Contents

Mechanical characteristics of load.

Torque-speed characteristics of an AC Induction Motor.

Motor to load matching profiles.

Brief introduction to an AC Drive hardware.

Different types of AC Drives used in the industry.

Selecting the right Drive for your application.

Trouble-shooting of AC Drives.
1. MECHANICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF LOADS

Electrical machines have the largest application in the field of motive power or as mechanical
drives. The loads vary over widest limits not only in torque and speed but also in their inter-
relations. The torque-speed or the mechanical characteristics of the load primarily dictates
the type of the electrical machine to be used and the magnitude of the torque taken on the
basis of a base speed because of its usual variation with speed and the time variation of the
torque (continuous or intermittent) determine the rating or size of the machine.

The mechanical characteristics of the load, so very important in the selection of the motor are
often guesswork. The user to this has seldom given a serious thought. The lack of effort on
this part stems from his reliance on the people in the field of Electrical Drive who never fail
to provide him a drive a machine endowed with a controlled behavior – to suit his
requirements perfectly.

The nature of loads is becoming more complex with advancement in industrial processes and
production. To cope with that efficiently (both competence wise and energy wise) the simple
starting device, usually an assembly of resistance or reactance with switches / contactors,
which has been customarily provided with an electric machine is becoming more obscure.
The automatic controllers brought into existence to meet the drive requirement have
undergone a change, so large as to be called a metamorphosis, through the tireless efforts of
the specialists in the field of power electronics engineers, have also attempted to improve
upon the works of their predecessors. But their achievements have been little. Thanks to the
old masters the stable operation of a machine is now taken for granted. The little
modifications introduced in the recent times in the electrical machines to qualify for a union
with the novel controllers demand a renewed understanding of the former. The present
discussion is a review of what has been done in the field following one on the general
characteristics of machines and their suitability as drives.

TYPES OF MECHANICAL ROTATING MACHINE LOADS AND IT’S

CHARACTERISTICS

Different kinds of machines and mechanisms exhibit different speed-torque characteristics.

However, several general conclusions may be drawn if we use the following empirical
equation for the speed-torque characteristic of some driven unit of industrial equipment.

TL = Tf +(Tr –Tf) (N/Nr )x

Where TL = Gross resisting (load) torque developed by a mechanical unit at a specific speed
“N”
Tf = Resisting torque developed by unit due to friction in its moving parts
Tr = Resisting torque developed by unit when it is driven at its nominal rated
speed Nr

1
 x = exponential coefficient characterizing the change in resisting torque with
change in speed.

This equation permits the speed-torque characteristics of various kinds of machines and
mechanisms to be roughly divided into the following categories:

1
T 2
Torque 3

Fig. 1

Speed N

Generalized torque speed characteristics of different types of driven equipment

1. Characteristics independent of speed (1 in fig. 1). For this characteristic x = 0 and the
load torque TL does not depend upon the speed. Such a characteristic will be
exhibited, for example, by cranes during hoisting, hoist winches, machine tool feed
mechanisms, piston pumps operating against a constant pressure head, and conveyors
handling a constant weight of material per unit time.

Such machines need the same amount of force applied to them irrespective of what
speed their electrical motors operate. These types of machines are called constant
torque loads.

Remember that the torque produced by motors is a twisting force. When a motor
applies torque to a load over a certain period of time, the motor performs work. With
motors, work is measured as horsepower (HP). Horsepower refers to the amount of
work that a motor performs over a period of time.

In rotating machine loads, horsepower is proportional to torque times speed

(HP ∼ T x N). Therefore, torque is proportional to horsepower divided by speed
(T∼HP / N).

To produce a constant amount of torque, horsepower and speed must vary in

proportion to one another. You could say that “horsepower is speed”. This simply
means that horsepower and speed vary in proportion to each other to produce a
constant amount of torque. In other words, as horsepower increases, speed increases
(and vice versa). Remember that this only applies to constant torque loads.

2
Constant torque loads include loads like conveyors and mixers.
Figure (a) shows a conveyor and figure (b) shows a mixer.

The conveyor in figure has an AC motor attached to it by belts and a pulley. As the
motor shaft turns, the belts move the conveyor in the direction of the arrow. To
increase the speed of the conveyor, the motor’s speed is increased. Constant torque
is maintained as speed increases by increasing horsepower proportionally.

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 Linear – rising characteristics (line 2 in fig1). In this case x = 1 and the load
torque will rise in direct proportion to the speed.
Such type of load characteristics will usually be shown by a separately – excited D.C.
generator connected to a load of constant ohmic resistance.

