab. Example 1.10 Parabolic arched slat2, DEEP BEAMS AND CORBELS 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Deep beams 2.2.1 General. 2.2.2.1 The Empirical Design Method 2.2.2.2 Design Using the Strut and Tie Method. 2.2.3 Detailing of Other Types of Deep Beams. 2.2.3.1 Bottom Loaded Deep Beam 2.2.3.2 Continuous Deep Beam: 22.3.3 Deep Beam Supporting Another Deep Bear 2.3 Shear- Friction Concept. 24 Short Cantilevers (Brackets or Corbels) Example 2.1 Example 2.2 3. CONTROL OF DEFLECTIONS 3.1 Introduction. . 3.2 Load-Deflection Behavior of RC Beams. saree 243 3.3 Moment of Inertia of RC sections. 3.3.1 Gross moment of inertia ... 3.3.2 Cracked Transformed Moment of Inet 3.33 Effective moment of inertia J, .. 3.4 Code Provisions for Control of Deflections.. '34.1 Limiting Deflection by Span-Depth Ratio (Approach One 3.4.1.1 Beams and One-Way slabs... 3.4.1.2 Two-way slabs. 3.4.2 Caleulation of Deflection (Approach Two) 3.4.2.1 Calculation of Immediate Deflection .. 3.4.2.2 Long Term Deflection 3.4.2.3 Permissible Deflections.. 3.4.2.4 Deflection of Continuous Beams ... Example 3.1. Example 3.2. iti 4, CONTROL OF CRACKING 4,1 Introduction... 4.2 Reasons for Controlling Crack Widths 4.3 Types of Cracks .. 44 Development of Cracks due to Loads 4.5 Crack Control in the Egyptian Code 4.5.1 Categories of structures 4.5.2 Satisfaction of Cracking Limit Stat 4.5.3. Code Related Provisions... 4.6 Liquid Containing Structures... 47 Design Ald for Calculating Example 4.1 Example 4.2 Example 4.3 Example 44 5. DESIGN OF FOUNDATIONS 5.1 Introduction 304 5.2 Types of Foundations... 325 5.3 Soil Pressure under concentrically Loaded Footings 328 5.4 Soil Pressure under Eccentrically Loaded Footings Example 5.1 = 5.5 Gross and Net Soil Pressures Example 5.2 5.6 Design of Isolated Footings ‘5.6.1 Introduction... 5.6.2 Design Steps Example 5.3, 5.7 Combined Footings ne Example 5.4: Combined footing with Example 5.5: RC combined footing resting dirty ‘on soil. 5.8 Strap Footings : Example 5.6 5.9 Raft Foundations... 5.9.1 Introduction. 5.9.2 Conventional Rigid Method. 5.9.3 Analysis of the Raft Using Computer Programs .. 5.9.3.1 Modeling of the Ratt. 5.93.2 Modeling of the soil 5.9.3.3 Analysis of the Computer Output. ‘Example 5.8: Raft using the Conventional methodExample 5.9: Raft design wsing computer analysis 5.10 Design of Pile Caps... 5.10.1 Introduction... 5.10.2 Pile Cap shapes. 5.10.3 Design of Pile Caps.. '5.103.1 Design Using the conventional Method 5.1.3.2 Finite Element Analysis of Pile Caps... 5.10.3.3 Design using The Strut and Tie Method .. Example 5.10 : Example 5.11. Example 5.12.. 6, STRUT-AND-TIE MODEL 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Principle of B and D Regions 6.3 Components of the Strut-and-Tie Model 6.4 Design of the Struts. . ‘64.1 Idealization ofthe Strut. 6.4.2 Strength of Un-reinforced Struts. 6.433 Strength of Reinforced Struts 6.5 Design of Ties... : 6.5.1 Strength of the Tie 6.5.2 Anchorage of Reinforcement. 6.6 Design of Nodal Zones . ‘6.6.1 Types of Nodal Zones.. 6.6.2 Strength of Nodal Zones. 6.7 Applications Example 1 Example 2 Example 3 7. INTRODUCTION TO PRESTRESSED CONCRETE 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Systems of Prestressin; 7.2.1 Pretensioned Concrete 7.2.2 Post-tensioned Concrete 7.3 General Design Principle. 7A Materials 7.4.1 Concrete 7.4.2 Non-presiressing Reinforcement. v 7.4.3 Prestressing Reinforcement... 7.5 Losses in Prestressed Members... 7.5.1 Introduction... 75.2 Anchorage Sli 7.53 Elastic Shortening Losses(©) 7.5.4 Wobble Friction Losses (W), 7.5.5 Curvature Friction Losses (F). 7.56 Shrinkage Losses (sh).. 7.5.7 Creep Loss (CR) 7.58 Steel Relaxation Losses (R). Example 7.1: Calculations of losses for a pre-tensioned beam. Example 7.2: Step by step computation of losses in post-tensioned beam....548 7.6 Anchorage Zones... 7.6.1 Introduction... 7.6.2 Stress Distribution. 7.6.3 Methods of Analysis 7.6.3.1 Strut-and-Tie Method 7.63.2 Beam Analogy... 7.6.3.3 Finite element method... Example 73 Example 7.3 Example 7. 8. FLEXURE IN PRESTRESSED CONCRETE BEAMS 8.1 Introduction 572 8.2 Analysis of Prestressed Concrete Members Under Service Loads SB 8.2.1 General _ 5B 8.2.2 Allowable Concrete and Steel Stresses 8.2.2.1 Allowable Steel Stresses .. 8.2.2.2 Allowable Concrete Stresses. 8.2.3 Calealations of Stresses at Transfer. 8.2.4 Calculations of Stresses zt Full Service Loads. 8.2.5 Summary..... Examole 8.1 conn Example 8.2 Example 83 Example 84 Example 8.5 8.3 Flexural Strength of Prestressed Beams 8.3.1 Introduction... —— 83.2 Calculations of the Ultimate Moment Capacity 62 575 575 oe 582 5838.3.3 Calculation of Prestressing Steel Stress at Ultimate fps......614 8.3.3.1 Calculation of fps in bonded tendons. : 8.3.3.2 Calculation of fps for unbonded tendons 8.3.4 Maximum Limits for the Areas of Prestressing and non- prestressing Reinforcing Steel revn Example 8.6: Mu using the approximate equation (I-section). Example 8.7: Mu using the approximate equation (T-section) Example 8.8: Mu using the approximate equation (R-section) Example 8.9: Mu using the strain compatibility metho« 8.4 Combined Flexure and Axial Loads . 8.4.1 Stresses at service loads... 8.4.2 Capacity at ultimate loads... Example 8.10: Strain compatibility method for combined flexure and axial load.. 643 8.5 Proper Beam Shape Selection. 649 8.6 Limiting Eccentricity Envelopes. 650 Example 8.11: Upper and lower envelopes 653 8.7 Determination ofthe Prestressing Force and the Eccentricity in Flexural ‘Members Example 8.12: Determination of P and e combinations Example 8.13: Determination of P and e combinations. 8.8 Reduction of Prestressing Force Near Supports 8.9 Deflection of Prestressed Beams. 4 8.9.1 Introduction. 8.9.2 Calculations of Example 8.14 Example 8.15 Example 8.16 SHEAR AND TORSION IN PRESTRESSED CONGRETE BEAMS 9.1 Introduction 700 9.2 Shear in prestressed Beams. 701 9.2.1 Inclined Cracking, 701 9.2.2 Bifect of Prestress... 702 703 703 9.2.3 Shear Strength According to ECP 203 . 9.2.3.1 Upper limit of Design Shear Stress qumax... 9.2.3.2 Shear Strength Provided by Concrete qcu. 105 9.2.4 Shear Reinforcement Calculations. 72 Example 9.1: Shear design using the simplified procedure... 715 Example 9.2: Shear design using the detailed procedure ..n.nu-720 9.3 Torsion in Prestressed Concrete. 9.3.1 General... 913.2 The Design for Torsion inthe Egyptian Code. 9.3.2.1 Introduction . 9.3.2.2 Calculation of the Shear Stress due to Torsion ........729 93.2.3 Consideration of Torsion. 9.3.24 Check the Adequacy of the Concrete Section. 93.25 Design of Torsional Reinforcement 9.3.2.6 Code Requirements = ‘9.4 Combined Shear and Torsion, 9.4.1 Introduction... 9.4.2 Design for Shear and Torsion in ECP 203. 9.4.2.1 Consideration of Torsion 9.4.2.2. Adequacy of the Concrete Cross-Section. 9.4.2.3 Design of Transverse Reinforcement. 9.4.2.4 Design of Longitudinal Reinforcement. Example 9.3: Combined shear and torsion design(1). Example 9.4: Combined shear and torsion design(2) 10 .CONTINUOUS PRESTRESSED BEAMS 10.1 Introduction 10.2 Tendon Profile for Continuous Beams. 10.3 Blastic Analysis of Continuous Beams... 10.3.1 Bffects of the Prestress. 10.3.2 Support Displacement Method 103.2.1 Background Example 10.1 Example 10.2... 10.3.3 Equivalent Load Method. Example 10.3, 10.4 Linear Transformation and Concordant Profiles. Appendix A: Design Charts for Sections Subjected to Flexure... Appendix B: Design Charts for Calculating Ler and We sen Appendix C: Slope and Deflection Equations... REFERENCES........ARCHES, SPECIAL TYPES OF FRAMES AND TRUSSES _ Photo 1.1 Arched reinforced concrete bridge. 1.1 Introduction This chapter presents the use and design of reinforced concrete arches. and trusses as supporting elements of systems that cover halls having relatively large spans. It covers also the design and the construction of the saw tooth roofs in which the light from the windows is directly reflected by the roof inside the hall giving a uniform distribution of natural light.Choosing the most economical structural system depends on many factors such ‘as the type of soil, the architectural features of the building, and most femal I" importantly the span that needs to be covered. ‘Table 1.1 gives the suitable TOrETt COCO structural system according t0 the span of the hall (short direction). For example, simple girders are suitable for relatively short spans (7-10 m) while frames are appropriate for medium spans (12-25m). In contrast, arches and trusses are suitable to cover large spans. od L ‘Table 1.1 Choosing of structural system according to the span v" * Seo, AA ipestaeacn Span — | 2 simple beam subjected to uniform loads Simple girders 710m Frames Bm ‘Arch with ate 240m — certs compecsion Trusses 2040 m Vierendeel Systems 30-40 m - \ 14) bg 300-400 mea F Frame Spacing (2) ! Frame spacing im Roof Angle mae -3F ‘Column thickness: Os 1LHy ‘Secondary beam thickness | Frame spacing (8 —> 10) Post spacing 24m Post dimensions 200x200 mm Ridge beam thickness ‘ost spacing (8 —> 10) One should note the difference between Sec. A-A and Sec. B-B. At Sec. B-B the inctined simple beams and the roof slabs are at the level of the frame. At See. B-B, these elements are at the top level of the posts. As shown in Sec. C-C, the frames are connected together in the out of plane direction at three levels, namely at the girder level, approximately at mid-height of the column (frame leg) and at the level of the foundations where semelles are provided to-support the walls. Note: As the rain water is accumulated at the lowest point of the slab, it is essential to choose the shape of cross-section of the girder of the frame in the form of a Y-shape so that there is sufficient space for the rain water and the necessary slopes for the gutter. BFig. 1.6a Isometric for a frame system in which the north is perpendicular to the span 250500 Fra-case been _ ie > Frame Beoxis057 ‘cour eaxs2007 © © @ © Plan © Fig 1.60 No rth ight sa -tooth system (Frames) (Nort is normal to the span) 15(ouoa) (sormeay) w9}5Ks ROO Aes IMT ION pO'T “Sty a 30g (aoe ai as Tig pases Tues ob (qu09) (someay) wraysis yy00) Mus INT WION 99°] “Bh Vey 395 one Oe oognose) ‘ones twumog [ous a 7 ancora aS coco / ozxo0g, Wood abn Wed 7 16hes as the Main supporting Elements a 4.3.1.2 Arcl a all 28.0 ms wide and 36.0 ™ Jong in if so that a uniform general layout of dis covert’ 1.7 shows the Figure Tie fhe north is normal tothe Shoe direction an ie “Fepibution of natural Tight i wrovided. Reinforced cont arches are vtilized ak ig se the main supposing elements ‘rnd are arranged parallel (© the short direction 5B |] ¢ Ey of the hal r] ‘The statical system can be, summarized a8 follows: “sThe arches are arranged every 6,0 ms in order to obtain © ~ re onably economic Syste: jabs Jab consists of a system of One st tab System of inctined simply supported ‘s The inclined roof sl that are supported beams. ware mere ‘The inclined simply supported PRY are supported on the is aating, as compression Side and on the posts acting as tension yy on the arches supported. direct sane of the arch by the ABE beam. and are «The posts are connected in the I t See. C-C Fig. 1.6 ie North light saw tooth system (frames) ( 8) (cont.) bok PIC Footing sap 100mm) 1 21 Footrg rehed bridge Photo 1.4 A\ 18 19Fig. 1.7a Isometric for an arch system with north-light saw-tooth "Boe299eo9 eee 1028280. Plan Fig. 1.7b North-tight saw-tooth system (Arches) at(aoa) (sayaay) miaysds HyOOF-MwS INBT-WVION PLT “BL ooswng, ‘IeWSS 99S, 1 —>} |__| | | | | i f ed f (wuooex002) seg sbi Ae (ossxonz) 8 Tie Hepuc08s (wwoogxoge) g mee cxoxooe cowcse tee esr conone ed (au09) (saypay) mages qiooy-ses SH -INION 21°T “Bia W°V "208 wae TTTG sear oneTable 1.4 gives guide lines for choosing the dimensions ofthe system. ‘Table 14 Recommended dimensions for the frame sytem m aggested dimensions 1.3.2 North Direction is Parallel to the Span ‘The concept of having the main supporting elements arranged in the short — direction of the hall is still valid in case the north direction is parallel to the & Span) | span. Also, the windows have to be arranged to face the north direction. Ifthe Frame spacing ST me Frame spacing short direction is not more than about 20.0 ms, it is recommended to use frames. If, on the other hand, the short direction is more than 20.0 ms, it will be I Y-beam spacing 446m eta | Roofheight ‘beam spacing/2 [ Roof Angle (| 2ae-32" 1.3.2.1 Frames as thi Elements | ae eer aement | Column thickness @iop | (080 1.0) Figure 1.8 shows the general layout of a hall 22.0 ms wide and 27.0 ms long in which the north is parallel to the short direction and is covered so that a uniform distribution of natural light is provided. Reinforced concrete frames are utilized | Column thickness @bottom | (0.4 — 0.60) ty Secondary beam thickness | Y-beam spacing (8—+10) as the main supporting elements and are arranged parallel to the short direction ee of the hall a - ‘The statical system can be summarized as follows: Post spacing 24m | Post dimension 200x200 mam + The frames are arranged every 5.4 ms in order to obtain a Post dimensions 100200 5] reasonably economic system. | | Ridge beam thickness Post spacing (810) ‘+A system of horizontal continuous beams (called the Y- beams) is supported on the frames. | * The inclined roof consists of a system of one-way slabs that are supported on a system of inclined simply supported | beams. | ‘+ The inclined simply supported beams are supported on the posts at one side and directly on the Y-beam at the other side. * The posts are supported directly on the Y-beams and are connected in the plane of the Y-beams by the ridge beam. | ‘These posts can be assumed to resist axial forces only. Photo 1.5 Stadium during construction 24 25© © So © © ©(ous) (soureag) w9ys4s yp003-aus S-APAON PRT “Set 4 wonsag co ROTTS TROET OT c 1 = ongxose eae oo2xone 80d i 29 cgsxooz cosxooz eed oon eg 06 TaaeOT aS (quo) (soureaz) w9ysks_pOo}-MU: ON 98°F “SL Y-V woRseg Taper ‘Baeey ORE bie 1 uneo ‘uz Zia 281.3.2.2 Trusses as the Main Supporting Elements ‘Trusses in reinforced concrete are seldom used and their shape is generally chosen similar to those constructed in steel. One of the disadvantages of reinforced concrete trusses is that formwork of concrete and the detailing of reinforcement are complicated. However, in special cases of saw-tooth roofs in which the north is parallel to the span of the hall, the truss may give a convenient solution. Figure 1.9 shows the general layout of a hall 20.0 ms wide and 25.0 ms long in which the north is parallel to the short direction and is covered so that a uniform, distribution of natural light is provided. Reinforced concrete trusses are utilized as the main supporting elements and are arranged parallel to the short direction of the hall. ‘The statical system can be summarized as follows: ‘+ The trusses are arranged every 5.0 ms in order to obtain a reasonably economic system. ‘© A system of horizontal continuous beams (called the Y- beams) are supported on the trusses every 5.0 ms. ‘+ The inclined roof consists of a system of one-way slabs. At the location of the trusses, the slabs are supported on the diagonal members. Between trusses, inclined beams are provided to support the slabs. The inclined beams are simply supported at posts from one side and directly at the Y-bear from the other side ‘+ The posts are supported directly on the Y-beams and are connected in the plane of the ¥-beams by the ridge beam. ‘These posts can be assumed to resist axial forces only. 30 515.0:250m of ae 415.042 Plan Fig. 1.10a North-light saw-tooth system (Truss) (Noth direction is parallel to the span) 31(Cquo.) (ssn) wroysAs MBOos-Mes IMB-MAON 9OT'T “BLL aa "98 dis cozranz Wod pulyeg ssruL ames OTIS none Deen 305 Tiago BROT (Cauos) (sen) wrays4s poo}-mes INSTEON GOTT SUL VV "Ss —— cscs g = lz eT ae hone ‘ploy WeHOR en ee ‘aqua UOBAG BORELSiab (160mm) Vertical ruse S0non beam Top choes 2080 Fidge boom a ‘Boar (2504500) {connecting corns) Feu Bottom chor Ybeam, ‘oa00x800 — x50 g Post ‘Samalle ‘250x500 PIG Feeting See. C-C ‘Fig. 1.10d North-light saw-tooth system (truss) (cont.) 34 Approximate Analysis of RIC Trusses Unlike steel trusses, reinforced concrete trusses are subjected to direct loading from the surrounding slabs. Moreover due to the rigidity of the members connecting bending moments are induced. Truss members are mainly subjected to normal force, and therefore bent bars are not. used in trusses and the reinforcement is distributed symmetrically ‘The intemal forces in the members of a truss are: 1- The axial forces due to the concentrated loads at the joints. 2- The bending moments and shearing forces due to the direct loads ‘on the members of the truss on which the slabs are supported, and 3- The bending moments and shearing forces due to the fact that in reinforced concrete trusses, the joints are partially rigid ‘The intemal forces can be obtained using the computer programs. It should be noted that the effect of the partial rigidity of the joints has to be evaluated. ‘The approximate dimensions of the truss can be obtained from Fig. 1.10. spa 36 a Fig. 1.10 Truss approximate dimensions 351.4 Vierendeel Girders Vierendeel girders are similar to trusses except that they do not have diagonals 4s shown in Fig. 1.11. Moreover the connecting joints are rigid such that they develop moment. Vierendeel girders are often used in transfer floors of high-rise buildings to support planted columns giving a wide space in the floor below as shown in Fig. 1.12. They also can be used in saw-tooth roofs when indirect sunlight is required as shown in Fig. 1.13a and Fig 1.13b. A Vierendeel girder consists of a top chord, a bottom chord and vertical ‘members. The system is externally statically determinate, while itis internally indeterminate. Internally, itis 3n times statically indeterminate, where n is the ‘number of panels. ‘The exact analysis of a Vierendeel girder is quite compticated. In the past, approximate solutions were used to calculate the force in the different members. Nowadays, computer programs are used to compute the straining actions. In Such a case, the members are modeled as 2D frame elements, while the joints are modeled as rigid joints that permit moment transfer among members. Top chord Ir _ 4s ‘OOOO coun ais Si Fig, 1.11 Vierendeel Girders 36 "By 8 PTE FFE oF rE : a) a 3 q ot. maa aE ee fr Fel Le ok. 5 ® | Plan Golan @ ——- = —— 090 aa Viergegeal cow, . «1205 Section A-A Fig 112 Vierendee! girder 37"Be PP PPE 9% o> i ag Oo--- R - @--+- — 44 se Be At Section AA @©--z-- all 7 3 4 ©--§-- = Sec. beam jrater Toasters Sa ale a8 bass wane | our vents || [| Passa o--+- ‘ = th a pe iia ay ol _ PC Fete 2 Section B-B Plan ' : Fig 1.13a Vierendeel girder | Fig.1.13b Vierendeel girder 38 | 3 9Summary Figure 1.14 gives guidelines for choosing the appropriate structural system when indirect light is needed according to the span and the direction of the north. 1.5 Expansion and Settlement Joints In the construction of reinforced concrete structures, two types of joints may be considered namely, expansion joints and settlement joints 1.5.1 Expansion Joints Expansion joints are provided to reduce the effect of temperature. Thermal effects induce additional straining actions that lead to additional reinforcement in the structural members. For example, continuous beams running over several spans are affected by the stresses induced due to temperature. The ECP 203 specifies the use of these joints when the dimensions of the building exceed 30- 35 m in hot regions and 40-45 in warm regions. Expansion joints are achieved by a complete vertical separation in the superstructure at the location of the joint. This is usually achieved by placing foam sheets with a thickness of 20 mm. No need, however, for separating the foundations at the location of the expansion joint as shown in Fig. 1.15. Expansion joints are made in such a way to prevent water and moisture from Penetrating the building by providing insulation material. The insulation ‘material is provided at roof level as shown in Fig. 1.16a as well as at the Aifferent floors levels as shown in Fig, 1.16b. It should be mentioned that the requirements of the ECP 203 can be waived if the designer carry out an analysis that takes into account the temperature effects. 40 7 | I$ s Z| |Y-beam, ig 2 a5 7 ' ptt < + | 1- Frame with Y-beam (L < 20m). 2 true (0-20 0n) ‘A-Main system parallel to the north ;-—_ sen LA ‘Seo 8-8 ‘Main system normal to the north Fig. 1.14 Choosing the appropriate structural system according to the span and the direction of the north 4- Frame (L <20 m), 6 5 stab ' 2 Arch witha to(L=20 - 40m) 1 i 7 “Fe .3- Vierendee! ( L=30 - 40m) 4Z g 3 £ 3| 3 ; a i wae ate 3 : 3 q 3 f3 z q 8 ag 3 z 8 q Zl i gi i H | 4 i 3g 3 —N_ 4g | — ag 3| e g 3 ? j i ql al séuypqyng uy ‘woysuedxg ST “Sty oxicos — et SS _ = 3 ty ToS at ue WSO eS | aie DOSEORS © © © © Oo © © o ¥. WoEOTS1.5.2 Settlement Joints ‘This type of joints is related to height rather than length. If the loads of two adjacent columns differ significantly, the differential settlement becomes large ‘and could affect the foundation. This is can occur in case of low rise building adjacent to high rise building as shown in Fig. 1.14. The footings in this case should be completely separated (20 mm apart) to allow the settlement of each column to take place independently Photo 1.6 Settlement joints is provided between low and high-rise buildings fee eee ge eee ee eee 1 . 1 | high rise i Setiment building [tarot tice wang |} stant oa Low tee tain etaka Section 1 Low te “Gum Caen Aettored Conroe conpressie ‘| ral ssvap foam Pain Conroe Pate roy roar at Detail-A Fig. 1.17 Settelment joint details. 454.6 End gables End gable consists of a group of columns supporting continuous beams instead of the typical frames used as the main system of the hall as shown in Fig. 1.15a. ‘The spacing between the columns is chosen in such a way that the area of the enclosed walls should not be more than 25-30 m?. This is to facilitate the construction of the brick wall, to reduce its buckling length, and to increase its capacity for resisting wind loads If a future extension of the hall is expected, another system is provided at the fend as shown in Fig. 1.15b. In such a case, a frame is used at the end of the hall, End gable consists of a group of columns that are connected to the frame by dowels to reduce their buckling length and to allow for possible future Gemolishing the wall. The length of the dowels should not be less than the development length of the steel bars (La) as shown in Fig. 1.15c. Moreover, compressible material should be provided to allow for the deflection of the secondary beam Photo 1.7 A multistory reinforced concrete building Wal oa | enone iE i } | coxrmn 3 oor Level ot L = pet I v [Semalie. Jin Concreto VES eenggose sec h-A | End gable r wartean_y/ Cob 4 A A jan (future extension is not sam 26m Detail ain ger ‘Main gi 4 1 i igi Wa ara Frame STMT sep jessom? Son 4 ‘End gable peso je] | \|osar| | counn | 1S| cag B Foo Lal a Se {someto, Piain Concrete. \\R.C. footit ‘ootg $0088 b-Plan (future extension is res Fig. 1.18 End gable details. aExample 1.1: Structural system for workshop = | Solution ‘The: riven below an ales ares Kshop that consists of a large hall dat A-Wrokshop a ms span. It is required to 8 a i ere jietural system for such a sueture lease artes bie Since the span of the hall is relatively large, and indirect lighting is required, {ghing required for the workshop while a horizontal oo is requted for hg RC frames are uilized as the main structural element. The spacing between the so imns are only allowed at the outside perimeter as well as line See a Ttem ‘Suggested dimensions | Chosen dimensions = b A re SpankiZ 14) = 167213 @ [Frame spacing | 7m Tm Frame height | Frame spacing? ‘| 25m ‘Column thickness 0.80 ty =0.80x13=L04S11m e ‘Secondary beam frame spacing (810) | =5mx1000/10 =500mm g Workshop § Post spacing im Im £ 2 8 Post dimensions 2005200 mam 200% 200 mm ° Ridge beam thickness | Post spacing (@>10) | = 2000/8 = 250mm B-Storage Area A simple girder spanning 8.0 ms is chosen for the storage area, The spacing 16m @m between these girders is taken the same as that between the frames (5.0m). Plan Secondary beams are provided to get reasonable slab dimensions (5.0 4.0 ms). Ginter depth = 52%. — 21009 _ 509 mm | 10 10 & TE] ‘The layout of the workshop is given in the following set of figures. 2 & Section 48 B(w-¥ 99g) tHaysKs IS QE EX “BE a we! oe! @ @*P © © @ @ (oosxosz) oo _ : = : : g il a = . tt 8 ‘coe pose) sur 92.00-160m I} + Fig. Ex.1-La Structural system (plan) (ooseo02) Reg wooeoseFigo beam Example 1.2: Structural system for car maintenance workshop f ‘The figure given below shows a car maintenance workshop that consists of a fd ‘main hall that spans 18.0 ms attached to an office area of 9.0 ms span. It is fequired to propose an appropriate structural aystem for such a structure. Ht ‘Columns are only allowed at the outside perimeter as well as on line ab. g se . i : fe ae |] e2 5 5g Sg ou C as = 2 a : u a 5 é L é 3 J z | g g 2 iy a : 2 Z H Skylight rt & ge a 2) Te al 3 Hy] 5 Sj @ ae : 7 i Se 2 9 Section levation 52 53Solution ‘A-Main Hall Since the span of the main hall is relatively large, RC frames are used as the main structural elements. Posts supported on the girder of the frames are utilized to support the skylight roof. ‘The spacing between the frames is chosen as 5.0m. Trem ‘Suggested dimensions | Chosen dimensions . Spal TISE=128 mw STS Frame spacing Tm om Frame height ( Frame spacing/2_—([ 25m [Column thickness [080% ‘| =0.80x13=104=1 ‘Secondary beam Beam Spani@—10) | =5mx1000/10=500mm Post dimensions 200x300 mm 200x200 mam B-Office area An inclined simple girder spanning 9.0 ms is chosen as the main supporting, element for the office area. The spacing between these girders is taken the same as that between the frames (5.0m). Secondary beams are provided to get reasonable slab dimensions (5.0 x3.0 ms). Span _9%1000 10 10 ‘The layout of the car workshop is given in the following set of figures. Girder depth = 100 mm 6x6.0-00m Beam Tens GOES 54 ig. Ex.1.2a Structural system (plan) 55 i i fa i 5 ae SI 8 ©} simple pede - 1 TT sno} 1 1 212250180 somExample 1.3: Structural system for a medical facility halls is 6.0m. It is required to suggest an appropriate structural system. ‘The figure below shows a medical facility that consists of two large halls ‘covered with horizontal roof. Hall (1) spans 18.0 ms while hall (2) spans 15.0 ms. Columns are only allowed on the outside perimeter. Clear height of the 6x2.00-16.0™m 15m ta Plan Section A-A A A = o g < 7 2] | 2 : | | Coton @ | lowed let a: 5 > E E 2 a gy 2 8 3 a se = 56 7Solution Hall (1) Since the span of the hall is relatively large, and north light is not required, frame system with secondary horizontal beams is chosen. The spacing between the frames is chosen as 5.0m, while the spacing between the secondary beams is taken as 3.0m, Tem Suggested dimensions | Chosen dimensions & Spanla—Ty = 18/1 31.28 m 2130m ‘Frame spacing | 47m 5.0m [Column thickness | 0.80 % =O80x13= 10421. Im Secondary team | Beam Spal) | Sea XTOGOTTO~SO Hall(2) ‘Item ‘Suggested dimensions | Chosen dimensions ~ @ Spanlkai) =IS/4= 107 m 21 Frame spacing | 47m 50m Column thickness | 0.80%, ‘Secondary beam | Beam Span/(@—+10) | =5mx1000/10=500mm Since columns are not allowed inside the halls, some of the frames of Hall (1) have to be supported on another frame that spans 15m, Such a frame is separated from the frame that constitutes a part of the main system of Hall (2) by an expansion joint. The expansion joint is needed since the length of the hall ismore than 40.0m. ‘The layout of the medical facility is given inthe following set of figures. 435.0-350 0 OG OOOO D ® | eed FT| Frame fsoac10) Column thickness | 0.807, = - i 80 x1 S=12 Post spacing Im 24m Secondary beam ondary be Beam span(8—10) | =Smx1000/10 =500mm [Post dimensions | 200x200 mm’ 7200%200 mam ‘Ybeat [Rid im Spank8) =4876=0.80 m Ridge beam thickness | Post spacing KE>10) | = 240078 = 300mm Post spacing im 24m 7 Post dimensions 2005200 min 2005200 mm ‘Since columns are not allowed inside the halls, some of the frames of Hall (1) Ridge beam thickness | Post spacing (810) | = 2400/8 = 300mm have to be supported on another frame that spans 15m. Such a frame is separated from the frame that constitutes a part of the main system of Hill (2) by an expansion joint. The expansion joint is needed since the length of the hall is more than 40.6m. ‘The layout of the factory is given in the following set of figures. 2 63Y-baam BI, Column_J” asarso0xe06 Maia Frame “4080071200 2000 Beam eons) Frame eorer Detail Coun “ooxeca/ 0 12.4519.20 5x4.8-24.00 Fig. Ex.1.4a Structural system (plan) ‘S00, beam Ridge beam lage beam Seo. boar eonesee) aan ‘Stab (100mm) Frame “ext 505 ‘column Walt beam BGR ——~ Wallbeam "250H500 wee= Sec. A-A Fig. Ex.1.4b Structural system (sections A-A.)Example 1.5: Structural system of a factory ‘The figure given below shows a factory to be constructed in 10% of Ramadan city. The factory consists of two floors. In the ground floor level, columns are only allowed along the outside perimeter as well as on line ab. However, the | first floor level must be free from inside columns and must have indirect lighting IL is required to propose an appropriate structural system for the factory and to show the details of such a system in plan and sections. $200 A) Sec. B-B ‘ig, Ex.1.4e Structural system (sections B-B ) 30m 66 Tom Tom Roof Ground floor plan amo g é \ 7 3 First floor « é Ground floor i} U | Section | 61 |Ai Structural System the First Floor ‘Since horizontal floor is required, a continuous frame system with secondary bbeams is chosen. The spacing between frames is taken as 6.0m on ea Sage Cisees Sioar PORE REHH EE dimensions fb FF wanton | § % SpanlI214) =16714=1.14 me - qi = — Frame spacing Im 0m @—tL. a = — Side Column thickness | Same as roof column | 15m Middle column thickness | 0.8%, Tom Secondary beam Beam spani(10—112) | =6mx1000/12 = 550mm Oo TE ——T — Roof ak bas Since the roof has a relatively large span and north lighting is required, an arch | | | ©—S}—~ ee = aa with ate is chosen as the main structural system. q Ttem ‘Suggested dimensions g toa Spanl5 s [oO tie walt 44 ‘Arch spacing im @—-+- ‘Arch height © Span 5 8) ag a8 es ag ae es Column thickness | span/20 . iS 8 ey ‘Secondary beam | Beam span/(8—10) Post spacing atm r Post dimensions 200200 mm i ~ — “The layout of the factory is given in the following set of figures. ot Fig, Ex.15a Structural system for the first floor (plan) Weert ©ef Ff c a if @—L. ‘® a —_____—4 gl L_ jzsouzon Fig. ExL.5 ¢ Sec. A-A pert rti ou | Io wos~ [ees hah cet |_| See. beam 1200800 2 | Fig. Ex.1.5b Structural system for the roof (plan) 70 aExample 1.6: Arch with a Tie Its required to design a saw-tooth structural system forthe factory shown in the figure below. The material properties are ..=30 Némmy” and f;=360 Nimm*. Live oad = 1.0 kNim? Lh Flooring load = 10 in? ‘Wind load = 0.7 KN/m* - ; tat ' i le HU Span =26.0m I i le ae fe 3 al A A g +] N : ® Hi a & § ' a 5 be OF a : a HS & Ly 3 ig i 2 rca eee a5 3 yi | 1] Plan le al TT {El ql a He i section B 2on re Hob ot ob ‘Solution ‘The span of the factory is relatively large (>20 m) such that the choice of a N = frame system leads to an uneconomical solution. Since the span of the factory is normal tothe north dition, an arch with a te i chosen as the main POPPE POPES e+ ++ _ + + _ +4 —_+—_ +1 structural system. | ‘Assume the following dimensions: oF Slab thickness ¢, = 120mm Ridge beam = (200 mm x 300 mm) ‘Secondary beam = (200 mm x 550 mm) © Post dit i = (200 200 mm) : non aie Span of the arch. =26m 1 ag span/25 =10m Girder (350 mm x 1000 mm) | 4 1 IS tie 0.5 tg 0.5m Tie (350 mm x 500 mm) ee T Spacing between arches = = 6.5m. A hob ow @ bob ot Secondary beams spacin; =2.60 - 4 4 i i i i it y cee eee Hob ob of toto ‘The rise of the arch equals (f)= 22% OF 6-8 g 3 3 o Choose the column cross section (350 mm x1300 mm) i eee eee ob ob bod eee Plan Fig. Ex.1.6a: North-light saw-tooth system (Arches) 4 i 5+ TeBeam 8” asaxsooy ‘Step 1: Design of solid slabs ‘Assume that the slab thickness f,=120 mm ‘The total dead load of the slab and flooring load are equal to: 1X7, + flooring =0.12%25+1.0=4.0 RN J? Be ‘The slab ultimate load w., equals, Wig, =1AX B, +L.6X py =14K4 + 1.61.07. RN Jn perce cto -—_—__}+___+__ 26m 26m See. A-A Asem Sauder A 7 SNOB See. beam i oes | ABT Post Loa woo Fea ows Te beam 250x500 ae ‘The slab is a one-way slab (2,6 m x 6.5 m) and continuous in the short alum direction, thus the maximum moment is given by: i sso ao ae eo = Wake 1226 497 pm 10 10 | —xsssesce — |} eres |r | ‘Assuming 20 mm cover, the effective depth d = 120-20 =100 mm = mi oh ity __ My __487x10° py o169 Faxbxd* — 30x1000x100" Pc Foning7 BIC Footing” Sonata ky + 20800 a Sec. B-B Fig. Ex.1.6b: North-light saw-tooth system (Arches) For small values of R, @ can be approximated by 1.2R. Thus, the reinforcement index 0.019 16 cr1000%100 = 166mm? Xxbx 30x 200250" 337x108 0.009 0108 30 2 a = 0.0108x-=>. x 200%250 = 45 mm A, = oxl2xb xd =0. - 0225s 4 9225409 995.259 =171 mm ifs 360 1.3A, 3x45 =58.5 mm* ‘Use 212 (226.2 mm?) 81Step 4: Design of post (200x200 mm) Posts in the arch with a tie system are subjected to tension or compression according to their locations as shown in the figure below “Tension post (2005200) ‘Tie @50x500) Secondary beam 200350 Step 4.1: Design of the compression post ‘The height of the post hp = the height of the rise — arch thickness/2 ~ tie thickness /2 as shown in figure, - ‘Arch (850x100) a Post (200x200) z| 4 tie 250x500) AX25X0,20%0.20%2.7! P,,, =14xy, xb xIxh, 85 kN ‘The load acting on the post results from the reactions of the ridge beam and the secondary beam Fo = Pay FBS candry beam) + P, (ridge beam) =3.85 +80.21+12.95 =97kN Since the factory has no special system for resisting the lateral forces, it is considered unbraced. The effective length factor k can be obtained from Table 6-10 in the code. The top and the bottom part of the column are considered case 1. Thus k=1.2, H, = kxh, =1.2%2.15=3.30 m ‘The slenderness ratio 2 is given as A 6.50 fe «OD Since 2. greater than 10, the post is considered long and additional moment is developed. 2 xt _ 1657x200 6 = 27.2 mm (note 6,, = 4) 2000 2000 = Ht =0.05%200=10 mm var of {POP =008 =20mm <6 ‘Thus the lateral deflection due to buckling is larger than the code minimum eccentricity. The post is subjected to axial force of P=97 KN and the additional ‘moment equals Mogg =P, x5 =97 x2 2 2 2.64 km 1000 My =M, + Mag = 042.64 = 2.64 EN B 971000 FaXbxt 30%200%200 08 My, 264x101 Fa. xbxt* ~ 30%200%200 Assuming thatthe distance from the concrete to the e.g. of the reinforcement is 15m 20 mm. Thus the factor ¢ equals “The ultimate self-weight ofthe post (200 x 200 mm) equals gata 2xcover _ 200-220 _ 9 9 : 200 82 8Using interaction diagram with uniform steel f;=360 N/mm’, and C=0.8 ‘The point is below the chart Use His Since the column is long the minimum reinforcement ratio Hnie equals Haig = 0:25-+ 0.052 A = 0.25 +0.052x16.5= 1.1% A, 200% 200 = 443 mm™ F Pg DE 100 ‘Choose (4412, 452 mm?) ‘Step 4.2: Design of the tension post (Hanger) “The reaction on the tension post (T) = o.w. + Reaction from secondary beam + Tie weight Tie weight =1.4xy, xbxt xpost spacing 4x25 x0.35x0.50x2.6 = 15.925kN Tie (350x500) T =3.85+80.21415.925=99.98 kN T___ 99.98x1000 F158 3601.15 =319 mm? Choose (4¢612, 452 mm’) Step 5: Design of the arch and the tie Step 5.1: Calculations of the loads ‘The total loads on the arch are the summation of the uniform and the concentrated loads. A: Uniform loads 1. own weight of the arch SLAXY, XbXt = 1.4X25x0.35%1.0 $12.25 kN Jn 2. own weight of the tie = LAX, xbxt = 1.4%25%0.35%0.5 = 6.125 ANI! B: Concentrated loads 1. reaction from the post = 97 kN 2. reaction from the secondary beam =P,=80.21 KN P, = Prog +P, =97 480.21 = 177-21EN + Mug =12.25+ 6.125 =18.375 KN It Secondary beam load tothe post ‘Secondary beam, P;.80.21 load to the de ‘To simplify the calculations of the bending moment, the concentrated loads on the arch can be replaced by a uniform load as follows: 9xI77.21 Loe, L 26 ‘The total uniform load on the frame equals 1.345 EN! 84 85Wy = Way + Weg = 18.375 461.345 = 79.72 Kim’ ‘The concentrated loads on the sides can be estimated by 0.6 P,=106.33 KN 10633 17.21 197.21 177.21 177.21 H7721 1772117721 A77A-17721- 106.33 a Ryael142.7 kN] ‘Equivalent load system and reactions ‘The reaction from the arch to the columns equals L 79.7226 2 Rg =0.6-P, + = 106.334 = 1142.7 kN 2 2 The total bending on the arch equals the simple beam bending moment w4L7/8, “The determination of the intemal force in the arch can be performed using a structural analysis program. As an approximation, the internal forces can be obtained as follows: 1. 95% of the simple bending moment is resisted by compression in the arch and tension in the tie because of the elastic deformation of the system, 0.95%M sroie _ 0.956736 _ 6399.5 828.4kN f 35 35 Arch Compression, C=1828.4 Post 8 Int=6399.5 KN E 6399.5 a we ‘Tension, T=1828. 2. 5% of the simple bending acts on the arch alone M, =0.05M gpyye = 0.05% 6736 = 336.8 kN. Step 5.2: Design of the tie (350x500) ‘The te resists only tension forces=1828.4 KN T___ 182841000 AS Fis 3607115 5840 mm? Choose 12425 (5890 mm?) — distributed uniformly Step 5.3: Design of main girder (380x100) Py=C=18284 KN M3368 kN “The section is subjected to a normal compression force and a bending moment. ‘The design interaction diagram is used for the determination of the reinforcement 86 87P, >____ 1828.4x1000 Fa.xbxi 30%350%1000 0.174 My, 336.8x10° FaXbxt — 30x350%1000 Assuming the concrete cover is 80 mm. Thus the factor ¢ equals ata 2xcover _ 1000-280 aoaaa 1000 Use an interaction diagram with fj=360 N/mm? ‘The intersection point is below the chart, use Hin (0.006) for compression member. A, = HXDXt = 0.006%350%1000 = 2100 mum? (Choose (8620, 2512 mm) Use 4620 at top of the arch and 420 at the bottom, ‘Step 6: Design of Columns ‘Step 6.1: Loads ‘The column is subjected to an axial load in addition to wind loads on the walls. A. Wind loads Assuming the extension of the column to the foundation is 1.0 m, the height of the column equals to: h =clear height +-extentionof the column to the foundation =7.5+1.0 =8.5 m = 0.84 ind C=0.8 (conservative). for both sides ‘The intensity of the wind load on the walls is given as 0.7 KN/m?. ‘Thus, the pressure on the walls equals to: 88 (windward side) (leeward side) 64 RN Im’ 18X0.1X6.5 “2%, spacing = 2.215 KNIm! W, = €,X qu Xspacing = 0.5%0.7X6: ‘The columns are tinked together with the arch-with-a-tie system. Such a system can be simulated by an equivalent link member subjected to either tension or compression. ar r 4 y —{ fea fia tH zt |¢ 3 i |g q 1m 10067, The system is once statically indeterminate. The unknown is the force in the link member. Using the principle of superposition, one can obtain the deflection at the end of each column as follows: 89wxht , Txh SET 3BI yxht Tx wy xh! SET SET O° SEL SEL Neglecting the axial deformation in the equivalent link member, the deflection of the first column A; must be equal to the lateral deflection of the second column Ao A=; wyxht | Txh? SE SET ‘Simplifying the terms gives the axial fore inthe link member (T). 2285 (2.2753.64) =-2.175 RN (compression) O85 5 -9.175)x8.5=113.0 Nm Ae 2.175)x8.5 = 100.67 EN.m B. Vertical Loads ‘The vertical loads on the column is the summation of the following: 1. Self-weight =14xy, xbx1xh =1.4%25%0,35x1.3%8.5 = 135.36 kV 2. Weight of the wall beams: two wall beams are provided as shown in the following figure. 2x1.4X7, xb xt Xspacing = 2X1.4x 25%0.25x0.6X6.5 = 68.25 kN 3, Wall load =14%7, XbXLX(h—2Xteat tam) 4x12 0.25%6.5x (8.5206) =199,29 LN 4, Arch load =Rach sh 96:33 4 29:72%26 35.36 + 68.25 +199,29 + 1142.7 = 1545.59 kN 6-P, + 142.7 kN 90, wall beam SOHO 250x600, falta poe column 35 ‘wall 0.60 ba8.5 wall 10 Step 6.2: Calculation of the reinforcement ‘The column is considered unbraced in its plane and braced in the out-of-plane direction. The unsupported length in X-direction is 8.5 m and the unsupported length in ¥-direction is 3.8m, The calculation of the additional moment can be summarized in the following table and in the figure given below.Item’ X-Direction Y¥-Direction Step 9: Geometric coordinates of the arch ‘bracing condition unbraced braced : ‘The formula for the construction of the arch is given by: Ultimate load B. &N) 1545.59 1545.59 Shor column if R10 “heals af “f = £35206 9-900 (6x-2) Hom) 85 38 tn) 13 0.35) [ x 26 52 78 104 B K (bracing factor) 1.6 (Table 6-10) 0.90 (Table 63) He 136 BaD a= 1046 9.77 Status Tong@i>10) short () 246 =}3222,-200=1318 mm CL->CL {2500 mm j= 1318 mm.Using C1-J curve and assume that ¢ <, 450), [2.22210 lf xB 35x1318 ‘The point is outside the curve, thus e/d)ain= 0.125 and j = 0.825 ci=a/, 12.27 a =0.8Xe=0.8X0.125%450= 45 mm Since a xbxd but not ke 7 ‘Thus, Armie=75 mm? > Ay, Use Asnin Use 2012 (226.2 mm’) 103Step 5: Design of the post (200x200 mm) ‘Step 6: Design of the frame (350 mm x 1400 mm) ‘The factored self-weight ofthe poit (300 x 200 mm) equals to: P,y, =LAKY, Xb XE xh = 1.4250,20%0.202.5 =3.5 kN Step 6.1: Dimensioning ‘The thickness of the column atthe top is taken as (0.8-1 t) and at the bottom as (04-06 ty). The thickness of the column at the top is taken as 1200 mm and at the bottom as 700 mm. The height of the column of the frame h is measured from the top of the footing (or semelle) to the center-line ofthe frame girder. ‘The post supports loads from the ridge beam and from the secondary beam. P, =P,,, +P, (secandry beam) + P, (ridge beam) P, =3,5+49.61488125= 61.92 kN 14 +1.0=6.70m 1 awed, bk =clearheight ++ h, 2 The frame column has a variable moment of inertia. To simplify the calculations, an average column width at 2/3h" is used. lag “he 12-4) =100 +-2 1200-100) = 1033.33 me clearance = 2.5-03-0.3=1.9m yg=1033 67 14> 10> longmember 28K Bxt _Ua?x02 2000 ~~ 2000 6 0.013 m<002m > 4, Mag =P, X8=6192K0.02=1.238N m ie 61921000 _ M,_ 123x108 fa XbXt — 35X200x200° °F, xb xr? 35x 200x200" : ‘The point is below the interaction diagram, use Armin M=0.25+0.052xA = 0.84% Ay nin = 0.0084XA, = 0.008% 200% 200 = 337 mm? Use 412 (452 mm?) 104 105‘Step 6.2: Calculation of loads ‘The self-weight of the frame equals 14x25 10001000 Wao LAX I, XB +, Xt (2003300 +-350%1400) =19.25 ki J’ ‘The loads on the frame results from the reactions of the secondary beam and the post every 2.5m causing concentrated loads on these locations. Tx. 54 20 ‘The total uniform load on the frame equals to: W, = Way + Wey =19.25:+39.04 = 58.29 KN/” =39.044N J mt ‘The concentrated loads on the sides can be estimated by 0.6 P,=66.92 KN O6P. P, Py Py Py Py Pe Pu 06 P= Py + Pag = 61.925+ 49.615 111.544N | ree eet | 19.25 Kien | Pore rt i Frame | | Frame | ‘Actual loading system | eas2 eas | 144=58.29 kien é | g oo > | 350 | =20 To simplify the calculations of the bending moment, the concentrated loads on | the frame can be replaced into uniform load as follows: | LE atvaiens ened ST oe! 106 107Step 6.3: Calculation of straining actions ‘The frame is tworhinged and is once statically indeterminate, The horizontal reaction atthe base for uniformly loaded frame is given by wxXE oxi Joy and NW =2K 43 ae H,=H,= where K ‘The moment of inertia for the column is calculated using fare xt, _0.350%1.033° .0322m* 0.08 6.7 L 0.0322" 20 1833 N=2K+3=2x083343 6692 6692 7258.29 KN 67 108 w,xL __58.29%207 AXRXN 46.7%4.666 ‘The vertical reaction can be easily obtained as follows: WXL 9 Gye p = 58:29%20 2 * 2 + 66.92 = 649.81 KN ‘The moment at top of the column Met = Hip x Rayg = 186.44 x 6.7=1249.15 KN ‘The maximum moment at mid span of the frame can be obtained as follows: ‘The bending moment, shear force, and normal force diagrams for the frame are presented in the next page. ‘Step 6.4: Design of frame sections ‘The ctitical sections are shown in the figure below. 109186.44 os981 649.81 Straining actions for the frame ‘Bending moment diagram Normal force diagram ‘Shearing force diagram, eee Step 6.4.1: Design of section 1 (350 mm x 1400 mm) Section 1 is a rectangular section that is subjected to the following factored actions: M,=1665.3 KN. P,=186.44 KN (compression) ‘According to the ECP 203; if (Py/fa b#) is less than 0.04, the normal force can be neglected, P,__ 186441000 Fa xbxr — 35x350%1400 ‘The design will be carried out as if the section is subjected to bending only. Frames are usually heavily reinforced and the reinforcing bars are arranged in two rows. Therefore, the effective depth is given by: = 0.0108 < 0.04 .......negleot the normal force d =1~100mm=1400-100 = 1300 mm ‘Touse the R-e, calculate R M, —__ 16653x10" __ og94 Faxbxd® — 35%350%1300" From the chart with R=0,0804, the reinforcement index @= 0.1028 A, cox! xb xd = 0,1028x-22x350%1300 = 4546 mm? f 360 0.205 Ba yg 02255 555931300 =1682 mn? mailer of | Ff, 360 1.3 A, =1.3x4546 = 5910 mm As? Aeris P70. Use 10625 (4908 mm’) 10 ulStep 6.4.2: Design of section 2 (350 mm x 1400 mm) Section 2 is a rectangular section that is subjected to the following factored actions: ‘My 1249.15 kN. P.=186.44 KN (compression) According to the ECP 203; if (Pe/fy b #) is less than 0.04, the normal force can be neglected. P___ 186.44%1000 Fa xbxe ~35x350%1499 ~ 00198 <0.04 -neglect normal force ‘The design is carried out asif the section is subjected to bending only. To use the R-o, calculate R My, __1249,15x10° Jaxbxd® —35x350x1300" ~ 0° From the chart with R = 0.0603, the reinforcement index a= 0. fe 35 x22 xbxd = 0.075% 3501300 = 7 569 350% 3310 mn’ 4 Ly ett 1p a = 4350x1300 = 1390 mm? a. = smaller of J," 360°" Omen! (5, = 6) Eqin = 0.05%, = 0.05%1.033 = 0.052 m <5 ‘Thus the lateral deflection due to buckling is larger than the code minimum eccentricity. The column is subjected to axial force of P,=649.8 KN. The additional moment equals, May = P,X5 = 649.8 0.0556 = 36.13 kN Mag = Mig + M gg = 1249.15 + 36.13 = 1285.28 KN Due to the fact that column sections are subjected to large normal force, it is recommended to use compression steel between 40%-60% of the tension stee! to ensure ductile behavior. The section is designed with the interaction diagram (o=06). P, 649.8%1000 6498x1000 _ 9 44p Faxbxt ~ 35x350%1200 My 12852810" _go73 Faxbxt* 35%350%1200 413‘Assuming thatthe distance from the concrete tothe of the reinforcement is 80 mm, Thus the factor & equals Using interaction diagram with f,=360 N/mm’, o=0.6 and C=0.8 (conservative) =21 M= PX feg X10 = 2.1x35x10" = 0.00735 A, = UXb xt = 0.00735%350x1200 = 3087 mm? (725, 3436 mm*) A, = at-A, = 0.6%3087 =1852 mm? (425, 1963 mm?) 4939 mam? Aus =A, + A, =3436 +196: Since the column is long the minimum reinforcement ratio is given by: Hug =0.25-+0.082. = 0.25 + 0.052%10.37 = 1789, Use Hei=0.008 ok = 0,008%b xt = 0.008% 350%1200 = 3360 mm™ < A, 4 Design of section 4 (350x700) subjected to a compression force (Pj=649.8 kN) and can be reinforced with the minimum area of steel. Ania =0.008X6Xt = 0,008x350%701 P, =035% f,.XA, 0.67% f, X Ae }960 mm* 2, = hg (035x358 (850%700) + 067360%1960) = TARY > (649.8).0.k Use 9025, 4415 mm? >Assia 4012 5025 4025 mm | 700 mm Step 7: Design for shear ‘The critical section for shear is at d/2 from the face of the column. Thus the design force Q, equals to: psi-eesn-san(!2 st0.02%1000 12 N/mm? bxd ~ 350%1300 mm Critical section for shear 0.6 Pi=66.92 58.29 KNim, OTT ty=1.20—-] fen 67 ¥_r649.81 ‘The presence of the compression force increases the shear capacity of the beam, however, this force is relatively small that its effect can be neglected (conservative) 24, Lu. = 0.24/33. = 15 15 15 N/mm? ox = 114 usSince qu 14) =16m teauep=(08 t,t) =14m asda (O4 ty 0.64) =08m Spacing between frames = 5.0m Spacing between Y-beams =5.0m Secondary beams spacing =2.50 m f= frame spacing/2 =25m Step 2: Design of the solid slabs Assuming that the flooring load is 1.0 kN/m?, the total dead load of the slab g, is given by & X25+ flooring =0.1x25+1.0=3.5 kN/m® Assuming that the live load is equal to 0.5 kN/m?, the ultimate load w,, is given by Wy =14% 8, +1.6xp, = 14%3.5+1.6%.5=5.7 RN Im? _P 40-200 Plan Fig. Ex 1.8a Structural system (plan) 120 121Slab (comm) ‘The roof is a system of one-way slabs that are continuous in the short direction. ‘Thus, the maximum moment can be obtained as shown in the following figure. 7 kNim* : 25m 25m 25m Section B-B Fig. Ex 1.8b Structural system (sections) 3.56 kNum WyXD _5.7x2.5* aaeet 0 eneretea 10) Assuming 20 mm cover, the effective depth d =100~20=80 mm ‘Taking a strip of 1.0 m width and using R-co curve, the value of R is given by: 56 KNn M, 3.56x10° faxbxd? — 30x1000%80" 1.0185 From the chart with R=0.0185, the reinforcement index «= 0.022 eoxLaxb xd =0.022x "2 «100% 400 32. mm? Im S35 «1000%80 = 120mm? Ayo ts Choose 58/m’(250 mm?) Step 3: Design of the secondary beam (200 mm x 500 mm) ‘Assume that the beam -ection is 200 mm x 500 mm (from step 1). The factored self-weight of the beam equals, W gow = 14X25 xt =1.4%25%0.20%0.50 =3.5 kN fm” 122 123,vga 7.75 kNim 25m) L'=5.59m Ry=49.61 ‘on post R496 ‘on ¥-beam. ‘The spacing between secondary beams is 2.5m, thus the total beam load is given by: 1, = Wea + Spacing XW,, =3.5 +5.7%2. 7.15 RN Im ‘The inclined length L’is equal to VS +5 =5.59 m W,XEXL! _17.75x5.0x5.59 8 8 ‘The reaction of the secondary beam is XL. _17-15x5.59 Bes 2 ‘The section at midspan is a T-section and the effective width B is taken as: L M, =62.02 KNm 49.61 RN 161, +6 (16x100+200 = 1800 mm 5+ 200 = 1318 mm B= the smaller of + Eb cx—sct {2500 mm B=1318 mm. Using C-I curve, and assuming a 200xb" _ 2 Peon Since the span of the beam is 5000 mm, itis accepted to use b=200 mm. Part A that is not laterally ‘supported by sab. ‘The factored self-weight equals to Woon =1AXY, XD, Xty +B Xt) W gow =14X25(0.2X0.80+ 0.10%0,50) = 7.35 kV Im” 128 ‘The loads on the Y-beam result from the secondary beam and fro the post every 2.5 m, causing concentrated loads at these locations P, = 66,3 +49.61=115.91 EN Post ‘The Y-beam is a continuous beam having more than three equal spans. ‘The reactions and the bending moments can be determined using @ computer program or a simplified analysis. Using the simplified analysis, the bending, ‘moments can be computed as the superposition of the bending moments due to the concentrated loads and those due the uniform loads, Theses values can be obtained in text books of structural analysis, ‘The value of the bending moment at the support duc to the concentrated load is, (Px L (6.22), while that at mid-span is (P.x L /5.89). On the other hand the values of the bending moments due to uniform loads at the support and at mid- span are wL3/10 and wL?/12, respectively. wexE | P.XL _735x5* | 115.91x5 Mise = pes ee =11L55 kNm 10 622-10 622 129ee w XE xb _735%x5? | 115.91x5 7 es Soars 2] 5.89 13.71 kN Mac ‘The maximum reaction at any interior support due to the concentrated loads and due to the uniform loads are equal to (2.15 Py x L) and (1.1 wy x L), respectively. By =v, XL42 15, =L17 355 +2 15115 91= 289.64 RY 06r, Peliss! uso. HES 118914 | | we2735 im Myye=113.71 'Ry=289.64 kN Ry=289.64 Step 6.2: Calculation of the reinforcement (Sec-1) ‘Since the upper part of the Y-beam is not attached to slab, all sections are designed as Rectangular sections with maximum moment of 113.71 kN.m. To use the R-0, calculate R 113.71x10° te, = SBT 0.0337 Suxbxd? — 30%200%750' From the chart with R = 0.0337, the reinforcement index «= 0.0403, A, -axlxb xd 0403 22-5. 200%750= 454 mm? “400 0225 ha yg 0.22530 Avnin = Smaller of ie 200% 750 = 462 mm? 13A, =1.3%454=590 mm? Use 414 (615 mm’) Since the bending moment at section 2 is very close to that of section 1, the same reinforcement is used, ‘Step 6.2: Design for shear ‘The shear on the Y-beam can be calculated as follows: w LPM. LP. Miu, _7.35%5 115.91 LSS <9 sia ee ET ee ‘The critical section is at d/2 from the frame girder 3.65~ 7.35238 8) 94.6 kN Since qu < ee, provide minimum stirrups. Assume a spacing of 200 mm, oa Aasin bx. 200% 200 = 57 mim™ (for two branches) S380 ‘Area for one branch =28.5 mm* ( 8mm = 50 mm?) Use 598/mn’ 130 131Step : Design of the frame (350 mm x 1600 mm) Step 7.1: Dimensioning From step 1, the dimensions ofthe frame girder are 350 mm X 1600 mm. ‘The thickness of the column at the top is taken as (0.8-1 t,) and at the bottom as, (0.4-0.6 t,). Thus, the thickness of the column at the top is taken equal to 1400, ‘mm and at the bottom is taken equal to 800 mm. The own weight of the frame equals to: 4x25 0.350%1.60 = 19.60 kN /m” |AXY, Xb Xt, ‘The frame carries its own weight and the reaction of the Y-beam. The ‘concentrated loads are equal to the reactions of the Y-beam (289.64 KN). At the ‘edges the reaction can be estimated as 0.6 Ry=173.78 KN. The height of the frame leg h is measured from the footing to the centerline of the girder. !, h=clearheight+4L-+h, s+tte10 6.80m ‘The frame column has a variable moment of inertia, To simplify the calculations, an average column thickness measured at 2/3h is used. h68 2B Step 7.2: Calculation of the straining actions ‘The frame is two-hinged and is once statically indeterminate. The horizontal reaction at the base can be estimated by: w x2 4xhxN oy 3x. 2xhxLxN uniformload x(axb) concentrated load N=2K43 ‘The moment of inertia for the column is calculated using tory bXtoe _ 0.350%1.2 12 2 .0504 m* x _ 035x1.6° = 0.119 12 12 0.119 6.8 L 0.0504” 20 N=2K+3=2x0.806+3=4.61 06P, 06Py =173°7 Pi=289.6 289.6 280.6 1=20Using the principle of superposition, the total horizontal reaction of the frame due to the uniform load and the three concentrated loads equals to: wy xL? 3x, XH, A 4xhXN ” 2xAXLXN (a, xb, + a, XB, +4; Xb,) 19.620" 3x 289.64 4x6.8x4.61 | 2x6.8Xx20x4.61 (5x15 +10%10 + 15x5) = 235.67 kV ‘The vertical reaction can be obtained easily due to symmetry as follows: 19.8x20 2 ‘The moment at top of the column. Mc = Hy x h =1602,6 kN. The maximum moment at mid-span of the girder can be calculated as the superposition of the moments due to the uniform load and those due to the ‘concentrated loads. x nit = BXL +P, Xa-M 19.620" | 289.64%20 ea ; yt 289.645 1602.6 = 2273.81 KN 173.78 289.64 289.64 289.64 173.78 219.6 kN/m |, Reactions le 235.67 +k b 235.67 KN goin [2 ts 1602.6 1602.6 1602.6 ee 22BBEN Bending moment diagram ‘Normal force di ‘The bending moment, the shear force, and the normal force diagrams for the al frame are given in figure below. | 630.46 532.46 =] ; HH 63046 coe Shearing force | - diagram 1035.67 235.67 : 135 134—_——__——_——____ Step 7.3: Design of the frame sections ‘Step 7.3.1: Design of section 1 (350 mm x 1600 mm) Section 1 is a rectangular section that is subjected to My=2273.81 KN & —Py=235.67 KN If (Puffeub #) is less than 0.04, the normal force can be neglected. F, 235.67x1000 = 0.014 < 04 Fa xbxt 30x350%1600 ~ 0.014 < 0.04 sneglect the normal force ‘The design will be carried out as if the section is subjected to bending only. Since frames are usually heavily reinforced, the bars are usually arranged in at least two rows, > d=1-100=1600-100 = 1500 mm M, 2273.81x10° pee Faxbxd® ~ 30x350x15007 ~ °° From the chart with R = 0.096, the reinforcement index fa 30 A, = @x22 xbxd = 0.126% x350%1500 = 4961 mm? 2 1 im = 0.126 0.22530) : Aa shemnder | 922530 350 1500 =1617 mm 1.34, =1.3%4961= 6449 mm? Use 928 (5541 mm?) ‘The stirrup hangers are taken as 15% of A, , which gives 831 mm? (3420). The shrinkage bars should not be less than 8% from A, with a maximum distance between bars of 300 mm. This gives 43 mm? (812) Step 7.3.2: Design of section 2 (350 mm x 1600 mm) Section 2 is a rectangular that is subjected to M,= 1602.57 KN.m & P.=235.67 KN If (Pe/fx b t) is less than 0.04, the normal force can be neglected. z 235.67%1000 Fa Xbxt 30%350%1600 .014-< 0.04 .......neglect the normal force The design will be carried out as if the section is subjected to bending only. M, 1602.57%10° fu Xbxd* — 30X350%1500" From the chart with R=0.067, the reinforcement index «=0.085 30 bx = 0.085x—— x350%1500 = 3346 mn? 400 350% 1500 =1617 mm Ania =the smaller of F 0225S 5 4 0.22550. 7 400 134, =1.3x3346 = 4350 mm? Use 8625 (3926 mm?), see reinforcement details Step 7.3.3: Design of section 3 (350 mm x 1400 mm) Buckling in the out-of-plane direction ‘The frame is considered unbraced in the out-of-plane direction because of the lack of any bracing system. From Fig, Ex. 1.8, it can be determined H,=2.8. The effective length factor k is objained with case (1) at top and bottom. Thus, k=1.2. 36 m 9.6 < 10 (case of unbraced columns) 6 035 ‘Thus, no additional moments are induced in the out-of-plane direction. Buckling in the in-plane direction ‘The frame is considered unbraced because the lack of any bracing system. The top part of the column is considered case (1) and the bottom part is considered case (3) (hinged base). Thus k=1.6. ‘The height of the column is measured from the bottom of the beam to the base (2°), However, itis customary to use the length used in the analysis fh 136 137H, =kxh =1.6%6.8=10.88 m ‘The slendemess ratio 2 is calculated using an average column thickness not the actual one, thus 2. equals H, 1088 _ 9 667 ty «12 Since }is less than 10, the column is considered short and no additional moment is developed. M=1602.57 KN.m & Pe 24 KN Due to the fact that column sections are subjected to large normal force, it is recommended to use compression steel between 40%-60% of the tension stect to enstie ductile behavior. Use the interaction diagram (0=0.6). B 804.24%1000 9 9547 FaXbxt 30%350%1400 M, 1602.57%10° = 0.077 Faxbxt? — 30%350%14007 Assuming that the distance from the concrete to the c.g. of the reinforcement is 80 mm. Thus the factor € equals 400 N/mm”, 0=0.6, and Using a interaction diagram with f= 3 p=19 = px f,, x10 = 1.9x30%10™ = 0.0057 A, = Hxbxt = 0.0057X350%1400 = 2793 mm? (825, 3926 mm") Al =a- A, = 0.6% 2793 = 1676 mm? (4625, 1963 mm”) Ava =A, +A, =3926-+1963 = 5889 mm? ‘Since the column is short, the minimum reinforcement ratio is 0.008. Ayia = 0.008% x1 = 0.008%350%1400 = 3920 mm? < A, yy nensOk Step 7.3.4: Design of section 4 (350 mm x 800 mm) ‘This section is subjected to a pure compression force (Py=804.24 KN) and can be reinforced with the minimum area of stel. Ayuig = 0.008% 5X1 = 0.008% 350x800 = 2240 mm? P, =035x f,, XA, +0.67%f, XA, PB Fa (025%90%(350%.800) +.0.67x400%2240) = 3540KN > (804.24)..0.4 From the frame reinforcement details A,=8025, 3927 mm? > Aswix 4025 350mm ‘Step 8: Design for shear ‘The critical section for shear is at d/2 from the face of the column. Thus the design force Q, equals to non» 48) ; 804.24 -173.78~19.6| 2 602.04 1000 3501500 1.147 Nimm* The presence of the compression force increases the shear capacity of the girder. however, this fprce is relatively small and can be neglected (conservative). 138 139Giitical section for shear w219.6 68 Truss ‘Ya=804.24 Sf [30 24/22 =0.24,|> 1S 15 Since q, > dem shear reinforcement is required. ou 07 NI mm* (Neglect the effect of P,) a = 4542 = 1.147 127.0661 N/mm? 2 ‘Try $ 10/m” (Aqe=2x78.5=157 mm?) (10 mm diameter is chosen because of the heavy reinforcement ofthe frame) Le Xf, MAS bxs _157x280/1.15 350xs 5=179 mm , Use 6610/m (s =166 mm) Ga = 061 94 cox¢5 = 94.5:350%166 =83mm* 675 2 Wom, + PRE IRE? 6.154 xa BF ax4 = 80.88 kN oR H X4=R, x10—w, X10X5 = 68.3x10-7.19x10x5 > H=80.88 kN “The coordinates of the quarter point can be obtained as follows: r 1450 O=si 43.6" 163‘The horizontal distance from the center of the arch is given by: xersin(2)- x, =L/2-x =10-5.385=4.615 m 1 Sxsin( 38) «5.85 m ‘The height of the arc (yz) at the quarter point equals to: y =VP ax? = Via? 5.38" y ~(r-f ) =13.64- 00.5) vn ‘The moment at O; equals to: My = By X_— 0 gs) ¥2%, 2-H XY, M, =61.1x4.615~(5.15)x4.615" 12 ~80.88x 2.96 = -18.66EN m ‘The maximum moment at O2 equals to: My = Ry £,— 0 ce Wun) 82 (2-H XY, M, = 68.3x4.615—7.2% 4.615" /2~80,88%2.96 =—0.87 kN m 18.66 KN.m Bending moment diagram It is clear that the maximum moment occurs at point Q). The corresponding. ‘normal and shear forces may be obtained using the following equations: P,=H cos a+ Qsiner Q=Qcosa—H sin a Where H and Q are the horizontal and vertical forces, respectively, at that section, H= 80.88 KN, and Q =61.1-5.15x4.615 = 34.6 kN 0 _ 86 218° oar P, = 80.88 cos 21.8-+34.6sin 21.8 = 87.94KN Q/ =34.6cos 21.8 -80.88 sin 21.8 = 2.08 kV 0346 Force analysis at the quarter point Alternatively, the bending moment and the normal force may be obtained using ‘Table 1.6 as follows: freuen L 2 From the table with //1=0.2, one can determine that, =-0.01745, ks=0.01361, ke=1.0872 M coon =k 1 W yp XL? =0.00384%5.75x 20? = -8.84 EN a M csoyn = XW gy, XL? = 0.01 745x144 20? = ~10.05EN am M 5X0 yup XL? = 0.0136 1.44% 20" = 47.83 KN an M M ce) =~8.84+ (7.83) =-LOLEN an P, =k, xH =1.0872x80.93 = 87.99kN 164 165‘Step 3.1.2: Calculate the reinforcement ‘The section at the quarter point is subjected to combined compression force and. ‘bending moment. The thickness of the arch at this location is 125 mm. _P___ 87.9910? Fa bt 30%1000 125 = 0.023 <0.04 ‘Thus the normal force can be neglected, and designed for moment only. cover =125-20=105 mm 18.8x10° 30%1000 x105* 057 > @=007 Foy bd £2. 5 (450 mm?) Agog = 2%565 = 1130 mm? x 135 fa A, +0.67Xf, XA, BR 35 x30150%1000 + 0.67400%1130 =1877 kN Since the applied compression force is less than the section capacity, the section is considered adequate. 168 Step 3.2.3: Design for shear ‘According to the ECP 203, the slab shear strength is calculated using the following relation: fix =0,16,]2% =0.715. /mm? fu = 016 T= 0.165 2 ” _ 9.91000 xd A =0.07 N Imm? (very safe) 1000x130 Step 4: Design of the vertical beam (350 mm x 750 mm) ‘The vertical beam is analyzed as a continuous beam supported on columns. Step 4.1: Calculations of the straining actions 750,Step 4.2: flexural design Sec. 1: ‘The factored weight of the vertical and horizontal beams equals: ow .= 14x25 (0.35x0.75 + 0.25%0.55)/10° = 14 EN /m" ‘The total factored load on the vertical beam equals: M, 3 =258kNm | W, =Ryy HOW = 72414 =86 RN Im | c 258x108 In Which Rue is the vertical reaction obtained from the analysis of a strip of 1.0 CIPRO > = 0.0613 ‘m width of the arched slab. 0613 SE 350% 700 =1126 mm vec=86 1 | ‘A, fet I Toads Choose 6 @ 16 (4,= 1206 mm’), The secondary reinforcement is chosen as at least 0.1-0.2 Ay Choose 2. 12 Se S60 —+} Sec. 2 M, = 5° 309.6 Nm a 10 2 10 309.610 =m ene > 00.0746 ” ne 30%350 x 700" 4, = 2-6 xd =00746 20 350% 700 =1370 mm? 309.6 ; 129 258 . Choose 5 20 (A,= 1570 mm!) RQ Bendin os “The secondary reinforcement is chosen as 0.1-0.2 A, Choose 2 ® 16 Pr] 1935 Step 4.3: Design for Shear ‘The critical section for shear is at d/2 from the face of the middle support. ‘The width of the column is 250 mm. The critical section is at section (I) as Critical shown in figure with code coefficient of k,=0.6 sections 0.45, 0.60_0.50 0.5 0.50 ky 170 17Q.=k,w, L-w, 6x86x60~ 85 4( 0 =) 268.75 kw Raa = 2x1 _ ons = 0061 10002 "2 "Fb d® 30%250 x850" 9, fe 4 xd =0.061 2 850=972 mm? a ‘mm? ib xd =0.061 250 x: xd 350x700 SOON ment 400 dam =0.24, f= = 0.24 [30 1.07 N mm? Choose 5@ 16 (A,= 1005 mm’) i 1s ‘The secondary reinforcement is chosen as 0.1-0.2 A Choose 2. 12. Since gu> qay shear reinforcement is needed. Bending Critical a Eee moment sections [s Bebe 2 “RM 3 Assuming a spacing of 100 mm, the shear reinforcement area is given by: ate os g 0.56x350%100 ‘ = 93.9 mm? «OILS me ‘Thus, the area of one branch =A. = 23 — 46.95 mm? 3 2 q 4d = Use g (4e=100 Use $8@100mm ok. 2 a ‘Step 5: Design the horizontal beam (250 mm x 900 mm) “The horizontal beam is analyzed as a continuous beam ‘supported on the ties. It y g e carries a uniformly distributed load equals to the horizontal thrust. This uniform “a + “ Joad equals the horizontal reaction of a 1.0 m strip of the arched slab. Step 5.1: flexural design a $ 8 Sec. 1 7 = S2 9056 oro 2 2 172 173Sec. 2: w S? _ 90x67 Rpg ad Nn M, 324x108 7 = 0.06 > Sa 6d? 30% 250 x850" Choose 5@ 18 (4,= 1272 mm’) Step 5.2: Design for shear = 0.074 ‘The critical section for shear is at the face of the mi 7 e 1¢ middle support because the support is in tension (the tie). The critical section is at section (1) as shown in duetsw, -, (£) 06060-0222) -n2751n 312.75%1000 250x850 24 fl 0.24/22 1.07 Wm? 15 15 Since qu> gon shear reinforcement is needed. AT N Sam? 935 N Imm? og alice ‘Assuming a spacing of 125 mm, the shear reinforcement area is given by: dg Xb XS _ 0,935%250x125 _ 4, 140 mm? figure with code coefficient of k,=0.6. “Lt 240/115 Q, =k, w, bw, iG ‘Thus, the area of one branch 10 mm? 2 ke Shear T 2 Use @ 10-78 mm? — (A157 mm?) Use $l 0@125mm —> 8P10/m’ Aginin = ob xs = 24 250x125 =39 mm? 10) Tong G10) from the chart p=3 | 5= Fr 2000 oi 0035 = xf, x10 =3%30%10" =0.009 =0.9% | Mou = PS 69.9 a6 However, since the column is long the minimum reinforcement ratio pmin is i Matwind) Te o Hy =0.25+0.052 A = 025 +0,052%1691 = 1.13% Mot = Mat Moa 1877 aoe A cain = Has 6X1 = 13 250% 700 = 197 mm Choose (12 16, 2412 mm’) distributed uniformly. 180 181Sec. BB 2816 900 2a, 2272 7 oem banana] 62516 rata 3 so8.am Reinforcement Details of the Arched Slab ‘Vertical Beam Elevation sogam Horizontal Beam PlanExample 1.10 Parabolic arched slab ‘A car showroom is to be constructed on an area of (16 ms x 35 ms) as shown in | Fig. EX 1.10. A parabolic arched slab was chosen as the main supporting system. Design and give details for the system knowing that the: material properties are fox=25 N/mm”, and f,=360 Nimm?, and f1=280 N/mm? Neglect the effect of wind on the design of the columns. The building may be assumed as unbraced in the in-plane direction and braced in the out-of-plane direction, Data DL.=1 Nim? (not including own weight) LL.=0.5Nim? ‘Clear height= 5.0 m Solution Step 1: Propose the concrete dimensions ‘The parabolic arched slab is the chosen main system with the following imensions: te (mid-span) t, (quarter point) & (edge) Vertical beam Horizontal beam Tie Hanger if ‘The spacing between the arches = 5.0 m Column 50 mm x 600 mm ‘The complete layout is shown in Fig. EX 1.10. ‘Step 2: Calculations of acting loads In order to calculate the weight of the arched slab, the length of the parabola need to be computed. For simplicity the length of the parabola is taken as 1.1 the horizontal distance between the supports (span). ‘The length of the arc L’= 1.1L = 1.1x16=17.6 m a 24m, 250 mete — tae aetalpewn ‘petlomn a ‘dn 3 HV ae coum. Hewat re Tiros smat ($cc. A-A) Fig. EX 1.10 Parabolic arched slab 184 185‘The self-weight of the arched slab may be calculated using the thickness at the ‘quarter point (120 mm). 0W.= Y, Xtoy =25X0.120=3.0 KN /m? ‘The total factored dead load including plaster weight wenvis given by: Wo =14 (ow. + plaster weight) =1.4%(3.0+1.0) =5.60 LN Im? The value of he horizontal projection (H.P.) of this load is given by: “u 176 Wypy =1AW gg XL L 60%: 16 kN Jim? (HP. 16 Noting that the live loads on inclined surfaces are always taken on the horizontal projection, the slab factored live load wyzcis given by: Wyyp = LOXW 4, =1.6%0.5 = 0.80 kN Im? ‘The total factored load wy =W yoy + W yy, = 6.16 +0.80 = 6.96 kN /m? CLP.) Step 3: Design the arched slab critical sections ‘Taking 1m width of the slab, the acting loads are shown in the following figure. Step 3.1: Section at the quarter points (t=120 mm) Step 3.1.1: Strai ‘actions at the quarter points To obtain the maximum moment at the quarter point, only half of the atch is to be covered by the L.L. as shown in figure below. Wo=0.80 kN’ up1=6.16 kN/m* 2 aL RX Rs Equivalent load system and reactions H Rnb 616aedeosobt > Rasnas ay R, =54.08 kN Ry x16 =616x16%48 +0.80x16«12 > To oblain the horizontal thrust H, the moment is taken at the middle hinge as, follows: Way? 6.16428) x16 2 2-87.46 kn BF 8x24 Wun. + H ‘The same result can be obtained by taking moment of forces at the crown, HX24=R,x8-—w, X8X4=54.08X8-6.96x8x4 > H=87.46 KN swy= 0.80 Nim” wupe=6.16 kNimn” The height of the arched slab at the quarter point may be obtained using the properties of the parabola. 3,3 af 4 Itcan also be obtained by substitution in the equation of the parabola with x=4. aap x(L=x) _4x24x4x(16-4) c 16° ‘The maximum moment at O1: M, =R,x4~(L4W 9, X4X2-H XY, x24 =1.8 m 8 m y M, =50.88x4~(6.16)x4x2.0-87.46x1.8 186 187‘Also, it can be obtained directly from Table 1.7. we XL? _ , 0.816? 64 « ‘The maximum positive moment at 02 equals M, 2kNm M, =R,X4~ (yoy 4 yy )XAX20—-H XY, M, =54.08X4~6.96%4x2.0-8746X18=3.2 kN m 326m Oz a oN —s ’ Bending moment diagram ‘At point O1, the corresponding normal and shear forces can be obtained as: P, =H cos a+Qsina O'=Qcose—H sin a Hand Q are the horizontal and vertical forces at that section. He 87.46 KN. Q =5088-6.16x4 = 26.24 kN To obtain the tangent angle at the quarter point, the equation of the parabola is differentiated as follows: 4 -x-(Lax) _ 4x24 x (16-x) E 16 y’=tan @= 0.0375 (16-2x) 0375 (16 x ~x*) Substituting with x=4 tan @=0.30 @=167 P, =87.46 cos 16.7 + 26.24sin 16.7 = 91.31 kN 5-7 ~87.46 sin 16.7 =0 188 ‘The section is subjected to compression and bending moment. The thickness of the arch at this location is 120 mm. 91.1310" 25%1000 x120 0304 <0.04 fab ‘Thus the normal force can be neglected, design for moment only. a over = 120-20 = 100 mm paola 3210" p9108 0-015 Fa bd? 25%1000 x100° fe. 755.1000 % 100 =103 mm? ofa-b xd ~0015 ox 2 1000% 100 = 166 mm* 360 Choose 6 & 10/m! (A,= 471 mm") Due to the fact that half of the arched stab is subjected to negative moment and the other half is subjected to positive moment, the main reinforcement (6 10/m’ ) is provided at the top and bottom. The secondary reinforcement is chosen as at least 0.2 A, Choose 5 @ 8 /m’. The reinforcement is arranged staggered to avoid congestion of reinforcement. 189SOS /ny 6 10/u Reinforcement details for the slab Step 3.2: Section at the support (t=140 mm) Step 3.2.1: Straining actions To obtain the maximum reaction athe 36 suppor, the whole ach is co the both the dead and the live loads as shown in figure. vered by Equivalent load system and reactions u nus = 6.962 = 55. xf = 55.68EN H yee X24 = 35.68X8-6.96%8X4 > yay =92.8 KN To obtain the tangent angle at the support, the n deena support, the equation of the parabola is y =0.0875 (16 x ~x*) ba 190 sn @= 0.0375 (16-2) tan @=0.60 = 30.96 y Substituting with x=0 ‘The corresponding normal force and shear a this section can be obtained as: P, =H cos @+Qsina OQ =Qoosa—H sin a Hand Q are the horizontal and vertical forces at the support. H=92.8KN. Q =Ryy, = 55.68 AN 2.8 cos 30.96+55.68sin30.9 = 108.22 kN Ras=55.68 KN Step 3.2.2: Design the reinforcement ‘The section is subjected to pure compression (P,=108.22 KN) and (My=0).. ‘Assume that the total minimum area of steel of equals to 0.6%. = 26 1000%140 =840 mm? (top and bottom) = 420 mm? A, hee Using the same reinforcement determined from the section at the quarter span Assop=Astoe= 6 © 10/m’=471 m? > (420 mm*). 191Aga =2XATL=942 mm? 2 =0.35 f,, A +067%f,xA, P, = (0.35 25%140%1000 + 0.67360942)/1000 = 1452 kW Since the applied compression force is less than the section capacity, the section is considered adequate Step 3.2.3: Design for shear ‘The applied shear at this section () equals to zero. ‘Step 4: Design the vertical beam (250 mm x 600 mm) ‘The vertical beam is analyzed as continuous beam supported on columns Step 4.1: Calculate the straining actions of ‘The factored weight of the vertical and horizontal beam equals to: ow. 1.4x 25% (0.25x0.6 +0.20x0.5) =8.75 kN /m* ‘The total factored load on the beam equals to: », Ray +OW = 55.6848.15 = 64.43 KN Imt* win6443 NI” mt Leif TL} Loads -+}-——8+5.0 ——}-—— 5=5.0 ——| : 2 10 : aye 161 B42 oT Bending moment 1007 134.2, Giitical sections > @=0089 193,ay Choose 5 16 (A,= 1005 mm?) ‘The secondary reinforcement is chosen as 0. 25 b xd =0.089 >>. 550 = 850 mm? 9 5p 250% 0 1.2. A, Choose 2 @ 12 Sec. 2 w S? _ 64.43%5* M, = 2S. 4435" LS 79 7161.07 kNm M, 161.07 x10° 5 = Sexcas0 sear Ome = Juba?” 5x 250 x55 ~°°8 ae fi 25 022 b xd = 0.11 2 x250x 550 =1050 mm? f, 360 Choose 4 20 (4,= 1256 mm’) Step 4.3: Design for Shear ‘The critical section for shear is at d/2 from the face of the middle support. ‘The width of the colunin is 250 mm. The critical section is at scotion (1) as shown in figure with code coefficient of k,=0.6. 0.45, 0.60 0.50 0.5 0.50 ky ao L—w, [S42 2,=4,, bw, (S44) 2, eosxeraneso-cess(225,25) gg =P = YET S2X1000 = 99 frum? bxd 250x350 23 1-024, fm nore [23 <9, 7 4. 7 5 = 098.N Imm Since 44> dex shear reinforcement is needed, Using 6 8 and for two branches A, = 2x50 =100 mm? ‘The spacing of the reinforcement area is given by = SBXB50KS 6 133m Use spacing of 125 mm 280/1.15 Use $8@ 125mm or 8 6 Sim Again = 26 x8 = 24 250.125 = 44.6 mm? w=0.101 fas 5 x = 0.101 22200 x 100 = 978 mm? 360 A, = Choose 4 @ 18 (A,= 1017 mm’) ‘The secondary reinforcement is chosen as at least 0.1- 0.2.4, Choose 2.@ 12. 194 195Factor Bending k moment i 8 dl d 3 g Gy a 8 Sec. 2 _w S$? _92.8%5* km M,____232x10° = 0.0946 > — @=0.124 ‘Fbd* 25% 200 700° foe 25 fo 5 xd =0.124 2% =1203 mm? if gp * 200% 700 = 1208 Choose 4, 20 (A,= 1256 mm’) Critical sections a sys coe ‘Step 5.3: Design for Shear ‘The critical section for shear is at the face of the column because the tie is in tension. The width of the column is 250 mm, The critical section is at section (1) as shown in figure with code coefficient of ky=06. O,=kw, bw, (5) 0, ~05x02.8%50-928%{ 222) «2668 ev tie I . THe 3 g 5 s Hs 2 8 ! 2, _ 266.8x1000 bxd 200x700 0.24, [is =0.24 | =098 N fmm? 15 15 =1.9 N/mm? 4% 196 Be 19725 0.70 f= =070,[%5 =2.85.9 mm? cea 15 15 ™ Since qu doy sheat reinforcement is needed. AN Imm* Ay Assuming a spacing of 125 mm, the shear reinforcement area is given by: 1.4x200%125 380/115 ‘Thus, the area of one branch qa ‘Use $10=78.5 mm? (Ay=157 mm?) Use 910@125mm ~> 8410/m" S=* 200%100 = 28mm? 0k 2g 2001 10) short 0515) 0 5=# x1/2000 0.0768 My =D B65 7 Maa= Mat Moat BG 0 IL is clear from the previous table that the column is subjected to @ uniaxial bending moment as shown in the figure. 201Calculation of buckling lengths (refer to the table) ‘Using interaction diagram with f=360N/inm?, a=1.0, €=0.8, calculate 7 P = 568.3x1000 0.152 ‘Ta xbxt 25%250%600 M, 43.6x10° = BO nooo F XbxT ~ 255250600" ‘The intersection point is below the chart > use Hain Since the column is long, the minimum reinforcement ratio ti is given by: Hain = 0.25+ 0.052 A= 0.25 + 0.052x16.0 = 1,1082% 1.1082 4, xbxt = 100 % 250% 600 = 1623 mm? Choose (8 18, 2035 mm’), ee lesreragste qi i so e Ps | 3B 8 ba 478 i| (Gay | i 3 me 141] Ea; fg <, i= ea af] |< BE ee s a tl geal bel Reinforcement Details of the Arched Slab 202 203Sec. 1-1 16 4s q af § = q ailiar 3 anh HH! 8} os spat’) 3) 3 3 Poort ‘Vertical Beam Elevation 750 98m bets 250 Sec. 2-2 owi2 ie 4a10 Be ea wie Bie Horizontal Beam Plan 204 | DEEP BEAMS AND CORBELS Photo 2.1 Corbels supporting beams in a stadium 2.1 Introduction ‘This chapter will discuss the behavior of reinforced c« sonerete deep beams and corbels (short cantilevers). The behavior of these members is different from shallow (sh bending do not remain plain behavior of these members, the subject of shear fri ‘Another approach for designing these members is the Strut and Tie Mode! will be presented in Chapter Six of this volume. 205 lender beams). In deep beams and in corbels, plané sections before ‘after bending. In order to fully understand the iction will be presented. | that2.2 Deep beams Deep beams may be loaded at their top surface asin the case ofa transfer girder 2.2.1 General ‘supporting the load from one or more columns (Fig. 2.2a). The loading may Deep beams are beams of rela take place at the bottom surface as in water tank wall loaded by the action of the (isey betes eee es ee tively high depth-o-span ratio, Most kpically, suspended tank's floor (Fig. 2.2b). Loads may also act along the height of the girders. A transfer girder supports the load from ‘wall as shown in Fig. (2.2c). The wall in this figure approximates the case of one of more columns, transferring it to other columns (Fig. 2.1a). Deep beans also occur in tanks and walls supported on columns rig. 4), ‘wall supporting successive floor slabs and transferring the loads to columns at ground floor level. Jiitti tis Jitititis Foor vet | piitiitit i [I] Voit | Fig. 2.2 Types of loading of deep beams | Enaeeoee LS A a reRan Ew Wall supporting the floor ‘a5 @ deep beam aoesEEE 1 ee (b) Elevated water tank Fig. 2.1 Typical examples of deep beams Photo 2.2 Deep beam supporting columns (Brunswick Building, Chicago) 206 patElastic analysis of deep beams indicates that the usual assumption that plane sections before bending remain plane after bending is not valid for such ‘members. Thus, flexural stresses are not linearly distributed even in the elastic range. Typical stress distribution is shown in Fig. (2.32). The cracking load of a deep beam is about 1/3 to 1/2 of the ultimate load. ‘Traditional principles of analysis and design of ordinary reinforced concrete beams are neither suitable nor adequate to determine the strength of reinforced concrete deep beams. The cracking pattern of a uniformly loaded deep beam is shown in Fig. (2.3). After cracking a major redistribution occurs and the elastic analysis is no longer valid. Deep beams loaded at the top behave mainly as a tied arch as shown in Fig. (2.3c). Pott diddy Jiddidddd detydiyiy J | — LAA | Ent PF. Et. Ff. 7 a) Normal stress b) Cracking pattern ——_¢) Arch mechanism Fig. 2.3 Top loaded deep beams ‘The tied-arch mechanism, shown in Fig. (2.3c), brings designer attention to the fact that longitudinal tension reinforcement acting as a tie that is fully stressed over neaily the whole span. Therefore, sufficient anchorage at the supports and continuity of reinforcement bars without curtailment are essential requirements for top loaded deep beams. 208 sie bse Figure 2.4a shows a deep beam that is supporting uniformly distributed load acting at the lower face of the beam, Vertical stirrups must be provided as hangers to prevent local failure and to transfer the effective acting load to a higher level. If such a beam is provided with stirrups that are able to deliver the bottom load to the upper part of the beam, the beam will be behave nearly like a top loaded beam, ‘The crack pattern in Fig. 2.4b clearly shows that the load is transferred upward by reinforcement until it acts on the compression arch, which then transfers the loads down to the support as shown in Fig. 2.4 PRE a) Loading pattern iene b) Cracking pattern (a ©) Arch mechanism Fig. 2.4 A bottom loaded deep beam 2092.2.2 Egyptian Code’s Provisions for Deep Beams ‘The Egyptian Code’s provisions for deep beams are applied to deep beams loaded at the top or at the compression faces. If loads are applied at the bottom of a deep beam, the Egyptian Code requires using vertical reinforcement that is able to transfer the load to a height equals at least half the span. This vertical reinforcement should be added to that resulting from the design of the beam as if itis atop loaded deep beam. In deep beams plain sections do not remain plain after bending and the design ‘methods developed for shallow beams can not be applied. The Egyptian Code presents two methods for designing deep beams. These methods are: ‘+ The Empirical design method ‘+The Strut and Tie method .2.2.1 The Empirical Design Method ‘The empirical design method applies to beams having the following ratios of the span (L) to the effective depth (@) ‘Simply supported beams: (Ld )<1.25 Q.ta) Continuous beams: (L./d)<2.50 ---(2.1b) where L is defined with reference to Fig. (2.5) as the smaller value of the following: L 1.05 L, ..(2.2a) 2.2b) L=L, Fig. 2.5 Definition of a deep beam 210 Design for Flexure ‘The longitudinal reinforcement should be provided to resist the tension force that resulting from the applied bending moment. The tension force at any section is given by: T,= 23) Ye Where M, is the applied ultimate moment, T, is the developed tension force at the critical section, and yer i the lever arm and is given by: Yq =0.86 LS 087d You 2043 LSO8TA Yq =037 LS 087d For simply supported beams. For continuous beams at mid-span, For continuous beams at interior support. ‘The reinforcement can be obtained by dividing the developed tension force by the steel yield stress as follows: A, t o. Fs 24) ‘The distribution of this reinforcement differs from that of the slender beams. ‘The flexural reinforcement is placed mear the tension edges. Because of the ‘greater depth of the tension zone, it is required to distribute such steel over a certain height of the cross-section (See Figs. 2.7 and 2.8) The tied-arch mechanism of deep beams dictates that longitudinal tension reinforcement acting as a tie is fully stressed over nearly the whole span of simply supported deep beams. Therefore, sufficient anchorage at the supports and continuity of reinforcement bars without curtailment are essential requirements. Recommendations for the detailing of deep beams are given in Figs. 2.7 to 2.10. ‘The Egyptian code requires thatthe actual area of stel A, in any section should be greater than Assia given by: 2(2.5) (0.25 5 a (mild steel) 100 01s —— b d (high grade} Too 2 @ (high grade) but not less than, ‘The design for shear in deep beams is of special importance. The amount and spacing of both the vertical and horizontal web reinforcement differ than those used in shallow beams, as well as the expressions that to be used in design, ‘The critical section for shallow beams is taken ata distance d/2 from the face of the support, and the shear plane is inclined more and closer to the support ‘However, in deep beams, the critical section for shear is to be taken as: Uniformly distributed > x (2.6a) Concentrated load = > x =0.5a... (2.6) In cither case, the distance x should not exceed the distance d/2 as shown in Fig 2.6. If both uniform and concentrated load exist on the beam, design the most critical one, 4 (ibid didi id a scion { cvdealeesone —oOoNs mm O™Ns to 1) Concenented Lande <7 19 Uni Load x 4, If on the other hand, the value of g, exceeds ¢,,, web reinforcement should be Provided to resist the ultimate shear stress 4, . For deep beams in the ranges of the L/d ratios considered, diagonal cracks will be at a slope steeper than 45°, ‘Consequently, both horizontal and vertical web reinforcements are required, in fact, for such L/d ratios, horizontal reinforcement could be more effective than vertical reinforcement. The horizontal bars are effective because they act more nearly inthe direction perpendicular to the diagonal crack. ‘The ECP-203 gives the following equations for calculating the web reinforcement for deep beams: 2.128) 2.128) in which. jo. (2.13a) 1s(L,/d) oo 2.136) ARG IY) . eee A213¢) pment) -@.13) It can be concluded from Eq. 2.12 and Eq. 2.13 (as stated above) that horizontal reinforcement is more effective than the vertical web reinforcement. Equation 2.12b has four parameters (Ay, s» Aa, Ss) Itis customary to assume the value of these parameters and calculate the value of the shear carried by the reinforcement guy. The Value of gw in Eq. 2.12b should be greater than required shear stress qn given by Eq. 2.12a, Thus, assume three of these parameters to obtain the fourth unknown. Figure (2.7) shows the recommended reinforcement detailing of a simply supported top-loaded deep beam, 216 id 2.2.2.2 Design Using the Strut and Tie Method ‘The Egyptian Code permits the use of the Strut and Tie Model (explained in detail in Chapter 6) to design the beams in which the ratio of the effective span to depth satisfies the following conditions: A; Simply supported beams 125He"0) Bley ® Ye peye09} eq PI cuads ejoun euj JeAc0 pynous [281s WOKOG UIEw eys -L 221 peo) oso wary Too Teo ToT wr vy eRe | pean Py] sams WOES “eds s066)q oun (1) ‘suoneuen ueds jo e689 Ut -p 6 QUE TS —-ek0z ue e1ow eq you pinous speo} ur suoweuen puv suoyeuen uedg -¢ "wreeq eu Jo 4)8ue} 40} eYy senCO PINoYS PLE (1e'0 >He’0) 1u6ieu © we pere00| 6q pinoys jaeis do} urew aun Jo HeU-2UO -Z ‘ued ej0\m ey} Jon09 pinous jeeis WoHOG LIEU BULL o D a a ir ) 3 | —_——— | GS | ‘IL 20 neo) Hose | Too aay) Bien v TET al2.2.3.3 Deep Beam Supporting another Deep Beam 2.3 Shear- Friction Concept Special provisions are needed when loads or reactions are introduced along the ‘There are many situations in reinforced concrete structures where it is necessary full depth of a beam for example, when deep beams support each other, as to transfer shear across planes of weakness such as interface between concrele illustrated in Fig. (2.11), cast at different times. Shear-friction concept provides a simple but powerful | model to investigate situations such as those shown in Fig, (2.12). @ Deep bear suppartd Y/— erator ep bem LMM (b) Corbels Fig. 2.12 Applications of shear friction concept Fig. 2.11 Deep beam supporting another deep beam. | ay 223‘Typical examples are reinforced concrete bridges in which the deck is cast-in. situ concrete slab supported on precast girders as shown in Fig. 2.12, Another example is corbels supporting crane girders. Photo 2.4 Short cantilever supporting prestressed beams ‘The basis of this model is explained in Fig. (2.13). When shear is applied to an initially cracked surface, ora surface formed by placing one layer of concrete on top of an existing layer of hardened concrete, relative slip of the layers causes a separation of the surfaces as shown in Fig. (2.13a). If there is reinforcement aoross the crack, it is elongated by the separation of the surfaces. ‘The elongation of the reinforcement means that itis stressed in tension. For equilibrium of the free body diagram at the interface, a compressive stress is needed as shown in Fig, (2.13b). Figure 2.13¢ shows aggregate interlock at crack interface. 224 Shear displacement CM ttt [J Shoar stress = Tetension in roinforcement | in conerete =C | Compression 4) Shear displacement causing ‘rack opening )Free-body tagram - Aanregate @ Nee ©} Aggregate intariock at crack ntertaco Fig. 2.13 Mechanism of shear friction Photo 2.5 Aggregate distribution in concrete section 225‘Shear 1s transmitted across the crack by: 1._ Friction resulting from the Compressive stress. 2. Interlocking of aggregate protrusions on the cracked surfaces combined ‘with dowel action of the reinforcement crossing the surface. ‘The shear stresses 6n the concrete face are assumed to be related to the compressive stresses by a coefficient of friction H. The maximum capacity is assumed to be reached when the reinforcement crossing the crack yields leading toa shear resistance of: O= Ay Sy 1%, Ho where Ay is the area of reinforcement crossing the surface and fy its yield strength, Equation (2.14) states that the resistance to slip is equal to the normal force times the coefficient of friction ‘Tests have shown that shear-friction capacity is also a functidn of the concrete strength and the area of contact. As the concrete strength and the area of contact increase, the aggregate interlock mechanism becomes more efficient and the shear friction increases. Hence, there is an upper limit on the shear resistance due to fricti Qa) Q= constant (feu Ae). 15) where Ais the area of contact. The area of reinforcement that crosses the crack Ay Fig. 2.14) is given by the Egyptian Code as: a snes Q6) “ET If the section ig subjected to a tension force in addition to the shear force, additional steel should be provided as given by the following equation: y, Q, Na 2h, Bln ‘The values given by the Egyptian Code for the coefficient of friction (1) are given in Table 2.1. ain ‘Table 2.1: Values of p according to surface condition ‘Crack Interface Condition ‘Concrete cast monolithically ‘Concrete cast against hardened concrete with surface intentionally roughened 3 [Concrete cast against hardened concrete not intentionally | 0.50 roughened or concrete anchored to structural steel by headed studs or bars. Fig. 2.14 Shear friction reinforcement The steel must be placed approximately uniform across the shear plane so that all parts of the crack are clamped together. Each bar must be anchored on both sides ofthe crack to develop the yield strength. ‘The ultimate shear (Q, / A,)shall not exceed the following limits: 4% =O,1A, S ONS fa, (2.182) Iq =O, 1A, $ 4.0.N Imm? (2.186) 2272.4 Short Cantilevers (Brackets or Corbels) Corbels or brackets are short cantilever members that project from a column or ‘a beam to support another beam or heavy concentrated load. The importance of these members is clear in precast buildings where corbels support beams and girders. Therefore, the total safety of these types of structures depends on the ability of the corbels and brackets to transfer the load safely to the columns, Steel bearing plates or angles are commonly used in the top surface of the brackets to provide a uniform contact surface and to distribute the reaction. Short cantilevers are defined by the Egyptian Code as cantilevers wiiose shear span-to depth ratio (a/d) is 1.0 or less (See Fig. (2.15)). This small ratio changes the pattem and distribution of stresses similar to the case of deep ‘members. In corbels, a large horizontal force develops due to shrinkage and creep of the supported elements such as beams that are connected to the corbels. ‘The code provisions apply to short cantilevers in which the depth at the outside edge of the bearing area is not less that (0.5d) where d is the depth measured at column face. Short cantilevers are designed to support beams transferring vertical reactions Q,. Horizontal force (N,)caused by restrained shrinkage, creep in prestressed beams and expansion or contraction effects. Therefore, itis advisable to consider a minimum horizontal force, N,, = 0.20, Fig. 2.15 Definition of a Corbel according to the Egyptian Code 228 ‘The structural action of a short cantilever can be idealized as a truss made up of ‘a compression strut and a tension tie as shown in Fig. (2.16a). The inclination of the strut determines the tension in the tie by a simple force polygon. Since the tension tic supports a constant tension force, sufficient anchorage of bars should be provided beyond the corbel interface with the column, Failure of the strut- ‘and tie model could occur as a result of yielding of the tension tie, failure of the compression strut, or failure of the end anchorage of the tension tie. [A direct shear failure could also be a possible mode of failure along the face of the column as shown in Fig.(2.16b). Local failure under the bearing plate could occur. Finally, if the corbel is too shallow at the outside end, there is a danger that cracking may extend through the corbel as shown in Fig. (2.16c). For this, reason, ECP 203 requires the depth of the corbel to be 0.5d at the outside edge of the bearing plate. ‘Shear frtion reinforcement () © © Fig. 2.16 Failure modes of corbels 29‘The Egyptian Code requires that reinforcement be arranged as shown in Fig (2.17). The main tension reinforcement is calculated to resist a moment (M,) at column face and normal force (W,). . The area of steel required to resist the tensile force (WV, 2 0.20, ) is given by: Lit Cy = Main steel, Ay Vertical ot. Closed st An Photo 2.6 reinforced concrete buildings 230 ‘The bending moment is calculated as follows (refer to Fig. 2.15). The flexural reinforcement A;is calculated using regular sectional analysis. so (2.20) M, =O, a+N, (¢+A-d) .. ‘The shear-friction reinforcement (A,) calculated using the shear-friction concept is given by: 2 y, — oe 221) HEY) Lt. Corbel reinforcement consists of three types: 1. Main reinforcement 2. Horizontal stirrups. 3. Vertical stirrups. 4. Main Reinforcement ‘The total main top steel A, the greater of the following: L AAA, 2.222) 2. A, =A, 42/34, (2.226) 2 Ar 0080 a 2.23) where b is the width of the corbel. 2. Horizontal Stirrups ‘The horizontal shear reinforcement, Aj, consists of horizontal closed stimups uniformly distributed in the top 2/3 of the cross section. This area is given by: Ay 205 (A, Ay) siesnnnnenmnmnnnenne (2:24) 3. Vertical Stirrups Corbels should also be provided with vertical stirrups that satisfies, the ‘minimum requirements of the ECP-203. where s is the spacing of the vertical stirrups. 231Example 2.1 A transfer girder is to support two columns, each having a factored load of 7500 KN as shown in the figure. Its clear span is 7.0 m. The girder has to carry also a factored uniform load, including its weight, having a value of 206.3 KN/m’, The material properties are f,, =25N/mm? and f, =360N/mm? Design the beam using the empirical design method presented in the ECP 203 208.5 kNim Li 6000,.mm | 50] Solution Step 1: Check the applicability of the empirical method ameiter of {195% ear span = 1.05%7.00 = 7.35m an ee CLtoCl.=7.8 m csligg =7.35m Assume the distance from the bottom fibers to the center of the tension reinforcement = 100mm > d= 6000-100 = 5900 mm 135 245 <1.25 d 590 Since the (4 / Ly )<1.25 (simple beam condition), the empirical method can be applied. Step 2: Flexural design 0.86 087d =0.86x7.35 = 6.32 m 875.9 =5.133 m v4 =nater of { Yq =5A3m 7500 RN 1=206.5 kN/m "| 7500 coon Leg@7.35m | 28 he 215 ‘Mpg 18457 EN. Bending moment diagram 232 233Moga (atmid-span) = 206.5735 +7500% 2.275 = 18457 kN 18457x10° Varhy ly, 5130x360/1.15 0.225 fa _ 0.225 V35, A cna =smaller of | f,, 360 1.34, =1.3%11493=14941 mm? 1493 mm? 650% 5900=11984 mm? ois > x 650% 5900 100 5752 mm? But not less than 215 5 g 100 Ay 0.k Sunes 234 235‘Step 3.3: Calculation of shear carried by concrete 0, =35-25(M, /Q,d) >1.0 <25 by =35-25x(— 2 _) 2.9725 5, =25 '8006%5.50 ‘The concrete shear strength ge is chosen as the smaller of Le yg = 5x02 fa 2. dy 0.46 ff, 115 = 2.5% 0.24V9511.5 =2.45N J mm? 1.46 2571.5 = 1.88N fmm? 88.N fmm? Gos ‘The average shear stress at the critical section is more than the shear carried by concrete. Web reinforcement (vertical and horizontal) needs to be designed. Step 3.4: Design of web reinforcement ta te O5tg = 205-2821 158 In (1-2, /a)_ > 6, = =0 Sh 2 7 0.818 a2 G+L,1a) _* 59 - 2 rT 182, or 6, 6, =1—0.818 = 0.182, su = 8 * Isuv + 5b ¥ Gout Eat ray] > dn [ossact vaste] S| i Ys Gu = ‘Try vertical bars of diameter 12.0 mm (2 branches) and horizontal bars of diameter 16.0 mm (2 branches). = 400mm? A,=226mm? and, (satisfies code requirement) a3 gait ose 38) ose} 5 5,=1528mm Fe 0x15 200 Us ‘Take s, =150mm (satisfies code requirements) Note: que cponiaty =VASN fmm? > Guscaguinty =113 > OK. um web reinforcement Check the satisfaction of the mi Acnin 0.0015 55, =0.0015%650%200=195 mm? a (400 mm) ——ok. ‘Step 2: Check the ultimate shear friction value: Q. FSO haw but not more than 4 N/mm? 00x10" SA = 2.250.154 25 = ‘mm? sooe7s [5x25 =3.75 N/mm? O.K. Step 3: Area of main reinforcement: ‘The bending moment acting onthe bracket equals to: M,=Q.a+N(t+A-d) 1M, =500x0.4-+100(0.8+ 0.05—0.75) = 210k m, M, =0.672= ba, (da, 12) M, =210x10° = 0.67% 25 300%4, (750-4, /2) 8 > O.ld M, 210x108 (a 1297, Ty, 750-8812) x240/1.15 425 mm Ny 10010" 9 sag? Fly, 24015 T = 2u N, HL te Syl te ~ For monolithically cast concrete = 1.2 Ay 500x107 | 100x10* Ag = 240” 2407.15 12x20 as ‘The area of the main reinforcement is the largest area obtained by evaluating three equations: The first equation A= 4, + Ay 476mm ‘Then 4, = 47941425 = The second equation ten 4, 20042 20762130mn? 238 239The third equation fend = 003-25 «300%750 = 708mm? A, = 0.03 Hence, the area main reinforcement is obtained from the second equation. A, = 2130 mm? ‘Use 5 9 25 (2454.369 mm") Step 4: Find the area of the horizontal stirrups Ay =0.50(A, ~A, ) = 0.50(2130 479) = 826 mm? This area has to be distributed over 2/3 of thie effective depth, ie. over a distance equals to (2/3x750) = 500 mm. ‘Choose closed stirrups (two branches) having a bar diameter = 12 mm and spaced at 166 mm, The available area of horizontal stirrups = 113x2 x(500/166 +1) = 906.7 mm? > 826mm? OK, ‘Step 5: Find the area of the vertical stirrups Assume that the spacing of the vertical stirrups is 200 mm. 0. ead = Esc = 24 30200 100mm f, mm and Choose vertical stirrups (two branches) having a bar diameter spaced at 200 mm. ‘The available area = 50 x 2 = 100 mm? OK. i 5625 /L Cbsed st Vertical st. 6o12im ‘5ée/m Reinforcement Details 240 241CONTROL OF DEFLECTIONS Photo 3.1 A cable-stayed bridge during construction 3.1 Introduction ‘The Egyptian Code is based on the limit states design method. The limit states (tates at which the structure becomes unfit for its intended function) are divided into two main groups: those related to collapse and those that disrupt the use of the structures but do not cause collapse. These are referred to as ultimate limit states and serviceability ‘imit states, respectively. The major 242serviceability limit states are excessive deflections, undesirable vibrations and excessive cracking. Deflection control will be thoroughly presented in this chapter. Control of cracking will be discussed in chapter four. ‘The adoption of the limit states design method in recent years, accompanied by the use of higher strength concrete and high-grade steel, has permitted the use of relatively shallower members. As a result, deflection calculations gained more importance than they were few decades ago. Excessive deflections of beams and slabs may cause excessive vibrations, damage to the appearance of the structure, poor roof drainage, and uncomfortable feelings for the occupants. Also, such deflections may damage partitions and cause poor fitting of doors and windows. Therefore, itis very important to maintain control of deflections. ‘The Egyptian code presents the followi deflection: two approaches for controlling Control of deflection by limiting the span/thickness ratio of the member. © Control of deflection by calculating the deflection and set limitations to its value. ‘The first approach indirectly controls the deflection by setting an upper limit for span-to-thickness ratio, It is simple to follow without the need for deflection calculations. However, if smaller members are required, the second approach should be followed by calculating the deflections and comparing the computed values with specific limitations imposed by the code. 3.2 Load-Deflection Behavior of RC Beams Figure 3.1 shows the load deflection response of a reinforced concrete beam. Initially, the beam is uncracked and is stiff. With further loads, cracking occur at mid-span when the applied moment exceeds the cracking moment of the beam. When a section cracks its moment of inertia decreases leading to a significant reduction in the stiffness of the beam. This is the start of the cracking stage. At this stage, the beam continues to carry load but with relatively large deflection. Eventually the reinforcement yields at mid-span leading to a large increase in deflections with litle change in load (points C and D). Since the service load of any member is about 65% of its ultimate load, the service load level of the beam in Fig. 3.1 can be represented by point B. Long- term application of service load (sustained load) results in increasing the deflection from point B to B’, due to creep of concrete. The short-term, or immediate, deflection under service load (point B) and the long-term service load deflection (point B’) are both of interest in design and will be discussed later. 243 yielding of reinforcement to the ultimate Toad. service load Load B Cracking stage Midspan Deflection & Reinforcement 3 Fig. 3.1 Load-deflection response 3.3 Moment of Inertia of RC sections 3.3.1 Gross moment of inertia ‘As mentioned in the previous section, if the applied moment is less than the cracking moment, the section is considered uncracked. In this case, the moment of inertia ofthe section equals to I, (uncracked stage) as shown in Fig. 3.2.cracking stage Ipleler Midspan Deflection A Fig. 3.2 Moment of inertia in concrete beams For design purposes, the calculation of the gross uncracked moment of inertia Ty can be carried out by neglecting the cross-sectional area of steel reinforcement (e.g. I, for rectangular sections = b tV/12). For normal reinforcement ratios, the error in calculating I, does not exceed 10%. ‘The ECP 203 gives the following formula for calculating the cracking moment: farly % Where far is the concrete tensile strength (N/mm?), J, is the gross moment of inertia neglecting the effect of reinforcement (mm*), and y, is the distance from the neutral axis to the extreme fiber in tension for the uncracked section (mm). In the ECP 203, the concrete tensile strength far is given by: 6 Fa, For rectangular sections, y; equals to half the section thickness. For T-sections the reader should pay attention to the direction of the bending moment. Thus, for T-section in cantilever beams the distance y; is measured from the top fibers Fig3.3.a and for T-sections in simple beams it is measured from the bottom fibers as shown in Fig.3.3.b. Gu) sens (3-2) 245 Maximum tension & 3 N Maximum tension 4a Negative bending moment ‘Positive bending moment Fig. 3.3 Determination of the distance y, in simple and cantilever T-beams 3.3.2 Cracked Transformed Moment of Inertia ‘When the applied moment exceeds Mz» the developed tensile stress exceeds the tensile strength of concrete producing cracks as shown in Fig. 34. The developed cracks will cause the moment of inertia to drop to a value less than the gross moment of inertia Z,. Since concrete is weak in tension, it will crack below the neutral axis and its contribution to the rigidity and strength will be neglected. On the other hand, the concrete in the compression zone acts effectively and contribute to the section rigidity. The actual cracked section is non-homogeneous and consists of the compressed concrete above the neutral axis and the reinforcing steel bars below the neutral axis. The non- homogeneous section can be replaced by an imaginary homogenous section called the transformed section. To obtain the transformed section of a reinforced concrete beam, the area of the reinforcing steel bars A, is replaced by an equivalent area of concrete equals 1nA,, in which n= E/E, is the modular ratio (the modulus of elasticity of steel / ‘modulus of elasticity of concrete). The moment of inertia of this transformed section is called the cracked transformed moment of inertia lr.cracked eoe|A me Uncracked section Cracked section Fig. 3.4 Cracking of conerete section under applied loads ‘The neutral axis is located at distance z from the compression face. The location of the neutral axis can be easily determined by taking the first moment of area about the center of gravity of the section (c.g,). It should be noted that the center of gravity coincides with neutral axis (no normal force). b | bey may cracked zon mA ~~ linear stress Cracked section Gissistion ‘Transformed section Fig. 3.5 Determination of the neutral axis and cracked transformed ‘moment of inertia calculations 247 | bx2/2-n A, (4-2) @3) Subsisting with z=kd and w= Ayb d gives: b(kd)* 2 Dividing by be? substituting with pig= (n 1), and solving for k gives k=y2n, +4, nA,(d-kd)=0, G4) 5) and, z=kd Having determined the neutral axis distance 2, the cracked moment of inertia Io- can be computed as xz? as Using the previous set of equations, design chart was prepared to facilitate the determination of the fz, for singly reinforced section (refer to the Appendix). L 3.6) +n A, (d-2)" For doubly reinforced section, the compression steel displaces the stressed concrete and has a transformed area of (n-I)A, Referring to Fig. 3.5 and taking the first moment of area about the top fibers gives: bx 2712+ (n=) A, (2-d')-n A, dz)" ‘The previous equation is a quadratic equation in z and can be solved directly. ‘Te value of z can be directly obtained from Eq, 3.8. tlie aw BD) 2ar where a =b2 bo Sn At(n lA’. -{(a-l) Asd' +n Ad] ‘The cracked moment of inertia equals bx. +0 A, (d-2)? (0-2) A (2-d' G9) Design aids for calculating the cracked moment of inertia for rectangular sections with tension steel only are given in Appendix. 248In T-sections, the neutral axis could be located inside or outside the flange as shown in Fig. 36. Therefore, hand calculations should be carried out as explained in the illustrative examples. A et b b Neutral axis inside the flange 2t, 3.6 Location of the neutral axis in cracked T-sections, Photo 3.2 Reinforced concrete building 249 a | 3.3.3 The Effective moment of inertia le Sections located at tension cracks have their moment of inertia approximately equal to the transformed cracked moment of inertia J.,. However, between cracks the moment of inertia could be approximately taken equals to I, Referring to Fig. 3.4, it is clear that a cracked reinforced concrete beam behaves as a beam with Variable moment of inertia. To simplify deflection calculations, the cracked RC beam is assumed to have a constant moment of inertia (called the effective moment of inertia 1). ‘The effective moment of inertia has a value less than Zy but is greater than lr ‘The most widely accepted formula for estimating the effective moment of inertia was developed by Branson and is adopted in the Egyptian code. This, empirical equation, presented graphically in Fig. 3.7, was based on statistical analysis of deflections measured from test data, and is given by: ie) Ma si mM, ‘The previous equation can be simplified as: 1 terth-ta He) . Gin where Te cracked transformed moment of inertia. ‘M, maximum service (wifactored) moment in the member, Me, cfacking moment calculated using Eq. 3.1 ‘The variability of deflection calculated using this expression, which is based on laboratory tests, is relatively high. However, considering the variety of factors, that influence deflection of reinforced concrete beams, greater accuracy can be hardly expected from using such a simple equation, Figure 3.6 shows variation of the effective moment of inertia J. with the applied ‘moment Ma, In this figure, the horizontal axis refers to the applied bending ‘moment and the vertical axis refers to the moment of inertia that should be used in deflection calculations. It is clear that if the applied moment is less than cracking moment of the beam; deflection is calculated using the gross moment 250of inertia J,- On the other hand, if the applied moment is greater than the cracking moment, deflection is calculated using the effective moment of inertia, 1. It is interesting to note that the value of the effective moment of inertia ‘approaches the cracked moment of inertia as the applied moment increases. L L Effective moment of inertia Ie My Fig. 3.7 Variation of the effective moment of inertia I. with the applied ‘moment My In summery the effective moment of inertia equals G12) 251 3.4 Code Provisions for Control of Deflections ‘The Egyptian code presents two approaches for controlling deflection. The first is indirect by setting an upper limit for span-to-thickness ratio. In the second approach, the computed member deflections are compared with specific limitations imposed by the code. 3.4.1 Control of Deflection by Span-to-Thickness Ratio 3.4.1.1 Beams and One-Way slabs ‘The Fgyptian code imposes restrictions on the member thickness relative to the clear span Ey, to ensure that the member will be rigid enough so that deflections are unlikely to cause problems as given by Eq. 3.13 and Table 3.1. Table 3.1 ‘can not be used for beams or slabs supporting elements that are likely to be ‘damaged due to deflection. It can not also be used in case of abnormal buildings and in case of heavy or uneven loads ‘The code recognizes the effect of support conditions on deflection by assigning different span/thickness ratios according to the continuity conditions at both ends of the member. 2a. Values itedin Table 3.1 snes O13) Table 3.1 Left ratios for members spanning less than 10 meters or cantilevers spanning less than 2m. (Deflection calculations are waived) ‘Simply | Oneend [Two end | Cantilever Element supported | continuous | continuous ‘Solid sas ; 35 30 36 10 Hidden Beams and 20 25 28 8 hollow blocks Beams 16 8 a LE ‘The values listed in Table (3.1) are valid when using high grade stee! 400/600. In the case of using other types of reinforcing steel, the values mentioned in ‘Table 3.1 should be divided by factor €, given by: f =040+22.. $2 040+ 655 ‘Where f; is the yield strength of reinforcing steel in N/mm’. G.14) 252‘T-seetions ‘The limiting values listed in Table 3.1 are also valid for T-sections by multiplying the values by the reduction factor 8 determined from the either Ea, 3.15 or Fig 3.8 s-o7+029(2)z08 -G.15) 1.00 ; B co 0.95 +-—| | a # aso +4 : { 3 cos| | | § ao e 3 or} 070 0 01 02 08 04 05 06 07 08 09 1 (0/8) ratio. Fig. 3.8 Modification of L/t ratio for T-sections 3.4.1.2 Two-way slabs Resting on Rigid Beams For two-way slabs resting on rigid beams, having spans of less than 10 meters, subjected to uniform loads that are not heavy and attached to non-structural elements not likely to be damaged by large deflections, the deflection calculations can be waived if the slab thickness is grater than ¢ calculated using the following equati a{oss+ 1600. 20 15+ 410 ba OF 2100 mm . 6.16) Where ais the smaller dimension of the slab, b is longer dimension of the slab., By is the ratio between the length of all continuous edges to the total perimeter, and fy is the yield strength of reinforcing steel in Nimm’ 253 aE Also the slab thickness should be greater than tia for simply supported slabs forslab continuous from one side 3 40 fe forslab continuous from two sides where a is the short direction. 3.4.2 Control of Deflection by Limiting its Value Calculations of deflections are carried out in the following cases: ‘© Values of span-to-thickness ratios given in Table 3-1 are not satisfied. ‘© Span of the beam is more than 10 ms or length of the cantilever is greater than 2 ms. ‘© ‘The member is subjected to heavy or uneven loads or located in abnormal type of building. 3.4.2.4 Calculation of Immediate Deflection Deflection of reinforced concrete members can be calculated using the simple structural analysis expressions. Examples of these expressions are given in Eq. 3.18, the rest is given in appendix A. It interesting to note that the deflection of a uniformly loaded simple beam is five times the deflection of a uniformly loaded beam with fixed ends. = E__ for fixed end beam with uniform load ( ) 384 EI, StL for simple beam with uniform load ) 384 E 1, A z a 7 for simple beam wth point od at midspan 18) wie) for cantilever beam with uniform load (w ) SEI, PL? o i TE fereantilever beam with point load at dg (P) 254Where 1, and L are the effective moment of inertia and the beam span, respectively. Ecis the concrete modulus of elasticity and is given by 4400/7, ~G.19) ‘The total immediate delectation A; duc to the existence of dead and live loads ‘equals to: B, A= An ty. - (3.20) where Apr is the deflection due to dead loads including the own weight of the ‘member and the weight of the finishes and Ar, is the deflection due live loads. 3.4.2.2 Long Term Deflection Due to the combined effect of creep and shrinkage, the deflection increases with time. The factors affecting long-term deflection include humidity, temperature, curing conditions, ratio of stress to strength, the age of concrete at the time of loading and compression steel content. Ifthe concrete is loaded at an early age, its long-term deflection will be increased. The creep deflection after about five years can range two-three times the initial deflection. It should be noted that ‘more than 90% of the long-term deflection occurs atthe first five years after the initial Ioading. immediate. immediate curvature trains concrete beam strain “after curvature Long-term, deflection deflection Fig. 3.9 Effect of creep on deflections, curvature and strains. 255 ‘The addition of compression steel reinforcement reduces the long-term deflection significantly. Figure 3.10 presents experimental deflection versus time for beams with and without compression reinforcement. The additional deflection with time is 195% of the initial deflection for beams without Compression reinforcement (A’.