2. Non-linear –rising (parabolic) characteristic (curve 3 in fig.1). For a parabolic

characteristic x = 2 and the load torque TL will be proportional to the square of the
speed.
Mechanisms and machines exhibiting such a characteristics are often said to
have a fan-type speed- torque characteristic because fans develop a load torque
proportional to the square of the speed. Among other mechanisms having a
parabolic speed-torque characteristics centrifugal pumps and ship propellers may be
mentioned.

Some machines are engineered to move fluids (liquids and gases), rather than to
move other mechanical devices. These types of loads are referred to as variable
torque machine loads (also referred to as variable machine loads).

With variable machine loads, torque is proportional to speed squared.

T∼N2.

Remember that horsepower is proportional to torque times speed. You can

replace torque in this formula with speed squared. This means horsepower is
proportional to speed cubed with variable machine loads.

H∼TxN
TxN2

HP∼N3

You should be able to see the relationship between speed and horsepower. Small
increases in speed result in large increases in horsepower. Similarly, small decreases
in speed result in large decreases in horsepower.

Engineering studies have investigated variable machine loads as possible energy

saving applications. When used with variable frequency AC drives, variable machine
loads can take advantage of their unique torque versus speed characteristics (T∼N 2 ).
With these types of loads, even small reductions in speed generally result in
significant reductions in the amount of horsepower used. Because the amount of
horsepower used over time determines energy bills, the overall result in a properly
designed system is a significant energy savings.

4
Variable torque machine loads include loads like fans, blowers, and pumps

Variable torque loads

Machine loads require certain levels of torque and speed to operate correctly. A motor
must provide these.
Manufacturers of variable torque machinery sometimes describe their load
characteristics by the terms head and flow rather than torque and speed. Head may be
thought of as the amount of backpressure, which must be overcome by a motor’s
torque. Flow may be thought of as the speed at which a fluid or gas moves through a

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 system. Since flow is determined by motor speed, reducing the flow rate to an
optimum level for any of the loads in figure can result in a significant energy savings.

3. Non linear falling characteristics (curve 4 in fig 1). This is a case when x = -1 and the
load torque TL is inversely proportional to the speed, while the power required to
drive the given unit remains constant.
Constant Horsepower Loads
Other kinds of machinery need a large force applied to them up to certain speeds, but
a smaller amount of force applied to them at high speeds. These types of loads are
called constant horsepower loads.

Again, horsepower is proportional to torque times speed (HP ∼TxN). To produce

a constant amount of horsepower, torque must decrease proportionally as speed
increases.

Examples of constant horsepower loads include loads like certain lathes, boring
machines, milling machines, steel mill coilers, a numerically controlled (NC)
machine tool and a cement kiln.

The NC machine tool is designed to drill large holes in materials at low speeds.
However, it is also designed to drill very small holes in materials at very high speeds.

Constant Horse-Power Load

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Constant Horse-Power Load

2. AC INDUCTION MOTOR TORQUE AND SPEED AND ALSO IT’S

CHARACTERISTICS

The number of pole-pairs in an induction motor’s stator affects motor torque and
motor speed. Torque is directly proportional to the number of pole pairs, whereas
motor speed is inversely proportional to the number of pole pairs.

Motor Torque

Torque is directly proportional to the number of pole pairs because a large number of
electromagnets increase the electromagnetic coupling between the stator and rotor.
Increased magnetic coupling results in increased rotational force on the motor shaft.
For example, four pole stators have twice the number of places that their magnetic
fields touch the motor’s rotor when compared to two pole stators. The result is twice
the amount of turning force or torque on the motor’s shaft.

Motor torque is also directly proportional to the amount of current that flows through
the stator windings. An increased amount of current produces a larger magnetic field
in the stator and more magnetic coupling between the stator and rotor. As stated
previously, more magnetic coupling results in more rotational force on the motor’s
shaft. Therefore, increasing the current two times produces two times the amount of
rotational force or torque.

Motor Speed

Unlike torque, speed is inversely proportional to the number of pole pairs in a motor
stator. As the number of electromagnets increases around the stator, the rotor has less
distance to rotate before the pushing and pulling of the next electromagnet influence
it. e.g. a motor with one pole pair is controlled for 180 degrees of rotation for each

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pole. A motor with two pole pairs, however is controlled for only 90 degrees for each
pole. Thus, motor speed decreases as the number of pole pair increases.

Motor speed is also affected by the rate at which each pole pair pushes and pulls the
rotor. The frequency of the incoming line power determines the rate by which pole
pairs push and pulls the rotor. Therefore, the incoming line power’s frequency has a
major affect on motor speed.

Motor Slip

The speed at which the stator’s magnetic field rotates is called the motor’s
synchronous speed.

Synchronous speed = Speed of stator’s rotating magnetic field

Running speed = Speed of the rotor

The difference in speed between the stator’s rotating magnetic field and the rotor is
called the slip.