=0), while it is only 100% of the initial deflection for beams with compression steel equals to the tension reinforcement (A’= Ay). E 10 E : = 10 = s 3 se Rs=05) 8 0 = impp deticton| A'saas z @ £ « is aera 3 2 Go 0 100 += 200» 300-400 500-600 Time (days) Fig. 3.10 Effect of compression reinforcement on long-term deflection ‘Based on experimental results, the ECP 203 specifies that additional long-term deflection due to creep Aceep is calculated by multiplying the dead load deflection Api. by the factor c. For a singly reinforced section this factor is ‘equal to 2, The reduction factor ot for sections with compression steel can be computed from the following relation: ie 1.2] —+|20.6 3.21) (@) ea) Soup = Ay, snnannansenese B22) “Thus the long-term deflection including the effect of creep equals: Meat = Sony + Mou + Be, 8.23) 256Boor = O42) Mpg +B gy soe 3.24) 3.4.2.3 Permissible Deflections ‘As mentioned before, deflections of roofs and floors may cause cracking of brick walls and malfunction of doors and windows. Moreover, deflection due to accumulated water on the roof may cause additional deflections allowing it to hold more water. The ECP 203 imposes the following deflection limits: ‘The total deflection of members in ordinary buildings under the effect of all loads including the effect of temperature, shrinkage and creep, ‘measured from the support level should be limited as follows 1 For beams, one-way labs and two-at-slabs: L Newt S so. 258 wt SE (3.25a) 2. For cantilevers: L Nua $= se (3:25) eet S355 (3.256) where L is the distance between the inflection points for beams or slabs and is the cantilever length (See Fig. 3.1). The value of Z is based on the shore span for one-way and two-way slabs, and based on the long span for flat slabs. Se eT -— 1, —— -— bh — Tals L=0.87L5 Simple beam One end continuous beam re & a L=0.76L5 a Continuous beam: Cantilever beam Fig. 311 Definition of L in deflection calculations 257 ‘+ The BCP 203 requires that the immediate deflections due to live loads only for beams and slabs supporting or attached to non-structural celements not likely to be damaged by large deflections, to be limited to: sé . 360 Ay (3.26) + The ECP-203 requires that for beams and slabs carrying non-structural elements that are likely to be affected by deflection such as curtain walls, the part of the total deflection that occurs after the execution of the floor finishes and partitions and that results from all loads including the effect of temperature, shrinkage and creep to be limited to: ta FO Dig, SE cnennnnineinenes B21) 480, where Au = instantaneous deflection due to live loads (not likely to be sustained) Ane = long term deflection (creep + shrinkage) due to all dead loads applied after the installation of partitions including any sustained (permanent) live loads Table 3.2 and Fig. 3.12 summarize the previous rules, Photo 3.3 Beam deflection during testing 258‘Table 3.2 Maximum permissible deflections ‘Type of member Deflection to be considered Deflection limit Beams and slabs in ordinary buildings “otal deflection (measired from the level of the suppor) under the effect of all Toads including the effect of temperature, svinkage and creep 1/250 for beams & slabs 11450 for cantilevers Beams and slabs supporting cr attached to non-structural elements not likely to be damaged by large deflections Immediate deflection due to live Toads 11360 Beams and slabs supporting (or attached to non-structural elements likely to be damaged by large deflections Immediate deflection due to live Joads plus long-term deflection due to all additional loads (applied after construction of non-structural elements) including flooring. and partitions 11480 Deflection Calculations Calculate the total deflection under the effect of all loads including the long-term effect Ag and check the following limits: $1/250 for beams and slabs be damaged by large deflections eae eee = Caleulate the deflection due to deflection due to Live loads + deflection due to sustained permanent: A, =A ted, Live loads only = Ar, = Check the satisfaction of following limit: Ay, $L/360 - Check the satisfaction of following limit: A, $L/480 259 Fig. 3.12 Deflection Calculations 2603.4.2.4 Deflection of Continuous Beams For continuous spans, the ECP 203 calls for a simple average value for the effective moment of inertia obtained from Eq, 3.10 as follows: 1, =0.50 I, 40.25% (Ly +13) 6.28) where 1 is the average effective moment of inertia, Im is the effective moment of inertia at mid-span and J, and 12 are the values of the effective moment of inertia calculated at the negative moment sections. Figure 3.13 shows the application of Eq, 3.28 for the calculation of the average effective moment of inertia for an interior span of a continuous beam. The value of the effective ‘moment inertia at mid-span Iq is calculated form Eq. 3.10 using the maximum moment May. On the other hand, the values of f.y and J. are calculated from Eq, 3.10 suing the maximum negative moments Ma, and Maz. Mayle Marler Menton Fig. 3.13 Calculation of the effective moment of inertia for continuous beams For continuous beams in which the exterior support does not prevent any rotation (brick wall), the effective moment of inertia can be approximated by 1, =0.75 1,, 40.25% 1 6.29) Where Jan is the effective moment of inertia at mid-span and J; is the value of the effective moment of inertia calculated atthe first interior support. To determine the effect of continuity on the deflection at mid-span, itis easier {fo express the deflection equation in terms of moment. For example, for a uniformly loaded simply supported beam the deflection can be expressed as: SxP BET, (30) 261 For a beam with concentrated negative moment M; at beam end the deflection equals 3x2 "BEL 331) Referring to Fig, 3.13 and by using the principle of super-positon, one ean concluded that the mid span deflection 4 for continuous beam is = XE _ i, -0.1x(M, +M,)] $xET 3.32) where Mj, My and Mz are the bending moments at end 1, midspan, and end 2 respectively. To calculate the dead load deflection for example, one should use the dead load moment My.or at midspan and at the two ends (M;,o. and Ma). Photo 3.4 Deflection of a siFe Example 3.1 ‘The cantilever beam shown in the figure below carries an unfactored dead load of 11.5 kN/m’ and an unfactored live load of 6 KN/m’. The beam is located at a typical floor and supports walls that are not likely to be damaged by deflection. It is required to calculate the immediate and the long-term deflections. Does the beam meet ECP 203 requirements for deflections? feu =35Nimm? n =10 150 mm Ke 3@ 20 800 mm, ‘Beam Section Beam Elevation ‘Solution Step 1: Calculate the uncracked section properties ‘Neglect the reinforcement steel in calculating the gross moment of inertia. ye= 400 mm bxt? _ 150x800 1 ane 12 = 64x10" mm* 1 50_ i ‘Uncracked section 263 ‘Step 2: Calculate the cracking moment and the applied moment Sar = 0.64{F,, = 0.6135 =3.55 N/mm? Fact, ” 400, 55x64x10 1 56 79 pm 10° SRN Im! Wygg = HS +6 = ‘The maximum negative moment in the cantilever is at the support wg EP _115x2.2* 2 Since My Me, then calculate I, M,= =108 KN m...>M,, (crackedsection analysis) ‘Step 3: Calculate the cracked section properties A= 4@ 16 = 804 mm? Assume the neutral axis is located at a distance z from the compression force. Transform the area of steel reinforcement into an equivalent area of concrete (aA). nAz10 x 804 = 8040 mm? 267 250 1 \ ieee es ‘A=804 mm? Original section ‘Transformed section ‘Taking the first moment of area for the transformed section about the N.A., gives: 250%2%5 8040 (550~z) 125 2? +8040 24422000 = 0 2=158.68 mm Calculate cracked moment of inertia lor 1, een Ad-2)? 3 = 250%158.68" 56x10" mm* +10% 804 x (550 -158.68)? Step 4: Calculate the effective moment of inertia - 44007, = 4400/25 = 22000 N J mm* 1 +(, -1e(ite) , » 1 56x10?) 25.)" 1.5610? + (4.5%10? -1.56%10' (8) TT X10? mm. 268‘Step 5: Calculate the deflection Step 5.1: Calculate the immediate deflection Wo = 15 kN/m’ =15 N/mm’ Wu. =9kNim’ = 9 Nimm’ ‘The maximum dead load deflection for simple beam at mid span equals Wp, LY 5x15%(6x1000)* 184 ET, 384x22000x1.77x10" Since the relation between deflection and load is linear, we can determine the deflection of other loads simply by using ratios of the applied loads as follows: Bus = Ap x= 65x =3.9 mm Woe 1S Ay =A, +My, 6543.9 =104 mm Step 5.2: Calculate the long-term deflection The total deflection due to all loads including the elect of creep equals: Seu =(4Q) Ap, + Ay, : since A’;=0 then o=2 Bua = (142)6:543.9= 23.4 mm Step 6: Check the code requirements 1, The code maximum limit for simple beams = 6000/250 = 24 mm, since Aves (23.4 mm) Mg, then calculate I. an Step 3: Calculate the cracked section properties A, =3@ 22= 1140.4 mm? Assume that the neutral axis is located at a distance z from the compression force. Transforming the steel reinforcement into equivalent area of concrete gives: nA=10 x 1140.4 = 11404 mm? ‘Assuming concrete cover of 50 mm, d=800-50 =750 mm 1250 nAs=11404, 200 Exact calculation for the e.g. Quick estimate for the c.g, To quickly determine whether or not the c.g. is inside the flange, calculate the first moment of area at the end of the slab. 1950%120% 42 > 11404%(750~120) Hence, assume the c.g. inside the flange, Taking the first moment of area for the transformed section about the c.g 1250%2%5 =11404 (150-2) 625 z? +1404 z-8553000=0 (08.21 mm < 120mm (inside the flange as assumed) Calculating cracked moment of inertia I., 272Bo Se yn A(d-2? 3 TRA (d—2) 1250%108.2° + 11404% (750 108.2)? = 5.2210? mm* Step 4: Calculate the effective moment of inertia B, = 4400, {Fog = 4400020 = 19677 N/mm? _ i, -10(Me ott, -1e)(He) 2x10" +(toaaxio?-s2ani0")( 215) 63x10" mm Step 5: Calculate deflection Step 5.1: Calculate immediate deflection Wo =20kN/m’ = 20 N/mm’ Wu, =8kNim’=8 Nim ‘The dead load deflection for simple beam equals: = 5p LE 5 20%(7.21000)4 e384 BT, 384° 19677x6.3x10" 5.64 mm ‘Since the relation between deflection and load is linear, we can determine the deflection of other loads simply by using ration as follows: Ay = gg x = 5.648 Woy 20 2.26 mm ‘Thus the immediate deflection equals: on + Ay, = 5.64 +2.26 = 7.90 mm Step 5.2: Calculate long-term deflection ‘The total deflection due to all loads including the effect of creep equals Beat = O42) Ay +x, Since A’s=0 then cr=2 Boat = (4 O)N gy +8 y, = (4 2)%5.644 2. =19.19 mm Step 5: Check the code requirements ‘¢ The code maximum limit for simple beams = 7200/250 = 28.8 mm. Since Aas (19.19 mm) < A,iowabte (28.8 mm), the code limit is satisfied. ‘Since the beam is attached to partitions that are likely to be damaged by large deflections, the code also requires that: : Ayah, se 5 <5 mm 480 * 480 Bug Ay, 103K, Where Au is the deflection due to all dead loads applied after the installation of all partitions plus the permanent live loads (given as 30%). Ag = 5.644 03x 2.26 = 6.32 mm 2.26 +2x 6.32=14.9 mm <15 mm 274Example 3.4 ‘The floor beam shown in figure is subjected to an unfactored concentrated dead load of 80 KN, and an unfactored concentrated live load of 55 kN (the own weight of the beam may be neglected). The beam supports glass partitions that are likely to be damaged by large deflections. Check the satisfaction of ECP 203 limits for deflection. The concrete compressive strength is fix=40 Nimm* 250 rH 2916 Pop=80 kN Pu=55 kN 750 4916 Beam Section 3 I, =8.8x 10° mm* = 2.72x 10° mm* ‘Solution Step 1: Calculate the cracking moment and the applied moment 16, Ff, = 0.6V40 = 3.79 Nfmm* Sarl _3.79x8.8x10" 1 a 315 Pry = 80+ 55 = 135 EN Sor M, L_139x6 ard ‘Since M,> Mc, then calculate I, M, = 202.5 kNm ‘Step 2: Calculate the effective moment of inertia B, = 4400/7, = 400080 = 278280 mm 1, steel He] araxto’+(ssxa0’ 2-710) 3% ) 3234016475 =3.23x10" mm* Step 3: Calculate the deflection Step 3.1: Calculate the immediate deflection ET, ‘The deflection for a simple beam carrying a concentrated load equals yg = —L80%1000) (6000) 4.9 um 48x 27828 x3.23x10" Since the relation between defection and load is linear, we can determine the deflection of other loads simply by using ratios as follows: bug = gg x Fe = 4x8 Poy 80 “Thus the immediate deflection equals: A, =a #8, =4042.75 = 6:75 mm = 2.15 mm ‘Step 3.2: Calculate the long-term deflection AL 2616 95 5 ga2-12/4|=2-1205)=14206--08. A, 4916 Ay ‘The total deflection due to all loads including the effect of creep equals: Sine = 040) Soy +4 uy Sug = (41.4) 4042.75 =12.35 mm 218 216Step 4: Check the code requirements + The code maximum limit for simple beams = 6000/250 = 24.0 mm, ‘Since Aout (12.35 mm) < Aguowanie (24.0 mm), the code limit is satisfied. ‘+ Since the beam is attached to partitions that are likely to be damaged by large deflections, the code also requires that: 215 +1.4x 4.0 = Photo 3.5 Cantilever beam during testing aa | Example 3.5 ‘The T-beam shown in figure is a part of a roof and it supports a triangular load. The beam supports partitions that are not likely to be damaged by deflections. Does the beam shown in the figure below satisfy the ECP 203 requirements for deflections? ‘The concrete strength is 25 N/mm? Assume of n=10. All the given loads are unfactored Pou=l4 EN Pi=8 KN 207 278‘Solution Step 1: Calculate the uncracked section properties Since the section is not symmetrical, calculate the c.g. “A, = 250%600 = 150000 mm? yi=300 mm A, = (1400 ~250)x100 ‘Taking the first moment of area about x-axis: 15000 mum? y2=50 mm 150000300 +115000x50 191.51 mom 150000 + 115000. 7 1, = 222 410000 00-1915 + L40O= 25010 ++115000%(191.51-50)* 1728.66 x10? mm* Step 2: Calculate the cracking moment and the applied moment Sen = 0.64 f, = 0.6V25 =3 N/mm? ‘Noticing that the tension side for the cantilever is at the top flange, then; 191.51 mm 279 3.0x8,66x10" % 19151 Wat = 24-+10= 34 RN / a’ Prag =14+8= 22. EN Since M,> Me, , then calculate I. Ma 1 10" 135.73 kN +22%3.6 =152.64 Nm Step 3: Calculate the cracked section properties A,=3® 25 = 1472.6 mm? AG=3@ 16 = 603.2 mm? Mer 280Assume that the neutral axis at a distance z from the compression force. The reader should notice that the compression part for cantilever is at the bottom of the section. ‘Transforming the steel reinforcement into an equivalent arca of concrete, gives: nA,=10 x 1472.6 = 14726 mm? The steel in the compression is transformed by multiplying with (n-1) to account for the concrete area. (al) A’=(10-1)x 603.2 = 5428.8 mm? Assuming concrete cover of 50 mm, d = 800-50 =750 mm nAE14726 t 1400 100 ry ¥ T 3 —neglect the cracked zone| g de B (oD Ap5428 AN 250 Calculation of the «.g. for the cracked section ‘Taking the first moment of area for the transformed section about the c.g 250% 2% 5 + 5428.8% (2 ~50) =14726 (550-2) 125 2? +20154 z-8370740=0 2=19043 mm Calculate cracked moment of inertia J, =P2 ern A end +n Ad-9F 250219043" 4 5498; (190.43—50)? +14726% (550-190.43)" = 2.58x10° mm* ‘Step 4: Calculate the effective moment of inertia 00,[ Fry = 4400,/35 = 22000 N/mm helt (,-1.)(He) 6.86%10" mm 1, =2.58x10" + (8.6610? — asexio?)(12573) 152.64 Step 5: Calculations of the deflections Step 5.1: Immediate deflection ‘The deflection for this cantilever beam is the sum of the deflection due to the concentrated load and that due to the uniform load. These deflections are given by the following equations: w L‘__ forcantilever beam with triangular load 308.1, PL Sp for cantilever beam with concentrated load at theedge ‘The dead load deflection equals: Al a 30B1, 3E A, Boy =2.33 mm 24x(3.6%1000)* (141000)(@.61000)° 30%22000%6.86x10" 3% 22000%6.86%10" 281 282‘The live load deflection equals: A, xt Pal __10xG.6x1000___, 8x1000)x(6.6x1000) fe 730 BT, SET, 30x22000%6.86x10" * 3x22000x6.86x107 Ay = 120mm Step 5.2: Long-term deflection ‘The total deflection due to all loads including the effect of creep equals Meat = 42) Moy Ay, 51206--0.. Aus = +151 23341.20= 705 mm Step 6: Check the code requirements © The code maximum limit is = 3600/450 = 8 mm. ‘Since Asai (7.05 mm) < Aviovste (8.0 mm), the code limit is satisfied, * The beam supports partitions that are not likely to be damaged by deflections, then the deflection limit is given by: Since Au. (1.2 mm) < Attiiowbi (10 mm), the code limit is satisfied. Example 3.6 ‘The reinforced concrete one-way slab shown in the figure below supports an unfactored dead load of 6 KN/m? and an unfactored live load of 3 kN/m? CCleutate the immediate and long-term deflections at point (B). fox equals 30 Nimm. 614" p14! Floor plan 80 283 284‘Solution ‘Step 1: Calculate the uncracked section properties’ Taking a Im slab width of the (b=1000 mm) y=70 mm Bx? _1000%140? _ 996.106 mum! . 12 | ey Cracked section at B a! a 70 SSS “Step 3.2: Sections A and ¢ ‘The positive reinforcement is not developed at supports, hence it will not be Unoracked section : considered as compression stel for sections subjected to negative moment at Step 2: Calculate the cracking moment the supports (ic. A, E, = 4400/7, = 440030 = 24099.8 N/mm Aj=60 14 =923.6 mm Using design aids given in the Appendix 6 )F, = 0.6¥30 From the curve ky= 0.0465 1.0465 1000x120" = 80.3%108 mm* ‘The cracking moment is valid for sections A, B and C (refer to the figure) Step 3: Calculate cracked section properties Since the slab is continuous, the moment of inertia of any span depends on the ‘average values of the moment of inertia of positive and negative sections Step 3.1: section B A,= 6 12= 678.5 mm? Assume concrete cover of 20mm > — d=140-20=120 mm Using design aids given in the Appendix A 6785 xd 1000x120 From the curve with #=0.00565, ku =0.0365 1,, = Ky xbxd* = 0.0365%1000%120" = 0.00565 “& 110° mm 285 : 286——— i Step 4: Calculate the effective moment of inertia Wat = 6439 RN mi ‘Thus, for a 1m width ofthe slab, waa =9 KN/m Since the slab is continuous with equal spans and loading, the code coefficients for moments in slabs are used as follows: ras XL? _ 93,6 k & M, ‘The following table summarizes the calculations. Calculation of the effective moment of inertia Pot] © | M. | Ma ] tama? wane [mnt 1 iNm | kN A | 2 [486 [1074 [RO3xIO” | uncracked | 286xI0U) el) BR | 10 [16s | 107s |x 10] cracked TREX IO Cal € [1458 [10.74 [803% 10" | cracked 139.56 x 10° Cay Note the values of the effective moment of inertia (given in the table) for section B and C are calculated as follows: Ie = 63.1108 + (228.6108 -63. aot (224) = 192.210 mm* "Ie = ley 803x108 +(228.6x108 ~aoaxao')(224) =139.56x10'mm’ 1438 ‘Since the slab is continuous, the average value of 1 should be calculated. 287 150, 0.25% (Ty, +2) 0.50%192,2%108 +-0.25x (228.6%108 +139.56x10°) = 188.110" mm* Step 5: Calculation of the deflections Wo =6kNim’=6 N/mm’ & Wy ‘The deflection for a uniformly loaded continuous beam equals: =3 kNIm’ =3 Nim sx = Et, -0.1K(Mt, +M)) axe, T 4 53600? 6x38 51, [6x36 , 6x3.6 } 108 ‘Bt "48 24099.8%188.1x10° | 10. 24 8 ne #193 mm Since the relation between deflection and load is linear, we can determine the deflection due to live load as a ratio of that due to dead load as follows: 0.96 mm ‘The immediate deflection A equals: A, = By, +Ay, =193+0.96 .89 mn ‘The total deflection due to all loads including the effect of creep equals: 4, out UE) Moy + Ay Since A’=0, then c=2 Bu = (1+ 2) 1.93+ 0.96 = 6.75 men 288‘Step 5: Check the code requirements +The code maximum limit for one-way slabs = 1/250, where L is the length between the inflection points. Since the slab is continuous from one end the length L equals 0.87 (3600) =3132 mm. Aauonanie = 3132/250 =12.53 mm Since Awat (6.75 mm) < Asioyabie (12.53 mm), the code limit is satisfied. 289 CONTROL OF CRACKING Photo 4.1 A hotel building in San Francisco, USA 4.1 Introduction JIn Chapter (1) of volume (1), the concept of limit states design was discussed. ‘The limit states (the states at which the structure becomes unfit for its intended function) are divided into two groups: those leading to collapse and those that disrupt the use of structures but do not cause collapse. These are referred to as the ultimate limit states and the serviceability limit states, respectively. The major serviceability limit states for reinforced concrete structures ae: excessive deflections, and excessive cracking. This chapter presents the , serviceability limit state of cracking. 2904.2 Reasons for Controlling Crack Widths (Crack widths should be limited for the following reasons: 1. Wide cracks lead to concem by owners and occupants. Previous studies suggested that cracks wider than 0.25 to 0.33 mm leads to public concerns, 2. Preventing the corrosion of reinforcement. Corrosion of steel occurs if wetting and drying cycles occur such that the concrete at the level of the steel is alternatively wet and dry. It does not occur in permanently saturated ‘concrete members because water prevents oxygen flow to the steel. 3. Preventing leakage in liquid-retaining structures. 4.3 Types of Cracks Tensile stresses induced by loads cause distinctive crack pattems as shown in Fig. 4.1. Members loaded in direct tension develop cracks through the entire cross section (Fig. 4.1a). Slender beams subjected to bending moments develop flexural cracks as shown in Fig. 4.1b. These vertical cracks extended almost to the zero-strain axis (neutral axis) of the member. Cracks due to shear have a characteristic inclined shape as shown in Fig. 4.1c. Members subjected to pure torsion develop spiral cracks as shown in Fig. 4.1d. Cracks also develop due to imposed deformation such as differential settlement, shrinkage and temperature changes. If shrinkage is restrained, shrinkage cracks may occur. Generally, however, shrinkage simply increases the width of load-induced cracks. Photo 4.2 Cracks in a bridge member due to rusting of the reinforcement 291 (a) Direct tension cracks (b) Flexural cracks (©) Flexural shear cracks B = LZ LS TG (@ Torsional cracks Fig, 4.1 Types of cracks 2924.4 Development of Cracks due to Loads Figure 4.2a shows an axially loaded prism. Cracking starts when the tensile stress in the concrete reaches the tensile strength of concrete at some point in the member. When this occurs, the prism cracks. Figures 4.2b and 4.2c show the variation in the steel and concrete stresses along the axially loaded prism, At the cracks, the steel stress and strain are at 2 maximum value. At the location of the cracks, the stresses in the concrete are equal to zero, while between the cracks, stresses start to develop in the concrete, This reaches a ‘maximum value mid-way between two cracks. ‘The width of the crack, w, is the difference in the elongation of the steel and the concrete over a length A-B equal to the crack spacing: 4.1) where & and ¢; are the strains in the steel and concrete, respectively, at a given location between A and B and x is measured along the axis of the prism. v Yle-ayen. ‘The crack spacing and the strains in the steel and concrete are difficult to determine in practice and empirical equations are usually used to compute the ‘crack width. “ESSE (@) Cracked member fll Doel Dell (b) Variation of steel stress along bar A AD AT A AT As (©) Variation of concrete stress along prism Fig 4.2 Stresses in concrete and steel in a cracked element 293 4.5 Crack Control in the Egyptian Code 4.5.1 Categories of structures ‘The Egyptian Code categorizes reinforced concrete structures according to their exposure to environmental effects as given in Table 4.1. ‘Table (4.1) Categories of structures according to the exposure of concrete tension surface to environmental effects Category Degree of exposure to environmental conditions ‘Structure with protected tension sides such as: cae i: All protected internal members of ordinary buildings. ii Permanently submerged members in water (without harmful material) or members permanently dry iii _ Well insulated roofs against humidity and rains. Stroctures with unprotected tension sides, suchas: a ;- Structures in open air, e.g. bridges and roofs without good insulation. fie Structures of category one built nearby seashores. iii- members subjected to humidity such as open halls, sheds and garages. Tirasture with severely exposed tension sides, such as wd is Members with high exposure to humidity. ii Members exposed to repeated saturation with moisture. fii Water tanks. m y= Structures subjected to vapour, gases or w chemical attack | _ chemical attack Members with tension sides very severely exposed to Four corrosive influences of strong chemical attack that cause rusting of steel i Members subjected to conditions resulting in rust of steel such as gases, vapour including chemicals. ii, Other tanks, sewerage and structures subjected to sea water, 294j The Egyptian Code requires a minimum suitable cover for protecting the steel | eatoteanent The cofer thal na be eas es te er from Table (4.2) or the largest bar diameter. ‘Table (4.2) Minimum concrete cover™ (mm) ‘Category of ‘All element except walls] — Walls and Solid slabs] structure -Table | and slabs a) Fa525 | fn)23 | %aS | Sad Nimm? Nimm? Némm? Nimom? One 5 20 20 20 Two 30 25 25 20 Three 35 30 30 25 Four e 40 0 35 ‘** The concrete cover should not be less than the largest bar diameter 4.5.2 Satisfaction of Cracking Limit State In order to satisfy the limit state of cracking, the Eeyptian Code requires the fulfilment of the following relation: = BS po Lm S Wena « (4.2) l ¢ (mm) =| 50+0.25k, (mm) { + Pr (44) ‘The values of ws, calculated using Eq. 4,2 should be less than Winas Values sgziven in the Table (4.3), 295 see a where a7 13 17 kas Coefficient that relates the average crack width to the design crack ‘width. It shall be taken as follows: For cracks induced due to loading For cracks induced due to restraining the deformation in a section having a width or depth (whichever smaller) less than 300 mm. For cracks induced due to restraining the deformation in a section having a width or depth (Whichever smaller) more than 800 min For cross sections having a width or depth (whichever smaller) between value 300 mm and 800 mm, the coefficient B shall be proportionally calculated. Bar diameter in mm. In case of using more than one diameter, the average diameter shall be used, A coefficient that reflects the bond properties of the reinforcing steel. It shall be taken equal to 0.8 for deformed bars and 0.5 for smooth bars, Coefficient that takes into account the duration of loading. It shall be taken equal to 1.0 for short term loading and 0.50 for long term loading or cyclic loading, Coefficient that reflects the effect of bond between steel and concrete between cracks. It shall be taken equal to 0.8 for deformed bars and 1.6 for smooth bars, In case of members subjected to imposed deformation, the values of ky shall be modified to ky where the value of kis taken as follows: 0.80 for the case in which the tensile stresses are induced due to restraining the deformation. For rectangular cross section, the value of k is taken as follows: 0.8 for rectangular section having a thickness > 300 mm. (0.50 for rectangular sections having a thickness < 800 mm. For rectangular cross sections having thickness ranging between 300- £800 mm, the value of k can be calculated using linear interpolation 110 for cases in which the tensile stresses are induced due to restraint of extrinsic deformations. Coefficient that reflects the strain distribution over the crass section. It shall be taken equal to 0.5 for section subjected to pure bending and 1.0 for section subjected to pure axial tension. For section subjected to ‘combined bending and axial tension, k shall be calculated from Eq. 45, 296ate kyo Sith a 2a Where 1 and £2 are the maximum and minimum strain values, respectively, to which the section is subjected. They shall be calculated based on the analysis of a cracked section as shown in Fig. 4.3. (4.5) e 2 a + | @ x | ke=1.0 kg=05 ke=(erten¥2e, i Strain distribution ‘due to axial tension ‘b-Steain distribution due to BM. oreccenttic forces with big eccentricity Strain distribution duet cccentric tension with small cvcentrcity | ‘Table (4.3) Values of Winax (mm) Category of ‘One Two Three Four structure — Table (4.1) We 03 02 O15 Or Be feet isthe minimum of Reet =25(Co+¥2) xc) Fig. 4.3 Values of the factor ky f= stress in longitudinal steel at the tension zone, calculated based on the analysis of cracked section under permanent loads. Jor = Stress in longitudinal steel at the tension zone, calculated based on the analysis of cracked section due to loads causing first cracking (Mz) Jn case of intrinsic imposed deformation, f, may be taken equal to fy. Pr = Ratio of effective tension reinforcement. A. 4.6) where ‘Ay =aea of longitudinal tension steel within the effective tension area. Ag = area of effective concrete section in tension,(=width of the section X fay ). The value of f,y can be calculated according to Fig. 4.4. 297 + 2.5(t-d) Beams Element in tension Te cs ssttomiiumor Be =25(Ce+42) Ce - C8 L F SNA Aoet Slabs c= neutral axis depth measured from the compression fibers 298Table (4.4) Control of cracking for smooth bars by limiting steel stress under service loads or reduction of design yield stress in steel to (Ber fy) 4.5.3 Code Related Provisions ‘The Egyptian Code permits nit carrying out the calculations of the limit state of im Gon factor. Category | Category cracking in accordance with Eq. (4.2) if one of the following conditions is met: Niamh | Resincon fst | wsD Ber con two | three & 1- In ordinary buildings classified as Class No. 1 or Class No. 2 { . ~ 4 four according to Table (4.1) and where live loads do not exceed 5.0 £ es KN Im? for the following two cases: ce Largest Bar diameter (bna) i) Solid slabs of thickness not exceeding 160 mm. 140 1.00 a wg oa ii) T- and L- beams with the flange in the tension | —i20 084 28 720 18 provided that the effective flange width to the web width (8/6) exceeds 3 | 100 08 : : 2 | 2 For elements subjected to bending moments and axial | Seo compressive forces exceeding (0.2 fey A¢)under service load conditions. ise : ‘Table (4.5) Control of cracking for deformed bars by limiting steel stress 3+ For elements in which tensile steel stress f, under service loads under service loads or reduction of design yield stress in steel to (fcr fy) are equal to or less than the values given in Tables (4.4) and (45). 7. (Nim) | Reduction factor | Category | Category | Category me 0 | three & 4- In case of using limit states design method, it can be considered WS.D Baw. 7 fe that the limit state of cracking regarding the stresses in the four reinforcing steel is satisfied by multiplying the yield strength f, = eee) in by the factor fin Tables (44) and (45). S652] 40160 | Largest Bar diameter (Gon) io mm | 20 100 | 092 ro iz 3 5- For structures classified as category 3 or 4 in which water tightness is required, the tension stresses should satisfy Eq. 4.7. 300 093 083 2 16 10 b 180 0.85 0.75 25 20 12 160 0.75 0.67 32 22 18, 140 0.65 0.58 25 22 | 120 056 | 050 = = 3B 299 el4.6 Liquid Containing Structures Liquid containing structures should be designed as non-cracked sections, In these structures the tensile stresses induced by loading should be less than the value given by the following equation Fa Fao Samy] se where Setr= the cracking strength of concrete and is given bj Sear 20.6 of fay. eneere Fea(v)= the tensile stresses due to unfactored axial tension force (negative sign is used for compressive stresses). -nsile stresses due to unfactored bending moment. fe ‘The coefficient (77) is determined in accordance with Table (4.6) and it depends on the “virtual” thickness 1, calculated from Eq. 4.9. ie where tis the actual thickness of the cross-section, wwe(4.9) Table (4.6 ) Values of the Coefficient 17 4.7 Design Aids for Calculating w, The calculation of the factor ws is complicated and time consuming. Therefore, design curves may be used to reduce the computation time. ‘The curves were prepared for rectangular sections reinforced with deformed bars and subjected to long term loading that result in pure bending moment. ‘Hence, the factors appeared in Eqs. 4.2, 4.3 and 44 are evaluated as follows: deformed bars section subjected to simple bending moment deformed bars Tong term loading cracking due to loads ‘The crack width equation can then be expressed as: Wy =B So Em =1-T Sm Fa In which 5, {s00asit, A, _ uxbxd Bog Aa Sx(¢-d)xb UxXbxd Virtual thickness, 7, (mm) Coefficient 9 ‘Smaller than or equal to 100 100 | 200 130 | 400 160 ‘Greater than or equal to 600 170 301 25x@-d)xb 25¢/d-1) (s0+025.08x051£)-(s0soas2ttt=) a ‘The previous equation is a function of wd, the bar diameter @ , and the reinforcement ratio pt. The values of Sm are given in the Appendix. An example of such design aids is given in Fi 302‘Similarly, the second term &n' a be siinpified as follows: To calculate the steel stresses, fi tte cracked moment of ineitia ‘iced to be computed. Referring to Fig. 4.5; theneutral ais distance is obtained by taking the first moment of area ofthe transformed section as follows: linear stress Cracked section distribution ‘Transformed Fig. 45 Determination of the neutral axis and cracked transformed ‘moment of inertia calculations bxc?/2-n A, d-c) =0. (4.13) Subsisting with c=Ad and js= A/b d gives: bade Gn A,(d~Ad)=0 Dividing by bd’, substituting with H4= (n #), and solving for 2. gives: ‘Having determined the neutral axis distance c, the cracked moment of inertia Je-can be computed as, 303 (4.16) 4.17) (4.18) (4.20) Me “raxtb =o Normalizing the cracking moment by diving by (b &*) gives; bd? ona (J metre, gann0s(e) 2x10° xT, M (4.21) (4.22) nx M10 dX0-A{ og go,c95{ Melba? 2x10°xI, 1b d? M [bd ‘The previous equation is a function of M/d b”, /d, and the reinforcement ratio 11. For each value of the concrete strength fa, design curves are plotted and given in the Appendix. (4.23) An example of such curves is given in Fig. 46 and the rest are in the Appendix: Take k, =1.7 ¢,, x10". Knowing M/d b’, U/d, and the reinforcement ratio }4, the value of K, is obtained using the design aids. The valuc of wz can be obtained using the following equation: w, =5,, xk, x10". (4.24) ‘The use of these curves is illustrated in Example 4.3, 304‘Wx factor for sections subjected to bending only fa250 Nimm?, td=1.05, ribbed bars, =10 TC T a Example 4.1 It is required to design the cross-section of a wall comprising a part of an elevated reinforced concrete water tank. The section is subjected to an tunfactored bending moment of 85 KN.m/m” and an unfactored tension force of 110 KN/m”. The material properties are f.=30 Nimm? and f, =360 N/mm? Solution In water containing structures, the Egyptian code requires the satisfaction of two conditions: 1- The concrete dimensions of the cross-section must be chosen such thatthe tensile stresses developed due to the unfactored straining actions are less than the tensile strength of concrete. 2- The steel reinforcement should be designed to resist the tensile forces developed at ultimate stage. The stresses developed in the stecl reinforcement at this stage should not exceed ,, f, where f., is a factor less than one and depends on the bar diameter. ‘Step 1: Uncracked section analysis eed ‘The concrete dimensions of the cross-section are determined such that the tensile stresses developed in the section when subjected to the unfactored vavesot8, straining actions are les than the tensile strength of concrete. ee Assuming, t = 550mm a The tensile stresses in the section are’ calculated according to the following a equation: a a tert} | et eo Sos = Ses NV+ fey A) S Ser! sete soe ee sales eee te ee Ny “e01o] — 63] 5 co can e 7 st cs 2, Fa(N)= fe ee pete tet et ete a a Lox10? . “o.ors} 58. “ao a 3 = 7 7 7 3. 7 f.(N) = ———— = 0.20 N /1 7 Fa) = 79005550 a wy xk, xlo ee 6M. Fao Fig. 4.6 Example of design curves for calculating the factor ws c 306 3056x85x108 1000x550? Fey =0.2+ 1.69 = 1.89.N mm™ Sear = 0-81 fox Fear = 0.6130 = n= factor that is determined from Table (4.6) according to the following equation: wrnlie Le oft cal SoM. .28.N J mm Re soc 22 615mm a 1.69. Lor ” 93N Imm? > fay =1.89N fmm Step 2: Cracked section analysis According to ECP 203, the load factor for liquid containing structures is 1.4 M, =1.4x85=119kNmlm N, =1AX110=1540N mi m d=t-(clearcover +912) ‘According to Table 4.1 the structure is classified as class 3. For such a class, ‘Table 4.2 gives a minimum concrete cover of 25 mm. ‘Assume the reinforcing bars used are of 16 mm diameter. d= 550—(254+16/2)=517 mm 119 =U o71m=T10mm "154 Since e > V2, the section is subjected to normal force with big eccenticity and Maz approach can be used e-1/2+cover For fy=360 Nimm?, Table 4.5 is used. The value of fi, for 16 mm diameter bar can be taken as the average between =12 mm and =18mm. p, =2854075 _ 9.49 Nima) | — Reaction aor —] Cargary | Cugory VCaegory wsp | Beso ove | wo (| deee four BEST [AOD | Tagen Bar damier ed i | 100 | —o52 | 8 1% eat I a mee ws es 3 ) { eo | Naas | 087 3 az i 1 0a B a TH 03503 7 rea Bor Sy!Y, 81.3x10° 154%10° 0.80%360%0.826%517 0.80%360/1.15 307 308Example 4.2 A reinforced concrete raft (categorized as category one) of a thickness 900 mm and is subjected to an unfactored bending moment of 700 KN.mim. The taterial properties are f,=30 Nm? and f, =360 N/mm. tis required to design the steel reinforcement to resist the applied moment and to check the satisfaction of cracking limit state in the Egyptian Code, Solution In order to design the steel reinforcement satisfying the limit states of cracking, the Egyptian Code gives two options to the designer: 1+ Design the steel reinforcement such that the stress developed at the ultimate stage is Bj. The reduction inthe stresses developed inthe steel is intended to guarantee a limited crack width at service loads. This is a simple straightforward approach that usually leads to uneconomic design 2- Design the steel reinforcement such that the stess developed at the ultimate stage is f. However, the designer should check the satisfaction of the Egyptian Code (Eq, 4.2) in order to guarantee a limited crack width at service loads. This approach needs an extensive amount of calculations but, usually results in an economic design, Approach 1 As mentioned above, this approach is based on designing the steel reinforcement based on usable stresses of =, x f, atthe ultimate stage -Minimum clear cover =40 mm Ultimate Moment = Ultimate Factor x Bending Moment ‘Assuming the factor = 1.5 Ultimate Moment = 1.5x700=10504N am = The effective depth (d) = total thickness ~ clear cover - 72 Assume the use of reinforcing bars of diameter of 32 mm. From Table (4-5) for Category Il and assuming ¢=32 —» ,, = 0.75 d =900—40-32/2=844.0mm rr 11050x10° =c1f1050%10° oy 4.51 & j=0.817 Ss 7 100030 J M, BX f, xed A For category one structures and deformed bars of diameter 32 mm (decided by the designe), the value of 3, can be obtzined from Table 4-5 as 0.75. 1050x106 OO = 5640mim? Use 732, **0,15%360%0.817x844 Approach 2 ‘This approach is based on designing the steel reinforcement to develop the full yield strength at ultimate stage and to check cracking status using Eq. 4.2. Step 1: Cracked section analysis “Minimum clear cover = 40 mm -Ultimate Moment = Ultimate Factor x Bending Moment .5X700=1050KN mm Ultimate Moment = ~"The effective depth (d) = total thickness ~ clear cover - @/2, ‘Assume the use of reinforeing bar of diameter of 32 mm, d =900~40~32/2.= 844. mm M, Dx fig 11050%10° = 11050210" ad 1000x30 i 7, xix “1, 451 & j=0817 1050x106 ——10SOxI0” _ = 4230mm” Use 632 360x0.817x844 A= 310+ Step 2: Calculation of the value of wx ‘Step 2.1: Calculation of the depth of the neutral axis, ¢ ‘The first moment of area of the cross-section about the neutral axis must be equal to zero bx =nxA,x(d-e) 1000 = 10x (6x804)x (844 ~c) Solving quadratic equation for ¢, ¢ 241.17 mm. 1000 900 mm. 6032 Cracked cross section Step 2.2: Calculation of Ter xe +n A, (d~c)* 1000%241.17° +10 (6804) (844 ~ 241.17)? =22.21x10? mm* Step 2.3: Calculation of steel stresses, f; xix 0) fe ¢ 700x108 22.21x10” (844.0 -241.17) = 190.03 fmm? i i Cracked cross section Step 2.4: Calculation of cracking moment, Mer L Mer = Sear ®—— y 60x fa 60-130 = 3.286N fmm? = 1000900 = 60.75.10" mm* pe OOTSXI? 1 5 == 443.7 kN a 90072” 10" 31 312‘Step 2.5: Calculation of steel stress fi. For n=10, c= 241.17 mm, Tey = 22.21 x 10° mm* x(d -c) 10 4910" 544.0~241.17) =120.44.9 Imm? 22.2110" Calculation of , Soap = OXteay fag = 2.5x(clear cover +912) 6804.0 ?e “T900%140.0 =0.0345 — deformed bars — simple bending moment applied > deformed bars — Tong term loading > cracking due to loads 313, Step 2.7: Check the value of wx = BSemEsm i -(sov02si,e,£) Sm {50 ++0.250,80x0.50x—2 ) 0.0345, 42.75 1.1935 mm From Table 4.3, Winas for category one is equal to 0.3. Since w , =0.1935 <0.30 the structure stratifies the limit state of cracking, Note; It can be noted that the calculations needed in Approach 2 are lengthy and cumbersome, However, it results in economic design when compared to Approach 1 as noted in the amount of steel reinforcement resulted from each design. 314Example 4.3 It is required to calculate the factor w, for the raft given in example 4.2 (Approach 2) using the design aids given in the Appendix. ‘Solution Stepl: Calculate curve parameters d =900- 40-22 = 844 mm 200 _ 1.066 2 aa ‘The computed reinforcement from example 4.2 (Approach 2) is 632 A 6x804 5 = 0.00572 = bxd 1000x844 572% u = 1.0, (ribbed bars) Step 2: Calculate wx Step 2.1: Determine A, using the design charts 700x108 = 0.983 1000x844 "eno chart is available for (Ud=1.066), interpolation should be made between the charts available (Wd=1.05 and Ud=1.15), (sefer to Fig, EX 43 given below). Using charts with Ud=1.05 gives k,= 13.7, and Vd=L.15 gives ky = 126, Interpolating, one gets k,= 13.5. Step 2.2: Determine Sq Using the previous design charts For d=1.05 + Sm=120, and for Ud=1.15 > Sm=260. Interpolating, one gets Sq=142, (refer to Fig, EX 43). Step 2.3: Calculate the factor wi w, =k, xS,, x10 Ww, =135%142x104 =0.192 mm ‘The systematic application of Eq. (42) results in w,=0.193 mm. Such a close agreement with the value obtained from the use of the design aids confirms their accuracy. Wy factor for sections subjected to bending only (530 Nimm’, tid=1.05, ribbed bars, n=10 Values of Sa ‘lela slelelele sala at xk, x10 red? eielslsfalaisalal Fig. EX 4.3 Using design curves for w, factor 315 316a a ern Nn EEE Example 4.4 ‘The critical cross section of a reinforced concrete member that is a part of @ structure with unprotected tension side (categorized as category I) is subjected to an unfactored bending moment of 100 kN.m and an unfactored tension force of 400 KN. The concrete dimensions of the member (b x ) are (350 mm x 900 mm). It is required to design the steel reinforcement of the section satisfying the requirements of the limit states of cracking in of the Egyptian Code, The material properties are f-y=25 N/mm’ and f, =360 N/mm’. Solution In order to design the steel reinforcement satisfying the limit states of cracking, the Egyptian Code gives two options to the designer: 1- Design the steel reinforcement such that the stress developed at the ultimate stage are Af. The reduction in the stresses developed in the steel is intended to guarantee a limited crack width at service loads. This, is a simple straightforward approach that usually leads to uneconomic design. 2- Design the steel reinforcement such that the stress developed at the ultimate stage is f, . However, the designer should check the satisfaction of Bq. 4.2 in order to guarantee a limited crack width at service loads. This approach needs an extensive amount of calculations but usually results in economic design. ‘Approach 1 As mentioned above, this approach is based on designing the steel reinforcement based on usable stresses of i, fy atthe ultimate stage, Cross-section of beam = 350mm x900mm 1, =1.5%400 = 600 kN M, =15x100=150 kN am small eccentric tension force t ‘Assuming the cover = 40mm 4 = 450-250 —40 = 160mm t ea =f te-cover 2 42 = 450+ 250~40 = 660 mm 2M Bashy !%0) From Table (4-5), for Category Mand assuming $= 22 + fi, =0.75 600% 10° x660 1 360-40 Nyxeu Goat Ba XL, 10) From Table (4-5), for Category Mand assuming g=12 —> f,, =1.00 1(0.75360/1. Use 6022 An = 600x10 x160 Use 4012 ” 860-40 1(1.0%360/ 1.15) = 374mm? Approach 2 ‘This approach is based on designing the steel reinforcement to develop the yield strength at ultimate stage and to check cracking status using Eq. 4.2. Step 1: Cracked section analysis Cross-section of beam =350x900 mm eccentric tension force 318900 mm, =4-e-cover 2 ‘Assuming the cover = 40 mm 4, = 450-250 40 = 160mm ! eg = te-cover 2 4 = 450++250~40 = 660mm Nixey9 MAIL, 17) An 600.0%10°x660 A ean! (3601.15) = 1543 mum’ -.. Use 4922 bi = Senay ) se 49) ba =I, IY.) 600.010" x160.0 7 2 la B50 ay 3601.15) = 374 mm: -Use 4912 Step Step 2.1 Calculation of the steel stress fs Nxea)4 ana! Ot 400.010? x660 860-40 Calculation of wx fa= 11520 = 211.8 / mm? 900 rom, fet (332. Step 2.2: Calculation of steel stress fur In order to find the steel stress 7p, one has to calculate the combination M cy and Ney that result in first cracking of the section. It should be clear that one has to assume that the eccentricity of the tension force will be unchanged during the history of loading. Fray = 0-60% fF, (11 Feae = 0.60% 125 11.7 = 1.16. N Imm Weta bxt bx? 319 320176 = Hy x10 ah + 280) 350%900 "350x900 1, =2079N xe, Ne Xtary4 Sy HA, 207.90x10° x60 fi = AAT S0%10" 660 1599.9 110.1 fmm a) Step 2.3: Calculation of poy pte " Acef eg = OX boxy beg = 2.5x(Clear cover +9/2) tap = 2.5 (30+ 22/2) = 102.5mm 1520.0 = 15209 Loo Pat 3501025 Step 2 Calculation of ke a 26, ‘The strains 6, and é are calculated through the analysis of the transformed section. Assuming 660, , = 0.00156 = 0.04 4 Te 10643 0100643 + 0.00156 *2x0,00643 2 £1 350 mm, = 0.621 900 mm, Step 2.5: Check the value of wi k, =0.80 By =0.80 B,=1.0 70 deformed bars deformed bars short term loading, cease that includes loads tiidd = BSmom a -{s0+0254,4,2) Sim ={s0+025x0:80%0.621x 22 ) 0.082 Sm = 115.06 321 322de) : ? . HS [-osnton( 204) ) 2x1 118 Eq = 0.00083 W = BXSpq XE =1:70X115.06%0.00083 = 0.162 mm From Table 4.3 Winae for category one is 0.3 Since w, =0.162 mm <0.30 the structure stratifies the limit state of cracking. Note; It can be noted that the calculations needed in Approach 2 are lengthy and ‘cumbersome. However, it results in economic design when compared to Approach 1 as noted in the amount of steel reinforcement resulted from each design. 323 DESIGN OF FOUNDATIONS Photo 5.1 Foundation of a bridge column. 5.1 Introduction ‘The main purpose of footings and other foundation systems is to transfer column loads safely to the soil. Since, the soil bearing capacity is much lower than the concrete columns; the loads need to be transferred safely to the soil by using larger areas usually called shallow foundations. If the soil has low bearing capacity, or the applied loads are very large, it may be necessary to transfer the load to a deeper soil through the use of piles or caissons usually called deep foundations. 324Foundation design requires both a soil investigation; to determine the most suitable type of foundation, and a structural design; to establish the depth and reinforcement of the different foundation elements. It is customary for the geotechnical engineers to carry out the soil investigation, and propose the best foundation system that fits a particular location. It is the responsibility of the structural engineer to establish the size and amount of reinforcement for each ‘component of the proposed foundation system, This chapter addresses the structural design of shallow foundations and piled foundations. Traditional analysis and design procedures are explained. The chapter also explains the use of the finite element method for the analysis and design of complicated foundation systems such as shallow rafts and rafts on piles. 5.2 Types of Foundations The choice of a particular type of foundation depends on a number of factors, such a5 the soil bearing capacity, the water table, the magnitude of the loads that needs to be transferred to the soil, and site constraints such as the existence of a property line, Generally, foundations may be classified as follows: * Shallow foundations: This type includes strip footing, isolated footings ‘combined footing, strap footing, and raft foundation ‘+ Deep foundations: This type includes isolated pile caps or raft on piles Fig, 5.1 shows some types of foundations that are usually used in structures. A sirip footing is used under reinforced concrete walls to distribute the vertical loads over the soil as shown in Fig. 5.1a, The load is transferred mainly in one irection perpendicular to the center line of the wall. Isolated footings are the ‘most common type of foundations in ordinary structures. They used to distribute column Joad on relatively large area of soil as shown in Fig, 5.1b, ‘They transfer the load in two directions. If two columns or more are closely spaced or the required footing sizes overlap each other, the two footings are ‘combined in one big footing called combined footing (Fig 5.1c). If one of the footings is very close to a property line, then a stiff beam is used to connect. this column to an interior column. This type is called strap footing as shown in Fig. 5.1d. If the applied loads are heavy or more than 60% of the isolated footings overlap, a raft foundation is used to support the entire structure as shown in Fig. 5.le. This is similar to an inverted flat slab in which it contains column and field strips. Finally, if the applied loads ate large or weak soil encountered, it may be practical to support the structure into deeper more stiff soil through the use of pile foundations. Pile caps are used to distribute column oads to a group of piles as illustrated in Fig. 5.1f. 325 T RC footing PC footing, column RC footing PC footing (@) Wall footing (b)Isolated footing colyn column elu gap ben colggin (©) Combined footing (@) Strap footing (© Raft foundation Fig. 5.1 Types of foundations 326oes ne ‘Stiff soil Plan (0 Pile foundation Fig. 5.1 Types of foundations (contd.) 327 5.3 Soil Pressure under concentrically Loaded Footings ‘The actual bearing soil pressure differs significantly according to the type of soil, stiffness ofthe footing and loading conditions. In general, the distribution under the base of the footing is non-uniform. Assuming the loading is concentric and the footing is rigid, the soil pressure distribution under sandy soil (cohesionless soil) may take the parabolic shape shown in Fig. 5.2a. The part of the soil under the column is likely to be pressured more than the part at the edges. The soil particles near the edges escapes from under the footing providing less support and producing less pressure. In contrast, in a clayey soil (cohesive soil) the stresses near the edges are larger than those at the middle as shown in Fig. 5.2b. This is attributed to the shear stresses developed near the unloaded portion (surrounding the footing) of the soil near the edges. This additional support results in producing high stresses near the edge than those developed at the center ofthe footing. In addition to the variation of soil distribution under different types of soils, the stiffness of the footing itself adds more complexity to the problem. For design. purposes, the bearing soil distribution is assumed uniform regardless of the type of soil or the stiffness of the footing as shown in Fig, 5.2c. The assumption of uniform pressure simplifies the calculation of the acting forces and speeds up the design process. Experimental tests and the performance of the existing buildings indicate that this assumption results in conservative designs,load «a Footing on sandy soil load ‘¢- Assumed uniform pressure Fig. 5.2 Soil pressure distribution under footings. 329 5.4 Soil Pressure under Eccentrically Loaded Footings Foundations may be frequently subjected to eccentric loading resulting from lateral forces due to wind or earthquake. The moments developed at the base of the footing produce a non-uniform soil pressure that needs to be taken into account. : If the eccentricity of the load is small, compression stresses develop across the contact between the footing and the soil as shown in Fig. 5.3a, The maximum stt€3S far should be checked against the allowable bearing capacity. As the eccentricity of the load increases, the difference between the maximum fnar and minimum fain stresses increases. The. classical stress equation is used to determine the distribution of the soil pressure as follows: fan et : 51 eo AT oy ‘Where P and M are the unfactored axial load and moment, respectively, and y is the distance from the c.g of the footing. For rectangular footings (Lxb) in whichA=bxL, I =bxL'/12 and y = L/2, the previous equation may be written in the following form P ee 52) fos“ bxz on P | 53 Sg Z(* 63) Ata certain limit (¢=L/6), the minimum stress fax becomes zero at the edge as shown in Fig. 5.3b. Any further increase in the eccentricity of the load will result in negative pressure (tension). However, the previous equations are only valid when no tensile stresses are developed. ‘This is because tensile stresses cannot be transmitted between the soil and the concrete, and redistribution of stresses should occur. For a rectangular footing of length L, if the eccentricity e exceeds L/6, a triangular stress distribution will develop over part of the base as shown in Fig, 5.3c. For equilibrium to occur, the centroid of the soil pressure ‘must coincide with the applied load P,. If we denote the distance from the ‘applied load P, to the footing edge a, then the length of the base on which the triangular stress distribution developed is 3a. Applying the equilibrium equation gives: 6.4) Flaw xbx(3a) =P, 330= (5.5) Wheektera=L or ankne ‘The maximum developed pressure fn should not exceed the soil bearing capacity. The assumed pressure distribution is expected to deviate from the reality because of the non linear stress-strain relationship of the soil. The amount of deviation increases as the amount of eccentricity increases. However, experience over the years showed that this simplified analysis gives asafe design. Footings subjected to high moments tend to tilt and undesirable differential settlement develops. Therefore, it is recommended to minimize the eccentricity of the applied load as much as possible. In some other cases the footing may be subjected to eccentricities in both directions. This produces biaxial moments on the footing. Only one comer point is subjected to the maximum stress. The soil stresses may be obtained using the stress equation as follows: PM Me fg aT, 66) Hand calculations of such problems are difficult, and computer programs are usually used to determine soil distribution and the acting forces. Photo 5.3 Foundations of a high-rise building during construction 331 RC footing ‘ a Blevaion eee ou BxE bx Fria a)small eccentricity < L/6 oblarge eccentricity ¢> L/6 byeccentticity e= L/6 Fig. 53 Soil stress distribution for eccentrically londed footings 332Example 5.1 ‘The concrete footing shown in figure is designed to support a dead load of 1260 KN and a live load of 820 KN. The allowable soil pressure is 320 kN/m? Determine and check safety of the developed soil pressure if the eccentricity equals: a) e=0 b) e=0.3m c) e=0.8m Solution ‘The total applied working loads (unfactored) equals: P = Py, + Py, =1260+820= 2080 kN Case a For a concentrically applied load (e=0), the soil pressure simply equals the load over the area ofthe footing, =P 22080 A 34x30 Since the applied pressure (203.92 kN/m?) is less than the allowable soil pressure (320 kN/m’), the footing is considered safe. 13.92 EN /m? P2080 KN LLt “TP | £203.92 1a Case b Since e = 0.3 m < Li6 = 0.567m, the soil bearing pressure can be obtained using the following equation: 311.88 kNim? 2080 602) . 14802 Soe 3. = 34 Soin 2080 ( 6x03 ) 95.96 kNim™ 30x34 34 Since the maximum applied pressure (fpa-311.88 KN/n?) is less than the allowable soil pressure (320 kN/m:), the footing is considered sale 333 334eee Case ¢ Since e = 0.8 m > L/6 = 0.567m, the soil bearin; re using the following equation: nei mee Lo 34 08=09 m 2P,__ 22080 Suu =a = 3 7 513.58 KN/m Since the maximum applied pressure (fma=513.58 kN/m?) is lary ia fas=* fm’ zer the owas pressre 020 kn) he eng is consid amas, 2080 kN 09 513.58 KN/e? 3a=2.7m 335 5.5 Gross and Net Soil Pressures ‘The soil pressure may be expressed in terms of gross or net pressure at the foundation level. The gross soil pressure is the total soil pressure produced by all loads above the foundation level. These loads consist of (a) the service column load at the ground surface, (b) the weight of the plain and reinforced concrete footings, and (c) the weight ofthe soil from the foundation level to the ground level. On the other hand, the net sail pressure does not include either the weight of the soil above the base ofthe footing or the weight of the footing. It-can be simply obtained by subtracting from the gross soil pressure the weight of I-m square of soil with a height from the foundation level to the ground level. If a concrete footing is located at the foundation level without any column load as shown in Fig. 5.4a, the total downward pressure from the footing and the soil above is 51 kN/m?. This is balanced by an equal and opposite (upward) soil pressure of $1 kN/m?. Therefore, the net effect on the footing is zero and neither moments nor shear develops in the footing. ‘When the column Joad, column is applied, the pressure under the footing is increased by 120 KN/m? as illustrated in Fig, 5.4b. Thus the total pressure on the soil becomes 171 kN/m?. This is the gross soil pressure and must not exceed the allowable soil pressure datomate. When the bending moments and shear forces are computed, the upward pressure and downward pressure of 51 KN/m? cancel each other leaving only the net soil pressure of 120 kN/m* to produce the internal straining actions on the footing as shown in Fig. 5.4c. In design, the area of the footing is chosen such that the applied gross pressure does not exceed the allowable soil pressure. The net soil pressure is used t0 ‘calculate the reinforcement and to check the shear strength of the footing. The area of the plain concrete footing is calculated as follows: P, ; Area = 2a a EA ens OT) atone ‘The pervious equation can be further simplified by assuming the weight of the footing and the soil above is about 5%-10% of the column load. Assuming this ratio t0 be 10% the area of the footing can be obtained using Eq. 5.8 as follows: LAXP ann swe (5.8) Area Getosie 336sol weight . T [36 kam = weight of si 15 kN/m*= weight of footing Footing 3x 3m Lt 205 kN Tae ‘51 kN/m* a) Self weight and soil weight Joad=1080 kN PSL ]T TEE TSF 30 kavien? L goa 3641541202171 RNA 15+120=135 kNine 1b) Gross soil pressure Toad=1080 KN P _ 1080 J op Ew 1080120 WW Ym Og = POO 120 a g 9uc=120 kit? ©) Net soil pressure Fig. 5.4 Gross and net soil bearing pressures. 337 Example 5.2 For the footing shown in the figure below, calculate the gross and the net soil pressures at the base of the footing, The densities of the plain concrete, the reinforced concrete and the soil may be taken as 22 KNim’ , 25 kNim’ , and soil=18 KN/m’, respectively. |__RC (2.1 2.1 x0.4) J Pc (2.6 2.6 x 0.3) Solution ‘The total loads above the foundation level are calculated as follows: 1. Column load 820+350=1170 kN 2. weight of the PC footing 22 2.6x2.6x0.3= 44.6 kN. 3. weight of the RC footing 25x 2.1x2.1x0.4 = 44.1 kN’ 4. weight of the Soil 18% 2.1 2.1% 1.3 = 103.19 kN Pgs = 1170+ 44.64 44.14 103.19 = 1361.91 kV ‘The gross soil pressure equals: Spa = = BEEN 901.46 kN Im? wo A 26K2.6 The added (net) soil pressure (due to adding the footing and column load) Soa “Spon Weight of 2mof soil = 201.466 ~18x2.= 165.466 kN /m? 3385.6 Design of Isolated Footings 5.6.1 Introduction ‘The design of the isolated footings must consider bending, development of the reinforcement, one-way shear and punching shear. Since shear reinforcement is not permitted by the ECP 203 for one-way shear and two-way shear Accordingly, shear rather the bending moment normally controls the depth of the footing. One-way shear reinforcement is stot allowed in the footings because (1) determining of the effective pattern of shear reinforcement is difficult to establish when the footing is bending in two directions, and (2) the depth of the compression zone may be not sufficient to anchor the shear reinforcement that is intended to reach the yielding stress at failure. Punching shear reinforcement (two-way shear) is permitted by some international codes. Because of the difficulty of placing such reinforcement, the Egyptian Code insists in depending on concrete only in resisting two-way shear. ‘The soil pressure causes the footing to deflect upward, producing tension in two directions at its bottom fibers. Therefore the reinforcement is placed at its bottom of the footing in two perpendicular directions without the need of top reinforcement. It is common in Egypt to construct a plain concrete footing above which a reinforced concrete footing of smaller dimensions is resting. Such an arrangement proves to be more economical than using a reinforced concrete footing resting directly on soil. Photo 5.4 Example of isolated footing reinforcement 339 5.6.2 Design Steps Step 1: Dimensioning of the Plain Concrete Footing ‘The plain concrete footing size is computed suing the allowable soil pressure. It is customary to assume that the weight of the soil and the footing equal to 5-10% of the column load. The loads used in the calculations are the working loads (unfactored). Thus, the area of the plain concrete footing (A) equals: jody +P) (59a) Gatos ‘The dimensions of the footing are chosen such that an equal amount is, projecting all around the column. Referring to Fig. 5.5, the dimensions Of the footing are taken as, LxB=Lx{L+0, a= A (6.9b) Dimensioning the footing in such a way will ensure producing the same bending moment in all four sides. Thus, the reinforcement in the reinforced concrete footing will approximately be equal in both directions. ‘The thickness of the plain concrete footing is usually assumed from 250-500 mm depending on the soil type and the magnitude of the applied loads. ® I. RC footing e $| le PC footing a] 4 a ‘ | k L Fig. 5.5 Dimensioning of the plain concrete footing, 340Step 2: Dimensic ing of the Reinforced Concrete Footing The plan dimensions of the reinforced concrete footing are determined by subtracting a distance x from each side dimension of the plain concrete ~ footing, The value of x depends on the soil bearing capacity and the thickness of the plain concrete footing, The value of x is usually assumed ~8.8-1.0 the thickness of the plain concrete footing. A,=L-2x and B, =B-2x More refined analysis can be obtained by equating the tensile strength of concrete to the tension developed in the plain concrete footing at sec 1-1 as shown in Fig. 5.6. Ser =3.0P, (2) <06. a0» ‘Where Ps is the allowable soil pressure and 1 is a coefficient that depends on the thickness (can be assumed=1.7) and ¢ is the thickness of the plain concrete footing obtained from step 1. ‘The previous equation can be solved to obtain the distance x. A factor of _ safety of 3 applied to the allowable tensile strength of concrete is assumed to obtain the values listed in Table 5.1. Knowing fey and the allowable soil pressure, one can get the value of x/t from table 5.1 and hence x:is known. Critical section for 1 plain concrete footing Fig. 5.6 Dimensioning of a reinforced conerete footing 341 “Allowable soil pressure P, (kN/m") 100 | 125 | 150 [175 | 200 | 25 | 250 | 300 1.23 | 110 | 101 | 093 | 087 | 082 | 0.78 | o7 128 | 11s | 105 | 097 | o91 | 085 | 081 | 0.74 132 | 118 | 108 | 100 | 094 | 088 | 0.84 | 0.76 136 | 1.22 | 111 | 103 | 096 | o91 | 086 | 0.79 140 | 125 | 114 | 1.06 | 099 | 093 | 089 | os 30.0 147 [ 131 [ 120 | 1.11 | 1.04 | 098 | 0.93 | 085 ‘The thickness of the reinforced concrete footing should not be less than 300 mm or! the smallest column dimension which ever is greater. ‘Step 3: Design for Punching Shear ‘The factored pressure duu at the bottom of the reinforced concrete footing is obtained using the factored load as follows: = Pe 1AP yy $1.6 Pry “AXB,_A,xB, Punching shear failure is referred as two-way shear. In the ECP 203, the critical perimeter for punching shear is at a distance d/2 from the face of the column as shown in Fig 5.7. The critical shear perimeter is given by (6.10) Ia 2 (@+b)=2 (4, +d) +2 B$d) enone GLI) Where a, and bare the dimensions of the column, and d is the average effective depth in the two directions. ‘The punching shear load is obtained by subtracting the factored pressure multiplied by the punching area from the column load as follows Quy = Py ~Ay (axd) ‘The punching stresses Qu s Qe = Fd So 342Fig. 5.7 Punching loading area and perimeter. Since punching shear reinforcement is not allowed by the ECP 203, the developed shear gp should be less than concrete strength ga, given by the least of the following three values: 316 fee 6N Imm? % 2 fag 01608048) PE nn 14) oir ad, ff, Bn Where risa factor equals to 2,3 4 for come, exterior, intemal footings respectively and 5, is the critical punching shear perimeter. (5.14a) Yon 8 (0.20+ (5.140) If the applied punching shear stresses are less than the concrete strength ev the footing is considered safe, otherwise the footing depth has to be increased, 343. Step 4: Design for One-Way Shear According to the ECP 203, the critical section for one-way shear is at 2 from the face of the column as shown in Fig. 5.8. The shear stress developed in the footing is obtained from the factored soil pressure. Referring to Fig. 5.8, the total shear force at sec 1-1 equals: o soe (55) (5.16) an] Tan HE q J} Te TOT TT a (Aeoe| 4 head cxiccat section shear 3g & a] Critical sectic for shear gy ‘Area considered for ? ‘one-way shear in 5 short direction ‘Area considered for one-way shear in long direction Fig. 5.8 Calculation of one-way shear stress ‘The ECP 203 states that the one-way shear stress should be resisted without any shear reinforcement. The concrete shear strength is given by: Go. = 0.16 FP (5.17) 344‘Step 5: Design for Flexure ‘The ultimate soil pressure induces moment into two perpendicular Girections. Frequently, the minimum reinforcement requirement controls the design soo 5.18) ‘The critical section for moment is taken at the face of the column. A Im stip is usually used to calculate the reinforcement per meter. Referring to Fig. 5.9, the moment per meter equals ‘Area considered Ar for moment Fig. 5.9 Critical section for bending 345 Column reinforcement should be well anchored in the footing using column dowels. The length of these dowels inside the column should not be less than 40 the largest bar diameter as shown in Fig. 5.10. P column dowels Long direction ft eo & concrete ne : | g 3 Reinforced conercte z foot Rftin sor dietion Sime = A | L Fig, 5.10 Typical reinforcement and dimensions of isolated footingsExample 5.3 Design an isolated footing for a rectangular column (0.25 x 0.8 m) that carries unfactored dead of 780 KN and unfactored live load of 440 KN, respectively. Design data: Allowable soil pressure =125 N/m? (1.25 kg/em?) 0 N/mm? (reinforced concrete) fou =20N/mm? (plain concrete) fy =360Nimm? Solution ‘Step1: Dimensioning of the plain concrete footing ‘The total working load equals P, =780+440=1220 RN ‘The weight of the footing and the soil are assumed (5-10% of the acting ‘working loads) say 89% ‘The required area of the plain concrete footing equals = 108%P, _ 1.081220 Gaamase To have uniform soil pressure and economic design, the dimensions of the footing are taken such that the cantilever distance (m) is same on all sides of the column. Area =10.54m" Li(be> ae) Bel ‘Thus, the dimension (B) must be greater than (L) by the difference in column dimension as follows B=L+,-4) ‘The area of the plain concrete equals L(L+055)=106 Solving the previous equation for L gives S54 V0.5 +4%10.6 909m say L=3.0m 2 +(08-0.25)=L +055 513 m say B=3.55 m The plain concrete dimengion is chosen (3 x 3.55 ms) ‘The thickness ofthe plain concrete is chosen equal to 350 mm. Step 2: Dimensioning of the reinforced concrete footing From Table 5.1, x/t=1.18 —» Assume x=t=0.35 m -0.7=23m A, =L-2x035 B, = B~2X0.35=3.55-0.7=2.85 m P, = 1A Pp, +16 Py, =14%780+1.6%440 = 1796 KN ‘The factored net soil pressure dex equals de = O24 kN Im? ie A, XB, 23X2.85 Assuming that the thickness of the RC footing is 0.55 m, the chosen dimensions are 2.3 x 2.85 x 0.55 ms). Reinforced concrete 05 |— footing | Pisin concrete footing 035 347 348,Step 3: Design for punching shear Generally, the thickness of the isolated footing is governed by punching shear ‘The cttical section for punching shear is at d2 from the face of the column. Assuming 70 mm concrete cover, the effective depth d equals 480 mm =a, +d =250+4480= 730mm b=, +d =800+480 = 1280mm U =2(a+b)=2 (730 +1280) = 4020 mm ‘The punching load = column load - the load acting on the punching area Q,, =P, ~ Gy, (@Xb) =1796 - 274 (0.73x1.28) = 1540 KN Qq _1540%1000 xd ~ 4020x480 ‘The concrete strength for punching is the least of the three values if. 30 0316 [2 =0.316 | 7 te 1s ue 0.198 N/mm? Al N/ mam? 0.316 0.504225) [20 08 15 0.8 (oo 048 ) [30 «a 4a0 fm? 402 Vis Gap 1.AS N/mm? Since the applied shear stress (0.798) is less than concrete shear strength (1.15) ; the footing is considered safe LAS N fmm? Step 4: Design for one-way shear ‘The critical section for one-way shear is taken at d/2 from the face of the column as shown in figure. 254d 24d /2=0.25-+d = A,-a 2540.48 =0.73 m 2.3-0.73 0.785 m wan) [| lum bf sat eof [L |] [eo t £20785 j af-0.73_j_0:785 critical section forshear 349 350Q, =, °£B, = 274X0.785x2.85 = 613 kN 2, _ 613x1000 bxd 2850x480 F 50 =0:16 [4a =0.16 22 0.115 w/mm? ee 15 15 Since quis less than dey the footing is considered safe in shear 4, $045 N Jmm® Step 5: Flexural design Step 5.1: Reinforcement in the short-direction ‘The critical section is atthe face of the column, and taking a strip of Lin fq, Be B P18 «p94 C3-025) 8143.95 4N mlm M Faxbxd™ ~ 30x1000%480" 143.93x10° 021 From the chart with R=0.021, the reinforcement index 0.0245 A, = oxL£a.xeb xd =0.0245x22 x 1000x480 = 980mm? f 360 0.60 A=980 mm? ‘Use 5@16/m’ (1000 mm?) Step 5.2: Reinforcement in the long direction ‘The critical section i at the face of the column, and taking a strip of Im @,-b.)* _ 974 285-000) ‘Since the moment in the long direction is the same as the moment in the short direction, the reinforcement is taken identical (same) to that of the short direction. = 143.93 KN am Im! My = 4, 351 Step 5.3: Check the development of the reinforcement For simplicity, the values listed in the Egyptian code to determine the development length is used. For high grade steel without hooks the development length £60 ©. For 16 mm diameter, £4960 mm. Bar extension past the face of the column equals A=, _2300~250 1995 pm > Lyauok R catuomsoags | me 5 $0 ion € sous. : 1-550 12350] Pin concrete ‘ing = i | g | 4g e a Reinforced concrete footing sori | | 2300 eee oe Footing reinforcement details 3525.7 Combined Footings Combined footings are used when either one of the columns falls on a property line or when the two columns are close to each other such that the footings overlaps. ‘The geometry of the footing is chosen such that the resultant of the two columns coincides with the centroid of the footing. ‘This can be achieved by using trapezoidal footing (Fig. 5.L1a) or by adjusting the center of the footing at the resultant as shown in Fig. 5.11b. The resulting pressure is uniform under the footings and help to prevent differential settlement. It is ‘common to place the reinforced concrete footing above a plain concrete footing to reduce cost as shown in Fig. 5.L1c. In some cases the resulting moments between the columns may become large and it may be economical to use an inverted T-beam to increase the effective depth and reduce the reinfércement as shown in Fig. 5.11. ‘The basic assumption for the design of a combined footing is to assume that the footing is rigid and is subjected to a linear soil pressure. In actual practice, it requires very big thickness to make rigid footing. However, the assumption of rigid footing has been used successfully over the years. The combined footing ‘can be designed as beam on elastic foundation that usually leads to more economic solutions. However, this method is time consuming and is not suitable for design office calculations 4) Trapezoidal combined footing Resultant Low load High Toad ») Rectangular combined footing 393 ‘Rectangular combined footing with PC base @)Rectangular combined footing ‘with PC base and T-beam Fig. 5.11 Type of com {In combined footings, soil pressure is resisted by a series of strips running in the longitudinal direction as shown in Fig 5.12. The load is then transmitted to the cross beams AB and CD, which transmit the pressure to the columfis. The cross (hidden) beams are assumed to extend d/2 from the face of the column. ' ‘The main top longitudinal reinforcement is placed between the two columns, while the main bottom longitudinal reinforcement is placed under the columns. Main transverse reinforcement is placed at the bottom at locations of the cross | beams. Pa Pa cross (hidden}beam main long. (bottom) transverse reinforcement | Samen Fig. 5.12 Analysis of combined footings 3541k is customary in Egypt to construct reinforced concrete footings on top of plain concrete footings mainly for economical reasons as shown in Fig. 5.13a However, it is also popular around the world to use reinforced concrete footings directly resting on soil after providing a thin layer of plain concrete (100 mm) for leveling as shown in Fig. 5.13b. Such a design approach is also adopted in Egypt in some few projects. ‘The analysis is carried out in a similar manner to that to that explained before ‘with the exception of ignoring any contribution of the plain concrete ‘Therefore, the dimensions of the reinforced concrete footing should be chosen to distribute the applied loads safely to the soil Reinforced concrete footing Plain concrete footing (300-600 mm) Plain concrete for leveling (100 mm-150 ma) ‘) Plain concrete is used in the design calculations. ») Plain concrete is not used in the design calculations. Fig. 5.13 Reinforced concrete combined footings with or without plain concrete footings Example 5.4 illustrates the design of a combined footing that is resting on a plain concrete footing, while Example 5.5 illustrates the design of a combined footing that is résting directly on the soil. 355 Example 5.4: Combined footing with PC Design a combined footing to support the two columns shown in Fig, EX 54° Column C; has a cross section of (0.3 m x 0.4 m) and supports a working load of 1320 KN. Column C; has a cross section of (0.3 m x 0.7 m) and supports @ ‘working load of 1960 KN. Assume that the allowable soil pressure, is 175 N/m, and the material properties are f=25 N/mm?, and fi=400 Nima --- fT a 6m —————— Fig. EX 54 Layout of Columns Solution Step 1: Dimensions of the plain concrete footing “The location of the resultant force is determined by taking moments of all forces about any point. Taking moment about the c.g. of column CI, one gets A r ! 1320KN 2215 145 356PoaxS___1960X(3.6) Pe, + Pez (132041960) 2.15 m To ensure uniform pressure throughout the footing, the centroid of the footing ‘must coincide with the resultant. Assume that the length ofthe footing is L. L = 2x, + thickness of C1/2+thickness of C2/2+(1-2m)= 6.0m The width of the footing is determined from the allowable soil pressure. Assuming that the weight of the footing is about 10% of the total applied loads, the width of the footing equals: Jl (Poy + Pea) _ 1.1% (1320 +1960) oj XL T75X6 B 3.44 m Rounding B to the nearest 50mm > B=3.45 m. ‘The plain concrete footing dimensions are (6.0 m x 3.45m) and its thickness is, assumed 400 mm. 1.1 1320-41960) GOxaag NAS AN Im? «175. The pressure (0,4,) Resultant =3280 AN pee | _—______ =60m Dimensions of the plain concrete footing 357 ‘Step 2: Dimensions of the reinforced concrete footing To ensure that a uniform pressure is acting under the reinforced concrete footing, the centroid of the footing must coincide with the resultant, Assume that the distance x = thickness of the plain concrete = 0.4 m. L,=L-2x =6-2x04 2 m B,=B-2.x =3.45-2x04= 2.65 m Assume the thickness of the RC footing is 0.8 m. Hence, the dimensions of the RC footing are (5.2 m x 2.65 m x 0.8 m). ‘The ultimate pressure is used to calculate the moments and shear forces. ‘Assuming that the live loads are less than 75% of the dead loads (the usual case), the ultimate loads equal: Pycy = 15x P =1.5%1320= 1980 KN Pye = LSXP =1.5X1960 = 2940 kN 6.0m i 52 oe £8 358Step 3: Design the footing for flexure Step 3.1: Longitudinal direction ‘The ultimate pressure under the reinforced concrete footing is calculated for the total width By, thus the load acting on 2.65 m width equals: Py tP., _1980+2940 eae s2 ‘The computation of shear and moment may be carried out in a normal fashion For example, forthe location at (x=3.0 m), the forces equal: +x —P, =946.15x3 1980 = 858 kN 146.1538 EN Im” M, =f +x7/2-P, (x -0.45) M, =946.15x3* /2-1980x (30.45) = 791.3 kN m Photo 5.5 Foundations during construction 359 3604 ‘The calculation of the shear and moment may become tedious; therefore a ‘computer program was used to generate the straining actions at different points as shown in the table below. Plots ofthe shear and moment are also given in the following figure. ‘Program Foundation: output file: combined Design the section of maximum negative bending moment ‘The section of maximum negative bending moment requires top reinforcement. ince the maximum moment is calculated for the full width of the footing, its value shall be divided by the footing width to get the moment per meter. 180.8 To determine the maximum moment, the point of zero shear force is calculated as follows: 946.15x, -1980=0 9=2.093 m ‘Thus, the value of the maximum moment equals: 146.15 x2.093" /2~1980X (2.093 ~0.45) = 1180.8 kN m Mg fm’ = Mae = MEE 446 KN mm! Location | Shear | Moment Notes (im) kN Nm ‘Assume the effective depth d =1 -70mm = 800-70 = 730 mm 0.00 0 ° | : Mz _ 46x10" __pos3s 025 eS Be Thee oflet calm eT ee ee Gy ae ED C.L- of let column From the chert with R=0.0335, the reinforcement index 00.040 04s | 15842 958 Ci of le column 065 “3650 | __ 1961 Thee of eft column | | A, secZoxbxd = 0.040%-25 x1000%730 1825 mm?/m" 100 | 1083 | 6135 og 06 73 —| sag} sora ae FRO d= i XIOH0%730 = 1095 rm 208 00 “HT80s Point of zero sear Me Amun =1095 mm? 250 3a54 [11023 Use 620/n (1885 mm"/m’) 300 aes | -T913 Secondary bottom reinforcement inthe transversal direction should be provided 370 | 13208 aa Taaw of ight calumn with an area of at least 20% of the main reinforcement. Therefore, provide 512i 405 isis | aie CL. oF ight column bend section of the maxi a 405 | toes | @i6 CL of ight column ec alee tern ne ee ee ee ‘The section of maximum positive bending moment requires bottom 4.40 “156.9 302.6 face of right column reinforcement. The critical section for the maximum positive bending is at the 0 00 7 face of the right support os? M =946.15x~5-=302.8KN am (Refer also to the output table) M, 114.25x10" F4Xbxd* — 25x1000x730°— 0086 Since the intersection point is below the chart, the factor 9 can be approximately evaluated as @ = 1.2 R = 0.0103 361 362pe 25 , = ox L2xb xd = 0.0103x— x1 = 471 mm? im! f 5% 000% 730 = 471 mm? Use 6 16/m’ (1206 mm’/m’) Step 3.2: Design of the footing for flexure (transversal) To obtain the pressure (f) under each cross-beam (hidden beam), column Toad is divided by the footing width (2.65 m). ‘The breadth of the cross beam (b,) is assumed at @/2 from the column face (in the perpendicular direction) as shown in figure. The critical section for moment is atthe face of the support. ‘The transverse bottom reinforcement is placed on the top of the longitudinal reinforcement, thus the effective depth 1980 kN { | 03m Tt o3m |f 1175 m. 1175 xeldT5 FEIT ATEN F=1109.43 Ni’ 2.65 m 265m ca ‘Transversal section oy — at Fe om —-| 0.7m 0254 t 'DesLO05 | Provide secondary xt of 50 [2/av beast “Effective width of crass beams ‘The calculations of the reinforcement are summarized in the following table Item cl cz ‘Load Py, KN 1980 2940 pressure /7=P,/265 | TAT.AT [1109.43 M =f’ x2/2 515.8 765.856 d(mm) 710 P70 oe 202540442 1.005 | =07+27, 27a 1at 2 22 R= Ree 0.041 0.043 @ 0.0192 0.0522 A =Ofq/f, bd [2194 3267 Avan = O6If IE, € | 1070 1502 ‘Arseqs (IT?) 2194 3267 ‘Asetoren (IM) ‘Ay-6022 2281 mar) — | Az=922 (3421 mm’) ‘Step 4: Design for shear “The critical section for shear is at d/2.from the face ofthe column. Referring to the shear force diagram and the computer output table, the maximum shear at the face of column Cp is (1520.8. KN). Hence, at a distance of d/2 from the left face of the support Q, equals: 0,=0-F (4) =1520.8 -946.15 (2) 1176 kN “This shearing force is resisted by the full width of the footing (B=2650 mm), hence the nominal shear stress is given by: Q,__ 1176x1000 Bxd 2650x730 61 mm? cn 363 364‘This shear stress must be resisted by the shear resistance of concrete, which is given by the following equation: fra 015 5-065 rmn* en -016 fz - 0165-0080 Since qu is less than gay, the design for one-way shear is considered adequate. ‘Step 5: Design for punching shear ‘The critical perimeter is at d/2 from the face of the column. For the interior column, the critical perimeter equals: +d =300+730=1030 mm b =c, +d =700+730=1430 mm U =2(a+b)= (1030 +1430) = 4920mm The punching load equals: Qn P, ~ Fz (axb) = 2940 ~357.04 (1.03x1.43) = 2414 KN gg = 22 = 2814x1000 xd 4920x730 = 0.67 N Imm? ‘The concrete strength for punching is the least of the following three values: 0.316 Le day =0.316 fia oo rn 2. day =0.316 0.5045, 3. dap =08 (0.20424 eui= 1.20 Nima Since the applied punching shear stress (0.67) is less than concrete shear strength (1.2), the footing is considered safe. ‘The exterior column should also be checked for punching. The ultimate punching shear stress equals 0.54 N/mm? which is less than the concrete strength (calculation not shown). Photo 5.6 Portal bridge spanning 146 m (pont du bonhomme, France) 365 366620m S012) mt [A z0x2im 622, 616i 600 ‘Longitudinal reinforcement S12 ‘Transverse reinforcement (ee A-A) 616m 9022, 6020/1 512m ‘Transverse reinforcement (Bee B-B) 616 im ana 367 Example 5.5: RC combined footing resting directly on soi Design a combined footing to support an exterior column C; (0.3 m x.0.4 m) carrying a total service load of 1100 KN and an interior column C; (0.3 m x 0.6 m) carrying a total service load of 1600 KN. The plain concrete is used only for leveling the reinforced concrete footing. ‘Assume that the allowable soil pressure is 185 kN/m?, fy=30 N/mm? and f=400 Nima? | | Solution Step 1: Estimate the dimensions of the RC footing ‘The location of the resultant force is determined by taking momesit about point A (Gee the figure below): | = MOOK02 160042402) _ 9 65 (@:100+1600) ‘To ensure uniform pressure throughout the footing, the centroid of the footing must coincide with the resultant of the loads @ 2.69 m. Thus the length of the footing will be 5.38 m, say L=5.40 m. Assume that the weight of the footing is about 10% of the total applied Toads. ‘The width of the footing is determined from the allowable soil pressure as follows: 1p = 105% (1100+ 1600) 185x54 = 284m — Take B=29m 1,05 (1100+ 1600) 181 EN /m? <185 KN Im? ....0k 34x29 The pressure (Ou, ‘Assume the thickness of the RC footing is 700 mm. 368Program Combined Foundation: output file: combined Pr=1100 P:=1600 Location (m) [Shear force] Bending moment| (kN) (Nm) 0.00 0 0 2 [150 | 15 020 “1500 15 t 040 “1350 270 i i 100 900 545 ; 4am tom 220 0 ABS 020—-1f r | 3.00 600 “Tas | L=SAm 4.10 1425 “131 440 1650 375 Step 2: Calculate the bending moments and the shear forces 440 "750 375 ‘The ultimate pressure is now used to calculate the moment and shear force. ‘Assuming that the live loads are less than 75% of the dead loads (the usual 470 “525 184 ‘case), the ultimate loads equal: a 7 7 Py = 15x P=1.5x1100 = 1650 kV P= 1.5xP=15x1600= 2400 kN ‘The load for the full 2.9 meters equals: Py tPor _ 1650-42400 L 3a ‘The computation of shear and moment may be carried out in a normal fashion. For example, for the location at 3.0 m, the forces equal: f = 750 kN Im’ Q=750x3~-1650 = 600 IN M =750x3x1.5~1650x(3~0.2) =—1245 kNn ‘The calculation of the shear and moment may become tedious; therefore a computer program was used to generate the straining actions at different locations as shown in the table below. Plots of the values of the shear forces and bending moments are also given in the following figure. y=2.2m ‘The value of the maximum moment is given as: M yyy = T50K2.2? 12-—1650% (2.2—0.2) = —1485 KN om 369 370resultant “ah I TTTTTT TTT Tete] imate soil pressure=750 Nin | Lom 020 ff —_________#2m __j TN 54. L 1500 ‘Values ofthe shear forces and bending moments for the combined footing Step 3: Design the footing for flexure Step 3.1: Longitudinal direction Section of maximum negative moment The section of maximum negative moment requires top reinforcement. The maximum negative moment per meter is given by: Me 1485, ae B 29 “Assuming that the distance from the c.g; of the reinforcing steel to the concrete surface is 70 mm, the effective depth equals: da 70mm = 700 — 70 = 630 mm My, 512x10° Ra Oe 0.043 FaXbxd* — 30X1000%630 M, = 512 AN mI! From the chart with R=0.043, the reinforcement index @=0.052 fo: x xd = 0.05232 1000x630 = 2457 min 0.60 5 eg = 050, Use 1022/mt (2660 mn?) A, = 0x 1000630 = 945 mm? /m’ Section of maximum positive moment ‘The critical section for the maximum positive bending is at the face of the support, from the output table this moment equals 184 KN.m’ M _ 184 B29 eich 6A x10 ‘F,Xbxd* — 30x1000%630" 63.4 kN.m = 0.0053 ‘The point is below the chart, use @=1.2R A, =ax2a-xb xd =0.0064%x22 .0064 1000% 630 = 302 mm? J’ 371 372Since Ayé Asnin, USE Asnin Use 5 16/tm’ (1000 mm") Step 4.2: Design the footing for flexure (hidden beams) ‘Transverse strip under each column will be assumed to transmit the load from the longitudinal direction to the column. The load under each column is divided by the footing width (2.9 m) t get the load per meter for the hidden beam. The breadth of the beam is assumed at d/2 from the column face. The critical section for moment is at the face of the support. ‘The reinforcement of the hidden beam is place on top of that of the footing Hence, the effective depth is=700 -70 -20610 mm [eso [2400 o3m Tt o3m Tf ‘The calculations of reinforcement are shown in the following table Tem Tnterior column Exterior column Load P,, EN 1650 2400 pressuref=P/29 | 56897 22759 M afi xsl? 4808 699.310 bam) 705 1210 (mm) 610 610 M, Fae 0.06 0.05 @ 0.0759 010635, A=of,lf, ba 2447 3513 Resin 645 - 1107, Asegiea (a7) 2447 3513 Rectsea (im?) | Ay=7622 (2661 mmr) | Aig=1022 810 mm?) 3m 13m xel3m |--—_+ TrEtrt £568.97 kin’ f827.59 kN 2.90 m, 2.90 Exterior column Interior column Step 4: Design for shear ‘The critical section for shear is at d/2 from the face of the column. The ‘maximum shear at the centerline of the interior column is equal to (1650 KN) , thus ata distance of d/2 from the face of the support Q, equals: 06 , 03 Bead = 1188.75 kN 0,=0-7 (+4) -1660-750 ‘This shearing force is resisted by the full width of the footing (B=2900 mm). Q, _ 1188.75%1000 = 0.65 N/mm? Bxd 2900x630 % ‘This shear stress must be resisted by the concrete shear strength, which is given by the following equation: 016 jf =0. 162 15 1s ‘Since gu is less than qeu the design for one-way shear is considered adequate, TAN Sm? ou 373 374Step 5: Design for punching shear ‘The critical perimeter is at d/2 from the face of the column. For the interior sina al pee amar £ 300+ 22-615 mm muta bag + tno 2 2 2 U=2 (a+b) =2 (615 +915) 15 mm boos ‘The punching load equals column load minus the load inside the punching area. Qy =P, ~f; (aXb) = 2400— 258.62 (0.615x0.915) = 2254.5 KN a Quy _ 2254.5x1000 @ “Uxd — 3060%630 ‘The concrete strength for punching the least of the three values, = 1.17 N/mm? ou 1.41 Nima? Since the applied shear stress is less than concrete shear strength, the footing is considered safe. ‘The exterior column should also be checked for punching because its perimeter is only from three sides. The ultimate punching shear stress equals 1.08 Nim? which is less than the concrete strength (calculations are not shown), 1 day 20316 [2 =0.316 22 =1.41 N/mm? Ye 15 2 4, a -0.316 050+ 23 LALN fmm? oe Y 06 4x03 a 8 (0.20 29 3.66 w/t? ( +306 } 1s 375 70201m 512) mt Toe 0.70 Ci [sete Vez = ron eer t sore ) Section Sam 70022 S012/n 5012/n! 10022 2.9m a 1012 t a ) | Plan 3765.8 Strap Footings If one of the columns in a building is constructed near the property Tine, the column will be eccentric with respect to the center of gravity of the footing as shown in Fig. 5.14. The eccentric position of the footing causes uneven soil pressure distribution, which could leads to tilting of the footing, To avoid such a tilting, the exterior footing is connected to the interior footing with a massive beam called strap beam. “The dimensions of the strap are chosen such that it is very rigid compared to the footing. J. E. Bowles recommended that the rigidity of the strap beam is atleast twice that of the footing (lurap/ Tesiag>2). ‘The dimensions of the footing are chosen such that the bearing pressures are uniform and equal under both bases. Therefore, the centroid of the combined area of the two footings must coincide with the resultant of the two loads, The strap beam joining the footings should not bear agains the soi It is common to neglect the strap weight in the design. The strap should be ‘adequately attached to the both the column and the footing by the use of dowels such that the footing and the strap act as one unit. The footing is subjected to one-way bending, The strap beam is reinforced with main reinforcement at the top between the columns and at bottom under the interior footing. Pa Pee i t i Interior Exterior |i i a footing ing Property line Fig. 5.14 Strap footing 377 Example 5.6 Design a strap footing to support an exterior column (0.30 m x 0.50 m) and an interior column (0.30 m x 0,90 m). The unfactored dead and live loads carried by each column are shown in the figure below. Assume that the allowable soil pressure is 150 kNim, f=25 Nimmé and f,=360 Nimam? Prot=820 KN Pa.=450 kN Solution Step 1: Estimate the dimensions of the plain concrete footing ‘The working loads are calculated as: P, =380-+305 = 685 kN P, =8204450=1270 kN ‘The location of the resultant of the loads may be determined by taking moment about point o. 685%0.25+1270%5.15, 68541270 433m ‘The length of the exterior and interior footings should be assumed such that the pressures under the two footings are almost the same. This is achieved by having the resultant ofthe loads coincided with the c.g. ofthe footing. 378Py=685 KN P1270 kN =— 050m 090m —y aH ! ® ssn e 3434 m R 2.20 m + 335m o2sm| 49m - ‘The weight of the strap beam, the footings, and the soil above may be estimated as 10% of the total loads Pegg =A (P, + Py) = 1-1 (685 +1270) = 2150.5 ‘The total required area of the plain concrete footing under C1 and C2 equals to: Pr = 21505 14.54 pp? asowae — 150 ‘The thickness of the plain concrete is assumed to be 400 mm. Assume that the length of the exterior footing is 2.2 m and the length of the interior footing is 335 m. Area To reasonably determine the width of the footings, the reactions Ry and Rz are calculated by taking moments about Ro. (L1x68s)x4.9 (49025-2212) Ry =2150.5-911.64 = 1238.9 kN ‘The final chosen dimensions of the plain concrete footings are Trem Lim) Bm) ‘Area () Exterior footing [2.2 28 6.16 Interior footing [3.35 2.6 8.71 Total _ 14.875 1434 | The c.g. of the footings can be obtained by taking moment of area about point =3.47 m Note that the center of gravity of the footings (3.47 m) is very close to the location ofthe resultant of the loads (3.43m). Step 2: Dimensions of the reinforced concrete footings ‘The dimensions of the reinforced concrete footing can be determined as shown in the following table, Tem Lim) By (my ‘Area (m") Exterior footing =2.8-0.8=20 36 Interior footing 2608180 [459 | Total B19 To ensure the uniform stress distribution, the c.g, of the reinforced concrete footings should also coincide with the resultant as much as possible (usually within 10% is acceptable)... The distance measured from the c.g. to point 0 equals: _3.GX1.8/24+4.59%5.15 819) =3.28 m ‘The location of the c.g. is close enough (to the location of the resultant. 380Step 3: Calculate the ultimate pressure To ensure that the strap beam will distribute the pressure uniformly, the concrete dimensions are taken 0.4 mx1.3 m. The own Weight of the strap beam is usually neglected; however, it can be approximately added to the dead load of cach column as follows: Woon = Ye XBXEXL = 25XO4X1.3%4.9 = 63 KN Pio.=380463/2= 411.5 KN Pap =8204+63/2= 851.5 kN ‘The ultimate loads for the columns are calculated in order to calculate the ultimate moment and shear. Py S1AXP yy, +1.6XP yz =14X411,5+1,6%305 = 1064 kN Pq =1AK Phy, $1.6% yyy = 1LAX851.5 + 1.6%450 = 1912 KN ‘To determine the magnitude of Rr Jake the moment about Ry 1064%4, 4.9+0.25-1.8/2) Rug = Pay + Pay ~Ryy = 1064 + 1912-12267 = 1749.3 kN 1226.7 kN The pressure under the exterior footing equals , ‘The pressure under the interior footing equals 0, ‘The resulting pressures are slightly different under each footing (681.5, (686). More uniform pressures can be attained by adjusting the dimensions of the footings. However, the attained accuracy is quite satisfactory (1% ifference). Step 4: Design of the strap beam Step 4.1: Draw bending moment and shear force diagrams ‘The computation of shear and moment may be carried out in a normal fashion. For example, at a distance of 1.5 m from the left edge, the forces equal: Q 81.5x1.5—1064 = 41.8 kN M = 681.5x*F —1064x(1.5-0.25) 1064 6815 ‘A computer program was prepared to generate the straining actions at different locations as shown in the table below. Plots of the shear and moment is also in the following figure Point of zero shear 56m Program Foundation: output file: strap [Location Shear force)Bending [Notes lan) moment (kN.m) 0.00 00 00 025 170.4 213 |CL ofleftcolumn 025 893.6 213 |CLoofleftcolumn 0350 TBS “180.8 face of left column 7.00 “382.5 | 457.3 intermediate point 150 ais “563.3 intermediate point 136} 60 “564.6 [point of zero shear, Max 1.80 162.7 545.2 | 300 | 162.7 349.9 intermediate point 350 127 intermediate point 38 iT [fae of aight column 470 728.7 | SAS 1037.4 | ICL. of right column 315 “BAT lL ofrightcoumn | 5.60 566.0 face of right column 643 00 381 382030m—T r= Bim hurl7i93 49m Cites shear 0374 156m = i i ma | 122 1624 i + * = i i qi me EF! shear force agram 9747 gi Y nsous i LY 686 kN/m’ (ose esivenrs33 Step 4.2: Design for flexure Design of section 1 Assuming that the distance from the c.g. of the surface is 70 mm, the effective depth equals d =t~ 70mm =1300—70=1230 mm forcing steel to the concrete ‘The maximum moment equals 564.6 KN.m. M,____564.6x10 Fa xbxd? 25x400x1230° From the chart with R=0.037, the reinforcement index @=0.045, 4, onl bd ~00t 2 an = 1597 mt 0.225 oho 4 022525. yuu =smaller of i 360 1.34, =1.3x1537 =1998 mm? 400% 1230 = 1536 mm* ‘Use 80 16/m’ (1608 mm”) Design of section 2 ‘The critical section is at the face of the column, from the output table the maximum moment equals = 233.3 KNm M, 2333x108 Fa Xbxd? — 25x400%1230" 0.0154 From the chart with R=0.0154, the reinforcement index 20.019 Le A, =axt@xbxd 25 019 x => x 400%1230 = 649 mm *360 0225 ha yg Avnin =smaller of | fy 13A, =1.3X649=844 mm? >A, tA, ni 0225085 4091230 =1526 mm? But not tess than 25 49031230 = 738 min? 383 384Aq844 mam? Use 4618/m’ (1017 mm’) Step 4.3: Design the strap beam for Shear ‘The critical section for shear is atthe free span of the strap beam. (u=162.7 kN Q,_ 162.7100 bxd — 400x1230 133. Imm? .98.N Imm Since qu < eu provide minimum stirrups. In addition, since the width of the bbeam equals 400 mm, stirrups with four branches shall be used. Assume spacing of 200 mm. Ay 400% 200 = 133.3 ‘Try four branches 56 8/m’ Ay = 4X50 = 200 mm? > Ay gig 0:0. 04m Step 5: Design of the footings 8 ig Step 5.1: Design for flexure I A strip of Im width is taken to determine the area of steel for the footings. TETTT te eas (97=340.75 Kim o,_ 681. 2 7 340.75 RN Pm’ m aes 2.00 ‘The moment is taken atthe face of the strap beam as follows: XB, —Pyny — ye = 4% Biba _ 340.75x(2-0.40)" _ 199.04 EN am Im’ eee ‘Assume that the depth of the footings is 500. the calculations may summarized in the following table ‘Exterior footing | Interior footing Item pressure @ (KNim’) 681.5 686 Footing width B’ Gm) 2.00 1.80 Pressure () = a7 8 (kNim) 3408 381.1 Moment =f X(B”—Byay)*/8 (KNn) 109.06 93.37 (mm) 430 BO Beam 1000 1000 R=MMG,B @) 0.024 “002 @ one 00235 Acree) = OX (Fg/ f,)XBXE 848.1 “01.7 Asmia(mim’)=0.6/f, B x d 716.66 116.6 “Kearea(tit?) Max Of Amine Aronia) 848.1 76 Reinforcement 100537 TOOSST (S016)im’ (S016)m’ Step 5.2 Design the footings for shear ital section Ls for shear i 20 TAY e055 040 Loser TI Critical section for shear 385 386‘The critical section for shear is at d/2 from the face of the strap beam. Noting that the depth d=0.430 m, the distance x equals to: Bb d 18-04 043 2 2 2 2 Noting that the pressure under footing F, equals 381.1 KN/m?, the shear force Q, equals Q, =f x -b =381.1 (0.485)2.55 = 471.30 EN Q, __4130%1000 9.45. Jum? ‘ xd (255x100) x430 0.485 m d= ‘The shear stress should be less than the concrete shear strength given by the following equation: [fa - 016 {5 15 1s Since quis less than qe, the footing aa = 0.16, 65. N/mm? considered safe for shear ‘The design of FI for shear is summarized in the following table ' Tem FI pressure KN? M08 b(n) 18, xm) 0.585 ‘ Qu KN) 358.90 gs Nimm) 0.46 It should be noted that the presence of the strap beam eliminates the need for calculating punching shear stresses for the footings. 220m 4016 |/—_______#e16 aos jay |-—___255 | = g 2 ale 8 oll ol a= S012 column 130 0.40 |_0.50 | 0.80 So idm [4018 SO 16m Section A-A 3875.9 Raft Foundations 5.9.1 Introduction ‘When the bearing capacity of the soil is low, isolated footings are replaced by a raft foundation. In such a case, a solid reinforced concrete rigid slab is constructed under the entire building as shown in Fig. 5.15. Structurally, raft foundations resting directly on soil act as a flat slab or a flat plate, upside down, i.e,, loaded upward by the bearing pressure and downward by the concentrated column reactions. The raft foundation develops the maximum available bearing area under the building. If the bearing capacity of the soil is 50 low that even this large bearing capacity is insufficient, deep foundations such as piles must be used. Apart from developing large bearing areas, another advantage of raft foundations is that their continuity and rigidity that helps in reducing 4iffereatial settlement of individual columns relative to each other, which might bbe caused by local variations in the quality of subsoil, or other causes. ‘The design of raft foundations may be carried out by one of two methods: © The conventional rigid method and ‘¢ The finite element method utilizing computer programs. ‘The conventional method is easy to apply and the computations can be cartied out using hand calculations. However, the application of the conventional ‘method is limited to rafts with relatively regular arrangement of columns, In contrast, the finite element method can be used for the analysis of raft regardless of the column arrangements, loading conditions, and existence of cores and shear walls, Commercially available computer programs can be used. ‘The user should, however, have sufficient background and experience. Fig. 5.15 Raft foundation 389) 5.9.2 Conventional Rigid Method The raft foundation shown in Fig. 5.16 has dimensions (B x 1). Columns’ working loads are indicated as P), P;, Ps, ... otc. The application of the conventional method can be suinmarized as follows: Step 1: Check soil pressure ‘The resultant of columns working loads equals: Pay = Py + Py + Py toon =P, om sve (8.20) Assuming that the raft foundation is rigid, the soil pressure at any point can be obtained using the elassical stress equation as follows ret Me ye 6 See mennrnene SDM) acd, 7, Where A. =area of the raft (Bx L) I, =moment of inertia of the raft about x-axis J, =moment of inertia of the raft about y-axis = L B°/12 ‘M, = moment of the applied loads about the x-axis ‘M,=moment of the applied loads about the y-axis = Payy ©, + yan tn) Where ¢;and ¢, are the eccentricities of the resultant from the c.g. of the raft. ‘The coordinates of the eccentricities are given by: Ret (5:22) Where x, 23 29 are the X-coordinates of Pr, Ps, Py Ph... Pa B xt 623) . 2 yefth nth nt 52 Peat Where ys, yz ys are the y-coordinates of P;, P2, Pa, Py... Pe Compare the maximum soil pressures value with net allowable soil pressure. 390BS. = Pu Fig. 5.16 Eccentricity of the raft 391 Step 2: Draw the shear force and bending moment diagrams Divide the raft into several strips in the X-direction (By, Bz, Bs) and in the Y- direction (B., Bs, Bg B:) as shown in Fig. 5.16. Referring to Fig. 5.16, the interior strip GBIHEJ is used as an example for illustrating the procedure for drawing the shear force and the bending moment diagrams for the strips. The procedure may be summarized in the following steps: 1. The soil pressure at the center-line of the strip is assumed constant along the width of the strip. Referring to Fig. 5.17, the distribution of the soil pressure at the center-line of strip GBIHEJ is determined by calculating the pressures at points B (0,L/2) and E (0,-L/2) as follows: % 6.26) 2. a Poat_. (527 ua (627) ‘The average pressure equals: don (6.28) This value shall be used in the analysis of the strip. Pe P Pe P, ee 4 cy ,. $.17 Soil pressure distribution at the center BE 3922. The total soil reaction (R.4) for the stip B-E is equal to: Race Guy XB XE 6.29) Where Bis the width of strip B-E. ‘The total applied load acting on this strip equals: Pyg = Ppt PtP, +R | | 6.30) 3. To achieve equilibrium, columns’ loads and soil reaction must be modified such that the sum of the forces is equal to zero. This is achieved by obtaining the average load on the strip Pavg Ree +P P, | : (S31) 4, The modified soil pressure equals: ofa (5.32) oot =F (5.32) 5. ‘The modified columns’ loads are obtained by multiplying each of the applied loads by the factor ot given by: (6.33) ‘Thus the modified columns’ loads are ct Ps, 0 Ps, cf Pr, and o: Pp. This modified loading is shown in Fig. 5.18. ar ap, oP. Ps aoe Fig. 5.18 Modified soil pressure for strip B-E 393 6. The shear and bending moment can be computed using regular structural analysis ‘The same process should be carried out for all the strips in the raft foundation, Step 3: Design for flexure FFor each strip the maximum positive and negative moments can be obtained. It should be clear that negative moments need top reinforcement and positive moment needs bottom reinforcement. “The moment per meter is obtained by diving the moment by the strip with: we (5.34) ‘The ultimate moment is obtained by multiplying the working moment by a load factor of 1.5. M,=15M’ soe (5.35) ‘The design of different sections can be carried using design curves such as R-0. Step 4: Design for punching shear ‘The punching load for each column is calculated by multiplying the applied ‘working load with the load factor. P,=15P, (636) ‘The critical perimeter is at d/2 from the face of the column. The critical shear petimeter U is calculated as shown in Fig. 5.19, and the applied punching load Qz is obtained after subtracting the load of the punching area (a x b) by the ultimate pressure at this point q,,. Thus: Quy =F — In (2X0) ~ wwe 5.37) The applied punching shear stress dup equals: 2 Faecal 5.38) Qe * Ged 6.38) 394ee a) Fig. 5.19 Critical punching shear perimeter ‘The concrete strength for punching is the least of the following three values: ai f 2 day =0:316 (0.50+ 1.6N Jmm? Po a snenenrnenn (5.398) 3. dag = 0.8 (0.20 £5) fe n @=2 for comer columns @=3 _ forexterior columns @=4 —— forinterior columns ‘The raft thickness is considered adequate if guy < gow otherwise increase the thickness of the raft 395, ‘Step 5: Reinforcement Arrangement ‘The bending moment distribution is similar to upside down flat slab. i the locations ofthe columns in a raft foundation the bending moment is positive ‘and requires bottom reinforcement shown in Fig. 5.20. (compare 10 negative bending moment and top reinforcement in flat slabs). Moreover, at a location between columns in a raft foundation the bending moment is negrive and requires top reinforcement as (compare to positive bending moment ar-l bottom reinforcement in flat slabs). It is customary to reinforce the raft with a bottom basic reinforcing mesh and a basic top reinforcing mesh. Additional reinforcement is provided at locations ‘where the capacity is exceeded. PB P, heectererteerth Bottom steel Fig. 5.20 Reinforcement arrangement 3965.9.3 Analysis of the Raft Using Computer Programs Raft foundations can be analyzed using commercially available computer programs. Such programs are based on the finite element method, 5.9.3.1 Modeling of the Raft ‘The raft is divided into finite plate bending clements or shell element as shown in Fig. 5.21. The practical dimensions of each element range from 0.5 m to 1m. Itis recommended that the aspect ratio of each element not to exceed 3. node = x Fig. 5.21 Finite element model for the raft foundation 5.9.3.2 Modeling of the soil ‘The soil is represented by elastic springs located at the nodes as shown in Fig. 5.22. The elastic constant of these springs is named the spring stiffness (Ki, K, =.) (N/m). vat | | I as _ soi FET ‘Rai modeled as shell elements Ki Soil modeled a8 spring Fig, 5.22 Modeling of the 397 Calculation of spring stiffness ‘The spring stiffness = Coefficient of sub grade reaction (k,) x area served. ‘The coefficient of subgrade reaction is a relationship between the soil pressure and its settement. If a foundation of width B is subjected to a load per unit area 4, it will undergo a settlement D. Then, the coefficient of subgrade reaction ky ccan be defined as: (6.40) ‘The unit of the coefficient of the subgrade reaction is KN/m®. The value of the coefficient of subgrade reaction differs according to the type of soil. In general, the higher the bearing capacity, the higher the coefficient is. Its value depends ‘on several factors, such as the type of soil, the length L, the width B of the foundation, and the foundation level of raft. Fig. 5.23 Definition of coefficient of subgrade reaction ‘To determine the value of the coefficient of subgrade reaction, a field test may be performed. In such a test, the load is applied to a square plate of dimensions (03 m x 0.3 m) and the corresponding settlement is recorded. ‘The value of coefficient for a large foundation of dimensions (B x B) can be obtained in the light ofthe value obtained for the small plate ka3 as follows: (5.Ala) egg B03) for sandy soil 2B 3980.3) £, = hg for clayey soil -(S.A1b) For rectangular foundation having dimensions of B x L 1+B/L) 5.42 i (5.42) Where Kuna is the coefficient of subgrade reaction for a square foundation with dimensions (BxB) ‘Typical values for the coefficient of subgrade reaction ka for sandy and clayey soils are given in Table (5.3) ‘Table 5.3 Values of the coefficient of subgrade reaction S Type ‘Kas (MINI) Sand (ary or moist) ‘Loose 8.25 Medium 25-125 Dense 125.375 Sand (Saturated) Loose 10-15 Medium 35-40) Dense 130-150 Clay ‘Stiff (q=100-200 EN/m’) 12-15 ‘Very stiff(q=200-400 kN/in”) 25-50 lard (5400 kN/in?) 350 ‘An approximate estimate of the coefficient of subgrade reaétion is obtained as follows: ,(KN 1m?) = (100 + 120)xsoil bearing capacity (KN 1m)... (5.43) Figure 5.24 shows a plan of a raft foundation that is divided into plate bending elements of dimensions (0.50 m x 0.50 m). These elements are intersected at Joints or nodes. The soil at each joint is modeled as a spring with stiffness K. The stiffness of each spring is obtained by multiplying the coefficient of subgrade reaction by the area served of each node as follows: xy Ko =k, x y =0.25k, 399 ‘The loads are applied to the raft at the columns’ locations. The structure is analyzed as plane grid system, in which only z, Ry, Ry are allowed. Area served AB 150m Fig. 5.24 Finite element model for the raft foundation Photo 5.7 A raft on during construction 4005.9.3.3 Analysis of the Computer Output ‘The computer output of the raft foundation consists of bending moments acting, in the two directions M11 and M22, Most of the available commercial programs represent the output in graphical forms. The graphical representation is usually in the form of contour lines, in which each contour line represents & certain bending moment value. It should be mentioned that closely spaced contour lines indicate concentration of stresses. This usually occurs at the locations of the columns. ‘Typical output for Mr, is shown in Fig (5-25). This bending moment requires reinforcement in the direction 1 of the shell. Basic top and bottom reinforcement meshes are usually provided throughout the raft and additional bottom reinforcement is usually provided under the columns. Fig. 5.25 Computer output 401 When designing the bottom reinforcement of the raft one should use the value of the bending moment at the face of the column (Sec. 1-1 and Sec. 2-2) as shown in Fig, 5.26. In other words, the contour line located inside the colurnns should be ignored. 2 2 Fig. 5.26 Contours at column location The reaction at each joint spring can be determined from the computer output. However, it is important to note that the soil capacity should be checked using, the classical stress equation (Eq. 5.21) and not using the spring reactions. This is atuributed to the concentration of forces at the location of the columns. Photo 5.8 Placing the reinforcement of a raft foundation 402Example 5.8: Raft using the Conventional Method Figure EX 5.8.1 shows a raft foundation for an office building. It is required to design the reinforced concrete raft foundations. The cross section of all columns is 400 x 400 mm. The allowable soil pressure is 125 kN/m’, The material properties for concrete and reinforcing steel are 25 N/mm? and 360 Nimm’, respectively. Columns working loads (unfactored) are also shown in figure. Solution Step 1: Check soil pressure Where A. =area of the raft =15.4x12.4 =190.96 m? BE RAKIM 3774 mt 12 12 LB _ 154x124 7D 12 ‘The total vertical unfactored loads = 440 + (1360°x 2) +370 + (11502) + (2880 x2) + 500+ 1360 +1440 + 440 = 15330 KN. The center of gravity of the applied loads can be obtained by taking moment of the loads about point D. 446.8 m* 1 [0.2 (440+ 1360%2+370)+6.2 (1150x2-+2280x2) 15330 +122 (500+1360+1440+440)] x 3.282 m ¥-226292-B4 2 2 Similarly, in the y-direction, one can get: 1.082 m es 2 403 Fig. EX. 5.8 Layout of the raft 4041 1 [0.2 440) 44K Ta330 (02 G70-+1150 +440)+5.2 (1360-+2880-+1440) 4+10.2x (1360 2+ 2880) +15.2(440 +1150-+500)] y 751m =7.751- 84 = 0,051 m 2 ‘The resultant applied moments are given by: 1M, =Pagy 6, =15330%0.051= 781.83 kV m M, =P, 9 = Psa & 19330%0.082= 1257.06 kN m ‘The soil bearing pressure can be obtained by applying the following equation: Py May Mo 15980 , 78183) 1257.06 4-1, T, "19096" 3774” *” 2446 ‘The results are summarized in the following table Step 2: Calculation of the shear forces and bending moments Step 2.1: Strip ADH (width= 3,2 m) ‘The average soil pressure for the strip can be obtained by taking the average values of the pressures at points A and D. 78.69 +7550 _ 77.09 kN fm? ows 1.09 x3.2x15.4 = 3799 KN ‘The total soil reaction Raoic on By ‘On the other hand the total vertical on this strip equals: Pyoyg = 440+ 1360 + 1360 +370 =3530 kN Now, we shall use the average value 0 of the total reaction and Papnc Rana * Prone Average load =P, = . ‘The modified soil pressure (per the strip ‘The column loads are modified in the same manner by multiplying the toad of ‘The maximum soil pressure (85.06 KN/m” ) is less than the allowable soil pressure (safe). Point os a xe) co) evar) each column by the ratio Parg/Paoach x “2 77 TED B 0 TT B87 Prous 3530 c oy @ oy Them [Pasa END FaodEN), D 1 7 7550 1 440 456.77 2 1360. 1411.82 BE 0 a 78.68 3 1360 1411.82 F 62 V7 81.87 a aw oan M 62 25 Tet ‘The shear force and the bending moment diagrams are shown inthe figure 3 = s aa zgiven below. Three points of zero shears exist. They are calculated as follows: W 62 25 Boe 192m SS6TT AILS? 7.85 my 237.95 _ 456.77 + 1411.82-+ 1411.82 - BI95 4: 405 406‘The maximum negative moment equals: =237. osx oa 456.77(1.92 — 0.20) =~347.1 kN am ieee eee ee Lt Lt Tt L TF 237.95 evn oad pF aed Fo t eo an a ‘Shear 476 (KN) a A 933.2 Top steel Bottom steel Top steel Shear and moment for strip ADHG 407 Step 2.2: Strip GHIT (width =6.0 m) ‘The average soil pressure for the strip can be obtained by taking the average value of pressures at points B and E. 81.87 + 78.68 «50 98 gN J? The total soil reaction Rowu=4,, B, L =80.28X6.0%15.4 = 7417.74 kN (On the other hand the total vertical on this strip equals: Pay, = 1150-+ 2880-+ 2880 +1150 = 8060 kN Now, we shall use the average value of the total reaction and Papuc Rew + Pow _ 7417.74 +8060 a) 2 Pag _ 713887 LSA Average load = P,,, 1738.87 kN ‘The modified soil pressure (per the strip) = 502.52 kN Im’ ‘The column loads are modified in the same manner by multiplying each column load by the ratio (Par/Powut) Pag 1738.87 9602 Prows 8060 Tem Pactuat (RN) Prod KN) 1 “1150 1104.18 2 2880 2765.25 3 2880 2765.25, 4 1150 ) 110418 ‘The shear force and bending moment diagrams are shown in figure. Three points of zero shears exist. They are calculated as follows: 1104.18 502.52 1104.18 + 2765.25 302.52 20m, x, 1.10 m 1104.18 + 2765.25 +2765.25 502.52 13.20 m 408VAN Moment 11 \°/ WV ee om 1104.2 27653 2765.3 1104.2 tt t T rt TJ 502.52 vim’ h.20 0.20 bs zo we 1509 1256.2 foe 100.6 Shear 100.6 (ND 1003.6 1256.2 1509 9923 992.3 Step 2.3: Strip ACKL (width = 2.70 m) ‘The average soil pressure for the strip can be obtained by taking the average ‘value ofthe pressures at points A and C. ug = TBSP 858 oh. 67 EN Im? 1.87 2.70124 = 2741 kV The total soil reaction R sce =q5 Ly B On the other hand, the total vertical on this strip equals: Poy = 440+ 1150+ 500 = 2090 kN Now, we shall use the average value of the total reaction and Pano Recrs + Pacuy _ 27414-2090 2 2 Pog _ 2415S Bo 124 ‘The column loads are modified in the same manner by multiplying each column load by the ratio (Payy/Paz) 415.5 kN Average load= P,, 194.8 EN /m’ ‘The modified soil pressure (per the strip) = Tem Pacuat (KN) PraoskKN) 1 440 508.54 [2 1150 1329.14 3 500, 577.89 ‘The shear force and bending moment diagrams are shown in figure. Two points of zero shears exist. They are calculated as follows: 508.54+1329.14 _ 9 45, 409 1732 273.2 1 xy re) Bottom steel | Top. ipa! ‘Shear and moment for strip GHJL 410sows 1091 ss CI t f T TT ee vt on —| | —z - [020 i eu LN [2 ~ women ee 6 8 ve eeu esas ila eee ‘Shear and moment for strip ACKL. Step 2.4: Strip KLPR (width =5.0 m) ‘The average soil pressure for the strip can be obtained by taking the average value of the pressures at points M and N. 61483, 2 The total soil reaction R xze= Joy Ly B =81.87%5.0%12.4 = 5009.4 KN Gone = 80.80 KV /m? (On the other hand, the total vertical on this strip equals: Poy, = 1360+ 2880 +1360 = 5600 kN ‘Now, we shall use the average value of the total reaction and Papa nou. + Pans, _ 5009.4+ 5600 2 Average load. = 5304.7 AN ‘The modified soil pressure (per the strip) 27.80 EN Fim’ B ‘The column loads are modified in the same manner by multiplying each column Toad by the ratio (Pay/Pon) PraalN) 1288.28 2728.13 1288.28 ‘The shear and moment are shown in figure. Two points of zero shears exist. ‘They are calculated as follows: 1288.28 1288.28 + 2728.13 x =30lm yx, 9.39 m 1 aa78 4 a8 4 41212883 omar 12883 CECE OCCT ] 427.8 Nn! el] | Co 60 60 | --020 13641 1292.7 85.6 wy w) Shear 9 | oO 36 (KN) aa 1364.1 Moment (Nm) Shear and moment for strip KLMN Step 3: Design for flexure Step 3.1: Reinforcement for strip ADHG ‘The maximum positive moment is equal to 933.2 KN.m. This positive bending ‘moment needs bottom reinforcement. To obtain the reinforcement pet meter divide the above value by the width of strip(B=3.2m) > 291.63 KN am Im" To design this critical section, calculate the ultimate moment by multipl by the load factor 1.5 M, =1.5 M'=1.5%291.63 = 437.45 kN ‘Assuming that the distance from the ¢.g. of the reinforcing steel to the concrete surface is 70 mm and the total thickness is 750 mm. The effective depth equals: 4d =1 70mm =750~70=680 mm M, 437.45%10° op gs7g Fa xb xd* ~ 250%1000% 680" From the chart with R~0.0378, the reinforcement index 0.046 A, = 0x £2 xb xd = 0.04625 1000x680 =2172 mm? fy 360 285 g = 28 000% 680 =1133 mm? Axgin = smaller of } f, 360 1.34, =1.3%2172 = 2823 mm? Use 720/m! (2199 mm!) (Bottom) Similarly, the maximum negative moment is equal to 778.7 KN. ra T1810 3.20 143.34 RN fm! To design this critical section, calculate the ultimate moment by multiplying M’ by the load factor 1.5 5x 243.34 = 365.02 kN m 413, 44365.02%10° ‘Fo xbxd? — 250%1000% 687° 315 From the chart with R=0.0315, the reinforcement index «70.038 Low 25 2 = x22. xb xd =0.038x7> x1000% 680 =1794 mm 4, = OWE xb xd = 0038455, 98 d = 26.1000 680=1133 mm? Avan smaller of \f, 360 1.34, 3%1794 = 2332 mm? ‘Use 7018/m' (1781 mm’) with additional (3.5 & 16/m’) (Top) ‘Thus in this direction use a bottom mesh 720/m' and a top mesh 718 /m’ Photo 5.9 Reinforced Concrete building 41s Step 3.2: Reinforcement for strips GHJI, ACKL and KLPR To avoid lengthy calculations, the following table illustrates the required steps to obtain the reinforcement. ‘Strip Stip GAN] Strip ACK ‘Strip KLPR Reinforcement | Bottom | Top] Botom | Top | Bottom | Top M(Nm) | 1273.2 [9923 | 6929 [5621 | 492.6 | 16821 @ 60 | 60 | 27 3 M (Naim) | 2122 | 1654 | 2566 ons | 3364 | M.(Nawim) | 3183 | 2481 | 3849 | 3123 | 1478 | S046 b(n) 1000 | 1000 [1000 | 1000 |" 1000 | 1000 aqum) | 680 | 680 | 680 | 680 | 680 | 680 ~ [0.0275 [0.0215 1 0.0333 | 0.0270 | 0.0128 | 0.0437 ar a ON TC As(mm/m) [1558 [1181 a Pa | aR Pa | | Renin naiTn) | 2026 [1535 | 2078 [1964 | 1020 [207% | | | Av (mm) [2026 [1535 | 2078 | 1964 | 1020 | 2503 RR [720m | THIS’ | 720m | TOI | 720im | THIS ‘Additional - ~ = [aseiem | - 3.5018 ** A bottom mesh of 7 20/m’ (2199 mm?) and a top mesh of 7 @ 18 /mn’ (718 mm’) are provided (Refer to Fig. EX. 5.8.2). Additional reinforcement may be placed at the location of the larger capacity 416Step 4: Design for punching shear The maximum vertical load occurs at the column that carries 2880 kN. Thus, the ultimate load is obtained by multiplying this load by the load factor of 1.5. Py =1.5 Py = 1.5% 2880 = 4320 KN ‘The critical perimeter is at d/2 from the face of the column. For the interior column, the critical perimeter equals: d =680 mm a=c, +d =400+680=1080 mm b =c, +d = 400+680=1080mm U =2 (a+b) =2 (1080+1080) = 4320mm e400 1080 The pressure at point O (refer to the table) is equal to 80.8 KN/m? ‘Thus the ultimate soil pressure q,, =1.5*80.8= 121.19 kN /m* ‘The punching load equals: Quy =P, — uy (ab) = 4320-121.19 (1,08x1.08)= 4178.6 KN Qy__ 4178.6x1000 ag =e = 18621000 = 42 N mm? WU xd 4320x680 ‘The concrete strength for punching the least of the three values: 1 dag #0316 fix 0.316 | a.99 0 Im qeap> Gop ok .S2N Imm? <1.6.N fmm? 0k 3. day = 0.8 (0.20+ Step 4.2: Flexural Design Step 4.2.1: Critical sections The computer output of the raft foundation consists of bending moments acting in the two directions Mur (x-direction in this case) and Moo (y-direction in this case). The graphical representation is in the form of contour lines, in which each contour line represents a certain bending moment value as shown in Fig. EX. 9.5d . It should be mentioned that closely spaced contour lines indicate concentration of stresses. This usually occurs at the locations of the columns. ‘When designing the bottom reinforcement of the raft one should use the value of the bending moment at the face of the column. 431 432Fig. EX 9.5d Computer output Step 4.2.2: Design of sections ‘The design for flexure for a critical section of 1.0 m width is carried out as follows Using the design aids (C1-J) curve My, d=C,;— So B 1030=¢, | —™ 351000 Get C; from (C1-J) curve and the corresponding value of J M, M, A =299~5eny clos 2 Aim Ff, 4a 360xIx1030 Ayna = 2S bd =223<1000%1030 = 1716 mm? (546 22/m’) Bp 360 Itis decided to use a mesh 5 ® 22 /m’ top and bottom, and use addtioal reinforcement where needed. It should be mentioned that the above procedure should be repeated for the case in which the earthquake load acting in the X-direction but in the reversed direction. In such a case, the moments acting on the shear walls will be reversed and the procedure described for transforming the moments and the normal forces acting on the shear walls into nodal forces will be followed ‘Moreover, the raft should be analyzed for the case in which the earthquake load is actin in the Y-direction (straining actions are not given for that case). ‘The final reinfocement of the raft should cover all the cases. 433, 434,Cquos)y on Jo yuoto90;HI PES Bla (y-V)9S 00% ~ oe * OF Oe Oe woe weer) | weer wor) | =) | omen |__| wees wi zr WeesT, , Pag 5 Te WE ez 5 $ 2 ©% é | 38 aie é * on.5.10 Design of Pile Caps 5.10.1 Introduction Piles are structural members used to transmit surface loads to lower levels in the soil mass. This transfer could be made by a vertical distribution of the load along the pile shaft or by a direct application of load to a lower stratum through the pile base. A direct load application is made by an end-bearing pile as shown in Fig. 5.27a and a vertical distribution of the load is made using a friction pile as shown in Fig, 5.27b. In general, most piles carry loads as a combination of side resistance and point bearing except when the pile penetrates an extremely soft soil to a solid base. |* Pile Cap 8 Pile soft sol ! T | | | | | UI LU | 1 sie a) End-bearing Pile Ik recep qr Wp air ai aj rst so of qe ap {lp it ai aie ar aye aie life b) Friction Pile Fig. 5.27 Friction and end bearing piles 437 Photo 5.10 Reinforcement of a pile Piles are commonly used for the following purposes: ‘© To camry the superstructure loads into or through a soil stratum, ‘+ To resist uplift such as for basement rafts below the water-table. + Toresist overturning such as for tower legs subjected lateral loads. © To control settlements in case the structure is underlain by a highly compressible stratum. Photo 5.11 Construction of pile caps 4385.10.2 Configurations of Pile Gaps Unless a single pile is used, a cap is necessary to spread the vertical and horizontal loads and any overturning moments to all the piles in the group. Pile caps take different shapes according to the number of piles used as shown in Fig. 5.28. The pile cap has a reaction that isa series of concentrated loads at the locations of the piles ‘The acting loads on the pile cap includes the column loads and moments, any soil overlying the cap (if itis below the ground surface), and the weight of the cap. b)3 Piles ©) 6 Piles Fig. 5.28 Pile cap shapes according to the number of piles 439 5.10.3 Design of Pile Caps Pile caps may be designed using one of the following methods: 1. Conventional design method. 2. Finite element method. 3. Strut and Tie method 5.10.3.1 Design using the conventional Method Step 1: Determine the load of each pile For a concentrically loaded pile cap, the load per pile is given by: Pag = OSEN in which P Pile working load 1.05 = factor taking into account the pile cap self weight (5% ofthe load) ” Number of ples N Working load of the column Petoraste Allowable pile load For eccentrically loaded pile caps, the load per pile is given by: NM, Poggio + ey SPs (5.44) aye yy where McMy = moments about x and y axes, respectively xy stances fom y and x axes to any pile Xx", Zy" summation ofthe square distance from pile group center. ‘Step 2: One-way shear strength of pile~caps ‘The critical section is located at d/2 from the face of the column; where d is the depth of the pile cap. With reference to Fig 5.29, the computation of the one-way shear on any section through a footing supported on piles shall be in accordance with the following: ‘+ The entire reaction from any pile whose center is located /2 or more ouside the critical section shall be considered (case (2). 440‘+ The reaction of the pile is neglected if the pile center is located at @/2 or more inside the critical section, case (b) ‘+ For intermediate positions of pile center, the portion of the pile reaction to bbe considered as producing shear on the section shall be based on straight- line interpolation between full value at 2 outside the section and zero value at /2 inside the section, case (c). ‘draw the eritical section at 2 fiom the column. 2draw the boundaries @ 2 fom each side ofthe critical seo. 3.draw the exact location of the pile and calla (a) A-caleutate the Pras at the pile location teal sein alum 0 cae [cue | see p28 pile diam [Se wo 21 rennet pint ! al 2) sotum {7} shun a { H [ [ rT] g g sl 2 g 3! g 8 8h q q ali z q 3 2 z || & & Sl ie Case (a) 100% Case (6) 0% Case (@ interpolate 0-+100 Fig. 5.29 Effective pile load for one-way shear 441 ‘Step 3: Two-way (Punching) shear strength of pile caps ‘The calculation of the punching load for a pile cap is minimally addressed in the literature. The ECP 203 does not give explicit procedure for calculating the punching load for pile caps. In this text, an approximate procedure is proposed It should be emphasized, however, that such an approximate procedure does not | reflect the actual complicated behavior. | Consider the pile cap shown in Fig, 5.30. The critical section for punching is ' located at d/2 from the face of the column. It will be assumed that parts of the Piles located inside the punching perimeter shall participate in reducing the punching load. Referring to Fig. 5.30, the punching load can be calculated as follows: hatched area of the: ‘rossarea ofthe pile a (5.45) critical punching surface Fig. 5.30 Critical section for punching 0, =(Column ultimatetoad +0.w.of pilecap within the punching perimeter) ~ 2xAxpileload Uxd ‘The punching stress 4,, (5.46) 442‘The concrete punching strength is given as the least of the following values: L 0.316 [i <1.66 Imm ad ve 2 ug 20316 05048) fim ovr ad 3. day = 08 (0.20 Gow (020+ (S.47a) sons (5.470) pe... swons(S-ATC) where gap is the punching shear strength provided by concrete; (a/ b) is the ratio of long side to short side of column, a= 4, 3, and 2 for interior, edge, and comer columns, respectively, d is the effective shear depth of the pile cap (average flexural depth in the two directions), is the perimeter of the critical section, and fa, is the concrete compressive strength. Check of punching should bbe performed around the individual pil. ‘Step 4: Design for Flexure ‘The ECP 203 requires the critical section for flexure to be taken at the face of the column as shown in Fig. 5.31. Pile caps must be reinforced in two perpendicular directions. In most cases, an isolated centrally-loaded pile cap supporting a single column needs only bottom reinforcement. However, ceccentrically loaded pile caps and pile caps supporting more than one column ‘might need top reinforcement as well. ‘The minimum cover for the reinforcement is 70 mm (concrete cast against soil) Fig. 5.31 Critical section for flexure 443 5.10.3.2 inite Element Analysis of je Caps The number of piles can be determined using the procedure mentioned in step 1 of the conventional method. Pile cap bending moments can be obtained using the FEM. Such a procedure can be carried out using commercially available computer programs. It should be mentioned, however, that one-way shear and punching shear can not be obtained from such an analysis. One-way shear punching shear calculations should be made according (o the procedures ‘mentioned in the conventional method. The pile cap is modeled using shell elements while the piles are modeled using spring elements as shown in Fig. 5.32. Due to the fact that pile caps are usually thick, the use of shell elements that do not consider the effect of shear deformation is not advisable, Past experience, however, proved that the use of ordinary (thin) shell elements is adequate for design purposes. Deign moments should be calculated at the face of the column. Ic is a common practice to calculate the spring constant of piles based on the permissible settlement of the pile during the pile load test. In other words, the pile spring constant Ka, is calculated as follows: working load Permissible settlement (6.48) Kew Cap modeled ‘as shell elements Nodes Fig. 5.32 Modeling of the pile cap 4445.10.3.3 Design using The Strut and Tie Method ‘The Egyptian Code ECP 203 allows the use of the Strut-and-Tie method for designing pile caps. The structural action of a four-pile group is shown in Fig. 5.33. The pile cap is a special case of a deep beam and can be idealized as a space truss with four compression struts transferring load from the column to the piles, and four tension ties cquilibrating the outward components of the compression struts. The tension ties have constant force in them and must be anchored for the full horizontal tie force outside the intersection of the pile and the compression strut, Hence, bars must either extend a distance equal to the anchorage length past the centerlines of the piles, or they must be hooked outside this point. For the pile cap shown in Fig. 5.33, the total tie force in one direction can be calculated from the force triangular shown, ‘Coluran tod \—+— —— ; a AA _\—s GQ © Pitereacia | | | (9 epee coniees Ps (©) Force in tie A-B Fig. 5.33 Strut and Tie method for a pile cap 445 Example 5.10 Design and give complete reinforcement detailing for a pile cap that constitutes a part of a deep foundations system of a high-rise building. The design data are as follows: Column dimensions Unfactored column load Factored column load Pile diameter Pile working load Sew Lh Solution ‘Step 1: Dimensions of the'pile cap In order to determine the dimensions of the pile cap, one has to determine the ‘number of piles. Unfactoredloadof coluinn x1.05 _ 5000 1.05 Pile workingload 1400 Number of plies = Choose 4 piles. It should be noted that the multiplier 1.05 takes into consideration the own-weight of the pile cap. ‘The spacing between the piles is usually taken (2.5 @—3 4). In this example, the spacing between piles is taken = 2.2m. The distance from the centerline of the pile to the edge is taken (0.8 9-1 4), ‘The dimensions of the pile cap are shown in the following figure. The thickness of the pile cap shall be assured equal to 1.0 m, Unfactored own-weight of the pile cap = 3.8 x 3.8 x 1.0.x 25=361 KN uunfactored column load +own weightof pilecap Exact pile load = erecta 5000+36' 4 = 1340.25kN <1400KN ...ok 446Say x i 2 10m Step 2: Design for shear ‘Step 2.1: One-way shear factored load of column + factored O.W.of pile cap Ultimate load of pile a 7500+1.4x36 4 Ultimate load of pile 1001.35 kN.m 4 =1000-70=930mm ‘The eritical section for one-way shear is at d/2 from the face of the column as shown in the following figure. sso] 093 Sec{I-1) According to the ECP-203, the pile load that should be considered when checking the shear strength of pile caps can be reduced depending on the location of the center of the pile with respect to the critical section, Praiacei = reduced pile load for checking shear strength Prataset= reduction factor x ultimate load of pile = Bx2001 35=1463.487 kN 447 448Qu area) ‘ T= 0.825 262x108 * f, Jd 360%0.825x930 3902 =8902 mm? 342 mm? /mé 38 Check the minimum steel requirement 0.60 06 2 200 cb xd =22 1000 x 930 =1550 mm? Take o/d=0.125-> J= 0.825 M, ___1910.5x108 10 =4701 mm? Ff, Jd 400x0.825%1230 4, 4701 A, fm=222 1658 mm* im" 283 Check the minimum steel requirement 0.60 te ‘Since AS < Amin USC Aan Choose 620/m’ (1884 mm’) pod 460 cbxd =? 1000%1230=1845 mm? +400#12. 250 mm Plain concret ] 69 201m Reinforcement details for the 6 920m Example 5.12 Design and give complete reinforcement detailing for a pile cap that constitute a part of a deep foundations system of an office building. Design data: Column dimensions = 600 mm x 1200 mm Unfactored column load = 7000 kN Factored column load = 10500 kN Pile diameter 800 mm Pile working load 1350 KN few 35. Nimm f = 360 Nimm? Solution Step 1: Dimensions of the pile cap In order to determine the dimensions of the pile cap, one has to determine the number of piles. Unfactoredloadof column x1.05 _ 7000.x1.05 Pile working load 1350 Number of plies 544 Choose 6 piles. The multiplier 1.05 takes into consideration the won weight of the pile cap. ‘The spacing between the piles is usually taken (2.5 9-3 4). In this example, the spacing between piles is taken = 2.0m. The distance from the centerline of the pile to the edge is taken 0.80 m. The plan dimensions of the pile cap are shown in the following figure. The thickness of the pile cap shall be assumed equal to 14m. Unfactored own weight ofthe pile cap = 25%5.6 x 3.6 x14. = 705.6KN unfactored column load + own weightof pilecap ‘numberof piles Exact pile load = 461 462Oi ia, ia ia gm | 200 20m |. 0m 1. Lil Pile cap arrangement Step 2: Design for shear ‘Step 2.1: One-way shear factored loadof column + factored O.W.of pilecap Ultimate toad of pile = 6 10500+1.4%705.6 _ ‘Ultimate load of pile = '=1914.6 KN d =1400-70 = 1330mm ‘The critical section for one-way shear is at 2 from the face of the column as shown in the following figure. cri ‘The distance between the C.G. of piles and the critical section for one-way shear is more than /2 (0.665). Hence, no reduction in pile loads. ‘al section 1-1 Q, =2x19146 ~ 1.4%25x3.6x(1.535) «1.4 =3559 KN CCitgal section 1-1 360m b+ 066s 1538 4, = t= 3582 x1 89.74 Imm? 5 xd 3600x1330 da =0.16 [2 16 77 Imm? % is cap is considered adequate for one-way Since qu Take e/d=0.125-> I= 0.825 M, 4934x108 Jd 360%0.825%1330 12476 mm? A, n= 22283465 Check the minimum steel requirement Aon =O xd = 22 4000%1330=2217 mm? cnet 360 Choose 6©28/ m’ (3695 mm") ee 360m 461 468Section 2 M, = 3-factored oad of pile- x, - moment developed due to the O.W. of the hatched pile cap (=1.4x 7, xB xt xx,7/2) 06 0.70m xy =1.8-25 1.5 m 2 M, =3%1914.60.10-1.4%25x5.6xc1 4xt5x4329877 Nam tn202¢, PEO 46> Take ofd=0.125-> J=0.825 3877 x10° SStT IO -9 802 mm? «0.825% 1330 9802 5.6 Use Ay=Aym2217 mara A, [m= 21750 mm? Im ‘The Egyptian code requires measuring the development length from the point ‘where the centroid of the tie reinforcement leaves the nodal zone and enters the span. However, for simplicity, it can be measured from the end of the column. ‘The distance from the column to the end of the beam is about 400 mm as shown in figure below and the bent partis about 850 mm. a eS ee 5025 Step 5: Check the diagonal struts ‘The force in the diagonal strut AB equals: P,__ 1500x1000 107.6 kN sind sin45.37 Fas Referring to the figure below, the width at the top of the strut is given by: sin +w, cosO Ww, = 450sin 45.37 +250 cos 45.37 = 495.89 mm 10 & = 50x25 =1250 mm 498 499/onA5.3 x ‘The width atthe bottom of the strut is given by: sind +w, cos0 '50sin 45.37 +300 cos 45.37 = 531.01 mm ‘We is taken as the smaller of wy and wp ‘The Strut AB is expected to be a bottle-shaped strut. By assuming that sufficient crack control reinforcement is used to resist the bursting force in the strut (B,=0.7), the capacity of strut AB is limited to: Fuge 20678, xE2 bw, gy = 067x022. 500%495.89 = 2180.96 EN Because this is higher than the required force, strut AB (or CD) is considered adequate, 1500 1500 ‘Step 6: Provide minimum web reinforcement ‘The minimum vertical web reinforcement required by the code is given by: A,, = 0.00256 s ‘The minimum horizontal shear reinforcement required by the code is given by: Ag =0.0015 5 s ‘Choose 8 =200 mm A, = 0.0025 500 (300) =250 mm For one leg, A,, 125mm +A, for B14 = 154 mm? Choose ¢ 14 @ 200 mm Ay = 0.0015 6 (300) = mm? For one leg, Ay =150mm?—>A, for ®10=78.5 mm? Choose ¢ 10 @ 200 mm_ ‘The arrangement of the reinforcement is shown in the following figure. 500 sonzd ris Example 6.2 tam 4 Give a complete design forthe bracket shown in figure using the Strut-and-Tie FE ed ‘method presented in the ECP 203 according tothe following data S e E a =30N /mm? and f, = 2 é a) e = Fa =30N /mm? and f, = 400 J mm: EE eo 8 s| 3} = | | Factored venical load Qy =240 kiN a | 2 Factored horizontal load N,=56. KN a E — gl §| Py=1450 KN FA 3 x x] Bag , 20-240 KN a | z = Nu=56 KN 5 8 |- alg Sis ays} E g 33) = 2 x 400 500mm — 400 450 mm 503 502Step 1: Determine the bearing plate dimensions ‘The nodal zone underneath the bearing plate is a compression-tension (C-C-T) node (B,=0.80). The effective compressive strength of this node is limited to (0.05 /mm* Sug =0067% 8, xE2 ostxo.8x 2 Q, _ 240x1000 Fa 1005 A 23880 mm* ‘Choose a (300 mm x 150 mm) bearing plate (4=45000 mm’), re Bearing plate so] (G00 mm x 150 ram) s—| FY bs —sssa_} Losi bot 400 500 400 Step 2: Establish the Strut-and-Tie model ‘The figure below shows the geometry of the Strut-and-Tie model. The location of the tie AA’ is assumed to be 50 mm from the top of the corbel. d = 650-50 = 600mm ‘As shown in the figure, the column axial load, P, is resolved into two equal Toads acting in line with strut CB. The location of the centerline of steut CB can be found by calculating its width, w,, This width can be obtained from: 504 ‘The nodal zone B is an all compression (C-C-C) node and strut CB is of prismatic type, the effective compressive strength fezis given by: fg =0.67Xf, he = 0.67%1.0x22. = 12.56N mm? 9651000 = 12.56 x450xw, 50 42600‘The corbel is subjected to a vertical force of a value 240 kN and a horizontal force of a value 56 KN. The resultant of these forces shall be used in establishing the Strut-and-Tie model. The direction of the resultant can be ‘obtained from the triangle of forces. . ()-2 240. & 4 240 56 ‘The distance x, form the concentrated load to the node A equals: x, =50tan 13.13 =11.66mm This fixes the geometry of the Strut-and-Tie model. Step 3: Determine the required truss forces . 600 San eee 300+ 11.67 +170.772. Jos" ‘ae (compression) sin@ sin63.66 Fg c080+N, = 267.8 0563.66 +56 = 174.82 kN (tension) F,y Sin 0 = 267.8c0s 63.66 = -118.8 KN .. (compression) ‘The following table summarizes the forces in all members. Note that positive sign indicates tension and negative sign indicates compression. Step 4: Select the tie reinforcement Fan =A, 1% Egy =1748 EN 174,8x1000 =A, x400/1.15 A, = 502 mm? Semis 00542 ba = 0.03 22 450% 600 = 607.5mm? Z 400 Choose 6 ® 12 mm 3 A, = 678mm* Step 5: Design the nodal zones and check the anchorages ‘The width w, of the nodal zone B was determined to be 170.7 mm (refer to Step 2). Therefore, only nodal zone A is checked in this section. ‘To satisfy the stress limit of nodal zone A, the tie reinforcement must engage an effective depth of concrete w, that can be obtained from: Fay =0.67Xf, x bw, of, =0.80 1748x1000 =0.67%08%22 450 9, ~9 — w, = 38.65 mm |As shown in figure, this Timit is easly satisfied because the nodal zone available is 250=100 mm, Step 6: Check the struts Step 6.1: Strut AB ‘Strut AB shall be checked based on the sizes determined by nodal zones A. and B. Other struts shall be checked by computing the strut widths and verifying ‘whether they will fit within the space available ! Member AK AB BB cB BD | _ | 2, =067%8, x4 bw, Force (KN) | 1748 | -2678 | -1188 | -9650 |” -725.0 | he ___] ‘wy is taken as the smaller width at the two ends of the strut as shown in figure, ‘The width at the bottom of the strut can be accurately computed using AutoCAD program as shown in figure below or approximately as follows: 506 507w, ow, sind > w, =170sin6333. > w,, =152.98mm Strut AB is expected to be a bottle-shaped strut. By assuming that sufficient ‘crack control reinforcement is used to resist bursting force in the strut (B,=0.7), the capacity of strut AB is limited to 670.722. 450%152.98 = 605.8 KV Since the node strength Fy is higher than the required force Fan (= to the table in step 3), strut AB is considered adequate, 167.8, refer D’ i I ' 1 It 100 mm { = t 7 2 el z! Bi // a/|/ ’ ‘| h \ (strut Bp! | 1a ma) ig (6 1E) 3 |B) 1703--| {7 |?! c Dimensions of the Strut-and-Tie model components .=1.0 inside the column zone) = 725.0%1000=0.67%1.0% 22 450% 49 Fuso Wap =128.24mm Since the required width for strut CB is less than the available for the node (170.3 mm), the design is considered adequate. Step 6.3: Strut BB’ FE, arg xt bw, gy) 2 >BALO E, 4 800671982 Ar W gy = 21 mm Choose 50 mm width for strut BB’ Step 7: Calculate the minimum reinforcement Step 7.1: Vertical reinforcement Assume that the spacing of the vertical stirrups is 200 mm. o4y, fy Choose vertical stirrups with diameter =8 mm (two branches) spaced at 200 mm_ ‘The available area = 50 x 2 = 100 mm? (O.K.) Ag = Hob o4 2 xs = 24 200x200 =100mm 7) 508 509Step 7.2: Horizontal reinforcement A, =(, -A,) 56x10" A, = Ne = 5610 Flr, Moras A, =0.50(A, ~A,) =0.50(502-161) =170.5 mm? Choose 4 closed stirrups with diameter = 10 mm (two branches) @ 200mm An= 78.5x2x4 = 628 mm? > 170.5 mm? (O.K.) d__ 600 Avg spacing = 200mm —>0.k Reinforcement details of the corbel Example 6.3 Design and give complete reinforcement detailing for a pile cap that constitutes. a part of a deep foundations system using the Strut-and-Tie method. Design data Column dimensions ‘Unfactored dead column load ‘Unfactored dead column load Pile diameter Pile working load few L Solution ‘Step 1: Arrangement of piles ‘The total loads acing on the pile cap are given by: P = Py, +P,, =2200+1100=3300KN ‘The required number of piles is given by: ‘Choose 5 piles. The arrangement is shown in the following figure Assume that the thickness of the pile cap is 1200 mm. ‘The ultimate applied load is given by: P, =14 Py, +16 Py, = 1.4%2200+ 1.61100 = 4840 kN Le 28 6a 510 sul3750 eect q eel Aree 62s! 1250 | 1250 | 625 3750 Pile cap arrangement j a ‘Step 2: Establish the Strut-and-Tie model ‘The column load is divided into 5 equal loads of 968 KN each. Bach of these loads is connected to the center of one pile through an inclined strat as shown in the figure. 968, 968 968 ‘The location of each load at the column cross-section should be determined in order to establish the Strut-and-Tie model. Such locations are determined based on satisfying the stress limits of the struts. ‘The figure given below shows the cross-section of the column divided into 5 areas, each of them is connected to one strut. The area A; of the vertical strut, (Bottle ~shaped strut) atthe top node can be found from: x 968 x 10° 067B,F.[7, 0.67X0.7x30/1.6 5 = 110078 mm? =(332. mm x 332 mm) Accordingly, the area Az of the intersection of the inclined strut with the top node (with the cross-section of the column) is found from: (700? - 332") 4 A; 113069 mm” 512 513750 a2 a2 ‘The center of gravity (C.G,) of the area Az can be easily obtained as shown in figure (calculations not shown). ¢ =160.88 mm It is assumed that the center-line of the inclined strut connects the C.G. of the 700 — 2160.88 = 428.24 mm area A2 and the C.G. of the pile. 150 750 750. 60.88 [ 332 Step 3: Calculate the forces Assume a clear concrete cover of 70 mm, and that the distance from the center line of the bottom tie to the bottom concrete fibers is 150 mm, [Assume thatthe thickness of the top horizontal struts is 300 mm. Hence, the distance between the bottom tie and top horizontal strut equals: ec =1200~150~300/2 = 900 mm ab = ad =1250~428.24/2 = 1035.88 mm ac = ¥/1035.88 +1035.88 = 1465mm o-(Z)-w (Re) ‘The force in the strut F; pee 1849 kV sin31.56 ‘The force in the tie is obtained as follows: E,, = F,cos@ = 1849xc0s31.56 =1575.6 kN Ey = Fy. 00845 = 1575.6 005 45 = L146 Similarly, F=1114 KN (Compression) Step 4: Select the tie reinforcement ‘The tie reinforcement can be obtained from the following equation: ALxf, 1% 1114x1000 = Fi 360/115 A, = 3559 mm? Choose 8 25 mm in 2 layers —> A, Provide Ayaie at locations other than the ties. (d =1200-100 = 1100 mm ) 26 5¢1000%1100 =1833 mm? /m” —» Use 8 ® 18/m" 360 514 sisStep 5: Check the struts Step 5.1: Strut Fi At bottom node = 2e+d Since it has been assumed earlier that the distance from C.G. of the tie to bottom outermost concrete fibers is 150 mm — w, = 300 mm, csin@+w, cos® 500sin31.56 +300 cos31.56= 517.3 mm ‘The capacity of the inclined strut is given by: F, =067%f, dew xb (bis the pile diameter) B, =0.60 for bottle-shaped strut inclined with the cracks without special reinforcement f, = 0670.60 22 x500%517.3 =1949.6 EN ‘Because this is higher than the required force (1849 KN), strut FI is considered adequate. Attop node Required area of the strut at the top node 5 = 0.67%, x2 Mey % 184921000 = 0.67 0.60% 72. Aor cor = 245337.9 mm? Assume that the diagonal struts are square in shape. The side dimensions of the struts (h;) can be obtained as follows: 2453379 = 495.32mm Step 5.2: Strut F2 ‘The top node is the node where the inclined struts, the horizontal top struts and the top load meet, At this node, the horizontal area Az and the inclined area of the inclined strut form parts of the nodes. hy, To calculate the thickness fi, an average width (J) for the area Az is used. ‘Thus, 13069 An = 228.2 mm 1849 495.32 7 hy =h, sin +h, cos 8 7 495.3 =228.2 sin 31.56+h, cos 31.56 o 4 ue) VAZ 1, = 441mm v0 mn | 4 31.56, Fu=l14 kN F. cos 8 _ 1849%1000%608 31.56 _ 4 9. jum? i iy xh, 441x495.32 30 le Son = 0.67 fi, xL2 = 0.61%1.0x2 =12.56 N /mm pi % ; (Bu =1.0 for (C-C-C) node) Since fis less than Jn, the design is consider adequate, 516 si712.@ 250mm 8 — c = Plain concr | | 8 25 | : | | | \ 8p 25 sh isim 88 25 | [—— 86 18/m 825 af 18/m joe ‘Step 6: Reinforcement arrangement Section 6-7-1-4 of the ECP 203 states that when the Strut-and-Tie model is used for designing pile caps, the tie reinforcement must be distributed in a distance greater than three times the pile diameter if the distance between the ccentetlines of the piles is more than 3D where D is the pile diameter. In this example, the distance between the centerlines of the piles is less than 3D. ‘The reinforcement of the tic is arranged such that the distance between the bars is 100 mm (the minimum accepted distance). Reinforcement Details Other locations should be reinforced with the minimum. calculated in Step 5, forcement 518 519INTRODUCTION TO PRESTRESSED CONCRETE 1 Photo 7.1 Prestressed concrete girder during grouting 7.1 Introduction ‘The idea of prestressing was introduced to overcome the main disadvantage of concrete which is the low tensile strength. Introducing compressive longitudinal force, called prestressing, prevents the cracks from developing by reducing or even eliminating the tensile stresses at critical sections. Thus, prestressing is a technique of introducing compressive stresses of a pre-determined magnitude 520into a structural member to improve its behavior. Therefore, all sections can reach the full capacity of concrete in compression. Although prestressed concrete has many benefits, it requires more attention to specific design considerations that are not usually considered in construction of ordinary reinforced concrete Prestressed concrete is used in buildings, towers, tanks, underground structures, and bridges. The wide spread use of prestressing is mainly due to the new technology of developing high strength stee! or fiber reinforced plastics (FRP) and the accumulated knowledge of computing the short and long-term losses. Prestressing significantly reduce the dead weight of flexural members. The small span-to-depth ratio accompanied by short construction time makes prestressed concrete very attractive solution as a construction material The idea of prestressed concrete can be traced back to 1872, when P-H Jackson, an engineer from California, USA, developed a prestressing system that used a tie rod to build beams and arches from individual blocks. Early attempts of Prestressing were not successful because of prestressing losses over time, In 1920s, the concept of circular prestressing was introduced but with a little progress because of the unavailability of high strength material that can compensate the long-term losses. Linear prestressing continued to develop in Europe especially in France through the work of Eugene Freyssinet. In 1928 he proposed the use of high strength steel to overcome the losses. P.W. Abeles of England introduced the concept of partial prestressing, The work of T. Y. Lin of developing the load-balancing technique simplifies the design process particularly in indeterminate structures Since 1950s, the number of buildings and bridges constructed of prestressed ‘concrete has grown enormously. 7.2 Systems of Prestressing Prestressed members are classified into two main groups; pre-tensioned and Post-tensioned. The member is called pre-tensioned, if the steel is stressed before casting the concrete. The member is called post-tensioned, if the steel is stressed after hardening of the concrete. sai Photo 7.2 Sample of prestressed concrete bridges 5227.2.1 Pretensioned Concrete Figure 7.1 illustrates the procedure for pre-tensioning a concrete member. Such a procedure can be summarized as follows: Lb 2 3 a ‘The prestressing tendons are initially tensioned between fixed: rigid walls and anchored. With the formwork in place, the concrete is cast around the stressed steel tendons and cured When the concrete has reached its required strength, the wires are cut (or released from the rigid walls). As the tendons attempt to contract, the concrete is compressed. Prestress is transmitted through bond between the steel and the concrete. Pretensioned concrete members are often precast in pre-tensioning yards that are usually long enough to accommodate many identical units simultaneously. ©) The Anchorage nchorage ‘Abutment Stressed tendons 4) Stressing the tendons before pouring the concrete Concrete is poured wires are cut and the prestressing force is transferred to concrete Fig. 7.1 A Pre-tensioned beam during manufacturing 923 7.2.2 Post-tensioned Concrete ‘The procedure for post-tensioning a concrete member is shown in Fig. 7.2. 1 2 3 With the formwork in position, the concrete is cast around the hollow ducts, which are fixed to any desired profile. ‘The steel tendons are usually in place, unstressed in the ducts during the concrete pour, or alternatively may be threaded through the ducts later. When the concrete has reached its required strength, the tendons are tensioned. Tendons may be stressed from one end with the other end anchored or may be stressed from both ends. ‘The tendons are anchored at each stressing end. In post-tensioning, the concrete is compressed during the stressing operation and the prestressing is maintained after the tendons are anchored by bearing of the end plates onto concrete. The ducts containing the tendons may be filled with grout under pressure. In this way, tendons are bonded to the concrete and are more efficient in controlling the cracks and providing ultimate strength. Bonded tendons are also less likely to corrode. It should be mentioned that most in-situ prestressed concrete is post-tensioned. Post-tensioning is also used for segmental construction of large-span bridge girders. (©) Tendons anchored and grouted Fig. 7.2 A post-tensioned beam 5247.3 General Design Principle Flexural stueses in prestressed members are the result of in fore P, te internal moment de to eccentric cable configuration (Pe) tad he extemal applied moments (M). The prestressing force results in stresses that are opposite to those resulting from the extemal loads, Th entire selon is manly subjected to compression sueases andi fe from each. Fig 73 ilustate tg smbution ofthe stresses at mid-span, Ics clea tha the tensile stresses tat result rom the applied loads are eliminated bythe compressive sess duc to presressing wit’ LHL) Pp a € rT a a- Loading resultant Beam ——_prestressing eccentricity extemal loads resultant b Stresses Fig 7.3 Distribution of stresses in a prestressed beam 525 7.4 Materials 7.4.1 Concrete ‘The Egyptian Code ECP 203 presents an idealization for the stress-strain curve ‘of concrete in compression. The initial part of the curve is a parabolic curve up toa strain of 0.002 and the second partis a straight horizontal line up to a strain of 0.003, as shown in Fig. 7.4. Referring to Fig. 7.4, the equation of the ‘concrete stress (f,) in terms of the concrete strain (€.) can be expressed as: £. " for 0.002 €, <0.003 ‘To take the full advantages of prestressed concrete, concrete with high compressive strength is usually used. The ECP 203 specifies the conerete grade that should be used in prestressed concrete as shown in Table 7.1 Table 7.1 Concrete compressive strength used in prestressed concrete (Nimm’) Concrete grade [30 [35 [40 [45 [50 [55__ | 60 Concrete stress, fe 0 0.001 0.002 0.003 Concrete strain & Fig 7.4 ECP 203 idealized stress-strain curve for concrete 526‘The advantages of using high-strength concrete in prestressed concrete construction can be summarized in the following points: 1. Due to its speed in gaining strength, the shattering can be removed faster reducing time and cost. 2, It minimizes losses in prestressing force by reducing creep, elastic shortening and shrinkage. It reduces the size and weight of the member. It reduces the required area for shear reinforcement. It produces the high bond strength required to anchor the strands used in pre-tensioned construction. 7.4.2 Non-prestressing Reinforcement The behavior of the non-prestressing steel reinforcement is idealized by the Egyptian code as an elasto-plastic material as shown in Fig 7.5. The reinforcing steel stress can be calculated using Eq. 7.2. f,=6,XE, when €, <6,17, » f.=f)l%, when 6, 26,17, ae LM f tension If eeooreonet aie Taine ‘compression Fig 7.5 Idealized stress-strain curve for non-prestressed steel 927 7.4.3 Prestressing Reinforcement Prestressing reinforcement is available in different forms such as cold drawn wires, cables, and alloyed steel bars. The most common type of prestressing reinforcement is the seven wire strands cable as shown in Fig. 7.6. The ultimate tensile strength of these cables is several times that of non-prestressing reinforcement. For example, the ultimate strength Of wires and cables ranges from 1700-1900 N/mm? (about 4-5 times that of high grade steel). This high strength is attibuted to adding alloying elements (manganese and carbon), and by the use of heat treating and tempering, The favorable high tensile strength is, accompanied by a loss of ductility and toughness. Therefore steel reinforcement with yield point above 1900 N’mm? is not commonly used because of their extremely brittle nature. A typical stress-strain relation for prestressing reinforcement is shown in Fig. 7.6. It is clear that the prestressing steels lack a sharply defined yield point. Therefore, most codes including the ECP 203, specifies the yielding point as the stress associated with a 1% strain. For high strength bars, the yield strength is frequently specified as the stress associated with the intersection of the curve and a line parallel to the initial slope starting at strain of 0.002. The yield stress 2»: > Jacking Prestressing Final or effective force force immediately pprestressing force after transfer ‘Some types of these losses occur only in post-tensioned members. An example of such losses is the friction losses that develop between the tendon and the concrete at the time of jacking. The following is a summary for the losses that need to be considered for each type. Pretensioned members Mor = Moe + Man * Mr + Moe Post-tensioned members: Bor = Mn + Mpc + Mi +My + Mpa + Mp tM 530where Mya = Anchorage slip losses Af,, = Elastic shortening losses My. = wobble friction losses Af,y = curvature friction losses Afja = shrinkage losses Afyy =ercep losses Af,g =steel relaxation losses In the following sections, each type of losses is briefly discussed, and step by step examples for losses calculations are given. Photo 7.3 Prestressed concrete girders during construction 531 7.5.2 Anchorage Slip Losses (A) ‘At transfer in post-tension construction, when the jack is released, a small amount of tendon shortening occurs because of the anchorage fitting and movement of the wedges. The magnitude of this slip is function of the anchorage system and specified by the manufacturer. It usually varies from 2-6 ‘mm, From Fook’s law, the loss of stress in the cable Afj4 due to slippage is given by: A as) where ‘Ax = magnitude of slip L = tendon length (the horizontal distance can be used) Ep = modulus of elasticity of the prestressing steel ‘The loss in prestressing steel stress due anchorage slip is inversely proportional to the length of the cable. Hence, the loss of stress due to slippage decreases as the length of the cable increases. At, transfer, if the tendon can be stressed by additional increment of length equal to the predicted anchorage slip without ‘overstressing the cable, the loss in stress due to slippage can be eliminated. Photo 7.4 Prestressing tendons at the anchorage plate 5327.5.3 Elastic Shortening Losses(e) ‘When the prestressing force is transferred to the concrete, the concrete shorten and part of the prestressing is lost. To establish the loss of tendon stress due to clastic shortening, we shall consider the deformations of pre-tensioned member stressed by a tendon at the centroid of the beam (Fig. 7.8). Since the concrete and the tendon are fully bonded, the strain experienced by concrete must equal to that in the prestressing stecl. This compatibility of strain can be expressed as: bg Ey 76) Where & is the concrete strain and Ae, is the reduction in steel strain due to clastic shortening. Applying Hook’ law to the previous equation gives: fa Mn E, E, where fa is the concrete strain at the centroid of the tendons, E, is the concrete modulus of elasticity at the time of transfer, and Afje is the loss in prestressing force as a result of elastic shortening of the beam. Rearranging, Eq. 7.7 gives: an (7.8) If eccentric tendon is used, the eccentricity of the tendon and beam self-weight should be taken into account. The stress in concrete at the level of prestressing steel is given by: fea Bh PH Mae in tendon Pr I—— L ~ before shortening + 48, +t : -—P, afer shortening Fig. 7.8 Elastic shortening of a concrete member 533 For post-tensioned members, the calculations of the elastic shortening losses is more complicated because the losses vary with the greatest losses occurring in the first strand stressed and the least losses occurring in the last strand stressed For this reason the ECP 203 requires that for post-tensioned members to use only half the value calculated for pre-tensioned members as follows: A ; Me ae ya (for post-tensioned members) nue (7-10) ‘This type of losses equals to zero iff all tendons are jacked simultaneously because the jack that elongates the tendon simultaneously compress the concrete and the elastic shortening takes place before the tendon is anchored. 7.5.4 Wobble Friction Losses (W) ‘This type of losses exists only in post-tensioned members due to the friction between the tendons and the surrounding ducts. When the ducts are positioned in forms, some degree of misalignment is unavoidable because of workmanship. Actually, itis impossible to have a perfectly straight duct in post- tensioned construction, and the result is friction. Fig. 7.9 shows the ‘misalignment in a duct for a straight tendon. These deviations occur both in levation and in plan, At each point of contact a normal force, which is proportional to the tendon force, develop between the tendon and the surrounding material. Because of the normal force, frictional forces develop at the point of contact. This type of friction is called the length effect. If the variation of the tension in the cable is neglected and the cable force is taken equal to the tension at the ends of the cable, the loss in force due to friction can be expressed as: a.) Where, Pris the force at a distance x, Po is the required force to produce Py at any point x along the tendon profile, x is the distance from the end. K is coefficient of friction between the tendon and the surrounding due to wobble effect. It equals 0.0033 for ordinary cable and equals 0.0017 for fixed ducts. = ‘The wobble losses equal: Mn = P,P. 7.12) 534Direction of tendon movement Fig. 7.9 Wobble friction losses 7.5.5 Curvature Friction Losses (F) ‘This type of losses is also limited to post-tensioned members. The resulting loss is due to the friction between the cables and the duct. These friction losses are function of the curvature of the tendon axis and the roughness of the surrounding material. As a result, the force in the tendon decreases with the distance from the jack. If a certain force is required at any desired section, the friction force between that section and the jack must be estimated and added to the required force to establish the jacking force. It should be noted that the ‘maximum frictional losses occur at the far end of the beam. Although, friction losses vary along the beam span, such calculation is not usually performed and the maximum value is used. The ECP 208 gives the following formula to estimate the force at distance x produced by jacking force Pas follows: 535 (7.13) is the radius of ducts that contain the tendons as shown in Fig. 7.10 and pt is the friction coefficient and can be assumed as: case of friction between steel and concrete case of friction between steel and steel case of friction between steel and lead W=055 n= 0.25 It is worth’ noting that the quantity (¢-x/,,)tepresents the losses due to curvature, The code permits the use of a simplified expression for calculating that type of losses if /r) $0.2. Such an expression is given by: rele ‘Thus, the curvature losses equal to: (7.14) ve (T.15) Furthermore, the code permits combining the wobble and the curvature losses in one formula by approximating the logarithmic relation by straight line given by: P n(i-fese}) (7.16) With the condition that the looses is less than 20%: (« xHit oan snus TAT) ‘Thus the total frictional losses inthis case equal: Macon (7.18) on 7.19) 536Fig. 7.10 Evaluation of the tendon profile curvature To evaluate the radius of curvature for a parabolic tendon, the following formula is assumed yea at) Le ‘where ais a constant to be evaluated by applying the boundary conditions atx=0 3 y=4n (7.20) 721) sos (1-22) (723) Differentiating the previous equation gives the angle ct at any point. = tana =*42| -4) ys f 7 a sone 124) 5 (1-24) Since the ratio of the depth of the beam to its span is small, itis sufficiently accurate to asstume that = tan cand L= length of the arc. 4A, & atx=L, (7.28) ‘Assuming the curvature of the tendon is based on that of circular arc, then Ler, 8 sn (1.26) 7.5.6 Shrinkage Losses (sh) ‘The losses in tendon stress due to shrinkage in a prestressed member depend on ‘many factors. They include the amount of mixing water, the relative humidity, the curing period, and size and shape of the cross section. The shrinkage losses are approximately 79 in pre-tensioned members and 5% in post-tensioned ones. Approximately 80% of the shrinkage takes place in the first year. The code specifies an average value of the ultimate shrinkage in Code Table 2.8.A according to the size of the member and the relative humidity. In cases where the environmental factors are not known, the following table (7.2) is used! ‘Table 7.2 Values of the shrinkage strain 6 Prestressing system Shrinkage strain Pre-tensioned members (3-5 days after | 300 x 10 casting) 7 Post-tensioned members (7-14 days afer | 200 x 10 casting) | Tn case of stage construction, the code permits assuming that half the amount of shrinkage occurs in the first month and 75% during the first six months. The shrinkage losses are given by the following:equation: 538Mag = Eg XE sore soe (121) For post-tension members, the loss in prestressing force due to shrinkage is less than that for pre-tensioned members. The code states that the only amount of shrinkage that needs to be considered is that occurred after transferring the force to the member. Photo 7.5 Prestressed concrete bridge during construetion 339 7.5.7 Creep Loss (GR) Experimental research over the years indicates that deformations continue to increase over time. This deformation under constant longitudinal force is termed creep. The amount of creep depends on the applied load, duration, properties of concrete, curing conditions, the age of element at first loading, and environmental conditions. It should be emphasized that losses due to creep result only from sustained loads during the loading history of the structural element. Since the relationship due to creep is linear, it is possible to relate the creep strain €c, to the elastic strain ey such that a creep coefficient 6 can be defined as G = fe. e a (7.28) ‘The creep strain &, can be taken from Table 2-8-b in the code or from Table 7.3, in the absence of environmental factors. The value of the creep coefficient ranges from 1.5 to 3. The Egyptian code permits the use of $=2.0 for pre- tensioned members and 6=1.6 for post-tensioned members. Table 7.3 Values of ereep strain &, —____,__________ Eq for every Nimm™ of the working stress Prestressing system Concrete siress at the time of prestressing fay Sa>40 7540 Pro-iensioned beams 6 | G-Sdays after casting) | 48*10 48x 40fa) x10 | Post-tensioned beams r 6 (7-14 days after casting _| 76* 1° 36 x (40ffx) x10 If the working concrete stresses at service loads is greater than 1/3 the concrete strength fa the creep strain should be increased by the factor 0. determined from Fig. 7.11. This increased strain value (¢') is given by the following formula: Fer = bg Bo (7:29) 540value of o Schon Fig. 7.11 Values of a with respect to conerete stress ‘Another formula for determining creep losses for bonded prestressed members is given by: o£, Af =e 130) ne ha where B= the prestestng sel modulus of lat EE = the concrete modulo of elasticity {= ‘the stes in concrete the level of conto ofthe presuessing tendons. Tn general, this loss is a function of the stress in the concrete at the section being analyzed. The ECP 203 expression for fis; fas = fe ~ Soa 731) ‘fee = stress in concrete at level of steel cg immediately after transfer. ress in concrete at level of steel cg due to all sustained loads applied after prestressing is completed. Equation 7.30 can be expressed as: Me (7:32) S41 7.5.8 Steel Relaxation Losses (R) Relaxation is defined as the loss of stress under constant strain, while creep is defined as the change in strain under constant stress. This type of losses occurs ‘under constant loading due to the elongation of the tendons with time. A typical relaxation curve showing relaxation losses as a function of time for a specimen that is initially loaded to 70% of its ultimate strength and held at @ constant strain, is shown in Fig. 7.12. The loss in stresses due to relaxation depends on the duration and the ratio of initial prestressed fy, to the yield strength fpy 100 a Zz 0 % _ 2 10 3 | at 10 100 1000 10000 10% 10° Time (hours) Fig. 7.12 Typical stress relaxation losses . ‘The ECP 203 gives the following equation to estimate the relaxation losses: SaXlog Sa Mee =A ie s| (7.33) teel relaxation losses duc to relaxation initial prestressing stress before time dependent losses rime elapsed since jacking (max 1000 hrs.) ‘efficient depends on prestressing steel type and is taken: 10 for normal relaxation stress relieved strands. #45 for low relaxation stress relieved. 542‘This relationship is applicable only when the ratio fyifyy is greater than 0.55. If a step-by-step loss analysis is necessary, the loss increment at any particular loading stage can be determined from Sy X008 ts “108 4) (fu _9 55 k, toy - Mow (7.34) where 4; is the time at the beginning, and fis the time at the end of interval from jacking to the time being considered. Examples 7.1 and 7.2 illustrate the procedure for calculating the losses in pretensioned and post-tensioned beams respectively. 543 Example 7.1: Calculations of losses for a pre-tensioned beam ‘The prestressed beam shown in the figure below is pre-tensioned. Calculate the prestressing losses knowing that the beam is prestressed with normal relaxation stress relieved tendons. (Note: calculate relaxation losses after 200 days) Data fp = 1360'N/mm? Ay = 2097 mm? fa = 40.N/mm? fest 30 N/mm? E, = 190000.N/mm? Cover =100 mm ‘Unfactored super-imposed load = 4 KN/mn’ | get y— | 200 e 2 [|_| tT i ——= Beam cross section 544Solution Step 1: Calculation of elastic shortening losses “The cross sectional area (A) equals: ‘A= 2%700%200+800%150 = 400000 mm? Since the section is symmetrical; Yep = Youn 600 mm. roa, Sow 150800" 12 2 ‘The modulus of elasticity atthe time of prestressing Ex equals: E, = 4400), = 4400 V30 = 24099.8 N Imm? P =f, xA,, =1360%2097/1000 = 2852 kN + 700200 (60 -100" ‘The concrete stress at the level of the prestressing tendons is given by: ee So A T T f, 2852x1000 _2852x1000x 500x500 , 605x10* x 500 os 400000 7.73x10" 7.73x10" eer 5 fgg EE fy = 220 1944 98.082 rn? 7 240998 Step 2: Calculation of creep losses ‘The modulus of elasticity of concrete at full strength equals: E, = 4400, = 4400040 = 27828 N/mm? ‘The moment due tothe superimposed dead load equals Wel? 4x22 8 8 ‘The additional stress due tothe superimposed dead load is given by: fna =aa XE 242x108 500 1 7.73x10° ™, = 242 RN 56 Ninn? 733x10" mm* ‘The initial prestressing stress fy: equals to the prestressing stress after the occurrence of immediate losses. fog = fy ~ Mg = 1360 ~98,06 =1261.94 N/mm? 1261942007 2646.4 KN a 1000 “400000 7.73x10" 11.26 Nimm* For pre-tensioned beams, $=2.0. Hence, the loss of the prestressing force due to creep is given by: E,iee_pe Moe Os fos) 190000 27828 =20 (11.26 ~1.56) =132.46 Nimm* Step 3: Calculation of shrinkage losses For pre-tensioned beams, the shrinkage strain &s is equal to 300x10~*, Mya = XE, =300%10 190000 = 57 Némnim* Step 4: Calculation of steel relaxation losses Kis10 > stress relieved tendons Time (() = 200 day = 200 x 24 = 4800 hours ‘The Egyptian Code ECP 203 requires calculating the relaxation losses at a time of not more than 1000 hours. Hence, assume t= 1000 hour. fa X00 4.55) 1261 Stns (12619 055) KR Sw 10 1700 Af yp =72.8 N Lam? 545 546‘The total losses can be summarized in the following table “Type of loss “Percent of total losses | Elastic shortening losses 98.08 27.20% ‘Shrinkage losses 132.46 36.76% Creep Tosses 37.00 15.82% Relaxation Tosses 780 20.20% Total Tosses 30034 100.0% ‘Stress before losses 1360.00 Stress after Tosses 999.66 Losses (Ho) 265% Example 7.2: Step by step computation of losses in post- tensioned beam A simply supported post-tensioned beam is shown in the figure below. The area of the prestressing tendons is 1200 mm” and /y.=1900 Nimm?. Compute the prestressing losses at the critical section of the beam’at 100 days knowing that normal stress relieved strands are used inside steel ducts. wou = 3.5 KN/m fou = 35Nimm* fo = 26.25.N/mm? Ep = 193000 Nimm* Anchorage slip = 4mm. ‘Aye=1200 mm? 7200 mam 80mm ak 400 mm 347 548Solution Step 1: Calculate section properties ‘A= 400%1200 = 480000 mmn* _bxt? _ 400x120" 12 12 1 76x10" mm* 1 _5.16x10" Yoo 600 € =600-80=520 mm Lua 96x10° mm? 480000 1000000 Way =YeXA= 25% T2RN Im For normal relaxation stress relieved stands, the ECP 203 specifies the yield stress as: Sy = O-85% J, = 0.851900 =1615 Nim? ‘The initial prestressing force at the time of jacking equals: (0.70 f,,, =0.7x1900 = 1330 N/mm? fy = smallerof 270.7% 0.80 7, = 0.8x1615=1292 Nimm* Si =1292. Nita? Step 2: Anchorage slip Losses A 4 L 22x1000 ‘The loss in stresses due to anchorage slip is given by: Mea 81810193000 =35.09 N/mm? The strain due to anchorage slip is¢, 81810 xE, Step 3: Wobble friction losses ‘The code specifies k=0.0033 for normal conditions, thus the stress at the end of the beam equals: Py = Pye 1292.62 = 1201.5 NI mm? Losses = 1292-1201,525 = 90.47 Nimm? Step 4: Curvature friction losses ‘The radius of curvature yp, can be approximated by: 1220.15 N fmm? 1.25 Nfmam? Losses = 1292-1220.75 Total frictional losses = Afy= 90.47+71.25 =161.73 N/mm? 2= 1292-161.73 =1095.18 N/mm? Net force = Alternative method sae) 1293 iE 116.35 The quantity o-(« e wes) (omsseaz ‘Since this quantity o.is less than 0.2, the net force after the frictional losses is P, =P, (1a) =12921—0.1293) = 1124.9 N/mm? ‘Step 5: Elastic shortening losses ‘The modulus of elasticity atthe time of prestressing F,: equals: Ey = 4400,)f,., = 4400 V26.25 = 2543.3 Imm? At transfer, the beam self weight is the only acting moment that equals: M, = 726 ENam Myp XL? _ 12227 8 8 ‘The (Total losses including (anchorage + Wobble + friction losses) equals: =35,09+161.73=196.82 Nimm? Net prestressing stress =1292-196.82 =1095.18 N/mm? 1095.18%1200 1000 ‘The concrete stress at the level of the prestressing tendons is given by: 314.22 kN Poa fy Xp 549 550‘The loss of prestressing force due to elastic shortening is given by: 193000 2.35 = 20.15 N /mm* 22543.29 eee E, Me =o. Mn BS Sp. =1095.18~20.15 = 1075.03 N fmm? Step 6: Calculation of creep losses ‘Step 7: Calculation of shrinkage losses For post-tensioned beams, the shrinkage strain &y is 200x106 200%10"* x193000 = 38.6 Nim? Mon = En XE, Step 4: Calculation of steel relaxation losses K,=10 for normal stress relieved tendons & t= 100 day = 100 x 24 =2400 hours. ‘The code requires calculating the relaxation losses at a time not exceeding 1000 hours. Thus, t = 1000 hour. Fu X10) ( So _ w, Lett leo 1075.03x1og(1000)( 1075.03 : = 1075.03 1080000) (1075-03 _ 9 55| = 37.30 N /mm PH fg XA = 10750341200 _ ee ais 2) ‘The itemized losses can be summarized in the following table _ ‘The modulus of elasticity of concrete at full strength: ‘Type Stress (Nimm) | % of total losses E, = 4400\{f,, = 440035 = 26030.7 N/mm? ‘Anchorage sliplosses 35.09. “118% ‘The moment due to the superimposed dead loads equals: ‘Wobble friction losses 90.48 30.5% | 2 2 Curvature friction losses. My tale 32 ois 75 ex _11.25 24.1% 8 Elsie shortening 20.15 68% ‘The additional stress due to this load is given by: ‘Shrinkage losses 38.60 “13.0% a or Creep losses finn Mae _ NTSHIO S20 91 Nn? 3.30 11% _ T 5.76x10 Relaxation losses 3730 12.6% 7, =~ 12900421000 1290081000350" , 726x10" 520 ‘Total immediate losses 216.97 33% ; 480000 5.76x10" 576x10" poeta Be Sera 79.20 26.1% Total losses For post-tensioned beams, @=1.6. The creep loss equals: — ers sone _ Toso ; ‘Sires before losses 1092 MS pr (fd ~fee)=1.6 eeiane (2.19-1.91) =3.30 N/mm’ ‘Siress afiar oases mee pte 22.92% 551 $527.6 Anchorage Zones 7.6.1 Introduction In prestressed concrete structural members, the prestressing force is usually transferred from the prestressing steel to the concrete in one of two different ways. In post-tensioned construction, relatively small anchorage plates transfer the force from the tendon to the concrete immediately behind the anchorage by bearing. In pre-tensioned members, the force is transferred by bond between the steel and the concrete. In either case, the transfer ofthe prestressing force occurs at the end of the member and involves high local pressures and forces. ‘The length of the member over which the concentrated prestressing. force changes into a uniformly distributed over the cross section is called the transfer length (in the case of pre-tensioned members) and the anchorage length (for post-tensioned members). The stress concentrations within the anchorage zone in a pre-tensioned member are not usually as sever as in a post-ensioned anchorage zone. In pre-tensioned beams, there is a more gradual transfer of prestressing. The prestressing force is transmitted by bond over a significant Jength of the tendon and there are usually a number of tendons that are well distributed throughout the anchorage zone. In addition, the high concrete bearing stresses behind the anchorage plates in post-tensioned members do not occur in pre-tensioned construction. Only post-tensioned concrete anchorage zone ate given attention in design and will be treated in details in this text. Photo 7.6 Anchorage zone of a prestressed concrete beam 553 7.6.2 Stress Distribution In post-tensioned concrete structures, failure of the anchorage zone is perhaps the most common cause of problems arising during construction. Such failures ate difficult and expensive to repair and might necessitate replacement of the entire member. ‘Anchorage zones may fail due to, uncontrolled cracking or splitting of the concrete from insufficient transverse reinforcement. Bearing failures immediately behind the anchorage plates are also common and may be caused because of the inadequate dimensions of the bearing plates or poor quality of concrete. Consider the case shown in Fig. 7.13 of a single square plate centrally positioned at the end of a member of depth ¢ and width b. In the region of length Ty immediately behind the anchorage plate (ie. the anchorage zone), plane sections do not remain plane and beam theory does not apply. High bearing stresses at the anchorage plate disappear throughout the anchorage zone, ‘creating high transverse stresses. The spreading of stress that occurs within the anchorage zone is illustrated in Fig. 7.13. The stress trajectories are closely spaced directly behind the bearing plate where the compressive stresses are high, and become more widely spaced as the distance from the anchorage plate increases. In order to enhance the compressive strength of concrete, spiral reinforcement is usually provided as shown in Fig. 7.14. The confinement of ‘concrete due to the spiral reinforcement enhances its strength and ductility. ‘Suess trajectories Tension Jcompression «. | Prestressing force Uniform stress La Fig, 7.13 Idealized stress paths in end block with single load 554grouting tube spiral reinforcement Steel duct protecting tendons ~ Before casting the concrete Accent conse and removing the duct Photo 7.7 Anchorage zone in a bridge deck before and after casting the concrete 555 St Venant’s principle suggests the length of the disturbed region for the single centrally located anchorage is approximately equal to the thickness of the ‘member #. The high compressive stresses vanish after a short distance and tensile stresses form as shown in Fig. 7.15. The transverse tensile forces (often called bursting or splitting forces) need to be estimated accurately so that transverse reinforcement within the anchorage zone can be designed to resist them. Splitting Tension stress Stress Compression Toaded face Width of the anchorage zone (L.) Fig. 7.15 Stress distribution at the center line of an anchorage zone (On the other hand, the stress trajectories for an eccentrically loaded member are not equally spaced as shown in Fig. 7.16. The length of the disturbed zone La is approximately equal to twice the distance of the prestressing force to the edge. High bursting tensile stresses developed along the axis of the plate. Moreover, end tensile stresses develop at the edge above the bearing plate. These tensile stresses called the spalling stresses and are usually exist in eccentrically loaded end zone, ‘Stress ‘wajectores ‘Tension (spalling) Conrstion ; Tension a veaion CT Fig. 7.16 Stress contours for an eccentric loading 5567.6.3 Methods of Analysis ‘The design of the anchorage zone for a post-tensioned member involves both the arrangement of the anchorage plates, to minimize transverse stresses, and the determination of the amount and distribution of reinforcement to carry the transverse tension after cracking of the concrete. The ECP 203 states that the anchorage zone should be designed to withstand a force equals to 1.2 the Jacking force. ‘The spreading of the prestressing forces occurs through both the depth and the width of the anchorage zone and therefore transverse reinforcement must be provided within the end zone in two orthogonal directions. The reinforcement Quantities required in each direction are obtained from separate two- dimensional analyses, i.c., the vertical transverse tension is valculated by considering the vertical spreading of forces and the horizontal tension is obtained by considering the horizontal spreading of forces. The methods of analysis are: 1, Strut-and-Tie method 2. Beam analogy 3. Finite element method 7.6.3.1 Strut-and-Tie Method ‘The internal flow of forces in each direction can be visualized in several ways. A simple mode! is to consider truss action within the anchorage zone. For the anchorage zone of the rectangular beam shown in Fig. 7.17, the truss analogy shows that transverse compression exists directly behind the bearing plate, with transverse tension, often called the bursting force at some distance along the member. The truss analogy can be used in T-beams for calculating both the vertical tension in the web and the horizontal tension across the flange. + pest f ti Fig. 7.17 Strut and Tie model for an anchorage zone 7.6.3.2 Beam Analogy An alternative model for estimating the internal tensile forces in the anchorage zone is to consider it as a deep beam loaded from one side by the bearing sesses immediately under the anchorage plate and resisted on the other side by the statically equivalent, linearly distributed stresses in the beam. The depth of the deep beam is taken as the anchorage length La. ‘The beam analogy model is illustrated in Fig, 7.18 for a single central anchorage, together with the bending moment diagram for the idealized beam. Since the maximum moment tends to cause bursting along the axis of the anchorage, itis usually denoted by Mp and called the bursting moment. By considering the free-body diagram of one-half of the end block, the bursting moment Ms required for the rotational equilibrium is obtained from statis Referring to Fig. 7.18 and taking moment about any point on the member axis, ee p(t ih m,=2(4. snes (1.35) ld aa Te ever am between C, ad , is proximately equa to 2 Hee, ™ wats. .. (7.36) 2 4 Ce Ete |. =F » H = — —— wie | A I jo pe be Fig. 7.18 Bursting moment at the end zone 558Expressions for the bursting moment and the horizontal transverse tension resulting from the lateral dispersion of the bearing stresses across the width b are obtained by replacing the thickness tin Eqs. 7.35 and 7.36 with the width 6 Photo 7.8 Increasing beam width at the anchorage zone area 3.3 Finite Element Method Computer programs are commonly used to analyze the anchorage zone. These programs are based on the finite element method. The anchorage zone is ‘modeled using the shell element and the external prestressing is applied through a series of concentrated loads. Typical output is shown in Fig. 7.19. Fig. 7.19 Stress distribution in the anchorage zone 559) Example 7.3 ‘The figure given below shows the anchorage zone of a flexural member. The square bearing plate is 315 mm x 315 mm with a duct diameter of 106 mm. Itis to design such an anchorage zone according to the beam theory Data P; = 3000 kN foe= 60. Nimam* fh = 280N/mm? 480 sas I 106 { as || O | | sm poor“ +] ss tt sas devin Sid Bevaon 560Solution Step 1: Check of bearing A ‘Ay = 480X480 = 230400 mm ‘The bearing stresses equal: 1.2xP, _1.2x3000%1000 _ 90400 1.59 <2.0 0k 60. 15315 4 «106 = 90400 mm? = 39.82 N/mm? Ar Ar $0.67 £OX1.59 = 42.8.N /mm? <398 «0k Step 2: Design of transverse reinforcement Step 2.1: Vertical plane Consider moments in the vertical plane (vertical bursting tension). ‘The forces and bursting moments in the vertical plane are given by: s01vem 11) = 222° 1000=315) «10° =2570 KN m 7, = use 100mm ‘The number of stirrups ‘Use Two 12 mm @100 mm Step 2.2: Horizontal plane Now, consider the moments in the horizontal plane (horizontal bursting tension). The forces and bursting moments in the horizontal plane are obtained by replacing ¢ with = 480 mm. The bursting moment and horizontal tension u,=fo =H) = 222 (4g0-315) x10" =64 9ENm M, GSA 958.0 kN 312 48072 9524 25k ‘Mb=61.9 KN. ‘Bursting in the horizontal plane 562‘The amount of horizontal transverse reinforcement equals: 1 mm? Such an amount is required within the length of the beam located between 96 mm (0.2 t) and 480 mm (1.0 ) from the loaded face. Try 2-12 mm stirrups. Ag =4X112=448 mm? Example 7.4 ‘The figure given below shows the anchorage zone of a T-beam. ‘The jacking force equals 2000 KN, f, =280 N/mm?, and the concrete strength is 60 N/mm Design the anchorage zone using: + Beam analogy © Strut-and-Tie method 1611 a “The number of st 1611 _ 5.59 tirups n= L L ‘The spacing between stisrups s: eee =106 mm —> use 100mm 150 | 271.7 139.2 Ueto 2am 610000 | C— | t —o- 265 Four pairs of closed 12 mm stirrups (ie. four horizontal legs per pai of sticrups) este eas —+ at 100 mm centers (Ay=1760mm? ) are provided. To satisfy horizontal : 265. bursting requirements, this size and spacing of stirrups should be provided from 295.8 the loaded face for a length of atleast 480 mm, | 11-12 dim. stiupe at Cancun ‘100mm centres 12mm steps a ee % a 100m cones SS ae Solution . Step 1: Check of bearing A, = 265%265 = 70225 mm™ ac G 44 f 0 ‘Ay =350%350 = 122500 mm? 8 ‘The design load is 1.2.P; ar] 128, fy BEE, LBRO a mt Elevation secon 1 fA, _ [122500 on [42 32 <2.0-0k ‘A, _V 70225 563 564584m 244K 2044 Nom Step 2: Design of transverse reinforcement (using beam method) Step 2.1: Vertical plane 1547 EN fmm A = 1000x150 +350%550 = 342500 mm? 2000 342500 005839 kN fmm? (side Bevation p ss a Luz_| Fag = 58390 Imm? <2 Le < 936075100 % : ‘ng XB = 0.005839%1000 = 5.84KN /mm (Refer to Fig. EX. 7.4.1.) <16.8N Imm?....0k = | SF pane acs ~Fing XB = 0.005839%350 = 2.0444N fmm 1567 1567Nam cp a ‘The distributed region distance L, equals twice the distance of the prestressing i i tone tothe top edge. L, = 2502717 = 543mm bog § § Referring to Fig. EX 7.4.1d, the maximum moment occurs at point of zero shear (x). Such a point is obtained as follows: 2.044x =7.547(x ~295.8) +» x = 405.7 mm tL | sa ‘aking moment sbout point (0) gives the maximum moment Mi IM, =(2.0443405.7°(2~1.547 (405.1 ~ 295.) /2)/1000 =122.6 RN m M, .6 1000 L12 54312 100 = 451.7 kN 265, ‘The allowable stress for f5 =280 N/mm? is 160 N/mm?. The amount of vertical ‘transverse reinforcement in the web equals: = (@)Bnd Elevation as | ---f___ af no fe--- [1 A aha I i: T, _ 451.7x1000 f 160 a 150 A, = 2823 mm? 565 566 (Part side Elevation Fig. EX. 7.4.1 Stross distribution in the web and the flanges (Plan‘This area of steel must be distributed within the length ofthe beam between 0.2 (L, =109 mm) and (L, =453 mm) from the loaded surface. Use stirrups with diameter of 16 mm over the full depth of the web and 12 mm stirrups immediately behind the anchorage as shown in Fig EX. 7.4. Aas panes = 2% 201+ 2X113 = 628mm ‘The number of stirrups equals: ous 453-109 45 Use ® 12 mm +@ 16 mm @90 mm ‘The required spacing, 96mm —> use 90mm spacing Step 2.1: Horizontal plane Referring to Fig, EX. 7.4.1c, the stresses in the flanges equal: 0.00584%150 =0.876KN Imm Ss = Lay Xt = 0.00584%700 = 4.088KN Jmm Due to symmetry, the point of zero shear is located at the middle. Thus the bursting moment in the horizontal direction equals; 4.088x17S" 2 My, sosroxaasncs952)-1507x 252 ) 00 M 1p =924KN m ‘The bursting moment is resisted by horizontal tension and compression in the flange. _ My _ 9241000 = = 185k “BIZ” 500 ‘The area of the horizontal reinforcement required in the flange equals: 7, _ 1851000 As, fen Sf, 160 1156 mm? Using top bars of 16 mm, the total number required is: 156 5.75 201 ‘This area of steel must be distributed within the length of the beam between (0.2 B=200 mm) and (B=1000 mm) from the loaded surface. 1000-200 ‘The required spacing 39 mm > 130mm 3.15 Use © 16 mm @ 130 mm Step 3: Design of transverse reinforcement (using strut-and-tie) Step 3.1: Distribution of forces ‘Another approach for solving the same previous problem is the strut-and-tie approach. In this approach, the prestressing force is distributed to the flange and. to the web through a series of struts and ties as shown in Fig. EX. 7.4.2 ‘The area of the cross section equals A = 1000x150 +350%550 = 342500 mm? The average stress equals po, =P 2000 on 4 342500 Frege =Foe *A page = 0.005839 X1000%150 = 8764N = 0.005839 KN fmm™ ‘The force in the flange is located atthe c.g ofthe flange (75 mm from the top) Egy =P ~ Faye = 2000-876 = 1126kN ‘The force in the web is divided into two forces, each equals 563 KN. Bach force is located at quarter points of the web depth tnea/4 = 550/4=137.5 ‘The truss extends from the bearing plate into the beam for a length about the distance of the prestressing zone to the edge=271.7=272 mm ‘The forces at the bearing plate must equal those in the flange and the web but with different spacing as shown in figure, 876 363 363, ‘The distance between the force in the flange and the web=(y,+y2/2=95.3 mm 45, 953 745 745) 116.1 265 mm 567 568Ale soe ay sone soo 7 4 sole we I ae "Ne nwa | ey (@Vertical dispersion of prestress (elevation) & al bem » — (Horizontal dispersion of prestress (plan) Fig. EX. 7.4.2 Stress dispersion of the prestressing force . Step 3.2: Vertical direction ‘The inclination of the bottom strut equals 333=1375 _ 35 796° m2 563 ‘cos 35.706 ‘The tension in the tie equals=693xsin35.7 = 405k ‘The area of steel required to carry the force in the tie T, _ 4051000 j, 160 ‘This area of steel must be distributed within the length of the beam between 0.2 1, =109 mm and L, =453 mm from the loaded surface. Use stirrups with diameter of 16 mm over the full depth of the web and 12 mm stirrups immediately behind the anchorage as shown in Fig, EX. 7.4.3, Aa goes = 2X 201+ 2X13 = 628mm = tant = 693KN ‘The force in the strut equal Ay = 2531 mm* 2531 628 ‘The number of stirrups equals ‘The required spacing = = 107mm — use 90mm spacing 4.03 ‘Step 3.3: Horizontal direction “The horizontal spreading ofthe forces into the flange is shown in Fig EX. 7.42. ‘The total force is applied at the quarter point of the flange (250 mm for the edge). The location of the horizontal force is at 272 mm from the edge. The distance at which the truss is formed equals B/2=500 mm, ‘At the bearing plate the force is located at the quarter points =(265/4=66.25, mm) ‘The inclination ofthe strut equals tan? 25076625 500 ‘The force in the strut equals O= 20.18" 438, 0820.18 467KN ‘The tension in the tie equals= 467xsin 20.18 = 161kN 569 " 570‘The area of stel required to cary the force in the te 1611000 160 1006 mm? 1006 _ 5 201 ‘This area of stcel must be distributed within the length of the beam between 0.2, Using top bars of 16 mmm, the total number required is m B=200 mm and B=1000 mm from the loaded surface. 1000 = 200 160 > take 130mm 104 2,208 0,90, 16am bars {30m cones [— 7 4 |e TH | 950 I a Regular sear sft [L— t2mn @ 90: Blevation Cross Section 916mm bas 30m cones BIBI Repuar sheer Plan Fig. EX. 7.4.3 Reinforcement details for the anchorage zone sm FLEXURE IN PRESTRESSED CONCRETE BEAMS Photo 8.1 Prestressed box ~girder bridge during construction 8.1 Introduction ‘The basic principles used in the flexural design and analysis of prestressed concrete beams are presented in this chapter. Two steps are considered in the analysis and design of prestressed beams in flexure namely; © The analysis under service loads. © The analysis at the ultimate stat. 572‘The fundamental relationships used in the service load analysis are based upon the basic assumptions of elastic design. However, at the ultimate stage, stresses and strains are not proportional and the ultimate limit analysis should be carried out. Deflections under service loads together with the prestressing forces should be calculated to confirm the compliance with the applicable design criteria. 8.2 Analysis of Prestressed Concrete Members under Service Loads 8.2.1 General Flexural stresses in prestressed members are the result of the prestressing force P, the intemal moment due to eccentric cable configuration, and the extemal applied moments (3). Calculations of stresses are based on the properties of the ‘gross concrete section, The resulting stresses at any point in the beam caused by these forces can be written as: ap ane) AT 7 where y is the distance from the C.G. of the section to a certain point, A is the ‘cross sectional area, J is the gross moment of inertia of the section, P is the prestressing force and M is the external applied moment, ‘The resulting stresses should be checked against the allowable values specified by the code and given in Tables 8.1 and 8.2. For calculation of stresses at the extreme fibers, itis usually mote convenient to express the quantity Ay as the section modulus (Z). For non-symmetrical members such as T-sections, the section modulus at the top Zep is different from the section modulus at the bottom Zier. For a simply supported beam, as the one shown in Fig. 8.1, the stresses at the top and bottom fibers of the beam can be calculated from: PL Pxe Mx po. f= @1) P_Pxe, M 8.2) Soot w-- (8.3) It should be clear that the stresses induced due to (P.e) are opposite to those induced due to the external applied moment M. S73 wkNim’ Ape I b b- Cross-seetion _ Exe Looe prestressing excenticity external loads resultant c- Stresses Fig. 8.1 Stress distributions in a concrete section due to ‘The prestressing and the applied loads 3748.2.2 Allowable Concrete and Steel Stresses 8.2.2.1 Allowable Steel Stresses Prestressing steel is most commonly used in the form of wires or strands. The code specifies the ratio of the yield strength fyy of the prestressing steel to its ultimate strength joy as follows: o!few= 0.80 — for deformed bars. Jovfu=0.85 for normal relaxation stress-relieved strands, wires and bars. Soff =0.90 for low relaxation stress-relieved strands and wires. ‘The strength reduction factor yp for prestressing steel is taken the same as non- prestressed steel, Hence, the strength reduction factor for flexure 7 is taken as Ls. ‘The tensile stresses allowed by the ECP 203 for prestressing wires, prestressing strands, or prestressing bars are dependent upon the stage of loading, At jacking, the maximum allowable stress is the lesser of 0.75 fyu OF 0.90 fpy « When the jacking force is first applied, a stress of 0.70 fy: is allowed. Immediately after transfer of the prestressed force to the concrete, the permissible stress is 0.70 fyu or 0.80 fyy Whichever is smaller. The previous values are applied also in case of postensioned members. The ECP 203 allowable stresses in prestressing steel are summarized in Table 8.1 ‘Table 8.1 Allowable tensile stresses for prestressing steel ‘Maximum stress produced by jacking (before transfer)” 0:90 fry OF 0.75 fru ‘Maximum tendon stress at tensioning process O70 Maximum tendon stress immediatly after tanafer not t | O80 fy oF 070 Jpx exceed the smaller of ‘Maximum stress in post tensioned tendons at anchorages | 00h, of 070 pu and couplers immediately after anchorage of the tendons not to exceed the smaller of * Not to exceed the stress recommended by the manufacturer of the prestressing system 515 8.2.2.2 Allowable Concrete Stresses Concrete with high compressive strength is normally used in prestressed members. This is because of its high modulus of elasticity (less creep and elastic shortening losses). In addition, its high bearing capacity permits the use of small anchorage zone. The allowable stresses in concrete are dependent on the stage of loading. The ECP 203 gives these stresses in two stages namely; at transfer and at service loads. The allowable stresses at transfer are given in Table 8.2, [At the service load stage, the ECP-203 classifies prestressed concrete elements into 4 cases depending on the tensile stresses developed in the section, These cases are as follows: Case A: (Full prestressing) ‘These are elements in which there is no tensile stresses are allowed (Geveloped tensile stress equals to zero). These elements are: ‘© Structural elements subjected to cyclic or dynamic loads. ‘© Structures with tension side severely exposed to corrosive environment of strong chemical attack which cause rusting of steel (category four according to ECP 203). Case B: Uncracked sections ‘These are elements in which the tensile stresses due to all loads are less than 044 Fe nee ‘Examples of structural elements deigned according to case B are: ‘© Solid slabs and flat slabs. + Prestressed concrete elements with unbonded tendons. + Structures with severely exposed tension side (category three according to ECP 203), Case C: An intermediate case between full and partial prestressing Structural elements are subjected to tensile stresses larger than case B but less than the cracking strength of concrete given by: Sup = 06fF qe < AON Imm? Case D: Cracked sections (Partial prestressing) ‘These are elements in which the tensile stresses due to all loads (using Uuncracked sections properties, J,), are less than O.85,/f,,.« (84a) save (8.40) 516In addition, the tensile stresses developed in the section due to permanent loads, which might include permanent live loads, should be Tess than 0.6,/7., - ‘Table 8.2 Allowable concrete stresses (N/mm? ) ‘At the time of initial tensioning before time dependent losses produced by For cases C and D, ordinary reinforcing steel or non-prestressed : oe ae strands are provided to resist the tension force developed in the section sere Se ese el rece _ at the working stage. 1, Maximum compressive stress 045 fet 7 Maximum tensile stress except as permitied in F 1 [item 3 “ Case K Case B Case C Case D - 3. Maximum tensile stiess at the ends of simply wir supported members o oO oO oO i Service load flexural stresses, assuming all prestressed losses have occurred (At Service Loads) T. Maximum compressive stress due to prestressed IX. 0.35 few plus sustained Toads Movimn Ze oa, | oooffs | oss ife Z. Maximum compressive sess due to prestressed anon plus total loads “ 3. Maximum tensile stress in pre-compressed zone | Case A- Zero tensile zone Case B- 0.44,/7, Tu Fal Uncracked Partial ase C- 0.604 (vin?) : Transition | Case C- 0.60, mm?) | prestressing ection re Ee s —_— S4.N /mm* 0 0 278 379 338 5 0 295 402 370 Case D- 0.85 Mfa 50 0 3d 424 [601 7 ‘Kxial compression — T. Maximum compressive stress 025 fa 35 0 3.26 445 630 mr E 60 0 341 465 6.58 where feu is the concrete characteristic strength at the time of transfer, (Num? ) ‘concrete characteris at Fig, 8.2 Maximum allowable tension at full service loads Ce ae teristic strength at service load (N/mm?) 317 5188.2.3 Calculations of Stresses at Transfer After applying the prestressing force to the beam, the beam deflects upward (camber) and the only extemal applied moment is due to the sclf-weight of the beam Moy as shown in Fig. 8.3. The bottom fibers are subjected to high compression stresses while, the top fibers are subjected to tension stresses. The concrete strength fox used in the calculation of the permissible stresses should be at the time of transferring the force to the concrete. Furthermore, the prestressing force (P;) used in stress expressions is the initial prestressing force before losses. P_Pxe M, foe 045 fa Sig 65 A 2a Mow Fo S02 AF 8.6) 8.2.4 Calculations of Stresses at Full Service Loads ‘After the application of the superimposed dead loads and the live loads, the prestressed member shall be subjected to the total service moment Miss. The full intensity of such loads usually occurs after the building is completed and some time-dependent losses have taken place. Therefore, the prestressing force used in the computation of stresses is the effective prestressing force (P,) a8 shown in Fig. 84. The total unfactored load on the beam is given as: (8.72) Woy + Woy Why ee P, =P x{l~loses(%)] (8.70) ‘The maximum bending at mid span for simple beam equals: Fig 0.22[ Fog Ro Sir<045 fa Stresses at mid section Fig. 8.3 Stress distribution and allowable stresses af transfer 579 } | | Loads at the service load stage Most for Ap ° A lig! Sou ‘Stresses at mid section 8.4 Stress distribution and allowable stresses at full service loads 580‘The stresses ae calculated using Fg. 8.8 and Eq. 89. The stresses at mid-span section should not exceed the limits allowed by the code and given in Table 8.2. w= (8.8) (8.9) Photo 8.2 Tendon placement in a bridge box-section 581 8.2.5 Summary ‘Equations for stress computation are used to determine the concrete stress at the extreme fibers for positive and negative bending moments as summarized in Table 8.3. It is important to verify that the stresses for both load cases (at transfer and at full service load) are within the allowable limits. ‘Table 8.3 Stress calculations at top and bottom of sections subjected to either negative or positive bending moments Item At transfer At full service load 2 fee | fg AXE Me Poe Maw g 4° 2, Ze 0,22 [fan A hy = S040 f, a Soot Moat seo ble 8.2 : te i Z Sor i In the following example problems, the allowable stresses are usually available and the determination of one unknown (the prestressing force, the span, or the loads) is required. For a certain load case (transfer or service load), two values, can be obtained by solving the stress equations at the top and the bottom for the required unknown. Care should be given to the appropriate choice as given in Table 8.4. ‘Table 8.4 Analysis of prestressed sections At Transfer At Service load ‘© Smaller Pr + Larger P ‘© Smaller Ase © Langer Ase ‘* Longer span * Smaller span ‘+ Smaller eccentricity + Langer eccentricity ¢ ‘+ Larger self-weight loads + Smaller live-loads ‘+ Larger self-weight moment + Smaller moment 582Example 8.1 FFor the prestressed beam shown in figure and knowing that the beam is fully prestressed determine, 1. The required force at transfer. 2. The amount of prestressing steel. 3, The stresses at final stage. Data Sex =40.Nimm? fess = 30 Nim? fey = 1700 N/mm? fou = 2000 N/mm? LL =18kN/m' (unfactored) Flooring weight = 4 kN/m’ (unfactored) cover =100 mim 1s0—-| -/— 800 1200 Solution Step 1: Calculate Section Properties ‘The cross sectional area (A) equals: A=2x700%200 + 800%150 = 400000 mm? Since the section is symmetrical; Yio = Yeeaoa = 600 mm pa al 100%200 2 1 _ 2733x108 Y seo 600 150%800° 12 .733x10" mmn* + 700 200%(60 100" + 289108 mm* Loop Zoo = 1.289108 mm? 400000 Woy 27 XA = 25x00 = 0kN Im’ 10" ‘The allowable compression stress fi; and allowable tension stresses fy can be obtained using the compressive strength of concrete at the time of pre-stressing fax a8 follows: (f= 04S x fig = 0.45 x 30 = -13.5 Ninn? fy = 0.224 fgg = 0.22430 = 1.2 N/mm 200 ° 200 e [7m | 700 Beam cross section 83 seStep 2: Calculate the initial prestressing force at transfer At transfer, the self-weight of the beam is the only applied load, thus: a B 10x22’ = 605 kN.m ne 15 RN. ‘The eccentricity of the cable from the C.G. of the section equals: © =Yoq, Cover = 600-100 = 500 mam ‘The initial prestressing force should stratify the allowable stresses at transfer at the bottom and top fibers. B_Pxe M, A Zag Liu Seon ‘Assuming that P; is in KN, and applying in the previous equation gives Pu. P,x1000_P, x1000x500 , 605x10° 400000——+1.289%10" "1.28910" Pip = 2852. KN -13.5 ‘A second value Pj is obtained from the analysis of the top fibers as follows: = e P,x1000 , P; x1000x500_605x10° “400000” —«1.289x10 1.28910" P2= 4281 KN 2 A presressing ‘The chosen initial prestressing force is the smaller of the two values, because it will give stress at the opposite fiber that is less than the allowable. In this case, the critical load is 2852 KN giving -13.5 N/mm? at the bottom fiber. Applying this load at transfer will give stress at the top fiber of -7.6 N/mm? (calculation is not shown), which is less than the allowable stress at transfer. Final design Pi=Piz=2852 KN Step 3: Calculate the required prestressing steel ‘The allowable prestressing stress at time of transfer is given by: (0:10 f ,, = 0.72000 = 1400. /mim* Sy, = smaller of 0.8 f,, =0.8x1700 = 1360 N J mm* ‘f= 1360 N/mm? A, =i 2 2852%1000 9997 mum? oF, 1360 Step 4: Calculate the stresses at the service load stage ‘The total load is the summation of dead and live loads. 044 +18 =32KN Im! 585 586‘The total moment at the mid-span equals: Way LF _ 32x22? My 1936 km 8 8 ‘The effective prestressing force at the time of applying all service loads equals: Pe= (L-losses) P, > Pex (10.15) x 2852 = 2424.2 KN ‘The allowable stresses at service load stage equals. fu = er0 (no tens is allowed in fully prestressed beams) fag =040f,, =0.40%40=-16.N Imm? BLP Ke Mug FB xe Mw Vas 1G Sotam 2424.2x1000 , 242421000500 _ 1936%10° “400000 1289x10° —_‘1.289x10° vs M6(safe) fue, =~ #2421000 _2424-2x1000x500 , 1936x10" fon 400000 1.289x10" 1.289x10° Sree =—0.44N Imm? ...< 2070 (safe) ‘The beam is considered safe because non of the extreme fiber stresses exceed. the allowable stresses. 2m—__——| Loads at the service load stage Frog Stresses at mid section 587 588Example 8.2 Figure EX 8.2 shows the cross-section of a simply supported post-tensioned beam. Determine the maximum span of the beam based on the stresses at the transfer. Assume that the beam is made of normal strength concrete with f.=40 N/mm’, and the concrete strength at transfer (feu) is 75% of the cube strength. ‘Assume also that the time dependent losses are 12% of the initial prestressing and thatthe yield strength and the ultimate strength of the tendons are 1700 and 2000 N/mm’, receptively. Knowing that the beam is categorized as case D, check stresses at full service stage if the beam is subjected to an unfactored live load of 12.5 kN/m’ and tunfactored superimposed dead load of 4 kN/m’. Calculate the required non prestressed steel (f=400 N/mm’). ~] }-—| 1300 mam ; 350 mm Fig. EX 8.2 Beam elevation and cross section Solution Step 1: Calculate Section Properties ‘The cross sectional area (A) equals: A= 350%1300 = 455000 mm? Since the section is symmetrical; Yi = Yexton= 650 mm 1 = 25021300" 6.41510" mm 12 Digg = —L— = SAPO" 98.583105 mm? Year 65 Zag Zoot = 98.583 X108 mn 455000 5455000, xA 10° 5; The allowable compression stress fi and the allowable tension stress fa can be obtained using the compressive strength of concrete atthe time of pre-stressing Jai follows: 22.5 NI mm* 10.125 N/mm Sq =0.22q[ Fay = 0.2222.5 = 1.04 NI mm? g | a 3 gle sont A ~|2 Th 350ehm 589 590‘Step 2: Calculate the prestressing force ‘The allowable prestressing stress at time of transfer is given by: (070 f,. = 0.72000 = 1400 N/mm? smaller of ‘yy = 0.81700 = 1360. fram: fo=1360 Nim? PL =A,, Xf, = 180021360 = 44s EN 1000 Step 3: Calculate beam span At transfer, the self weight of the beam is the only applied load. Since the span is unknown the bending due to own weight equals: EB _U31sxi? M, =142xE kN 8 ‘The eccentricity of the cable from the c.g of the section equals: © = yy ~Cover = 650-100 = 550 mm ‘Analysis of the stresses at the bottom fiber, which is compression, gives: P_Pxe M, Soesom ze 2448x1000 _ 2448x1000%550 ,_M,, x10° 455000 ——«98.583x10" —-98.583x10" 10.125 Moy = 878.64 KN.n Analysis of the stresses at the top fiber, which is tension, gives: PLP xe M, -10.125 Nimm? condition wale ‘unsafe Fog 0.635 Sig 1.04 unsafe Co fit =11.804 S91 592Step 4: Calculate stresses at the service load stage ‘The total load is the summation of dead and live loads. oe FW pp 4 yp =UI3TS# 4412.5 = 27.875KN Jr’ ‘The total moment at the midspan equals: ‘The effective prestressing force atthe time of applying all service loads is, P= (I-losses)P) > Pe=(1-0.12) x 2448 = 2154.24 kN, For case D, the allowable stresses at service load stage equals: .85fF,, =0.85 40 fa = 040 f,, =0.40%40 4.N mm? tue 16.N mm? P.PXC_ Mis Son=“K GT, fig = ZED cL000 , 2154-24%1000%50 153.210" - 455000, 98.583x10° 98.583x10° Sap =H456.N Frm? ... <16 (safe) 5 B A “Fn =~ 2iSA24x1000 _ 2154:24%1000%550 2153.2x10° a 455000 98.583x10° 98.583x10° <5A (safe) ‘The beam is considered safe because both extreme fiber stresses (at top and bottom) are less than the allowable stress. Frnaon = +5.09N fmm? 593 Step 5: Calculation of non-prestressed steel (As) ‘Since the stresses at the bottom (+5.09 N/mm?) exceeds the tensile strength of concrete (0.6 V40 =3.79N fmm”), the beam must be reinforced with non- prestressed steel. The depth ofthe tension zone yen equals _ 5.09) 5.09+14.56 Yom 1300 = 336.8 mm The tension force equals: T= 4 Sam San XB = 5.093368 350/1000 = 300 ‘The allowable working stress f, for the non-prestressed steel (f=400 N/mm’) is obtained from Table 5.1 of the ECP 203. > 200 Nimm? 4, = 2 = 300x100 i = 1500 mm™ — Use 4 @ 22 Wrogt@27.875 KN Pe=2154.24) 24.858 m —-+| Loads at the service load stage fop= 14.56 1300 350 Stresses at mid section 594Example 8.3 Calculate the required prestressing force at the service load stage if the beam shown in the figure is subjected to dead loads of 8 KN/m(not including own weight) and live loads of 20 kN/mm’. The beam is prestressed with unbonded tendons and the losses may be assumed 16 %. It is also required to check the stresses at transfer. ‘Assume that fou= 45 N/mm’, feye= 34 Némam? tC L-1Sm ‘Beam elevation | 1200 mm. 750 mm Solution Step 1: Calculate Section Properties ‘The cross sectional area (A) equals: A=1200%150+ 250%750 = 367500 mm? Since the section is not symmetrical, calculate the location of the center of gwiy, > 1200150575 + 250%750%525 * 367500 304.6 mm 1200x150? +1200%150%(304.6-73)* = OTe +250%750%(525~304.6)? Yup = (150-750) ~304. 595.4 mm 1 _ 2.7710" = 91.02x10° mm? 150 C7] ye=304.6 g 100 An e=4954 fas 95.4 . Beam cross-section 350 ‘ 595 596Since the beam’ is prestressed with unbonded tendons, the beam is categorized 25 case B, The allowable compression stress fee and the allowable tension stress, Jie at full service load (case B) can be obtained using the compressive strength ‘of concrete fy as follows: 8.0 Nim? fue= 040 X fn =0.40 x 45 fy 044 fF, = 0.44045 =2.95 N/mm? Step 2: Calculate prestressing force at service load stage Wad =W gy $Y py HW ps = 9.1875 +8420 =37.19KN fn” ‘The total moment at the mid-span equals: us L?_ 37.1915" «8 8 You Cover = 595.4—100 = 495.4 mm M, = 1045.9 kN m ‘The prestressing force should satisfy the allowable stresses at the top and bottom fibers. The first value for the prestressing force is obtained from the condition atthe bottom fibers, which is given by: Saunt 2.952 P, x1000 1000 495.4, 1045.9x10° 12952 =""361500 46.6x10° —-46.6x10° Pe=1460.3 KN Wee=37.19 N/m Pe Pe Stresses at mid section at service load Foortom 597 ‘The second value for the prestressing force is obtained from the critical condition at the top fibers, which is given by: P,x1000 , P, x1000%495.4 _1045,9x108 367500 91.02 x10' 91.02x10° Pez = -2391 KN (negative) ‘The previous load value is negative and means that the prestressing force is tension and therefore itis rejected. Thus, the prestressing force is taken equal to 1460.3 KN (still the principle of choosing the bigger is valid). Step 3: Check stress at transfer ‘At transfer, the self-weight ofthe beam isthe only Woe LP _ 9.1875 x15* ~ 8 8 P,=P, (\-losses) 16) = 258.4 Nn 146037, (I= Pi= 1738 KN ‘The allowable stress at transfer is given by: fea= 045 x fet 45 x 3 15.3 Nimm? Sig = 0.22 fgg = 0.22034 = 1.283 NI mm? B_Pxe, My A Die Lire 1738%1000 _1738x1000%495.4. 258.4x10° 367500 46.6%10" 46.6%10° Foote seam |-17.67 | Nimm? >|-15.3| N/mm? (unsafe) 598__1738x1000 foe =—67500 * 91.02x10" 91.0210" Sq = 41.89 Nim? > +1.283 Nim? (unsafe) ‘The beam is considered unsafe because both the extreme fiber stresses exceed the allowable stresses. Soon 17.67 Stresses at transfer Example 8.4 ‘The cantilever beam shown in figure supports balcony in a stadium. It is required to determine the cross sectional area for low relaxation stress relieved strands based on the allowable stresses at transfer. Assume that f= 1900 Némm?,fx=50 Nimm?, fe= 38 N/mm’. CCalcutate the service load stress if the unfactored superimposed dead load is 8.0 KcN/m’ and the unfactored live load is 14 kNim’ Assume losses of 159% and that the beam is considered as case B. | rent 150 [i+ 200—| 900 }+-— 600 — + 400+} Beam cross section Prestressed steel 6m Beam elevation 599 600Solution Step 1: Calculate section properties A =900%150-+600%200 + 400x150= 315000 mm? Since the section is not symmetrical, one should calculate the C.G. 900%150%75 +600 200%450-+400%150%825 _ 360 7 mm 315000 200%600" 4-900%150% (3601-75) + 22S” + 200% 600% (450-360.7) soox50? ~ 2 HOS snsasoxon5-3007) = 288710%mm $60.7 = = 150+ 600-+150)~360.7 =5393 mm 80.053%10" mm? 1 288710" — 53.546%10° mm? Yor 5393 315000 = 7.875KN/ mi! Wouy = VeXAH 25% 100 |-— 900 —-| ‘The allowable compression stress fe and the allowable tension stress fy can be obtained using the compressive strength of concrete at the time of pre-stressing feu 28 follow: Jer= OAS x fogs = 0.45 x 38 = -17.1 Nétam? fg =0.22q[ fgg =0.22N38 Step 2: Calculate the initial prestressing force at transfer 365. NI mm™ At transfer, the self-weight is the only load that acts on the beam at transfer. Wo, EE 1.875X6? nr) ‘The eccentricity of the cable from the C.G, of the section equals: ~ cover = 360.7 —100 = 260.7 mim = 141.75 kNm ‘The first prestressing force is obtained from the critical condition at the bottom fibers, which is tension as shown in figure and is given by: Assuming that P; is in KN, and applying in the previous equation, one gets; P, 1000 | F;,x1000x260.7 _141.75x108 315000 53.546x10° 53.546x10" Py=2367.7 KN +1365 601‘The second prestressing force is obtained from the critical condition at the top fibers, which is compression as shown in figure and is given by: PBX Mo A Zu Ley Soe P.,X1000 _ Pj, x1000%260.7 | 141.75%10° 80.053x10° 80.053x10° -I71 315000 P2= 2934.2 KN ‘The allowable stresses at the bottom and top fibers of the section are -17.1 Nimm? and + 1.356 N/mm’, respectively. The calculation of the prestressing force should be based on the smaller of the two values obtained from the analyses of stresses at the bottom and top fibers (Pi=2367.7 KN.m). This is attributed to the fact that at the case of transfer the self-weight moment produces stresses that are of opposite sign compared to the allowable stresses. Final design Pj=Pi=2367.7 KN ‘A summary ofthe calculations i given in the following table. Step 3: Calculate the required prestressing steel For low relaxation stress relieved strands, the code specify the yield stress as Sy = 9.9% f py = 0.91900 =1710 Nimin* ‘The allowable prestressing stress at time of transfer is given by: 170 fu = 0.71900 = 1330 N/mm? (0. f, = smaller of. 0.8 f,, =0.8x1710 =1368 N/mm? fov=1330 Nim” P,_ 2367.1%1000 aaa 1330 4, 1780 mm Step 4: Calculate stresses at the service load stage ‘The total load is the summation of dead and live loads: 1.875 +8+14 = 29.875 kN fm" Wat Wop Wo He ‘The total moment at the support equals: My E _ 29.8756" Ttem bottom condition Top condition ‘Allowable stress Nimm’ 4136 a7 ‘Actual stress +136 “710 Force GN) Nimm’ 2367.7 29342 ‘Stress at opposite fiber 7-13.46 232 al Nimm? Condition ‘unsafe Mu = 537.8 kNm 2 “The effective prestressing force at the time of applying all service loads is: -losses) P, 1-0.15) x 2367.7 = 2012.5 kN ‘The allowable stresses at service load stage for stage B equals; Fae =0.44)f, =0.44 (50 =3.13.N fmm? Soa = 0.40 f,, =0.40%50=—20 0 J mm? Pxe M, Soap Poeaoee A Ly” Zap jg =~ 2012S 21000 _ 2012.5 1000%2607 537.810" “ 315000 80.053x10° 80.053x10° Sag = (6.23 Jum? 20| (safe) 603 604= 20125 1000 , 2012.5 x1000x260.7 __537.8x10" 53.546x10° 53.546x10° Fosn =F 5000 Scam = 8:63 Imm? ...<-20(safe) ‘The beam is considered safe because non of the extreme fiber stresses exceed the allowable stresses. Wnt=29.875 kA pLitiiitiyyy 2012.5 Example 8.5 Assuming that the cantilever beam shown in Example 8.4 may be categorized as case D and based on the service load stage, calculate the maximum value of the live load that can be added to the beam. Tap Loc} To ao Beam cross section 605 606Solution Step ee Woy 1H op +H, FM gy = 7875+ 8414 40 gj = 29.875 40 ay : Calculate the maximum moment at service load stage ‘The total moment at the support equals Mag = Mee = MX 2 2 ‘The sfoble erence a crvic6 oad wig for cate D egal: f= 085 fz, =0.85 V50=601N Imm? Soa = 040 fu = 8 Wg 4050 = =20 N/mm? ‘The first critical moment is obtained from the critical stress at the bottom fibers. Wg=29.875+ Watt 2012.5 1000 , 2012.5 x1000%260-7 _M rays 10° 315000 53.546x10° '53.546x10° Mot 7=1253.5 kN. ‘The second critical moment is obtained from the critical stress at the top fibers Wee 29.8754 a2 Sug 6.01 at P.=2012.5, rages, 2012.5 1000 _ 2012.5 100% 260.7 , Maga X10 315000 80.053x10° 80.053x10° ‘The chosen moment is the smaller of the two moments, because it will result in opposite fiber stress that is less than the maximum allowable stress (see the comparison table below), Moot =Muyah =1253.3 kN. Wy XO Mya =1253.3 69.6 KN Im’ Wy = 69.65 29.875 + Was ‘Thus the load that can be added to the beam equals: wags = 39.8 kN/m” Trem bottom condition |Top condition — ‘Actual stress Nima =20.00 601 7 We (KN/m’) 69.64 343 Wasa (KN/m’) 39.76 544 ‘Stress at opposite fiber* | 2.72 “26.45 Nim? Condition safe unsafe jen Jox601 ansofe>20 Arcwon="20 * Calculations are not shown. 6088.3 Flexural Strength of Prestressed Beams 8.3.1 Introduction ‘The main objective of the prestressing procedure is to produce a member that is almost free of cracks at service loads. However, the satisfaction of concrete and steel stress limits at service loads does not necessarily ensure adequate strength and does not provide a reliable indication of either the actual strength or the safety of a structural member. It is important to consider the non-linear behavior of the member in the ultimate stage to ensure that it has an adequate structural capacity. If external dead and live loads are applied to the prestressed concrete member shown in Fig. 8.5, various loading stages are noted. A typical loading history along with stress distribution is given in Fig. 8.5 and Fig 8.6. The following is a summary of loading stages: 1. The initial prestressing force P; is applied to the beam and is transmitted to the concrete together with the beam self-weight ‘This is usually called the transfer stage. 2. At the service load stage, the full superimposed dead load is applied. In most cases, this will produce compression stresses all over the cross section as shown in Fig. 8.6. Most of the long-term losses including creep and shrinkage have occurred leading to net prestressing force of P.. 3. If the load is further increased due to the introduction of the live loads, the upward deflection due prestressing is canceled (or balanced) by the applied extemal loads, and the resultant deflection is equal to zero. The stress over the cross section is uniform and equals P/A. This is called the balanced stage. 4. A further increase in loading will produce tension at the bottom fibers and zero stress at the prestressing steel level. This is called the decompression stage. 5. At this stage the beam probably is at the full service load stage. If the loads ate furthered increased the developed tension stresses at the bottom fiber reach the concrete tensile strength far. At this stage the beam stats to crack and the inertia of the beam drops dramatically. This called the cracking stage. 6. Finally, overloading of the member occurs leading to the ultimate condition of the beam and the final collaps~ of the member. 609 } § Load Ubimate an ase range: los changes ae resisted by stress changes 7 ten Gimps tered by Sos chan stot A topes in Yielding Cracking Blastic ange: load changes ae resisted by shift ofthe pressure line full dead load Deformation ‘4 ay AL [a Initial presiress camber Ane =Eifective prestress camber A, =sel-weight deflection bre |p dead load deflection “| |, =tive load deflection An Fig, 85 Load-deformation curve at different loading stages for prestressed beams 610w kN’ Litt tt tits titi titi iy Es Eepesils — cbnpreaton “tasbe Avwanfer——illdeadoads Atl Ute sve oad Fig. 8.6 Stress distributions at various stages During the loading of a prestressed concrete beam, the neutral axis starts to rise at a relatively uniform rate as the external loads increase. This behavior Continues until the beam cracks. After the cracking load has been exceeded, the neutral axis rate of movement decreases as additional loads are applied, and significant incréase in the stress in the prestressing tendon begins to take place. ‘This change in action continues until the applied loads are entirely resisted by proportional changes in the internal forces, just as the ordinary reinforced concrete. At the ultimate stage, additional moment capacity is created by an increase in the magnitude of the components of the intemal couple rather than by increase in the arm of the intemal couple as shown in Fig. 8.5, ‘The fact that the load is carried at the ultimate by different actions that are significantly different than those in the elastic range makes the ultimate strength calculations essential for all prestressed members to ensure that adequate safety exists, oul 8.3.2 Calculations of the Ultimate Moment Capacity ‘The ECP 203 requires that the moment due to all factored loads not to exceed the ultimate capacity of the section. The ultimate moment capacity M, is calculated ina manner similar to that adopted for ordinary non-prestressed beams. If a prestressed beam is loaded up to fuilure, the distribution of the stresses becomes nonlinear and the strain in the steel continues to increase with noticeable large deformations. ‘The code assumes that the final failure occurs when the concrete strain reaches 0.003. Since the stress-strain curve of the prestressing steel does not contain a ‘well defined yield plateau, the stress in the tendons continues to increase beyond the yield point at a reduced slope, The final steel stress at ultimate fps must be predicted in order to compute the ultimate capacity of the beam. Referring to Fig. 8.7, equilibrium of the intemal forces gives C48 =T, + snes (8.10) 067 fy ba MxF, Ag fos 1s ris Lis 115 (Ay in which Cz is the compression foree in the concrete. G, is the compression force in the non-prestressing steel is the tension force in the prestressing cables T’ is the tension force in the non-prestressing steel 0.67 feg/1.5 ES Lp Arsf/ LIS TALLIS Fig. 8.7 Analysis of a prestressed section at'ul 612‘The depth of the compression stress block (a) is determined from Eq, 8.11. For rectangular sections with prestressing steel in the tension side only, the ultimate moment is given by: ws (8:12) nx wa tette(s, 8) Lis 2. where d, is the distance from the prestressed reinforcement to the compression fiber. For sections reinforced with both non-prestressing steel (tension and compression) and prestressing steel as the one shown in Fig. 8.7, the ultimate ‘moment M,is given by: AnXfn(, 2), 4°46 (, 8), AXA (ay Aare (a, 2) 2b (4-2), (-«) 19 Total amount of prestressing steel and non-prestressing steel reinforcement shall be adequate to develop at least 1.2 the cracking moment Mz, given by the ECP 203 (explained in details in Chapter 9). Exception is made for flexural members with shear and flexural strength that exceed twice the ultimate design ‘moment and for unbonded post-tensioned slabs. In all of the above equations, prestressing steel stress at ultimate fp, is unknown ‘because the stress-strain curve is non-linear as shown in Fig. 8.8a. oy Ge a Fig. 8.8a Stress-Strain curve for prestressing reinforcement Strain, fps 613, 8.3.3 Calculation of Prestressing Steel Stress at Ultimate fos ‘The calculation of fy depends on whether the tendons are bonded or unbonded. 8.3.3.1 Calculation of fps in Bonded Tendons ‘The ECP 203 provides two different methods for calculating the steel stress at ultimate for bonded tendons. These two methods are: ‘¢ The strain compatibility method. ‘+ The simplified method. Calculation of f,. Using the Strain Compatibility ‘At transfer, tendon stress is equal to the initial prestressing stress ff; and the extemal moment equals the self weight moment. As ereep and shrinkage occur, the concrete shortens and the stress in the tendon drops to a value less than fy as shown in Fig. 8.8. When service loads are applied, the beam deflects downward and the cable elongate. Since the developed bending strains are sinall compared to the strains in the prestressing steel, only a slight increase in the tendon force occurs. The increased internal moment (from May to M, ) required to resist the moment produced by the live loads, is created by an increase in the arm of the internal couple (the neutral axis moves upwards) without any significant increase in tendon stress. When the tensile stress in the conérete equals the tensile strength (occurs at M.,), cracking occurs and the tendon stress increases by the amount equal (o the tension formerly carried by the concrete. If the load is further increased, the strain in the prestressing steel increases at an accelerated rate and the beam undergoes large deflections and reaches fpe at the ultimate condition (M, ). For under-reinforced beams, the final failure occurs when the maximum compressive strain in the concrete reaches @ value of 0.003. Increase in tendon stress afer cracking foe Losses due ere, ‘Tendon Stress Moment Mow My Ma M, Fig. 8.8b Tendon stress as a function of the applied load oi‘The ECP 203 states that the strain in the prestressing steel at ultimate é,can be computed as the sum of three components as follows (refer to Fig. 8.9). 14) Where Ep = the strain in the prestressing steel due to prestressing after computing all losses. ee = the strain in, concrete at the level of the prestressing steel due to prestressing after computing all losses (decompression strain). 9c = the strain in the prestressing steel determined using equilibrium of forces. Calculation of 6, ‘The first component fpe is the strain due to prestressing, and can be computed simply by applying Hook’ law as follows: Su Fltn fe 8.15) E, &, where E, is the steel modulus of elasticity, P. is the effective prestressing forceand Apis the cross sectional atea of the prestressing steel. 0.67 fa /15 ET Cy }=— Co ain to [pNpeh/ LIS TALLIS ‘ean de to ‘decompression Fig. 8.9 Strain and stress distributions at ultimate for a prestressed beam 615 ion of At transfer, the bottom fibers are subjected to compressive stresses due to the ‘existence of the prestressing steel. After applying the service load, the stresses at the bottom fibers decrease gradually until reaching zero. The strain required for the concrete stress to reach zero at the level of prestressing steel is called the decompression strain fe #8 shown in Fig. 8.10. From compatibility of the strains, the strain in the concrete must be equal that of the prestressing steel. (8.16) where Ecis the concrete modulus of elasticity at full strength and fe is the stress in the concrete due to prestressing force after considering all losses and is given by Eq. 8.17, BL, Bxexe in compression Sou prestressing force only decompression stage Fig. 8.10 Stresses in concrete due to prestressing and at decompression stage 616Calculation of 6 ‘After the decompression stage the behavior of the prestressed beam becomes similar to that of an ordinary reinforced concrete beam as shown in Fig. 8.9. From the decompression stage to the ultimate stage, additional strain ge starts to develop in the prestressed steel reinforcement. Since the maximum concrete strain at failure stated in the ECP 203 is 0.003, the corresponding strain in the steel above the decompression stage can be calculated from: (8.18) Where dp is the depth of the prestressing steel, cis the depth of the neutral axis obtained from the equilibrium of all forces acting on the section including non- prestressed steel using Eq. 8.11. ‘The material strength reduction factor for the prestressing steel (Ypx) is taken as 1.15. The corresponding stress at ultimate, can be obtained from the idealized stress-strain curve suggested by the code as given by Eq. 8.20 and Fig. 8.11. (em ienee=s Dal iat Loe Vn Emu sy! Voe) Yor Vw 4, Ey = 0.003: sn (819) Eye > Ey (AS (8.200) Sub tet pS) Cu En Ye (ejfipa then fos equals: iy SE py M15 (8.206) Ifthe strain Ep, is less than the yielding str Sp =i XE fre Sn 4 Em bn! Ie) Ym Tn En=En! tod io Se Su Strain d stress-strain curve for prestressing steel 617 B: Calcul ion of f,: Using Empirical Equations ‘The previous procedure for calculating the prestressing stee! stress at failure is, reasonably accurate but itis time consuming. The ECP 203 states thatthe stress in the bonded prestressing steel at failure can be predicted by the following empirical formula only if fp2>0.5 Joy 8 follows: Sn Se [inf He Lto-«]| (8.21) where te te *\o807, * \oso7, An 4 Pe oxd, Oh 17, is a factor forthe type of the prestressing steel 0.68 for fylfu 2 0.80 05: for folie > 0.85 0.35 for f/f 2 0.90 iis the depth ofthe non-prestressed steel dy is the depth of the prestressed steel bis the width of the compression zone. If the beam has a flange, use the width of the flange (B). However, if the neutral axis falls in the web use the width of the web (b). For the influence of the compression steel to be considered, two limits imposed by the code must be satisfied: In|, 4 (go) (+2) 4-(o-o)2 047 ss (822) 2. d’s0.15 d, (823) When the term [(4, fy, /08f,,)+d/d, (@-a')] in Ba, 8.21 is small, the compression reinforcement does not develop its yield strength and Eq. 8.21 becomes un-conservative. This is the reason why the term 618[(4, Sou /0-8fa) +d ld, (o-0*)] in Eq, 8.21 may not be taken less than 0.17, if the compression reinforcement is taken into account when computing Sos If the conditions given by Eq. 8.22 and Eq. 8.23 are not met, the compression reinforcement contribution is assumed to be zero ('=0) and in this case the term [(u, fy /08f,,)+4/4,(@-)] may be ess than 0.17 and an increased value of fy is obtained. However, the contribution of the compression steel in calculations of the ultimate moment (Eq, 8.13) should be considered. 8.3.3.2 Calculation of fy: for Unbonded Tendons The grouting of the prestressing ducts is always a recommended practice. However, in some situations such as in two-way slab systems or in voided slabs, it is difficult to perform grouting operation in the ducts because the thickness of the concrete section is small. ‘Members with unbonded strands lack the bond between the conerete and the prestressing steel and accordingly strain compatibility method cannot be used ‘Therefore, it is clear that the expressions presented for stress in prestressed bonded steel is not applicable for unbonded steel. However, Eq. 8.12 and Eq 8.13 for the calculation of the ultimate moment M, are still valid since they are derived from the satisfaction of the equilibrium conditions. ‘The ECP 203 presents the following set of expressions to estimate Joy in unbonded prestressing steel. ‘+ For members with unbonded tendons having a span-to-depth ratio of 35 cor less (applies to most beams) Sf 125 4, (8.24a) saotavto (gi) om but not greater than fp and not greater than (/pe+420 N/mm”) ‘« For members with unbonded tendons having a span-to-depth ratio ‘greater than 35 or less (applies to most slabs): be) inn? Son pas704{ fe) (NA ) svsesonaees (8.240) but not greater than fy and not greater than (f,+200 N/mm?) 619 In order to ensure a good serviceability behavior for members with unbonded tendons, a reasonable amount of non-prestressing stee! has to be used. This steel controls the flexural cracks and contributes to the ultimate moment capacity. ‘The minimum area of non-prestressing steel A, for a prestressed beam with unbonded stee! equals. . (8.25) A, = 0.004 A where A is the area of the part of the section between the tension face and the C.G. of the beam as shown in the figure below. Photo 8.3 Prestressed concrete bridge with multi levels 6208.3.4 Maximum Limits for the Areas of Prestressing and non-prestressing Reinforcing Steel ‘The amount of steel in prestressed members should be limited to ensure ductile failure (similar to c/d limitation for ordinary concrete members). The limitation rarely presents a problem for members with reasonable amount of prestressing, steel. The reinforcement index for prestressing and non-prestressing steel shalt be limited to: (.26) a -( +L tow} soa. Am Se ge Ae (Lo Ar (_fy_ Where 0 = a, sen 0= ie (0 ate ) Equations 8.26 can be presented in form of c/dp, where c is the neutral axis depth obtained using the equilibrium of forces and d, is the depth of the prestressing steel, For example, for rectangular sections the substitution with the values of a, wand oy in Eq. 8.26 gives: 1 (4, fu @( A, (f,\_ Al (fy “ ales dent ( tale) ele) oan aS HAS, AS (8.28) 0.80xb xd, Xf, ‘The compression force in the web equals: 0.67 f,, ba AnX fn, AXS, AX, (829) 15 see isis ea 1) Comparison of Ea. 8.28 with Eq. 8.29 gives. _( compression force intheweb x1.15 ms O.8xbxd, Xf, (831) yn (OPS XOXOSISATIS) gy 0.80xb xd, Xfu, 621 Subsisting with code limit on a4 of 0.28 gives: (8.32) £ 922, he approximate equation can be sed to calle fe Step 2: Calculate the ultimate moment ‘Since the section does not contain any non-prestressed reinforcement, the effective stress fy, equals: Sp Pre [I “ty (+, 0. ie ) d, =t—cover = (150 +600+150) ~100= 800 mm ‘Assuming that the neutral axis is within the flange, the prestressing reinforcement ratio should be based on the flange width of 900 mm. Ay __ 1780 = Ae 1780 _o.00247 4" Fd, 900x800 Ln (1710 For 22-( 1719) .0.90 - (io) 0 Te 350 f,, =1900|1-0.35 (come 2%) =1821.91 N/mm? a 0.8050 Applying equilibrium equation, and assuming that the neutral axis within the flange O67 Kf, xBXA_Ap Xn _, 0.67%50%900%a _ 1780x1821.91 1S 115 15 15 a'=140.3 mm as assumed <150 mm ee, 625 |= 8-900 — | 067 50/15 Ape fl LIS, 1 pp 2058.2 Nm 626Example 8.7: M, using the approximate equation (T-section) Compute the ultimate moment capacity for the T-beam shown in the figure below. The beam is pre-tensioned with bonded normal stress relieved tendons. Data Joe = 980 Nim? Check that the area of the prestressing steel is less than the maximum allowed by the code. ‘Solution Step 1: Check the applicability of the approximate equation ‘To apply the approximate method, f,, >22 must be satisfied 2 + 980> 1522, te approximate equation canbe used to calculate ‘Step 2: Compute fos Since no ordinary steel is provided, «o=0'=0 [aoc For normal stress relieved strands, the ratio fn/fpa= 0.85, thus: tn 1000 mam ——— ed For!2 2085-9, =050 T Assuming that the neutral axis is within the flange, tho prestressed alt reinforcement ratio shall be based on the flange width of 1000 mm . 8 A . pote - 1500 ans A Bed, ~ 1000%600 5 S lee L 1800 Su Sn [i-n(1 a }-s0 [1-as{o00es )| Ta0x7, E040 250 mm Sy =1673A4 N fmm? ara | 1000 ang ion be 7, Beam cross-sect « 80 _& ” Toda fATS 350 628 \ oarStep 3: Check the neutral axis position ‘Applying the equilibrium equation, the compressed area A- equals: 0.67% fa Ae _ Ay Xf 0.67x40%A, _ 1500%1694.5 0.61% fax Ae MoS _, 0.674 OA, _ 1500%1604'5 15 115 15 1s A, =122169 mm* Since the compressed area Ais greater than the flange arca, the neutral axis is, located outside the flange (a>t). Hence, our assumption is not correct and fox should be recalculated, Step 4: Recalculate fe Since the neutral axis is outside the flange, the reinforcement index should be based on the web thickness of 250 mm. 4, 1500 _ Meta, 250x600 1800 08x40 = 100 [1-050 (00 J] -129075 4 mm f 600-40 629 Step 5: Compute ultimate moment capacity M, Application of the equilibrium equation gives: 067% fyX Ae Ae Sun _, O67 ADA, _ 1500%1299.75 15 115) 15 11s A, =94450mm? ‘The area of the hatched flange 4, equals: A, = (1000~ 250) 80 = 60000 mm? = 24150-60000 _ 34450 250) 250) ‘Summing the moments about the prestressing steel: 137.8 mm >t, u=¢(4,-4}ec.(4, \ 1, = 25740 (1000 25080 () 80 | 292880429:1978 yg 1978) Ls 2 1S X 2 M, =927.2 kN am ‘Step 6: Check the maximum reinforcement ratio According to the code, the maximum reinforcement index a, should be less than 0.28. ee, bd, 0.80f., a 0.67%f,(B ~b) 1, _ 0.6740 (1000-250) 80 =1072x10°N 15 15 Ag nla ac, LAS Ay X1293.15 A 2088 oan? mA, =952.89 man? Lis 630Ape 1500-952.89 = 547.11 mm* oA fu SAM, 129875 61 4p bed,“ 080f, 250*600 0.80x40 a-(on La, -)| (0.147+0)=0.147 ¢ 028 of. a=137.8mm e 172.25 0.55 — = = 0.287 <0.55....0.k d, 600 Note that the applications of the above two procedures lead to the conclusion thatthe girder contains reinforcement of 52% of the maximum area of steel. # The first procedure + The second procedure 0.287/0.55= > 0.147/0.28=52% Photo 8.5 Trans-America building, 631 Example 8.8: M, using the approximate equation Determine the ultimate moment capacity for the bonded low-relaxation stress relieved strands for the rectangular cross-section shown in the figure below. ‘The material properties are feu = 45 Nim? fou=1900 Nima? Jf = 400 N/mm? So=1117 Nimo? 750 so 250 { Se] 41640 mnt ane Beam cross-section 632Solution Step 1: the applicability of the approximate equation ‘To apply the approximate method f,,>-L2- must be satisfied -us17> 8 eros cqutin nb ef Step 2: Calculate section properties d_ =750—50= 700 mm 150-100 = 650 mm A, __ 1220 AL 1220 _ 9.007 bxd 250x700 AL 640 == = 0.0037 ¥ Tea B50 T00 4, n= 380-0036 #9 oxd, 250X650 Compute the reinforcement indices and of w= x2 0001 few ‘ phe. toa 077 Step 3: Determine prestressing steel stress at ultimate fx ‘To account the compression steel in fp, calculations, two conditions must be satisfied: LR (tetas Ato-afaann es 20(o977 -00n))=0.228> 017 ok osxas "650 2 d’S01Sd, 50 0.15x650=9.75---0 For low relaxation strands f/fni=0.9, the coefficient 71, =0.35. Sn = Soll, *R,) Sy, =1900 (1=0:35:0.228) = 1747 N Jn Step 4: Determine the ultimate moment capacity A640 ma eo Aoofe/ LIS 2700 mm 5-650 |a™ 4580 mm? JA, =1220 mmm? TAf/1I5 250 Strain and stress distributions for the beam 1220x400 15 115 115 a=215.5mm and c=269.36 mm Check yielding of the compression reinforcement 269.36-50 269.36 $) Is 2 580X1747 (55 2155), 145 2 415.1 nm? > 2, cosine 2), AL (a_y -s}* Lis (4) 41.96 KN 633 634Step 5: Check the maximum reinforcement ratio According to the ECP 203 the maximum reinforcement index ( should be less than 0,28, a= (Hee 4 o-w)} soa fa oy -( $2821, 7 07 -a0s)~0913<028-0h ois 650 0.55 £ =2056 -9.414<055..04 a, 650 Example 8.9: M, using the strain compatibility method Use strain compatibility method to calculate fj for the beam given in example 8.8. The ultimate strain for the prestressing steel is equal to 0.04. Data fou =45 N/mm? f<71900 N/mm? ‘fy =400 N/mm? fpe=1117 Nimm? E,=193000 N/mm? A‘=640 mm? 750 SOF | ayet80 mat cine | Ar =1220 mm? 635 636Solution Step 1: Calculate the initial prestressing strain (é.) 801117 = 648000 N PaAX Se = ‘The initial strain due to prestressing equals: Soe AUT E, 193000 = 0.0058 Step 2: Calculate the decompression strain (é) ‘The increase in prestressing steel strain as the concrete decompressed by external loads equals: Sa E, ‘The modulus of elasticity of concrete is given by: E, = 4400 Vf, = 4400 J45 = 29516 N/mm* ‘The stress in the concrete due to prestressing only equals: fa Q T ‘The eccentricity of the cable is given by: eof cover = 2300-215 nn feoeee pole aso is0e 8.7910" mm* 12 12 Hence, one can get: 648000_, 648000%275%275 _ 9 03 1y jm? Fe 350%750* 8:79%10" 283. -0,000306 29516 637 This increase in the concrete strain (fom compression to tension) is balanced bby an increase in the stel strain of the same amount (0.000306) : 0.67 fy 1S 640 oo -—}+—-c, le—C, 700 ram oi Anal 1S AGLI Strain and stress distributions for the beam. Step 3: Calculate strain at ultimate (spc) In order to determine the depth of the neutral axis, fe must be assumed and verified later. Assume fp, Between foy and fox For low relaxation steel, fy/fy= 0.9. Foy =9.9% fy = 0.91900 =1710 N/mm? ‘Thus, assume for= 1750 Nimmy. 0.67 fy ba , AS, An Su 15 Lis meatis antes 0.67%45%250a , 6404 ‘The increase in’strain from overload to ultimate equals: 93 650 269.80 fm = 0008 269.80 ot 9042 638Step 4: Calculate total strain at ultimate (<).) pe Beet Ege 0058 +-0,0003 + 0.0042 = 0.0103 fn ‘The stress corresponding to this strain can be obtained using the idealized stress-strain curve specified by the ECP 203. Referring to the figure below and recalling that the ultimate prestressing steel strain is given as 0.04, fy can be obtained as follows: Sl lS Gills SoM AS stress g/1AS~0.0077 54=0.0103 gr004 strain Sy = 9.9% fgg =0-9%1900 = 1710 NS mmm? Sn i710 y, LISxE, ~ 1.15%193000 Cnn! Te) (pe — Sahn eee Un In) =1719+ 2M8—0.0077),. (1990-1710) fy 725.3 Nim? fy =110+ LAE AOD. ) be Since it has been assumed that f=1750 Nimm? , another trial is required. Step 5: Recalculate the total strain at ultimate ‘Assume that f= 1725N/mm? 0.67 x45%250a , 640x400 _ 1220x400 , $80%1725 15 115 11s Tis a=2133 mm = = 7133 966.6 mm 8 08 ‘The increase in strain from overload to ultimate equals: 4, 650-266.6 266.6 0.003, 0043 .0058+0,0003 + 0.0043 = 0.0104 Ege thag + Ege (0.0104~ 0.0077) (0.040-0.0077) Sy 211104 (1900-1710) =1725.8 N/mm? ‘The calculated fg. is very close to the assumed value (usually from 1-2% is close enough), the prestressing steel stress at ultimate and equals=1725 N/mm? Check yielding of the compression reinforcement 0-4" _ 6p 2666-50 400 600 187 N/mm? > “2. Compression steel yields © 2666 15 ie 00 Note: Comparing the value of fy, obtained using the simplified method (1747 N/mm?) to that obtained using the strain compatibility method, one can notice that the simplified method overestimates fr. 639 6408.4 Combined Flexure and Axial Loads Prestressed members subjected to eccentric loading may be encountered in prestressed concrete construction. The analyses of: such sections at the service oad level and the ultimate stage are outlined in the next two sections. 8.4.1 Stresses at Service Loads “The stresses at service loads for sections subjected to combined flexure and axial loads can be determined according to the following equation: soon (837) PN) Px. AA rT ies T ‘Where Nis the applied axial load (positive sign indicates a compression force) £ ¥) xe -Mxy 8.4.2 Capacity at Ultimate Loads Prestressed concrete members subjected to combined flexure and axial load are designed using the strain compatibility as outlined in the previous section. The ‘trains in prestressing steel located at the compression and the tension zones are calculated. The stress-strain curve for the prestressing reinforcement is used to determine the stresses. A trial-and-adjustment procedure is carried out to ‘compute the resulting forces and moments. The neutral axis distance ¢ is ‘assumed, and the corresponding forces are calculated. Adjusting c in Bq. 8.38 is repeated until equilibrium is achieved. 067 fy /15 Fo =A x ffs E Ce T= A, XS AS Fig. 8.13 Strain and stress distributions for the beam subject to Pay Me 641 ‘Noting that the force T-is tension, the equilibrium of the forces gives: P 0.67 fog ba Ay Si An Soe Ls wis 11s ™ laving determined c, e and és are computed using compatibility of stains as follows: (8.38) (8.398) (8.390) To simplify the calculations of &- and €%, it will be assumed that the prestressing forces resulting from Ay, and A%, are such that the effective Drestressing is atthe C.G. ofthe section, producing uniform compressive stains as shown in Fig. 8.13, se(8:390) “The total prestressing strains g, and &,are calculated as follows: 6, = 6, -(E.-6,) (8.402) Ey, = Eye + (Ege +8) (8.406) ‘The resulting bending moment is then determined by taking moments of all the forces about the centroid of the section (location of P,) as follows: (6-3-2 (-«}+1, ( cover) soe BAL) Example 8.10 illustrates the calculation procedure. M, 642,Example 8.10: Strain compatibility method for combined flexure and axial load If the cross-section shown in figure is subjected to P,=360 KN, compute the ultimate flexural capacity. The losses may be assumed as 12%, and the ultimate strain for low relaxation prestressing strands is 0.045. Data Seu =45 Nin? fp =1860 N/mm? Ep= 196000 Nimm? al ee] zstrands, 452150 mnt 5 g Hn nerds Agate! xT eam cresscetion Sol jon ‘The approximate code equation can not be used to calculate fy, when prestressing steel is located in the compression zone. In such a case, the strain compatibility procedure must be used. Step 1: Calculate the initial prestressing strain (¢.) 574 Nim? For low relaxation strands, fyy= 0.9 f= 0.9 x 1860 =1 7 «1860 = 1302 N mm? 0,8x1674 = 1339 NJ mm™ (0.70 Fou tpn amateras fy=1302 N/mm? fy = (losses) fy = (1-012) 1302 = 1145.76 N/mm? P= A, fye = (1504150) x1145.76 = 343728 N ‘The initial strain due to prestressing force equals: Pp mmasim es Step 2: Calculate the decompression strain (cee) ‘The decompression strain equals: Pp & @ TA XE. ‘The modulus of elasticity of concrete is given by: E, = 4400 [F, = 4400 J45 = 29516 NJ mm* ‘The eccentricity at of the cable equals: 3! cover =2>=—50=225 mm 2 343728 29516 (300x550) 643, 6440.67 ff 5 [=A Xf [LAS Ce T= A, Xfo/AS Strain and stress distributions for the beam subject 10 Pay My Step 3: Calculate the neutral axis distance (c) ‘The equilibrium equation is obtained by equating the intemal forces to the external forces as follows: P.=C,-T,-T, Note: Tpis tension p21 hy be Ae Si Ap So as Dis Baers 6145%300%0.8 ¢ 150%, 150%, 1s irs eae a ‘The previous equation is a non-linear equation with one unknown “c". To solve the equation, a trial and adjustment procedure is followed through assuming ¢ and calculating the corresponding strains and stresses in the prestressing steel in the tension and compression zones as follows: 645 ‘A- Compression force in the concrete 067 f., b x(08c) _ 0.67x45x300x0.80C 1 « 15 15 1000 = 48240 kN B- Strain for the prestressing steel in the tension zone ).0058 + 0.00007 +0.003 eee 4 f, 1674 So =_/9 2" ___ 00742 Y, LISxE, 1.151960 Cb! Fs) 7 So eT Un So) 216744 E200) 860-1674) Jn 104+ 945-0.00742) C- Strain ond stress for the prestressing steel in the compression zone 0.003, 003, € € F end’ 50 ‘Noting thatthe strain in the compression zone is negative, the net prestressing steel strain equals: Fhe Fhe Ce Ga) = (See Be) & =0.0052-+000007- (0003 e ==) Sf, 216744 1. Oh, > by MLAS 00742) Ln 007) (1360-1674) .. {0.045 =0.00742) i= XE, #, $6, /AS 646strain Stress-strain diagram for the prestressing steel ‘The calculations can be summarized in the following table c| @ | &@ |f*| fw |G|T T [130 | O08 | O14S | 803.6 | 17090 | 627.1 | 1048 | 222.9 | 299.4 | 2X [140 | 0.0040 0.0136 | 7840 17046 | 6754 | 102.3 | 222.3] 3508 3 [142 | O00 [OTS | 784.0 | 1704.1 | 485.0 | 1023 | 222.3 | 3005 It is clear from the table that the neutral axis distance ¢ =142 mm gives very close value (360.5 KN) when compared with the applied force (360 KN). Step 4: Calculate the flexural strength. From the previous table it can be determined that C. = 685 KN, Te= 102.3 kN, and Ty= 222.3 KN. The moment strength can be calculated by taking moments about Pu, located at the centroid of the section as follows: M, 60s (258 2840182) op (255 -005}+-2903 (25-005) Step 5: Check the maximum reinforcement ratio Using Fg. 8.36 +» £50.68 © 4a = = 0.284 <068....0k d, 500 Photo 8.6 Prestressed concrete beams in 15 May bridge befor. the construction of the concrete deck 647 6488.5 Proper Beam Shape Selection Some of the prestressed concrete beams are fabricated in precast plants that frequently publish tables containing the properties of the cross-section and the ‘uniform load that can support. However, in most cases the designer may have to establish the shape of the cross-section to be used in a special project. This is typically the case in bridge construction. For a simply supported beam, the eccentricity is inversely proportional to the required prestressing force. The larger the eccentricity at mid-span, the smaller the required prestressing force. A rectangular section is the easiest in fabrication, alignment and the least in form cost. It is frequently used in buildings and parking garages. Bearing in ‘mind that the dead loads may represent a large portion of the total loads on the structure, flanged sections are structurally more efficient because of their high ‘moment of inertia with respect to their self weight. Joy W Rectangular T-seetion ‘Teseetion Double T-section ‘T-section Box section Box section with ‘with bottom enlargement cantilever slabs Fig. 8.14 Different types of prestressed concrete sections 649 ‘T-sections and wide flange I-sections are appropriate if large eccentricity is required as shown in Fig. 8.14. In such a case, the end section of the beam is usually solid to avoid large eccentricity, and to increase the shear capacity. Double T-sections are also used because of their stability and ease of handling. ‘They are widely used in floor systems in buildings because they eliminate the need for slabs. Long-span parking garages may require I-sections with composite slab topping. If the self-weight is small compared to the superimposed dead and live loads, a larger lower flange is needed to carry the heavy compressive strength produced by the prestressing force. For long-span bridges, hollow box sections are often more economical. These sections have large torsional capacity. Also, their flexural strength to weight ratio is relatively high compared to other prestressing systems. 8.6 Li ‘The tensile stress in the extreme fiber under service load conditions should not exceed the limit specified by the code. Thus, it is important to establish the limiting zone in the concrete section. For example, for a simply supported beam at transfer if no tension is allowed for the top fiber, then: Bxe A’ Z, Solving Bq. (8.42) for the eccentricity gives the lower kem point ky as: (8.42) i, Fe Lpstow CG) If the eccentricity of the tendon exceeds this Kern point it will cause tension at transfer. ‘At the final stage, if no tension is allowed at the bottom fibers, then: (8.44) 7 (above CG.) If the eccentricity exceeds the upper kem k, it will cause tension at the final stage. ‘Similarly, kem point can be established for the right and left parts about the line of symmetry of the section, For rectangular sections, Ziup=Zane=b C76, giving the em points as shown in Fig 8.15. 650(for rectangular sections only)... (8.46) — ee Photo 8.7 Precast-prestressed concrete beam with coved sides 651 [As can be seen from the previous section, any force falling in the kem area will never cause tension at the section. However, many codes, including the ECP 203, allow tension stress at bottom and top fibers (Cases B, C and D). Thus, itis important to establish the limiting envelope at the maximum allowable tension because it is desirable that the designed eccentricities of the tendon along the span fall within these limits. At transfer, the top fiber is subjected to tension while the bottom fibers are subjected to compression. Thus, the eccentricity e at transfer (as shown in Fig. 8.16) at which the top fibers are subjected to the maximum allowable tension is given by Pp Pxe M. Samy = 0.22 A faa Me ase BAT) spper envelop rated Allowable | lower envelop quarter point tension zone Pet Fig. 8.16 Envelope permitting tension in concrete extreme fibers. [At full service load, the bottom fibers are subjected to tension while top fibers te subjected to compression, The allowable concrete tensile stress should be obtained from Table & 2. For example, for case B the eccentricity ey (as shown in Fig, 816) at which the bottom fibers are subjected to the maximum allowable tension is given by: BP xy , Maas nen (8.48) A Zig Zin Fete = 0-44 sfhu It is usually sufficient to calculate three points for parabolic tendon (midspan, quarter span, and at support). It should be clear that an envelope that falls outside the section indicates non-economical section. A change in the eccentricity or in the prestressing force improves the design. 652Example 8.11: Upper and lower envelopes ‘The cross-section of a simply supported beam is shown in the figure. The beam is post-tensioned and the prestressing cable is parabolic. Determine the limiting envelopes such that the limiting concrete tensile stress is in accordance with the ECP 203 Case B. Consider the mid-span, the quarter span, and at the support as the controlling points. Assume that: P, =2400KN P. = 2050 KN fou = 40. Nim? Jaa =30 Niemen? wor =5 kN/m wer = 18 KN’ b L=2im [res [7-700 mm —-| i 300 . | |-—400-—| Beam cross-section 653 Solution Step 1: Calculate section properties A= 400% 200 +150%700 +400%300 = 305000 mm” Since the section is not symmetrical, calculate the location of the center of gravity. _ 400 200x100 +150%700%'550+.400x300x1050 528.7 mn , 305000 1 = S200" 400% 200% (628.7100) + 327700" 51505 700% (628.7 550) + 1002300" - 400%300%(1050~ 628.7)? 12 1=4.98 x 10 mm* Yop Y =628.7 mm, = y= (200 + 700 +300) ~ 628.7 = 571.3 mm 4.98x10" 628.7 9.16%10% mm? 4.98x10" S73 654305000 1000000 XA = 25%: LOD5KN fm’ Wg Way FW op #Y yp = 7.625+5+18 = 30.625 EN Jr’ ‘The allowable tensile stresses at transfer fy and at full service load fi, for case B are given by: fy = 0.224] fg, = 0.22030 = 1.205 NJ mm? 0.44 fa, = 044A = 2.783 N fmm? Si ‘Step 2: Upper and lower envelops at midspan yg XL? _ 7.625% 217 = 420.33 Nm ‘The limiting condition at transfer is due to condition at top fibers subjected to self-weight only as follows: 2400x1000 , 2400%1000xe, _ 420:33%10° 305000" 79.16x10" 79.16x10° 174.7 mm ‘The limiting condition at full service load is due to condition at bottom fibers subjected to full load as follows: 2050x1000 _2050%1000xe, , 1688.2x10° 305000 —«87.11x10° 87.11x10" +2.78 = 420 mm L Step 3: Upper and lower envelops at quarter point ‘The moment at the quarter point for a uniformly loaded beam is given by: (et) 24 3 wkNin’ PUTTTTrTr yt 204 wint——| wl? L=21 O75 8) | wis ‘Thus, the self-weight moment at quarter point equals: 15%420.33=315.25kNm 75 x1688. =1266.2 kN. ‘The limiting condition at transfer is due to condition at top fibers subjected to self-weight only as follows: Pi Pxe, Mae a = A Zy Lay 2400%1000 , 2400%1000xe, _ 315.2510" 305000 79.16x10" 79.16x10" e, = 430.64 mm 4 +1.205 load is due to condition at bottom fibers ‘The limiting condition at full set subjected to full load as follows: BPX ey | Meza A Z, fae) 655, 656: 1266.2x10° 87.1Lx10® 87.110" ‘Step 4: Upper and lower envelops at support At support Mor=Muus=0, thus the limiting condition at transfer is due to ‘condition at top fibers subjected to self-weight only as follows: 305000 79.1610 ¢, = 2993 mm L ‘The limiting condition at full service load is due to condition at bottom fibers subjected to full load as follows: BP xey foam 2h 2050%1000 _ 2050%1000%e, +2.783 305000 87.11x10% 403.8 mm= 403.8 mm T upper envelop ete tet Upper and lower envelopes for the pvest"essing tendors 8.7 Determination of the Prestressing Force and the Eccentricity in Flexural Members ‘The prestressing force that produces safe stresses at transfer may produce ‘unsafe stresses at full service load. The aim of this section is to find the possible combinations of the prestressing force and the eccentricity that ensure the safety of the beam at the transfer a5 well as at full service load. The procedure developed by Magnel (1948) is very useful as an instructional aid. It illustrates that there are frequently several combinations of prestressing force and eccentricity that will result in compliance with the code requirements of allowable stresses. ‘The required equations can be obtained by analyzing the stresses at the top and bottom fibers of the beam for the case of transfer and service loads. This will lead to four governing equations. Plotting these equations will produce the zone of the acceptable combinations of the prestressing force and eccentricity. The procedure is illustrated in the following steps. A- At Transfer (top fibers-tension controls) ‘The stresses at the top fibers at transfer should be less than the allowable concrete tensile stress at transfer recommended by the code (fi) 28 follows: Sew -(8.49) (8.50) ‘The eccentricity that gives the acceptable stress at top should be less than: 1 Z, ess, f,+Mal =. 2 (8.51) Noting that K, =Z,,/A SA Leay fst Madlt Ky 652) ‘This can be rewritten in terms of the prestressing force as: (8.53)B- At Transfer (bottom fibers) (compression controls) The stresses at bottom fibers at transfer should be less than the allowable compressive stress at transfer recommended by the code (f,) as follows: Moo is he Zee Zin ® Fa (because fis negative) soon (8.54) Thus, B_BKe Ma etme) (8.55) fas AT ae 8.55) (8.56) Noting that K, =Z,q,/ A, the previous equation can be written in terms of the prestressing force P, e+K, Zan fa Mol C- At Full service load (bottom fibers-tension controls) ‘The stresses at the bottom fibers at the full service load stage should be less than the allowable concrete tensile stress (f.). Denoting the losses as ot, one can obtain: (57) aly A P= 0-2) = (6.58) (859) Rearranging the terms: 2 (8.60) ‘The acceptable eccentricity should be greater than: : eat Lo Saat Mot 861) 7 Coe so (862) 659 D- At Full service load (top fibers) (compression controls) ie fate Sate Sag (DECC fe NEBALNE) on (8.63) 5 EX ExR KC Mow Se SE sons (8.64) (8.65) > 1 expigle, 1.4m ‘The eccentricity that gives the acceptable stress at top should be greater than: ap Suet Maal Ky 8.66 =e xp ew Sa + Mra} (6.66) ‘The minimum prestressing foree that stratify code requirements is given by es (8.67) ey foe + Maas WE Photo 8.8 Cable placement in a box girder 660‘The four governing equations can be summarized in the following table, ek, Eo heMel wy e+K, Fu fetMol (ay exk, FRnMaVE ey e-k, Syne Gn fat MoaVE ey 1 & oy B a x al g All the terms appearing in the previous equations are known and can be determined except P; and e. there are a number of combinations of these terms satisfy all the equations. The right combination can be determined by plotting ‘each equation as shown in Fig. 8.17. In this graph, the horizontal axis represents the eccentricity, while the vertical axis represents the inverse of the initial prestressing force. The hatched area in the figure indicates the acceptable combinations of (I/p; and e) that satisfy all code requirements of allowable siress in transfer and full service load stages. It should be noted that some of the possible eccentricities may not be attainable because they might lie outside the limits of the section. Therefore, these points should be excluded from the acceptable zone as shown in Fig. 8.17. Section physical limit we ‘Combinations ‘ouside the section combination f Pi final (tp) fie Fig. 8.17 Graphical representation for the four governing equations 661 Example 8.12: Determination of P and e combinations ‘The cross-section of a simply supported beam with unbonded tendons is shown in figure, Itis required to: ‘A, Determine the acceptable combinations of P; and ¢ at mid-span according to the ECP 203 allowable stresses for case B. B. Check the combinations of the following prestressing force and eccentricity Case [PEN] e (mm) T | 2700 | 400.00 2 | 2000 [250.00 3 3000 | 250.00 4 [3000 | 450.00 250 e [| Beam cross-section 662Solution Step Calculate section properties A= 500%150-+ 200x700 +250%800 = 415000 mm” Since the section is not symmetrical, calculate the location of the center of gravity. y = 500215075 + 200% 700x500 + 2503800975 = 652.1 mm “415000 1=5.6 x 10" mm* Y=) 652.1 mm You =#~ Y= (150+ 700 +250) — 652.1 = 447.9 mim 1__ 56x10" ° anm? L. 85.83%10° mm’ Jy 521 Zap A 800 beam cross section 415000 1000000 10.375-+21=31.375 kV /mé A=25x 0.375 KN Im 10.375x20" 8 18.75 EN. Migs = ESIGN 1568.8 hd Step 2: Governing equations Step 2.1: Equation at transfer (top fibers-tension controls) The allowable tension stress at transfer fy is given by: fq = 0-224 fy, =0.22N31.5 = 1.235 N/mm? ewe, Po Bay fat Maw e-2068 1 'P, ~ B5.8x10° x1.235/1000+ 518.75%1000 21.610 (¢~2068) e 2068 700 > m[-)- i= 4. 30.436x10 (e +301.1) 663 664© “301 700 Tp 0 437% 10" Step 2.3: Equation at full service load (bottom fibers-tension controls) Since the beam has un-bonded tendons, itis classified as case B (refer to Table 8.2). Thus, the allowable tension is given by: f= 0.444), =046145 = 2.95 N/m €=1-losses =1-0.15 = 0.85 e+K, Ein Sa + Maa E a +3011 BF 125x10° x2.95/1000 + 1568.8x1000]/0.85 F s0708x10 (e+301.1) = OL 700 Up 0 7.09 x 10° Step 2.4 Equation at full service load (top fibers~compression controls) Sa = 0.40 f= -0.40%45.0 18 N/mm* e-2068 8/1000 +1568.8x1000)/0.85 <34.8x10" (e~2068) e 2068 2S Te 0 ax 10" 665 Step 3: Acceptable Pi-e' diagram From the points calculated ifiStep 2, the acceptable combinations diagram can be plotted as shown in figure. Assuming concrete cover of 70 mm, the ‘maximum acceptable eccentricity énar equals: ye “COVE = 414.3~70 = 344.3 mm Locating the points inside the diagram and realizing that any point falling inside the hatched area is considered safe and vice versa, the following table can be established. Case | PON) |e Gmm) | iP 10%) ‘Status ‘Reason a inside the acceptable 1 | 2700 | 4000 } 370 | Unsafe | area tur ouside he . | ‘outside the acceptable | 2 | 200 | 200[ 5 Unsafe | So the aston 3 | 3000 | 2500 | 333 Soe | eee 4 | 3000 | 4500 | 333 | unsare | mide tie scospabie 6661/P, x 10% (1/KN) Beam C.G. Transfer Service | —-- 5 Acceptable combination ofPye “#00 -aoo 200 100 0 foo mg son. aan san 00 7900) i Ky e(mm) Acceptable combinations of P; and e ion of P and e combinations Example 8.13: Determin ‘The cross-section of a simply supported beam is shown in the figure below. The ‘beam is a part of the structural system of a chemical factory. It is required to: ‘A. Determine the acceptable combinations of Pi and e at mid-span according to the ECP 203 allowable stresses for case B. Adjust the cross-section dimensions if necessary. Data Losses =20% 200 g 200 Section A-A 667 668Solution Step + Calculate section properties ‘A= 1000x200 + 200% 400 = 280000 mm Since the section is not symmetrical, calculate the location of the center of gravity. 1000 200%100 + 200%400%400 280000 16.88 x 10? mm* 85.7 mm. Yop= 9 =185.7 mm Yes =#= 9 = 600~185.7 = 414.3 mm 8.8810" _37.03%10" mm? 185.7 37.03%10" 132.2 mm 280000 6:88x10" 16 6106 mm? 4143 16.6x10" 59.97 mm 280000 ye 280000 = 25x T.OKN/ mi’ 1000000 22 ANI’ Youd 143 Step 2. Governing equations Step 2.1 Equation at transfer (top fibers-tension controls) ‘The allowable tension stress at transfer fis given by: Fg = 0.224 Figg = 0.22135 =1.302 N/mm? 1 eK PF By SoMa e-1322 [37.02%10° x1.302/1000 + 126%1000] ze 5.74x10* (e-132.2) = 152 Tei a Step 2.2 At transfer (bottom fibers-compre: fg = OAS fg, =0.45%35 =—15.15 N/mm? e+K, Cun fa tM, 1069 610e+59.27 ‘Fi6.6x10* x—15.75/1000 + 126x1000] 2 2.58x10° (e+59.27) e ~59.27 600) pi 0 1701x107 Step 2.3: Equation at full service load (bottom fibers-tension controls) fe =0.441/f,, = 0.44150 =3.11. N/mm? E=1-losses =1-0.20=0.80 1 e+k, 1 FEZ fet Mea E 1 24592 PB 16.6x10° x3.11/1000 + 396x1000]/0.80 1 IT fp | 9928 <2 Step 4: Adjusting section dimensions ‘The reason for the unsatisfactory performance of this section is attributed to the fact that its size is not sufficient to resist the applied loads. One of the solutions is to increase the size of the section. Increasing the section dimension by 200 1mm gives the following section properties: 1000 800 A= 1000x200 + 200%600 = 320000 mm? Since the section is not symmetrical, calculate the location of the center of gravity. Yop 9 =250 mm y= 800-250 = 550 mm 1 _USBI0" 0 63.9510¢ mm? Yop 250 = 2a = 596210" 3995 A 320000 L610" 99 57.10% mm? Voor 350 Zig _ 29.57 10° = BSTAO 99.4 =" 7320000 ™ 320000 ‘i A=25x 8.OEN/ mi M,, =144 ENn * 1000000 SEN Im My, =414 EN ‘Step 4.1 Governing equations ibers-tension controls) Step 4.1.1 Equation at transfer (top ‘The allowable tension stress at transfer fis given by: f,=022) Fin =022055 302 NI mm* [65.06x10° x 243710" (e~2033) e 2033 600 1000%-200%100 + 200%600%500 _ 965 jm Tip: 0 17.35 x 10" 320000 (Es . 1=1.63 x 10" mm* on oCStep 4.1.2 At transfer (bottom fibers-compression controls) 1 +9242 PF 29.57x10° 15/1000 + 144%1000] Ls 1.64x10* (¢+92.42) z < BIAD 0 Vp 0 11.35% 10" ‘Step 4.1.3 Equation at full service load (bottom fibers-tension controls) a e+92.42 P, 29.57x10% x3.11/1000+414x1000)/0.80 Fp s2asxi0* (e+92.42) ¢ “EAB 6 Up 0 17.2 x 10° Step 4.1.4 Equation at full service load (top fibers-compression controls) i = 203.3 P,. [65.07 10° x—20/1000+ 414%1000//0.80 FS B015x10% (c-2033) 203.3, 600 -200 pi 0 “3.58x 10" 3.64 x 10" C Step 4.2 Acceptable Pi-e diagram From the points calculated in step 4.1 the following diagram can be plotted Acceptable Combination of Pe 2 pr i ir ee ee (mm) 6768.8 Reduction of Prestressing Force near Supports Sections with straight tendons at supports are subjected to zero moment and may suffer from high tensile stresses resulting from the prestressing force. ‘There are two practical methods of reducing the high stresses near the supports: 1. Reducing the eccentricity of some cables as the reach the support zone as shown in Fig. 8.18.a, 2. Sheathing some of the cables by plastic bing as shown in Fig. 8.18. This eliminates the tansier of the prestressing force to the ‘concrete at this area. a Taised tendons tan ‘endons ©) ona sheathed Fig. 8.18 Reduction of prestressing force near support (a) raising part of the tendons. (b) sheathing part of the tendons 677 8.9 Deflection of Prestressed Beams 8.9.1 Introduction Deflection of prestressed concrete beams is of a great importance because they are more slender than ordinary reinforced concrete beams. ‘At transfer, prestressed conerete beams are subjected mainly to an eccentric compression force that produces reverse deflection (camber). The amount of camber should be controlled for proper drainage of roofs in buildings. Moreover, in projects involving prestressed beams and precast slabs, excessive ‘camber may prohibit proper alignment of the precast members. 'At the final stage where all the working loads are applied, the upward deflection of the beam (camber) becomes downward deflection. Excessive deflections of beams may cause excessive vibrations, damage to the appearance of the structure, poor roof drainage, and uncomfortable feelings for the occupants. Also, such deflections may damage partitions and cause poor fitting of doors and windows. Photo 8.9 Camber of a prestressed beam at transfer 6788.9.2 Calculations of Deflections - ECP 203 ‘The procedures for calculating the deflections of prestressed concrete beams are summarized as follows: 1. The calculation of the expected camber of prestressed beams at transfer should be carried out using the gross moment of inertia of the cross- section I. Such a camber should be limited to the values that do not cause problems to the project under consideration. It is the task of the designer to judge the allowable value of the camber. 2 When calculating the immediate (short-term) deflection, the gross ‘moment of inertia of the cross-section Ij is used for cases A, B, and C. For case D, the effective moment of inertia of the cross-section Ik is used. Limits of the short-term deflection for prestressed concrete beams are the same as those for reinforced concrete beams. 3. Long-term deflection of prestressed concrete beams is calculated taking {nto account all the permanent loads, in addition to the effect of shrinkage, creep and relaxation of prestressing steel. Limits of the long term deflection of prestressed concrete beams are the same as those for reinforced concrete beams. ‘Young’s modulus of concrete E, is used in deflection computations. The value of E can be computed using the ECP 203 equation as follows: E. Sou ‘The values of the deflections can be calculated using the theory of structures with the appropriate value of the moment of inertia according to the case under consideration. Examples of the deflection expressions are given in Eq. 8.69 and the rest can be found in then Appendix. (8.68) wit , SHE Fortine end beam with union lad a 7 — forsimple beam with unio load PL aoe ; A for simple beam with point load at midspan «nnn (8.69) EL ¥ LE’ for cantilever beam with uniform load BET PL . FE * or eanilever beam with point loud et ed 679 A-Calculation of the effective moment of inertia (Z.) ‘The ECP 203 gives the following expression for calculating the effective a= Yule) et 4) ‘The previous equation can be simplified as follows: (8.70) =e - ae, we (8.71, satay tot) a se Ta the cracked moment of inertia (mm*) a es Ma wn Where y; is the distance from the neutral axis to the outermost tension fibers as shown in Fig. 8.19. P.xexy, Mey, 1 fea Inwhich M,=unfactored moment due to dead load. EV Fig. 8.19 Calculation of the cracking moment 680B-Calculation of the cracked moment of inertia (Zz) If we assume that the neutral axis is located at a distance z from the ‘compression face, the location of the neutral axis can be easily determined by taking the first moment of area about the center of gravity of the section (C.Gg,) as shown in Fig. 8.20 and as given by Eq, 8.73. It should be noted that the center of gravity coincides with neutral axis (no normal force). bxz?/2-nA, d-2)-n4,,(d, -2) (8.73) £8.10 Deflection of a prestressed beam during testing 681 Having determined the neutral axis distance 2, the cracked moment of inertia Te-can be computed as bxz 3 In T-sections, the location of the neutral axis may lie inside or outside the flange as shown in Fig. 8.21. Therefore, hand calculations must be carried out as explained in the illustrative examples. svn (8.74) +n A, (d-2)' +n, (4, -2)" ——————— nA neutral tas Neutral axis inside the flange zt, Fig. 8.21 Determination of the neutral axis for T-sections 682Example 8.14 ‘The figure shows a simply supported full prestressed beam with straight tendons at an eccentricity of 100 mm. The initial tendon force is 1200 kN and the effective prestressing force is 950 KN. Compute the initial camber at mid- span due to prestressing and self weight of the beam. If the beam is left without being subjected to any additional loads for a long period of time, calculate the Tong term camber. fox =40 Nira? 9.0m 250 mm 550 mm Beam Section 683 Solution Step 1: Calculation of immediate deflection Step 1.1: Deflection due to self weight B, =4400 |F,, = 4400/40 = 27828 N / mm? =27.828KN / mm? Woe = (250%550)x—— 29 = 3.44 KI Jr” 7000x1000, ee oes Since the beam is fully prestressed (case “A), the gross moment of inertia is used in deflection calculations. 47x10? mm* 12 12 ‘The deflection of simply supported beam subjected to uniform load equals: SW XL*_ _ 5x(3.44/1000)%(9000)* =3.043mm b B84xE, XI, 384x27828x3.47x10" Step 1.2: Camber due to prestressing ‘The immediate deflection at mid span due to intial prestressing only equals: ML BET, ‘The initial moment due to prestressing at the supports M; equals: M, =P, xe =1200X100 =120000£N mm M, 1? __120000%(9000)* (2.6mm T (camber) BEI, 8x27.828x3.47x10"Step 1.3: Immediate camber/deflection ‘The immediate camber equals: 2.6 T 3.043 1=9.55 mm T ‘Step 2: Long-term deflection ‘Step 2.1 Long-term deflection due to self-weight ‘Since no compression steel is present, the creep coefficient equals 2, Soe dog-tem) = U4 G)XA,, = (142) 3.04 = 9.13 mm ‘Step 2.2 Long-term camber due to prestressing ‘The long-term deflection at mid span due to final prestressing only equals ML =(l+a)=s (tae 4, e-em) For long term calculations, the effective prestressing force (P.is used. Thus, the moment at the supports M. equals: P, xe =950%100 = 95000 kN zm Example 8.15 Compute the immediate camber at midspan for the beam shown in figure. ‘The initial prstressing force in the broken tendon is 1500 KN and in the straight cable is 300 KN. The beam may be classified as zone B. fy =45 N/mm: 4.2) —25000%(2000)" «99 88mm T 3427.828%3 47x10 2 ‘Step 2.3: Long-term camber/deflection ‘The long-term camber equals: : 20.75mm T (camber) so |Ae kH 200 Beam Section: 686 685‘Solution Step 1: Calculate uncracked section properties Since the beam is categorized in zone B, the gross moment of inertia is used in 1 calculations. Since the section is not symmettical, calculate the C.G. | 750, i Fania Ta 7 ” g a. — 7200" uncracked section ‘A, = 200%700 = 140000 mm? ‘y=450 mm A, = 750100 = 75000 mm? y2=50 mm yy = §40000%4507+75000%50 | 140000 + 75000 eon Yine = 800~310.46 89.53 mm 200%700° 1, eee, a0 4891045" « 8080. 00104650! 4,213.6 x10" mm* Step 2: Deflection due to self weight ‘The concrete modulus of elasticity equals: = 4400 o/f,, = 4400V45 = 29516 N /mm* = 29.5164N Imm? 375 RN Im” ae =(75000 +140000) x —25 7000x1000 ‘The deflection of simply supported beam subjected to uniform load equals: __5Wyy XL4__ 5x(5.375/1000)x(11000)* Le = -; 55mm 4 B84KE_xT, _ 384X29.516%13,6%10 ow=5.375 kNIa & COPE Step 3: Camber due to prestressing ‘The camber due to prestressing is the sum of two components: ‘© End moment (due to eccentricity of the two cables at support) ‘© Due to the concentrated load developed from the tendon slope change Deflection due to end moments Ayn ‘The moment at the supports due to the broken cable Mi equals, My =P Xe, 5 mm 50085 =127500 kN mm (positive moment) ‘The moment at the supports due to the straight cable Miz equals: My, = Fr Xey 5 = Yag “COVE = 489.53 100 = 389.53 mm J (My, =300%389.53 = 116859EN mm (negative moment) ‘The resultant moment Mj-=M, —Ma=127500-116859= 10641 kN.mm (positive) 687 688‘The immediate deflection at mid span due to the positive end moments equals: Race ean re BET, 10641 (111000 = = =0.401mm 4 (Downward deflection) pm 8x 29,516%13.6x10" & Mye127500 116859 Me=10641 Per Mex10681 tN NL Mer 116859 Deflection due to concentrated load ‘The camber due to the broken cable can be calculated using an equivalent concentrated load usually called the balanced load. The calculations of such load are as follows: V=237.3 kN 500%0.435 V=237.3 kN ‘Alternatively, the equivalent force at midspan may be calculated as follows: V=P (cand, +tan 0,)=F, (6, +8,) = (85+350)/1000 35 V =1500x(0.0791+ 0.0791) = 237.3 kN (true for small angles) a=, 0.0791 a 2435 mm. ‘The immediate camber at midspan due to the equivalent concentrated load V equals: 237.3x(11000)* | = 2373x1007 16.4 mm T 48x29.516x13.6x10" 16.4-0.401 = 16mm T ‘Step 4: Immediate camber/deflection ‘The immediate camber equals: Arie =TA,— 4A, =16-2.55 =13.45 mm T 689 690Example 8.16 ‘The figure given below shows a simply supported partially prestressed beam. (zone D). The beam is subjected to an initial prestressing force of 900 KN and an effective prestressing force of 740 KN. Calculate the immediate deflection, the long-term deflection and check code limits for deflection. The beam is located on a typical floor and support walls that are not likely to be damaged by deletion. way=10 RN’, wao-3 KN (superimposed load), fa35 Nim? L 650, ; 120 750. AyeA50 mai Non- prestressing steel ‘Beam cross-section Solution Step 1: Calculate uncracked section prope ‘The calculation of the gross moment of inertia shall be cartied out by ‘considering the concrete section and neglecting the prestressing steel as well as the non-prestressingd steel. Since the section is not ‘symmetrical, the center of sravity is calculated as follows: | 650 t——_1 120 | a2 “) aL ba 180 uncracked section ‘A, =180%750 = 135000 mam yi=495 mm. ‘A, = 650120 = 78000 mi? y2=60 mm A= A,+4, =213000mm? 135000%495-+78000%60 535-7 mm 213000 BOISE 138000 495 ~335.1)" + S520 5 po000x 035, 7-60) 1.15.77 x10? mm* Yu = (1204750) ~395.7 = 534.3mm 1, _15.77x10" Ya 5343 Be = 29,53x10% mm* 691 692.Step 2: Calculate immediate deflection /camber ‘Step 2.1: Deflection due to self-weight Since at transfer only the self weight is applied, the gross moment of inertia ‘may be used for deflection calculations E, = 4400 [f,, = 4400/35 = 26030.N mm? = 26.03kN / mm? ‘The self weight ofthe beam equals Wy = 213000%—— 25 __ = 5,325 ANI" 1000x1000 ‘The deflection of simply supported beam subjected to uniform load equals: Sw XL* _ 5x(5.325/1000)x(15000)* BS4KE, xT, 384%26003%15.77x10" 8.55 mm 1 (downward) Wi@5.325 KN. Step 2.2 Camber due to prestressing ‘The camber due to prestressing is the sum of two components: ‘+ End moment (due to eccentricity of the cable at support) A, ‘* Due to the uniform load developed from change of curvature of the tendon A,, A, =Ay, +Ayy Camber due to eccentricity of the cable ‘The immediate deflection at midspan due to the negative end moments equals: ML A, tend met) = ‘The moment at the supports M; equals: M, =P, xe =900%35 =31500 km a. = ML __31500%(15000)* BET, 8X2603%15.77x10" =2.15mm T (upward) Camber due to curved tendon ‘The effective eccentricity of the curved tendon at midspan (e,) equals: 80-35 = 345 mm ‘The camber due to the curvature of the cable can be calculated using an equivalent uniform load usually called the balanced load. The calculations of such load are as follows: Wax 693 6411.04 N/m’ T SW_XL*__ 5x(11.04/1000)>(15000) Roe OY <17.72mmt “3R4KE, x1, 384%26.03%15.77 x10 By =A gy tA yy = 215 TH17.72 T= 19.87 mm T Step 2.3: Immediate camber/deflection ‘The immediate camber equals: .,+A,, =19.87 18.55 L=11.33mm 7 Step 3: Service load deflection Since the beam is partially prestressed, one should calculate the cracking ‘moment and the effective moment of inertia ‘Step 3.1: Calculate cracking moment Mer ‘According the ECP 203 the cracking moment of prestressed beams equals: M, (045 e Se -fa) where fe is the compressive at the extreme fibers(bottom in this case) due to effective prestressing force only. Se ents tendon pr _—~|-_——. 15m 740x1000, 75™ 33807 e fr SEO = 12.99 NJ mm* = "13000 —«29.53%10' W 0, Woy tW gp =5.325+3=8.325 EN Im’ Mey, =e 8325715 9414 kan 8 8 fig = Mo = ALI 9 fu © Zig 29.53x10° Noting that ZiaeT/y, thus, M,_ = 29.53x10° (0.45/35 4129-793) /10" = 228.25 kav Wat =" og $Y x, =8:325 +10 8.325 kN Im‘ Wag F_18.325x15? 8 8 Since M.>Mer then calculate Ie = 515.39 kV Step 3.2: Calculate cracked moment of inertia Z.- ap=715.7 = EE 180 Je-calculations It is customary to neglect the area of the non-prestressing steel in deflection calculations. The transformed area of prestressing steel equals: 1 Apg=10 x 450 = 4500 mm? d, =F +¢=335.7 +380 = 715.70 mm ‘Assume that the c.g. is located inside the flange. Taking the first moment of area forthe transformed section about the C.G. gives, 695 696nA, dy -2) 650% 2x5 = 4500 (715.702) 325 2? +4500 < ~3220650=0 Solving for z x =92.87 mm < 120 mm (inside the flange as assured) Bo Cracked moment of inertia I, +n A,(d,~2)* 509287” 459954715.1-9287)? =1. 92x10" mni* Step 3.3: Calculate effective moment of inertia 515.39 Step 3.4: Deflection due to total load ‘The deflection of simply supported beam subjected to dead loads only equals: Sw pp XL* _ 5x(8.325/1000)x(15%1000)* 384xE.x1, _ 384x26.03x3.122x10" =675mmL Xp = 10-675 =81.09 mm L #305 Woy=8.325 kale’ & wa=10 kim’ saat Step 3.5: Camber due to effective prestressing “The service load deflection at mid-span due to the negative end moments only equals: e E om BET, ‘The moment at the supports equals: M, = P,xe=740x35 = 25900 EN.m M, L’ __25900x(15x1000)" T, 8X 26.03%3.122x10 =8.96mm T Me=25900) 150m ‘The eccentricity (eat midspan equals, = 380-35 = 345mm Wy XE a Pexe, 8 Wy X15? ig 2740x0345 08 kN / mT Swag XL! __ 5X(9.08/1000)x(15%1000)* BB4KE, XI, 384%26.03x3.122x10" 8,96 1 +73.61 T= 82.57 mm T 697 698Step 3.6: Immediate deflection ‘The final deflection equals: Sma = Aon +i) 4, (67.507 +81.09) 1-82.57 T= 66.03mm 1 Step 4: Long-term deflection ‘The long term factor o=2 By-eon =) (Soy +p) A Benen = (+2) (67.507 4-82.57 1) +81.09.1=35.905 mm 1 L150 <<, 250 ~ 250 ‘The beam satisfies the limits of the total deflection, However, the live load deflection should be checked as follows ‘+ The beam is in a floor that supports walls that are not likely to be damaged by large deflections. Hence, the limiting live load deflection is given by: Ay, seg 151000 360° 360 = 41.67 mm Since Aut (81.09 mim)< Asstte (41.67 mm) the beam does not meet code requirements for deflections. 699 SHEAR AND TORSION IN PRESTRESSED CONCRETE BEAMS 9.1 Introduction ‘This chapter presents procedures for the design of prestressed concrete sections to resist shear and torsion resulting from extemally applied loads. Since the strength of concrete in tension is considerably lower than its strength in compression, design for shear and torsion becomes of major importance in all types of concrete structures. ‘The behavior of prestressed concrete beams in shear or combined shear and torsion is different from their behavior in flexure: they may fail abruptly 700without sufficient advance warming, and the diagonal cracks that develop ate considerably wider than the flexural cracks. Both shear and torsion forces result in shear stress. Such a stress can resut in principal tensile stresses atthe critical section which can exceed the tensile strength of concrete 9.2 Shear in prestressed Beams 9.2.1 Inclined Cracking Cracking in prestressed concrete beams depends on the magnitude of moment and shear as shown in Fig. 9.1. At locations where the moment is large and shear is small, vertical flexural cracks form when the normal tensile strength is exceeded. ‘Two types of inclined cracking occur in prestressed concrete beams; web shear cracking and flexure-shear cracking. These two types of inclined cracking are illustrated in Fig. 9.1 Web-shear cracking begins at the centroidal axis of the cross section when the principal tensile stresses due to shear exceeds the tensile strength of concrete. Web shear cracking occurs in the regions where moment is small and shear is large. Flexure-shear cracking is essestially an extension of a vertical flexural cracking. The flexure-shear crack develops when the principal tensile stress due to combined shear and flexural tensile stresses exceed the tensile strength of ‘concrete. It should be mentioned that web-shear cracks usually océur in thin- walled L-beams near the C.G. where the shear stresses in the web are high while the flexural stresses are low. Fig. 9.1 Type of cracking in prestressed concrete beams 701 9.2.2 Effect of Prestressing ‘The stiear. web cracks in prestressed beams are attributed to the developing of diagonal tension stresses as shown in Fig 9.2. The maximum web shear gov ‘occurs at the C.G. of the section where the actual diagonal tension cracks develops. Referring to Mohr’s circle shown in Fig, 9.2, the principle tensile slress in concrete due to both compression stress fee and shear stress gey equals: fee)» tan29 =—fo wou (9.2) Force 12) where fjccis the concrete compressive stress due to effective prestressing at the C.G, ievel. However, if the neutral axis falls inside the flange for flanged sections, the stress is calculated at the intersection of the flange and the web tis clear from Moht’s circle that the normal compressive stress fps reduces the ‘maximum principle tension f; and the angle @, Therefore if cracking occurs, the inclined crack is flatter and the effectiveness of the stirrups increases. shear stress Maximum shear stress jt ‘Normal stress over Gem [Maximum tensile stress fi ‘Maximum compression stress Fig. 9.2 Principle tensile stresses in prestressed beam 702Solving Eq. 9.2 for the web shear strength gor gives: Gow 93) 9.2.3 Shear Strength According to ECP 203 9.2.31 Upper Limit for Design Shear Stress qumac ‘The critical section for shear in prestressed reinforced concrete beams is at U2 from the face of the support ‘The applied shear stress is given by: --2 . le bxd, 48) a, 20.80 04) where b is the width of the section and d, is the distance from the compression fiber, to the centroid of the cables but not less than 0.8 t. For prestressed concrete beams containing grouted ducts with diameter (6) more than by /8 (where by is the width of the web), as shown in Fig. 9.3, the effective width of the web (b) in Eq, 9.4a should be taken as 1, 050 by Sorg> by for" be ol ° comin | 4 with diameter 6 fae by ao Fig. 9.3 Effective width for prestressed beams with grouted ducts 2 0808 by a 703 To ensure that shear failures occur in a ductile manner by yielding of the shear reinforcement, the ECP 203 specifies that the shear stress q, should not exceed the maximum shear stress qumar given by: Its clear from Fig. 9.4 that the maximum shear strength qumax for prestressed rmemibers is slightly higher than that for ordinary reinforced concrete members. However, the concrete shear strength qa, of prestressed members is much higher than that of ordinary reinforced concrete members 45N Imm? ... (9.5) ‘Change cross section dimension off I Gama Design shear eefofareeticit eu Use minimum shear reinforcement ‘Non-prestressed beams Prestressed beams Fig. 9.4 Shear reinforcement requirements in prestressed and non-prestressed beams 7049.2.3.2 Shear Strength Provided by Concrete qeu ‘The ECP 203 gives two procedures for calculating concrete shear strength qos of prestressed beams as follows: ‘© Simplified procedure Detailed procedure A: Concrete Shear Strength Using the Simplified Procedure ‘Several empirical expressions that predict shear strength of concrete have been developed from experimental studies of prestressed beams. For prestressed members in which the tendons are stressed to at least 40% of their ultimate tensile strength fy, the nominal concrete shear strength can be conservatively estimated by the following ECP 203 expression: nf With the following condition (25) S10 3.60, xa, Se sara ; os 06) $0375 ff.77. ox where Q, and M, are the values of shear and bending moment, respectively, produced by the ultimate loads at the section under consideration. d, is the distance from the prestressing reinforcement to the outermost compression fibers. ‘The term dy used in the previous equation is the actual cable depth. The previous equation does not give a valid result when either Q, or M, is small. For simply supported beams subject to uniform loads, the term Qu dy/M, can be expressed as: d, (L-2x) 97 x(L~x) a where L is the span length and x is the distance from the support to the critical section. 705 B: Concrete Shear Strength Using Detailed Procedure Although the use of the simplified method for calculating concrete, shear is quite easy, it may produce very conservative results. This is sesatly efor Fsectins, The shear sength eaculted using the detailed procedure can be as high as 150% of that calculated using the simplified procedure. Therefore, when the tendon stress is below 0.4 fn», or when the full ‘concrete shear strength need to be utilized, the shear strength can be evaluated using the detailed procedure. Fora thin-walled section (I-beam), with small shear spans, the shear stresses in the web are high while the flexural stresses are low. The principal stresses at the neutral axis may exceed those at the bottom flange causing cracking (o start at the web. This is called web-cracking shear. On the other hand, for beams with relatively large shear span, vertical flexural cracks occur first and extend diagonally due stress redistribution. This is called the flexural-shear cracking, ‘According to the ECP 203, the concrete shear strength qo, is the smaller value of the flexural shear strength qa and the web-cracking shear strength dow es eq = smaller of Photo 9.2 Prestressed concrete bridge during construction 706Flexural-Shear Strength qu; ‘The flexural-shear strength is the shear strength of the beam at the time of developing the first flexure-shear crack. Flexure-shear cracking occurs when flexural cracks, which are initially vertical, become inclined under the influence of shear. Because the flexural-shear strength cannot be predicted by calculating the principal stresses in an uncracked beam, equations for estimating flexural shear strength are based on experimental tests. This is attributed t0 the redistribution of stresses that occur atthe tip of the flexural crack. ‘The code specifies the following formula to predict the concrete flexural shear strength gr : woot oslo sax ouaeTE 1 00 04a soa TE (9.8) xd q4 is the unfactored shear stress due to dead load only at the critical section. is factored shear stress at the critical section due to extemally applied Joads occurring simultaneously with Mnax ‘Mnaz_ is the factored moment at the critical section due to the extemal applied loads (Refer to Fig. 9.5). ‘Mc. is the cracking moment. isthe depth of the cross section but not ess than 0.8" In Eq, 9.8, the flexural shear stength is assumed to be the sum of three components: 1. The shear stress required to transform a vertical flexural crack into inclined crack 0.045 Jf.,/7, 2, ‘The un-factored shear stress 0.8 ga, and 3. The portion of the remaining factored shear stress that will cause a flexural crack to initially occur 0.8%q, XM /M sax 707 Utvimate toads critical section (factored) ! L HS al 2 i Uttimate shear (actored) Ultimate moment (factored) : % Shear force (unfactored) Me Moment (unfactored) Fig. 9.5 Shear and bending moments for calculating qa 708Cracking Moment Me. Concrete beams are assumed to behave elastically as Jong as the maximum tensile strength of the concrete is not exceeded. A simply supported prestressed bbeam will crack at the bottom when the tensile strength is exceeded. Thus the tensile stress at the bottom fibers for simply supported beam equals: (9.9) where ¥ is the distance from the neutral axis to the tension surface ‘Mg isthe cracking moment Pe is the effective prestressing force Jer is the maximum allowable tension The term f,, =0.45 yf, is the tensile strength of concrete for web-shear cracking, Subsisting with this value in the previous equation gives: 1 B, Bxexy Lf oas fy + bey RAM ma Mia eT ) The code specifies that the value of the unfactored dead load moment at the critical section should be subtracted from the cracking moment. Hence, M. 9.10) PL Pxexy, My =—| 045 ff, +224 22M |g, 0. o + fon FIT ) @ @.11) ‘The code rewrites the previous equation in terms of stress as follows: (045 VFa HF pe “Fa) where fixe is the compression stress in concrete due to prestressing force after ‘considering all losses calculated atthe extreme tension fibers as follows: PL Bxex fm 7 fea is the concrete stress due to dead loads and any sustained live loads calculated at the extreme tension fibers. se (9.12) Myy, ta =o 709 Because most ofthe prestressed beams are designed to remain uncracked during, the lifetime of the structure, the cracking moment is normally higher than the applied moment at full service loads. Furthermore, the ECP 203 requires that prestressed should be designed to withstand at least 1.2 Men TE V Ay Fig. 9.6 Cracking moment calculations Web Shear Strength gay In the Egyptian code, the value of the web concrete shear strength is given by: Gon = 0.24 [la stp +4y % where Jpee is the concrete stress at the C.G. of the section due to effective prestressing after considering all losses. @.13) Fire = A pv is un-factored shear stress due to the vertical component of prestressing Qpy. Dp Mme _(P_XSiNO) Ty Fe Toe Age) bxd, bxd, bxd, Wherey,, =1.15. Referring to Fig. 9.7, the vertical component of the prestressing force Oy a the critical section for straight tendons equals: (9.14) Q,, = P, sin(@) = P, tan)... ‘The approximation of using (tan) instead of (sin) is justified because the eccentricity is very small compared to the span. For beams with straight cables, the vertical prestressed component equals: 710Where ens the eccentricity inside the beam and eis the eccentricity at the end. If the tendon eccentricity is located above the C.G., a negative value of e¢ should be used. critical Qe & + pT Fig. 9.7 Vertical prestressing component Q,, for case of straight tendons In case of using @ parabolic tendon, the angle @ may be obtained by differentiating the equation of the parabola as follows: y =ax?, taking the first derivative gives y’=tand = sind =2ax ‘Where a is the parabola constant and x is the location of the section measured from the center of the parabola as shown in Fig, 9.8. It can be easily shown for the parabola in Fig. 9.8 that the following expressions are valid: den den BOE a critical py coe Parabolic tendon —— _—l w ——-| Fig. 9.8 Vertical prestressing component Qp, for case of parabolic tendons mm ‘An alternate method for determining the web shear strength que is to limit the principal tensile stresses at the C.G. of the rectangular sections or at the intersection of the web and the flange for flanged sections if the neutral axis falls inside the flange. The code states that this limit may be taken as 0.25 ff, . Substituting with this value for the diagonal tension stress f given by Eq. 933, the web shear strength gay can be obtained by solving the resulting ‘equation as follows: . 25 Faa Gow su (9.16) Ja ons : 9.2.4 Shear Reinforcement Calculations If the applied shear stress qy exceeds concrete shear strength dau Web reinforcement must be used according to the following equation: Goo ie Shear reinforcement is obtained in a similar fashion like ordinary reinforced ‘concrete beam. The required vertical stirrups spacing (s) is given by = son IT) Gu Ay Xf, [LAS xan 1 (9.18) Where As, is the area of the stirrups according to the number of branches 9s shown in Fig. 9.9. The area of the provided stirrups should not be less th: (9.19) Ag = area of cone branch eae Fig. 9. Stirrups for shear nzSummary of the Design for Shear Step 1: Calculate the ultimate shear stresses due to Qu Where Q, is calculated at U2 from the support as follows: , =Shear at column axis, (ice) Step 2: Check that section size is adequate ‘The developed shear stresses due tot shear should stratify the following equation Qu $0.75 fl % <45.N /mm? TE 4, <4saay the concrete dimensions of the section are adequate. If the above condition is not satisfied, one has to increase the dimensions. Step 3: Determine the shear stress carried by concrete Calculate the concrete contribution to the shear resistance, doy using: ‘© The simplified procedure (in case of f,, 2 0.40f,,) 0.015 l= POO 02TH % $0375 0Fa1% where Q, and M, are calculated at the critical section. ‘+ “The detailed procedure, gex is taken as the smaller of the two values: L 2. =0045 fix sos{o, +4,% )=024 F.1% 24 fete oe % 113 Gey Where Me =H (045 e+ ne Sa) =f =e Wx Ox Oy Step 4: Design the web reinforcement If g, $4,,.then provide minimum stirrups. If q, > da» then design shear reinforcement to resists qu given by: ou = Iu ~ 9-5 Feu ‘The spacing of stirrups needed for shear is obtained from: Ay Xf, (15 bx4n Check minimum shear reinforcement Photo 9.3 Multi-span prestressed box- 74 inder bridgeExample 9.1: Shear design using the simplified procedure The cross-section of a simply supported beam is shown in Figure Ex 9.1. Using the code-simplified method, determine the required shear reinforcement at the critical section knowing that the stirrups diameter is 10 mm (f=360 N/mm’), ‘Assume that the column width is 500 mm. The material properties are fp.=2000 Némm? for normal stress relieved strands, f,.= 1080 Nimm? and fxz=35 N/mm, ‘Assume that the applied live load and superimposed dead load are 22 N/m’, 2 kNim’, respectively. L fF s0—| of | fiso] 600 mm Fig. Ex. 9.1 Tendon profile for Example 9.1 Solution Step 1: Verify the use of the simplified method Since the effective prestressing stress fpe is greater than 40% of the ultimate tendon strength fr: (1080 > 0.40 x 2000=800 N/mm"), the code simplified expression can be used. Step 2: Calculate section properties A= 2x 500150 +180 600 = 258000 mm” va ed 25x 20st I! Step 3: Calculate forces at the critical section Ww, =14 Wp, $1.6 Wy, 4 (6.45 +2) + 1.6 X22 = 47.034N Jn! ‘he cttical section is at #2 rom the face ofthe support. Since the column vas) 300 mn, the eal secon isa distance from the centerline of the mmpport sequal 1 900 , 500 "22 2 2 700 mm = 0.70 m ‘The reaction at the support equals: we, XL _ 47.0318 2 2 123.27 kN ‘The shear at the critical section equals: Q, = R, —w, +x, = 423.27 ~ 47.03 (0.70) = 390.35 kN ‘The moment at the critical section for shear equals: M, =Ry-% a, =42321x07-SEBXOT ns 716aaa Step 4: Check the maximum shear stress Juno e shear strength i given by: LITTTTTTittt “The maximum shear strength is given by: 35 : ' 2025 ffx =0.15 35 3.60 6 Immy* <4. N | 0,70 ome = 075 ff ons mn mi Rew2 = Sisa7| | a anus =3.62.N Lam? Since quis less than qunasthe concrete dimensions ofthe section are acceptable | Par284.80 km Step 5: Calculate concrete shear strength gev I Moment - r Sea 2024F7K Gaitical section | : 1 <0375f.1% i 1 390.35 kN Oo 390:35%(757.8/1000) _ 9354.9 ! 284.77 Shear i 4, (L=2x) _ 578/1000)(18.0-20:70) _ gy i x(x) 0708-07) i I — ia[ den = O2ETEE se donc =0.375V55TLS = 1.81 N Jr? & : 35 2 18m————__| og = 0.085 [7° 4 3.641.032 N Lm” > dan ‘The depth of the prestressing steel at the critical section equals: Since dex > Qeumas USC Geu = Geumax 4, = 150+ 27490300) =757.8mm ec=1-81 Nim? 47578 mm > 08 ...0k 2, _ 390.35%1000 d, 180x757.8 =2.86 N/mm? 4 NI 18Step ‘Since qa (2.86) > dea (1.81), shear reinforcement is requited. ‘The shear stress that needs to be carried by web reinforcement equals: : Calculate shear reinforcement .955.N Imm? For 10 mm stirrups, the total shear reinforcement area for two branches equals: A, =2X78.5=157 mm? ‘The required spacing is given by: Ag Xf, MAS _157360/1.15 0X4, 180%1.955 Take s =125mm = 139.7 mm agin =o b xs = 24 x180%125 =25 mm? demin Qei=7.17 Nim? Step 2: Calculate qav su -0a( fern oe z Joe Fepresents the stress at the C.G. of the section after losses. At the C.G. only ‘normal stress exists as shown the in figure. 1382.4%1000 258000 dyv represents the stress due to the vertical component of the section. The vertical component was determined previously as: = 5.36 N Imm? Oye Fp _(P_XSiNO) Ty (Ppe! Fue Ap 4m Wd, bxd, bxd, Since 0 is small we can assume that sin @= tan 0. 0, =P, xtan(O) =P, 1382.4 400300 15.36 a moe LI2 18/2x1000 t Quy! Yq _ 15.36/1.15x1000 098 N/mm? bx, 180x757.8 Qo = 024 a 26} s0.0%8=2541 mn! 723 7AAlternatively dew May be taken as the shear stress that produces a principle tension stress of CT ae iy ance rate Sue) ya (foe ‘ “ (*) Fa No: gen Since fe=5:36.Nimm? and 0.25NF— wv = 0.25 48, the previous equation gives: qev=3.18 Nim? ‘There is about 25% difference in the value of the web-cracking shear strength determined from both methods, We shall take the conservative value of dey = 2.54 N/mm’, Step 3: Calculate gar ‘The concrete shear strength is the smaller of the flexural-shear strength (qe=7.17 Nim? ) and the web-cracking shear strength qoy=2.54 N/mm". Hence, itis given by Go =2.54.N Imm? Step 4: Check the maximum shear stress June ‘The applied ultimate shear stress atthe critical section equals: 2, 390.35 bd, 180x7578 86. N Imm 4, ‘The maximum shear strength is given by: Gane < 073 f= =0.75) 5% % 13 aux 3:62 N fmm? 3.62 N Imm? <4.5.N Jmm™ Since gu is less than qunasthe concrete dimensions ofthe section are adequate. Step 5: Calculate shear reinforcement Since qu (2:86) > Gea (254), shear reinforcement is required, Asst™ that the stirrups diameter is 10 mm, thus: Ag = 2X78.5 =157 mm ou = 4a For 10 mm stirrups, the total shear reinforcement area for two branches equals: A, =2*78.5=157 mm? The required spacing is given by: Ag Xf, MAS _157%360/1.15 BXdu 180x159 172 mm Use #10 @166 mm (6010/m') Ae =24 eon 5 it's clear form the previous two examples thi the simplified method i very conrvatie, The shear suength ealeusted exing the detailed method @.54 N/mm?) is about 40 percent more than the simplified procedure (1.81 N/mm). , xs = 24 5180x166 =33.3mm? 40% of fy, + The thickness of the walls of the truss model, te, and the area enclosed by the shear flow, As, ae calculated using the expressions given in the ECP 203. «A limiting value for the allowed shear stresses developed due to torsion is given to ensure prevention of crushing failure of concrete in the struts. In the ECP 203 torsion design procedure, the following three strength criteria are considered: © First, a limitation on the shear stress developed due torsion is established such that the stirrups and the longitudinal reinforcement will yield before the crushing of the concrete struts ‘© Second, closed stirrups are provided to resist the applied torsional moment, ‘+ Third, the longitudinal steel distributed around the perimeter of the stirrups should be adequate to resist the longitudinal force due to torsion. 789.3.2.2 Calculation of the Shear Stress due to Torsion ‘The ECP 203 adopts a thin-walled section analysis, to predict the shear stress due to torsion in hollow as well as in solid sections. ‘The ultimate shear stress developed due to the ultimate torque Mu is given by: My Gu aaa 0.20) For simplicity, the following expressions are suggested by the code to compute the area enclosed by the shear flow path, Ay , and the equivalent thickness of the shear flow zone, fe: 4.08545 21) te = Aon! Ph (9.22) where ‘Aon is the gross area bounded by the centerline of the outer closed stirrups. P, isthe perimeter ofthe stirrups. ‘The area Ay, is shown in Fig. 9.11 for cross-sections of various shapes. For hollow sections, the actual thickness of the walls of the section should be used if itis less than ft, . Fig. 9.11 Definition of Aa, 29 9.3.2.3 Con: ‘According to the Egyptian code ECP 203, torsional moments should be considered in design if the factored torsional stresses calculated from Eq. 9.20 exceed dani» given by: f, 6 fle Fe re (9223) 2B “Where fee is the average normal stress at the C.G, of the section (fee =f Ge ‘The previous equation is similar to that of ordinary reinforced concrete except for the magnification factor I+/,,,/025 4, that presents the added concrete strength due to prestressing as shown in Fig 9.12 ep — «of — ___A=s0 Nim? | | 40 Nine? 2 38 ——- a lng **Y 60 Nim 8 30} 4 2 25}———_}. pf 20 7 15 ae : of a _ ao | oe ; ° 5 0 6 20 2% Love (Nien?) Fig. 9.12 Magnification factor according to the applied : Drestressing stress and concrete strength 7309.3.2.4 Check the Adequacy of the Concrete Section ‘The concrete compression diagonals carry the diagonal forces necessary for the equilibrium of the space-truss model. Preventing crushing failure of the ‘compression diagonals can be achieved either by limiting the compressive stresses in the concrete struts or by limiting the maximum shear stress. Thie ECP 203 limits the shear stress calculated by Eq, 9.20 to the value given by: Yumex = 0.75 % If qu> daxman the concrete dimensions of the cross-section must be increased. <45.N/mm* (9.24) 9.3.2.5 Design of Torsional Reinforcement A-Closed Stirrups The ECP 203 uses the expression that was derived from the space-truss model with the angle 0 set equal to either 37.5° or 45° depending on the amount of prestressing. Hence, the area of one branch of closed stirrups Ay, is given by: (9.25) oa 028) 17(x,94) (Jeno where xy and y; are the shorter and the tonger center-to-center dimensions of closed stirrups. The angle 0 is taken as, © 45° forcases in which f,, <40% of fy + 375° forcasesin which f,, > 40% of fy. TBI B-Longitudinal Reinforcement ‘The area of longitudinal reinforcement required for torsion Au is given by: Ma Py 242 h Substituting the value of My from Eq. 9.25, the arca of the longitudinal reinforcement can be expressed in terms Of Ay as follows: Le cB as ‘where fy and fur are the yield strength of the longitudinal reinforcement and the yield strength of the stirups, respectively 008 Bn son (9.27) (9.28) ‘The area of the longitudinal reinforcement should not be less than: oa fe oO (Ae p, (Lae 025 Astain Fin, (#)a & ) eee where Ag is the area enclosed by outside perimeter of the section including area of openings. In the previous equation “* should not be less than 6% Su, .2.6 Related Code Provisions The Egyptian Code sets the following requirements with respect to the arrangements and the detailing of reinforcement for torsion as follows: 1 Stirrups must be closely spaced with maximum spacing (s) such that: 200 mm ss =smaller of Pe 8 7322- Only the outer two legs are utilized for torsion plus shear, and the interior legs are utilized for vertical shear only. 3- For box sections, transversal and longitudinal reinforcement arranged along the outside and the inside perimeter of the section ‘may be considered effective in resisting torsion provided that the wall thickness f,, is less or equal to b/6 where b is the shorter side length of the section. If the wall thickness is thicker, torsion shall be resisted by reinforcement arranged along the outside perimeter only. 4. Stirrups proportioned for torsion must be closed as shown in Fig. 9.13. ‘sbbar damier embedded Teg wih 105 bend x Fig, 9.13 Torsion stirrup details 5. Itis permitted to neglect the effective part of the slab in T- and L- sections when calculating the nominal shear stresses due to torsion. 6- In case of considering the effective part of the slab in T- and L- sections when calculating the nominal shear stresses due to torsion, the following measures are taken refer to Fig. 9.14, + The effective part of the slab in T and L, sections measured from the ‘outer face of the beam should not be more than 3 times the slab thickness. + The effective part of the slab should be provided with web reinforcement. . 733 edt est be3ty ; t IL, ! 1 i i ify i + i i Fig. 9.14 Effective flange width for torsion 7- The spacing of the longitudinal bars should not exceed 300 mm and they should be uniformly distributed along the perimeter as shown in Fig. 9.13. At least one bar must be placed in each comer of the section (ie. in each comer of stirup). ‘The minimum bar diameter shall be 12 mm or 1/15 of the spacing between stirrups whichever is larger. 8- Enough anchorage of longitudinal torsional reinforcement should be provided at the face of the supporting columns, where torsional moments are often the maximum, Summary of Torsion Design Step 1: Determine cross-sectional parameters ‘Aon = area enclosed by the centerline of the closed stirrups. Pj, = Perimeter of the centerline ofthe closed stirrups. Step 2: Calculate the shear stress due to the ultimate torsion Aa A,=085 Ay e Note: If the actual thickness of the wall of the hollow section is less than ‘Agu / Ph «then the actual wall thickness should be use. TBA‘Step 3: Check the need for considering torsion = Poe f+ Soe 7 tne Ff 025. ff. IF du > Yasin» ON has to consider the shear stresses duc to torsion. ‘Step 4: Check that section size is adequate 1s f= 545" Imm? % If dru Geummax the concrete dimensions of the section are adequate. Geom Tf dav) Geumax + ON€ has to increase concrete dimensions. Step 5: Design the closed stirrups ‘The amount of closed stirrups required to resist the torsion is: Check that the provided area is more than Ay yg =——— 5 xs ‘Check thatthe provided spacing is less than the code requirement. Step 6: Design longitudinal reinforcement a-a(e)e ‘Check that the provided longitudinal reinforcement is not less than. Ajax wl ()a(e) t'% s ft, 4 In the previous equation “2 should not be less than 35 9.4 Combined Shear and Torsion 9.41 Introduction When a hollow section is subjected to a direct shear force and a torsional moment, the shear stresses on one side of the cross section are additive and on the other side are subtractive as showin in Figs. 9.150 When a solid section is subjected to combined shear and torsion, the shear stresses due to shear are resisted by the entire section, while the shear stresses ddue torsion are resisted by the idealized hollow section as shown in Fig. 9.15b. Shear sss ‘Shar sess ‘Shar sess Shear srsss mo ersen ito sheat fo lrsion fo to sncar 4) Hollow section 1) Solid section Fig. 9.15 Addition of torsional and shear stresses, 9.4.2 Design for Shear and Torsion in ECP 203 9.4.2.1 Consideration of Torsion In prestressed members, the Egyptian code ECP 203 requires considering the torsional moments in design if the factored torsional stresses calculated from Eq, 9.20 exceed duis» BiVen bY: _ [faa Pipe tone = 005 se p Where fee = (9.30) 7369.4.2.2 Adequacy of the Concrete Cross-Section ‘The shear stresses g, due to direct shear and shear stressq,, due (0 torsional ‘moment are given by: 2, My bd Fag, ‘The Egyptian Code concentrates on the side of the hollow section where the shear and torsional stresses are additive, On that side: Ie + My $0.75 fe $4.5. N Imm? In a solid section, the shear stresses due to direct shear are assumed to be uniformly distributed across the width of the section, while the torsional shears only exist in the walls of the assumed thin-walled tube, as shown in Fig. {0.15b). The direct summation of the two terms tends to be conservative and a root square summation is used (a.¥ +a.) s 075, Fa 4.5 N fmm? sevens (9.32) 31) Photo 9.5 Beam failure due to combined shear and torsion BI | 9.4.2.3 Design of Transverse Reinforcement For prestressed members under combined shear and torsion, the Egyptian Code requires adding the transverse steel due to torsion to that due to shear. Concrete js assumed to contribute to the shear strength of the beam. It does not, however, contribute to the torsional strength of the beam. The transverse reinforcement for combined shear and torsion is obtained according to Table 9.1. ‘Table 9.1: Transverse reinforcement requirements according to ECP 203 od fF. Foe if Fie fra fixe — |g, > 006 fm rx Soe ans fe f 0958/7 ag i % f 025. Provide minimum reinforcement | Provide reinforcement to resist given by Eq. 9:33 Ga 5 Geu us Biven by Bq. 9.25 Provide reinforcement to resist Gu ~Aeul? 4 ew Provide reinforcement to resist Qu ~ Foul? Gu ) Fou In Table (9.1), dex is the concrete contribution to the shear strength and is obtained from either «The simplified procedure 6x0, ARO o2KfT ey = 0.04 $0375 f.17% © The detailed procedure, where dey is taken as the sinaller of 1 agnosis slo o0 fe paneer % as 2 day = 024 (Ufa Fy) #8 ‘The total amount of stirrups needed for shear and torsion should satisfy the following equation: 738Te seonnene (9.33) 9.4.2.4 Design of Longitudinal Re inforcement. ‘The longitudinal ste s not cl snot required for shear, However, longitudinal torsion should be obtained using Eq. 9.34, tess anginal tet fr 4e( EE 0. ‘Thé area of the longitudinal reinforcement should not be less than: += (9:34) Photo 9.6 Curved prestressed box-girder bridge 739 tetera inenncsnmll Design Summary for Combined Shear and Torsion Step 1: Determine cross-sectional parameters ‘The cross-sectional parameters for combined shear and torsion design are b, dp, Aon and, Ph, Step 2: Calculate the ultimate shear stresses due to Qs and My d, 20.80 Note: If the actual thickness of the wall of the hollow section is less than ‘Agy/ Ph, then the actual wall thickness should be used. dis should not be less 0.81 ‘Step 3: Check the need for considering torsion Calculate the minimum shear stress below which torsion can be neglected. If. Sve = 0.06 [f= fi+—Le Anata = 0.06," 00s re Tf du, ) Gwin ON has to consider the shear stresses due to torsion Step 4: Check that section size is adequate The developed shear stresses due to shear and torsions should stratify the following equations For Hollow sections. Qu Im S ors f For solid sections (a) +(au) < os la <451 tm? 4.5 N fmm 740Tf dau deumax 804 4 < dumax» the concrete dimensions of the section are adequate. If the above condition is not satisfied, one has to increase the dimensions. Step 5: Calculate the concrete shear strength qa, Calculate the concrete contribution to the shear resistance, dex using one of the following two procedures: ‘+The simplified procedure (use only if fpo>0.4 fu) 3.6xO, xd, 0a $0375 17, ‘+ The detailed procedure, where qey is taken as the smaller of the flexural shear strength and the web shear strength, 1 gy =0.045, fis 08 (ay wa, ae }z024 Fralee au) Step 6: Design the closed stirrups 2 dow If dy ) deus calculate the stirrups needed for shear uu =, 0-5 doy Qa bs Siulte ‘The area of one branch of stirrups needed for torsion is obtained from: Mas TAG!) 2008 The area of one branch of stirrups needed for resisting shear and torsion = by te ‘where n is the number of branches determined from shear calculations as shown in Fig. 9.16. A, 74. ‘Check that the chosen area of stirrups satisfies the minimum requirements. 0.40xs xb yoann) 0” Fa (IF - Fig. 9.16 Stirrups for shear and torsion (Ay +244), Step 7: Design longitudinal reinforcement anal)’ Check that the provided longitudinal torsional reinforcement is more than the minimum requirement A,iqie, Where: 1 HE $ ty a | 4, In the previous equation “# should not be less than. emma s OX fou 192Example 9.3: Combined shear and torsion design (1) ‘The cross section of a simply supported prestressed beam is shown in Fig. Ex 9.3.,The beam is subjected to a factored shear force of 510 KN, a factored bending moment of 80 KN.m, and a factored torsional moment of 34 KN.m at the critical section. Design the required reinforcement to resist the applied shear and torsion. The material properties are f,,=1860 N/mm? for normal stress relieved strands, fe = 960 Nim’, f,=360 Nimm, fy, =360 Nim? and fo=40 Nim. 1000 mm Je 800 mm Beam cross section Critical section s|———a 0.=510 kN ‘M=80 KN. My=34 KN. Straining actions at the eritical section Fig. Ex.9.3 en nna ‘Solution Step 1: Calculate section properties ‘To design a T-section for torsion, one has two options: 1- Consider the slab in the calculations and reinforce both the slab and the ‘beam for torsion. 2- Do not consider the slab contribution in torsion design, and provide stirrups and longitudinal reinforcement in the web only (easier and more practical for thin slabs) In this example, the contribution of the slab is considered in the calculations, "Note that the flanges must be less than 3 1, as shown in the figure below. com] — 350 350 ‘Assume concrete cover of 40 mm to the centerline ofthe stirrup, {4 recesses Aan definition (720 +920) = 3280 mum ‘Ag = 220%550+170%920 = 277400 mm? A, =0.85Ay =0.85% 277400 = 235790 mm* Ag 277400 Pp, 3280 ‘A = 1000x250 +300%550 = 415000 mm* 84.6 mm 143 144Step 2: Calculate the ultimate shear stresses due to Q, and My 1, Shear stress: ‘The depth of the prestressing stee! atthe critical section equals i d, =800-100= 700mm d,= 700 mm > 0.8 t...0.k Only the web width is effective in resisting shear force, thus b is taken as 300 510%1000 2.429 N mm? 300X700 2. Torsional stresses a = te = _ 0.852. fmm? 2xA, Xt, 2X235T00X84.6 Step 3: Check the need for considering torsion ‘The value of dunin equals 5 Fre unin = 0.06, fe MoE The prestressing force P, is obtained by multiplying the effective prestressing stress after considering all losses fpe by the area of prestressing steel Ap, P. =F, %A,, =960%850/1000 = 816 kN P, _ 816000 vA 415000 a0 [197 wn 0.06/49 fh. = 0.424 N/mm? i 15) "025 Jao Since Gy, > dunia WE have to consider the shear stresses due to torsion, f =1.97N /mm* Step 4: Check that section size is adequate For solid sections, the developed shear stresses due to combined shear and torsion should stratify the following equation: 145 Marl + (Gu) S deme ‘The maximum shear strength qumaris given by: Qe < 0.75 fit 0.75/90 = 3.87 N Imm? <4.5.N fmm? ed Ye 15 aan = 3.87 N Iran? fa (any (0-97 +(0852) since (au) +(4u)’ $ dams the concrete dimensions of the section are 57 N Imm? ‘adequate as shown in the graphical representation below. uu Ganas=3.87 0.75 J4071.5 =3.87 0.852 2429) Step 5: Calculate concrete shear strength gay ‘To simplify the calculation of gew the simplified method is used. However, verification needs to be made as shown in step 5.1 Since the effective prestressing stress foe is greater than 40% of the ultimate tendon strength fy (960 > 0.40 x 1860=744 N/mm’ ), the code simplified expression can be used. To use the simplified equation for evaluating concrete shear strength, the term Qy d/l, equals: 746510% (70/1000) 46>1.0 2, use M, 1 day =024 ff. % 2 duma 20.375, =0375,/40 . % is 1 =1.24.N Imm? 1.94. fmm? oy = 0.045, ia ssou(2 eae } V7. M, tn = 0085/20 43.6x10 However, since geu> Gaynas USC dou = ema 4eu=1.94 Nim 83 N Im? > qeumif 1-24) «0K ‘Step 6: Design of stirrups for shear and torsion Step 6.1: Area of stirrups for shear Since the applied shear g, i greater than qa, shear reinforcement is needed. Yu 94 2 — Soe 2 2,429 -194 21.459. Imm Vou =I 2 2 1459 .N ii ‘The spacing of the stirrups should be smaller of ph/8 (410) mm or 200 mm, try a spacing of 100 mm A, ofan Xb%S _1.459%300%100 «Sf, MIS 360/115 ‘Area for one branch of the stimup equals Ay/2=69.91 mm? Step 6.2: Area of stirrups for torsion Since fy (960 N/mm?) is greater than 0.40 fa, use 6=45 Using the same stirrup spacing of 100 mm, the area of one branch Age =139.8 mm? M, xs 34x10% x100 a SSA 9 05? DKA, fy 17, cot 0 2%235790%360/1.15 cot 45" m Step 6.3: Stirrups for combined shear and torsion A: Web Area of one branch for combined shear and torsion = Ace Aul2= 23.08 + 69.97 = 93 mm? Choose 6 12 mm (113 mm?) Airnin = b x3 = 242 3005100 =33.3 mn* (a = Total area chosen =2X113> Aypigoo-OK Final design use © 12/100 mm 8: Flanges ‘The flanges only resists torsion thus the area of one branch=A,y, Ag = 23.03 mm? use @ 8/100 mm Step 7 Design of longitudinal reinforcement for torsion Ay saxes(fe) cot? Calculate the minimum area for longitudinal reinforcement Agiin oo f A, a ye ee TI 220513280260) 45.2755’ veo (360 ‘There is a condition on this equation that 4 23.03, 300 100 ~ 6x360 Ag =300%550+250%1000 = 415000 mm? 741 748415000 Aan 03: soa 360 360/115 100 (360, |= 1983 mm* a) Since As) < Admin ...U8e Adtnin Choose 14 $14 (2155.1 mm’), Note that the maximum longitudinal bars is 300 mm Se spacing between 1414 Torsional 8/100 mm ry © 12/100 mm Shear + torsion stirrup cece Stirrup detail Example 9. section) Figure Ex. 9.4 shows a box section that constitutes the cross-section of the gitder of a road-way bridge. Structural analysis of the bridge revealed that the caitical section of the gitder near the support is subject to the following, straining actions: 04> 13000 KN ‘My=32000 kN. ‘M,=60200 KN.m ‘At this section the girder has been post-tensioned with 32 tendons arranged in & ducts 60 mm diameter. The total prestressing steel Ay, = 17120 mm’. The low- relaxation strands have fy = 1860 N/mm? and fye=1080 N/mm’. It is required to ‘carry out @ design for the combined shear and torsion for thet section. ‘The material properties are as follows: f= 40Nimm? and f= 400 Nima aon + Combined shear and torsion design (Box- 4250 =3600 ay Fig. EX. 9.4 Cross section of the road-way bridge 749 750Solution ‘Step 1: Calculate section properties Assume a clear concrete cover of 40 mm and the diameter of the bars used is 22 ‘mm as illustrated in the figure shown below Ag, = [4250-2 (40+11) }x[7000-2x(40 +11) ] =4148x6898= 28612904 mm? py = 2x(4148 + 6898) = 22092 mm Au, _ 28612904 Px 22092 295.1mm Since the effective thickness (t ) is less than both the web thickness (700 mm) and the flange thickness (350 mm), use the actual thickness. Use te=tycuat=350 mm for flanges Use te=facusi=700 mm for webs > 350} 4148 6898 ‘Step 2: Calculate the ultimate shear stresses due to Qu and Mr 1, Shear Stress: ‘The applied vertical shear force is resisted by the intemal shear stresses developed in each web. From the figure one gets: 4, = 3600 mm > (0.81 = 0.80x4250 = 3400 mm)...0k =-2. 1300031000 xd ~ @xT00)%3600 om = 2.58N Imm? 2. Torsional Stresses ‘The torsional stresses in the webs equal: M, 32000x10° 2% (08528612904) x 700 Gate 0.94. /mm? 2xA, Xt, ‘The top flange is more critical because its thickness is smaller than the bottom ‘one. Thus the torsion stress in the slab (flange) equals: M, 32000%10° came) Sa = Sy Re RR DOOR BN Imm 2xA, xt, 2X(0.85%28612904)x350 ‘Step 3: Check the need for considering torsion ‘The value of gauminequals: x Lore sa 008 fv Lo ‘The presiressing force P, is obtained by multiplying the effective prestressing stress after considering all losses fpe by the area of prestressing steel Ay. P,=fq Xp, = 1080%17120/1000 = 18489.6 kN It can be computed that the total concrete cross sectional area A=13.4 m* f= Pew 18489.621000 me AL BAXIOe 40, 1.38 = 0.05, fie. ae 8 025 Jao Since dy, > dyaia> We have to consider the shear stresses due to torsion, 1.38. /mm? AN Ln? NY 754 752Step 4: Check that section size is adequate ‘The maximum shear strength qunar is given by: fi < 075 fx 040 x 1860=744 N/mm? ), the code simplified ‘expression can be used. To use the simplified equation for evaluating concrete shear strength, the term Q, d/M, equals: 13000% (3600/1000) _ 9 77 <1.0...0k ~ te 2 =0.045 = +3.6x sore frse(e Gu =0015 [2 +3.6x0.77= SL N Jann > dex 1.24) 0.4. Since gex > Feumar USE Jeu = Foumar qai=1.94 Nita? Step 6: Design of stirrups for shear and torsion Step 6.1: Area of stirrups for shear Since the applied shear geis greater than qa, shear reinforcement is needed. 4 194 5 aq, 22: = 258-194 = 161 Je’ un =~ I ‘The spacing of the stirrups should be smaller of P\/8 (2716) mm or 200 mm, try a spacing of 100 mm_ a an XO KS _1.61(2700) 100 f, Mls 400/1.15 For one web = 648/2=324 mm’ and area of one branch=324/2=162 mm" = 648 mm? 153 | 154,Step 6.2: Area of stirrups for torsion Since fee (1080 N/mm?) is greater than 0.40 fru, use 0=45. Using s of 100 mm, the area of one branch Ave, one gets: M, xs 32000%108 x100 © DKA, Xf yg 17,6088 2X(0.85% 28612908) x400/1.15 cot 45° = 189.1 mm* For bok sections, the code permits the use of reinforcement along the interior and exterior sides of each web if the wall thickness ty is less or equal to the section width 7000 “6 ‘The area ofthe stirrups for torsion can be divided on the two sides _ Area of one branch Ay,=189.1/2 =94,55 mm? 14, (100) <2 < Step 6.3: Stirrups for combined shear and torsion A: Web ‘Area of one branch for combined shear and torsion = Ag+ Ay/2= 94.55 +162 = 256.6 mm? Choose 20 mm (314 mm?) xs = 2 790x100 = 70 mm? (or one web) 400 Total area chosen = 2%314 > Ay gig von Final design use © 18/100 mm B: Flanges ‘The flanges only resists torsion thus the area of one branch=Av Au = 94.55 mm? tse © 12/100 mm 2A +A gg = xs = 24 (4509x100 =35 mm? ™ fy 400 Aeeees = 2X13 = 226 min? > 35.2 ck Final design two stirrups 20/100 mm (two branches) in the webs and two stirrups $12/100 mm (two branches) in the flanges Step 7 Design of longitudinal reinforcement for torsion 0) , {to scream 100 Ag XPy () cot? g = 189122002, Calculate the minimum area for longitudinal reinforcement Airis oof ¥ a7, (}-(] Aw > —% ‘There is a condition on this equation that OX fy 189-7000" us use 100 ~ 6%400 Xn 74.25 = 29.15 m* — Since An wean] ee aca ea i @ [wcan] ‘ross sectional area (om?) wm [wow] 2 [2 ]e]«[s]el7[*[*]w[n]e j om foo + Te Ts {sts fot7 fete |wluje < aaa [ear EE eo oe | © [ozz| ae [ses | exe | 1a | v4t | 70 | 108 | 220 | ase | ana | ai [ os0 fsa afer [as ae] | [Poss faa] rr [a [arr ao i | 0 ae | 17 | 236 [a4 aaa art [eso | ean | 707|7a5 | ase | aa : 10 | esr | 70s | sor | 290 | | ono | ar | 50 | ze | 707 | 7s | one | 202 wefeam|ie[am[asefem[easlom[re[eafor|nar|raaliss] | 42 [one | a [azo [ao | se [ons | om [rm [sos | rv |r ae a rn 154] 208 | 462 | 616] 770 | 04 [1076] 12.92] 105| 1530] 16.03| 10.07 | 14 [ 4.208 | 154 | aoe | 462 | exe [770 | o24 | vore| 12a] 108s [1500 1608] 1047 rd zat [a2 | eas | 04 [10.05] 2.00] 4.07] 10.00 a2| a9 16 [57a | 201 | aoe [ 60s | soe [tos | 1200] 407 | 08 eno avs fare [nee vaa{tezr| ai] zoae] | 1900 | 250 [ooo | vee | vve | vara v527| 701 | nae | 200 | sas | aroo | 2054 rar tseas| 00 253|zaz7[ aa | a | 2x00 | ste | oan | 902 | 1257] 1674 [100s] z100| asta 2az7 [ata | 160 [9770 For) zat zeai|soaz|oeai| aot | za | zoe] seo [ 700 | 1140] tsar] toot] 2201 | anon [oer [sat [aon [ar | e562 ese} zoas[ eae 3027] 2a g ga s 20° i ge “sss % eft anit ge 222 w 23 g: ga83 ae fore 3 BEES 3 dddd @ moe | 00 Cchonein & EngAPPENDIX B Design Charts for Calculating I., and a(Ghonsim & Eb4hilny Design of Reinfrcad Goncrte Stuctures ‘Shonatm & Eran Design of Reinforced Concrete Sructres Cracked Section Moment of Inertia I ., for Rectangul Cracking Moment M ., for rectangular ‘Sections with Tension Reinforcement only os i ona 013 2 oat 0.10 0.09 0.08 o4 0.008 0.010 0.014 0018 0.022 0.026 0.030 cn "200 800 400 590 600 700 600 900 1000 1100 1200 1900 1400 1500 ‘(mm 1 bd? Ma=b(me). Ke (kM)Ghondin & tary Deon ot Reread Coe Stuces anatn & ny Design of Reed Conca Stchres Wx factor for ns subjected to bending only . w, factor for sections subjected to bending only 25 Nimm’, tid=1.15, smooth bars, n=10 fou@25 Nimm?, tid=1.05, smooth bars, n=10 =r TTT I =a ap * CI cd a t decor | . ao tare] 17 ee 55 ~ +4 | of 1-7-7 | + | sot} . ep : ae “ss i - 07 “ | a . | |Z ae os | | 0 e ms aa 20 Et — 7 4 —] | | b aoe { a s T 7 bene aa 7 1 i LZ aa} ate L par EEE y ee 6 16 EB | 0 0 : al ol | . 00 02 04 06 08 10 12 1A 18 1m 20 22 24 26 28 30 00 02 04 06 os 19 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 90 re net Values of Sa Tarawa rae » Pepe epee pete pee . ope pepe.) seas ae a oil 75 | aaa [aso | “ar 00~ | ase [ao | ae Set Sse rss [ sso [eon [aos [aes 1 ie_| ore |e. Shoo —HS—|as[ ta [veo [vos [19608 [ as [pas [aan Sonal iret 900 pee[ eso Tare 0 | ses 100 Tf a hoo ee | aor | [aes [toes [ar [ae Senet tae Tae attest ge [aes oe 19s tse Ban eres se oo | tos fet tie ieee | eee tas [asf to] fas [ anos [aa 200 Too Shoes —15—|~)—| es [e005 too oss | 20 | a eee tetas tas sof tes fe pea 2s aso ee a od a To ‘anal es [en | te | gre at} ee apf se | 00 or ‘oe et [er [ese |e] re | ena a oto —ea [es | esos Tre | gears goer tae estefan fs fas a Sorat ese fst too oss fe fas fas 0 ental eo [8s [es [er [wf ee es Sota| eo [ee | es es [er | ea Sonal ef asf geo ge| too traf co VV a © Sete beta at Wy =5q Xk, x10 199 00consi &EHshiny Dovgn ot Reboad Cone States hon 84h a Wx factor for sections subjected to bending only Ww, factor for sections subjected to bending only fa=25 Nimm?, tid=4.45, ribbed bars, n=10 foi=25 Nimm?, tid=1.05, ribbed bars, n=10 n » 7 1 T 7 L] os i « alae 1 TH ot fleet} -— of fteeet} Ff a ihe = |_| | | | sit | t - % tA | ap israel “ Atal | ® | LAr | | al | | | » = A oti - 4 2 1 2p » | . 1 ot Ee | 2 Ll CEE a » / Sess 51 2 % =I m=a=——m oo 7 EA 1% EEA ZA ok LA : A : | mn | o nL. . Rae saecsm aise mamas sua aeaonatan oo 02 04 00 00 10 12 14 42 18 20 22 24 26 00 20 we! a values of 8 Valuos of ae aaa » ee epee ee ee yee ae ee ee ee a a Goat Sots [tae [ae aes [ste | ers [0 some aes [ae eo [ses] eae] a | oes | eet oe Bet Se sears [nas | son [ano a eee eres tint fase [aie [eae ass Too sia a a Seat ee testes aoe | as 1 ee [eo a \ casts fas} toe ee feast toes test sear | es | aoe [ees a a oe tee tie seer ts at [eo tt Sealants tee go Seite oe teeter es ger ato Seales ade a see eet et ee | sf aoe Sete tes note [tes [nae | sees eo co goer [ete ete ieee as ee a Soret [set ato ose | tne [ae [ae Heo a i Soja te et Senet pete teas oe toe esta oe Senet et ete aes Poof tos fae a oie —ee [en sete et+ eee =5,.xk, x10“ Wy =5q_ Xk, x10 01 amcondi & ny Design of ReoredConcrle Sucties eee son ot Ries Const Ses W, factor for sections subjected to bending only W, factor for sections subjected to bending only f.4=30 Nimm?, tid=1.15, ribbed bars, n=10 fi=30 Nimm?, tid=1.05, ribbed bars, n=10 » i = a TI LLVYT] T ° CI : & |_| _ i ra oo} Heed + ofits 7 sit _ 4 5s os t= 05] 7 % a = aT ” 7 - «0 } : I | } | | 2% — est t y 4 O; “7 b 0 = 2 ealpesleeerd ai ¢ eS tS » » a ® SEE ' EE eee t Y Z| F “ty rt : = ] f | eee = a eae L 00 02 04 06 08 19 12 14 19 18 20 22 24 26 28 20 jo 02 04 08 oa 10 42 iA vo 18 20 22 24 26 28 a0 et nee Values of Sq Values of Sq Taro aa . Peper ee ee eae » eee eee ool aae gars | aso [ree 000 | are oar | 00-50 doles are aera | aan as 4 238 | 275 {ats _|' sso | see | 425 {aes [sig | 575 {80 ‘0.002113 | 125 | 138 | _150_| 13 {tvs | tes | 208 | za5 | 250 este} see {ses fa ge ae ae 0.003] 92 ‘100 | 108 [417 [125 | 133 | 142 [asa {167 | 183, a Se pee ete fase | aa hos| tas | a | tes [aro] ieee | asso BB ae tos fais feo ‘ane| Tia] tas [taste res |stats | eas a a a 3 oe oiie | tas |e | taf iss ier [at fa ee | a oc a Gorges} | tor | aie iss ser tie fo ioe fe |e ot a See eee et te eo Sow et [oes fer | sooo neat | a cD eo ae ee ee et et tt Solar tes | se foe fsa asf Sotat—ee [er [es feet es | fe te aoe] Poo | es | ee feeds is fast sot fe fee tes er te pt wp 25, Xk, x104 Mg Su, X10" oa sosShonen &EeNeny Wx factor for sections subjected to bending only f.4250 Nimm®, tid=1.15, ribbed bars, n=10 CGhondim & 14h Designo Rettorced Concrete Stacie factor for sections subjected to bending only f.u=50 Nimm?, tid=1.05, ribbed bars, n=10 . ! a - | T L I . = | 5 - 7 | © : feet +A 1 | = : L | LAL & - + = yo o SAL [| wot # - i - ot | | | fs eo es oe Yi lA ” —- Ot | as z oi i al - » Lif : : | vo : = | ea i Ae ZS att ~t i ‘6 eal 6 4 EEE F Fx LE » tof A | ° . : 00 02 04 OS 08 10 12 1 to 10 20 22 24 20 28 00 02 04 08 08 10 12 14 18 12 20 22 24 26 28 30 wd! wet Values ofS Valet of Sn mae E Seana = ee — . eee es ee ae ‘o.00i| 425 [600 ~S7s_Tes0_| 725 | 200 | ars. 1100 | “72507 gout ize {ago {225 {250 | 278 {so {sas | sea_{ 400} as0_| coon | ons eset reenrs ue |p als} as—| san [gent ren[ ease | ses aan ‘outa “zae | ars | are | sso |g fa so Sos|— ee [too] toate |e te tase fer tee mca “ive | 299 | | as0_| ae {ooo as eo oder [ee [nego os | site| gee I aa a “e.008) 143] “125 | 196_|150—|163 | ~175 | 108. '225_| 250. | ‘oaost Tit 7g 7 fas | g5_ fsa | 95 fo {108 f 117. or] toe | ie | tae nas [as Tet ae [e | a ‘0.008 — 97 | “106 “T —116 | “425 “194 4a | 15 ‘181_| 200. | f Goee} se fea fe zs {ze jet {ms {ap tsa F tog eave se [too] toe | tt] es | ts ier [ 183 soe ot er ee ee fe a es fe toe i 188 ee eon et —| at [ ae os tet fs ia s8 gout ef oe os ee fe te ee toe a “aa i80 sorte fs es te |e | |e fs ef orale [oes] eae | toe a8 sate outst eee en as fer ee fn fe a i 7258 a a cots ete | es | 0s] eto 7301190 Cd 05 w, =, Xk, x104 gAPPENDIX Cc Slope and Deflection EquationsAPPENDIX Cc Deflections and Slopes of Beams A-DEFLECTION AND SLOPES OF CANTILEVER BEAMS ye deflection at any pint ‘Acseflection a cera point (= slope at certain pot yo BE (6q'—dartx') OSxsa ier wa xa) aSxsh yo iat? : wbx pi3a-2%) Osxsa woe GL. ) s(x! -4Le 460 ~Aaxeat) aS xb Ma ° wabl 2 a= Zg(e-e) ¥_ (or! —10L'x+5Lx"-2) in0L ef i: wy P " =e 30. 2B 808Pox a apax) Osx y M8 9p 108 +2) ‘ A eLEr Bove = Pabluss) Pab(Lta) Uwt! gw 6 SLE eGLET ther eer ATP sua 9, BOOB) pa” A age ! jax eee re B-DEFLECTION AND SLOPES OF SIMPLE BEAMS ae me NBLET Px ; we yeFEQat-3a-2) O5xsa » yee Wats +2) P , se Swit 2 Pa (3px-3s'a) aSxSb-a eee 1,6, =e HET w6T : Pa (t-0) Fe ai 7 Pa_ ep aa? aL ~ 4 DE iam . BE Ov abe ste) osns i , we yo MX an -siree) yeh oP -MLe HHtTe-B) LIDSxsb u, suet By, set Swi! awe SBT “T6887 “Tee7 809 810yee (rut 108 x +35") 3602 EI pe tear 36087 asET vw, Ut wt Teer AOSIBL and 4 =000552AE Pax 6LEL PuRL 6H Pat sete) (B-8) osxse [@-Df-aGrx-b) Lsxsb+e ape 50571 and dy =f PE 95 ET yw Ae wa » Eke Ay wat (4L+3a) fey ai we «Sea ET (SL -12.4°) FiEzle asso 812a || REFERENCESReferences ACI Committee 318, “Building Code Requirements for Reinforced Concrete (ACI 318-02)” , American Concrete Institute, Detroit, 2002. ACE-ASCE Committee 423.3R, “Recommendations for Concrete Members Prestressed with Unbonded Tendons”, ACI Journal Proceedings, Vol. 86, No. 3, 1989, pp. 301-318. ACI Committee 224, “Control of Cracking in Concrete Structures”, Concrete International: Design and Construction, Vol. No. 10, October 1980, pp. 35-76. ACLASCE Committee 445, “Recent Approaches to Shear Design of Structural Concrete”, State-of-the ~Art ~ Report by ACI-ASCE Committee 445 on Shear and Torsion. ASCE Joumal of Structural Engineering V. 124, No. 12, 1998, pp. 1375-1417. American Concrete Institute, Special publication 208, “Examples for the Design of Structural Concrete with Strut-and-Tie Models", Farmington Hills, 2002, 242 pp. Arthur H. Nilson, “Design of Concrete Structures”, Twelfth Edition, McGraw Hill, 1997, 780 pp. Branson, Dan E., “Deformation of Concrete Structures”, McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York, 1977, 546 pp. Branson, Dan E. “Compression Steel Effect on Long-Time Deflections”, ACL Journal, Proceedings V. 68, No. 8, Aug, 1971, pp. 555-559. Bowles, Joseph E., “Foundation Analysis and Design”, 4" Edition, McGraw- Hill, Singapore, 1988, 1004 pp. Collins, M.P. and Mitchell, D., “Shear and Torsion Design of Prestressed and Non-Prestressed Concrete Beams,” PCI Journal, V. 25, No. 2, Sept. - Oct. 1980, pp. 32-100. Collins, M.P. and Michell, D., “Prestressed Concrete Structures” Prentice Hall Inc., Englewood Cliffs, 1991, 766. 813 CSA Committee A23.3, “Design of Concrete Structures for Buildings,” CAN3- ‘A23.3-M94 Canadian Standards Association, Rexdale, Canada, 1994, 199 pp. ECP Committee 203, “The Egyptian Code for Design and Construction of Concrete Structures”, Housing and Building Research Center, Giza, Egypt. ELMihilmy, M., “Tendon Stress at Ultimate For Partially-Prestressed Concrete Flexure Members” Engineering Research Journal, University of Helwan, Vol.96 , pp. C63-C82, 2005. EI-Mihilmy, M., Tedesco, J., “Deflection Of Reinforced Concrete Beams ‘Strengthened With PRP Plates”, ACI, Structural Journal, Vol. 97, No. 5, ‘September-October 2000, pp. 679-688 Eurocode 2, “Design of Concrete Structures-Part 1: General Rules and Rules {for Buildings (EC-2)” European Prestandard ENV 1992-1-1:1991, Comte ‘European de Normalisation, Brussels, 253 pp. Ghali, A and Favre, R., “Concrete Structures: Stresses and Deformations”, Chapman & Hall, New York, 1986, 348 pp. Ghali; A. and ‘Tadros; MXK., “Partially Prestressed Concrete Structures", ‘ASCE Journal of Structural Engineering V. 111, No. 8, 1995, pp. 1846-1865. Ghoneim, M., “Shear Strength of High-Strength Concrete Deep Beams”, Journal of Engineering and Applied Science, Faculty of Engineering, Cairo University, Vol. 48, No. 4, Aug. 2001, PP. 675-693. Ghoneim M. and MacGregor, J. G., “Evaluation of Design Procedures for Torsion in Reinforced and Prestressed Concrete", Structural Engineering Report No. 184, Department of Civil Engineering, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Canada, Feb. 1993, 231 pp. Ghoneim, M., “Design for Shear and Torsion ~ Background and Evaluation of the Egyptian Code Provisions", The Bighth Arab Structural Engineering Conference, Cairo, Egypt, Oct. 2000, pp. 659-674. Gilbert, R. and Mickleborough, N., “Design of Prestressed Concrete”, Unwin ‘Hyman Ltd, London, 1990, 504 pp. Hilal, M,, “Design of Reinforced Concrete Halls”, Marcou & Co, 1987, 364 pp. - 814Hsu, T. T. C,, “ACI Torsion Provisions for Prestressed Hollow Girders”, ACL ‘Structural Journal, V. 94, No. 6, Nov.-Dec. 1997, pp. 787-799. Hsu, T. T. C., “Unified Theory of Reinforced Concrete”, CRC Press, Boca Raton, 1993, pp 193-255. Jacob, $. Grossman, “Simplified Computations for Effective Moment of Inertia 1, and Minimum Thickness to Avoid Deflection Computations”, ACI Journal Proceedings, Vol. 78, No. 6, Nov.- Dec. 1981, pp. 423-440. Leet, K. and Bernal, D., “Reinforced Concrete Design”, McGraw Hill, New York, 1997, 544 pp. Libby, IR., “Modern Prestressed Concrete”, 4" ed, Van Nostrand Reinhold; New York, 1990, 859 pp. ‘Mattock, Alan H., Chen K. and Soongswang, K. “The Behavior of Reinforced Concrete Corbels,” Journal, Prestressed Concrete Institute, V. 21.No. 2, Mar. Apr. 1976, pp. 52-77. MacGregor, J. G. and Ghoneim, M. G. “Design for Torsion”, ACI Structural Journal, V. 92, No. 2, March-April 1995, pp. 211-218, MacGregor, J. G. “Reinforced Concrete ~ Mechanics & Design”, Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, Second edition, 1992. MacGregor, J.G., “Derivation of Strut-and-Tie Models for the 2002 ACI Code- Examples for the Design of Structural Concrete with Strut-and-Tie Models”, Special publication 208 of ACI, American Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, 2002, pp. 7-40. Mattock, A., Kirz, B. and Hognestad, E. “Rectangular Stress Distribution in Uttimate Strength Design”, ACI Journal, V. 57, No. 1, July 1960, pp.1-28. Matti, P. “Basic Tools of Reinforced Concrete Beam Design”, ACI Journal, Proceedings, V. 82, No. 1, Jan.-Feb. 1985, pp. 46-56. Mitchell, D. and Collins M. P. “Diagonal Compression. Field Theory - A Rational Model for Structural Concrete in Pure Torsion", ACL Journal, V. 71, August 1974, pp. 396-408. sis Naaman, A. E, “Partially Prestressed Concrete: Review and Recommendations”, Journal of the Prestressed Concrete Institute 30 (1985): 30- n. Park, R. and Paulay T., “ Reinforced Concrete Structures”, A Wiley-Inter- science Publication, Wiley, New York, 1975, 769 pp. PCA, “Notes on ACI 318-95: Building Code Requirements For Structural Concrete With Design Applications”, Skokie, Mlinois, 1996, 818 pp. PCI Committee on Prestress Losses, “Recommendations for Estimating Prestress Losses”, Journal, Prestressed Concrete Institute, V. 20 No. 4, July- ‘Aug. 1975, pp. 43-75. Rogowsky, D. M. And MacGregor, J. G., “ Design of Reinforced Concrete Deep Beams”, Concrete International: Design and Construction, V.8, No.8, ‘Aug. 1986, pp. 46-58. Schlaich, J., Schafer, K. and Jennewein, M., “Toward a Consistent Design of ‘Structural Conerete™, Journal of the Prestressed Concrete Institute, V. 32, No. 3, May-June 1987, pp 74-150. Siao, W.B., “Strut-and-Tie Model for Shear Behavior in Deep Beams and Pile Caps Failing in Diagonal Tension”, ACI Structural Journal, V. 90, No. 4, 1993, pp. 356-363. Zia, Paul; Preston, H. Kent; Scott, Norman L.; and Workman, Edwin B., “Estimating Prestress Losses", Concrete International: Design and Construction, V.1, No.6, June 1979, pp. 32-38. ‘Vecchio, F. J. and Collins, M. P., “The Modified Compression Field Theory for Reinforced Concrete Elements Subjected to Shear", ACI Journal, V. $3, No. 2, ‘March-April 1986, pp. 219-231. Vecchio, F. J. and Collins, M. P., “The Response of Reinforced Concrete to Incplane Shear and Normal Stresses”, Putlication No. 82-03, Departmentof Civil Engineering, University of Toronto, 1982. 816Units Conversion Table To transform from To Multiply by Sl-units French —units [factor _ Concenttated loads IN kg i kN kg 100 | TEN [ton Ou Linear Loads /m’ i 1kNim’ Um’ i Uniform Loads /m “| kN/m™ tm On Nim’ kg/m OL [kN/m” = gh’ 100 Stress Nim” (=I MPa) glen 10 N/m Kglom’ 0.01 N/a? [ton/m’ OL Density oa | re Nin kg/m’ O1 kN ton/m’ OL kN/m* _| kg/m? 100 Moment. Nom ton.m 01 —_| Naum __|kg.cm’ 0.0 Area 7 im om 10000 mune om’ 0.01 817ah seals Goh ike} J Ga J GU US scaly Uae Gi gue Ay Sid ASL ot Gi A pl staal Gy SABI cbse) J ele at ky oak GI I OY EMI ae ely NS Ay ly GS eljal Ge ee gl ns ~cailbe Ge AS Gun FSI acd J ganna ha Ue le phish pal alps yale Lgl AGS ll ola ow agli SSI ap gle Ma jad DAS Ge ly Reoncrete@link.net Yee YVAN 243 paall CoS Jay gla! ay wily ply MeL EIS ab Js) ual Yee jpaine tcl ala Yo eV jucique gC aha all nae haste ood Gola 5 aa aad — Lasigh As — Agel Saag Ae ol lyDESIGN OF REINFORCED CONCRETE STRUCTURES PED CU emt Ue Ug Features Reflects the very latest Egyptian Code provisions (ECP 203- 2007) and includes all major changes and additions. Numerous illustrations and figures for each topic. Good theoretical background for each topic with code provisions. Extensive examples in each chapter utilizing SI units. All examples are worked out step-by-step ranging from simple to advanced. Full reinforcement details for every example. = Numerous design charts. Volume 3 covers the following topics: Reinforced Concrete Frames, Arches and Arched Slabs Design of Deep Beams and Corbels Deflections of Reinforced Concrete Members Crack Control of Reinforced Concrete Members Design of Shallow Foundations and Pile Caps Design of Raft Foundations Strut-and-Tie Model for Reinforced Concrete Members Fundamentals of Prestressed Concrete Flexural Design of Prestressed Concrete Members Shear and Torsion in Prestressed Concrete Analysis of Continuous Prestressed Beams aes a Cha Ced a] AT-M

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