Motor slip = Synchronous speed – running speed

AC motors have a rated amount of slip. It is equal to the synchronous speed of the
motor minus the rated speed at full load.

Rated slip = Synchronous speed – Rated speed at full load

However, an important point to note that the greater the load connected to the motor’s
shaft/rotor, the greater the amount of slip.

MOTOR SPEED CONTROL

Basically two major factors affect an induction motor’s operation – speed and torque.
Speed (N) is determined primarily by the number of poles (P) in a motor and the lines
power frequency (F).

N= (120 * F)/P

Because the manufacturer fixes the number of stator poles in an induction motor, this
factor cannot be changed easily to adjust the speed of a motor on the manufacturing
floor.
Although two speed motors are available, rewiring is required to change from one
speed to another, and the motor is limited to only two speeds. To allow continuous
speed variation, the frequency of the line power applied to the motor would have to
be changed.

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As it turns out, a convenient way has been found out to use solid-state electronic
equipment to change the frequency of the line power applied to the AC motors.
However, changing the incoming line power frequency alone is only not enough.

Frequency changes the motor’s impedance. Motor impedance increases if the

frequency is increased of the applied line power because inductive reactance
increases with frequency.

Conversely, motor impedance decreases if the line frequency is decreased. From the
formula of basic electricity, the impedance increases when frequency due to the
inductive reactance of the motor’s stator windings.

XL = 6.28 x F x L Z = R2 + XL2

According to ohm law (V=I x Z or I =V/Z), motor current decreases as impedance

increases if the voltage is constant. Therefore, current decreases as the frequency of
the applied line voltage increases because frequency determines impedance. Motor
current increases as the frequency of the applied line voltage decreases because
impedance decreases. Therefore, the amount of current is proportional to the voltage
divided by the frequency.

I = V/F

The relationship between frequency, speed, current and torque shows that increasing
the frequency can increase indeed the motor speed. But when it is done without
increasing the voltage, the motor torque is decreased which creates a problem in
driving a machine load. Similarly, decreasing the motor speed by decreasing the
frequency alone causes an increase in motor current. This increase in current does not
result in increase in torque; rather it results in overheating the motor and reducing the
torque.

A solution to this problem of changing speed is overcome by changing the voltage of

the line power as the frequency changes. It is to be noted that changes in motor
current are proportional to changes in the frequency of the applied line power so that
if frequency increases, current decreases.

The negative effects of over current and undertorqueing after changing the line power
frequency can be overcome by making corresponding changes in the line power’s
voltage. By increasing voltage (V) as frequency (F) increases and vice versa, the
proper relationship between two can be maintained to produce constant current and
constant torque.

This relationship between voltage and frequency to produce constant torque is called
the constant volts-per-hertz (V/Hz) ratio. It is the fundamental principle on which AC
drives are designed to drive AC motors.

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Synchronous Speed

N = 120 f / p [ rpm ] f : Supply frequency [ Hz ], p : Number of motor pole

Motor torque and Load torque

Speed-Torgue characteristics with respect to variable Supply Voltage.

(Speed is not proportional to variation of voltage)

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Speed-Torgue characteristics with respect to variable Frequency.
(Speed (N) is not proportional to variation of Frequency(F))

Speed-Torgue characteristics with respect to V / F = constant.

(Speed(N) is proportional to frequency(F))

: To constant flux, this method(V/F=constant) controls voltage and frequency simultaneously.

Therefore, maximum torgue curve is constant in wide range of speed.
Maximum torgue is available at the low speed range, Thus, it is possible to control at the low
speed range with large torque.

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3. MOTOR TO LOAD MATCHING FACTORS

A number of factors are important in matching motors to loads because these factors
influence variable speed motor operation.

One important factor is derating. Motors that operate constant torque or constant horsepower
applications below 0.5 times the motors rated speed for extended periods should be derated.
Derating means choosing a larger motor to dissipate the extra heat that is caused by extended
low speed operation.

Constant horsepower loads frequently are run above a motor’s rated speed. It has to be
checked with the motor manufacturer to ensure that the motor can handle high-speed
operation.

Second important factor is motor slip. Power transmission devices like gearboxes, chains,
sprockets, belts and sheaves can cause slip. Slip may result in speed variations that cannot be
easily controlled.

In speed matching applications, separate motors run at the same speed or at the same
percentage of their rated speeds to power separate loads. In load sharing applications,
separate motors share the work of powering one load.

In speed matching or load sharing applications, some load types require that each motor’s
torque and speed must be carefully controlled with an AC Drive

4. BRIEF INTRODUCTION AC DRIVE HARDWARE

An AC drive consists of two major sections – A) Power section B) Logic Section

A) Power Section

The power section of an AC drive consists of three stages:

. Input stage

. Intermediate stage

. Output stage

The input stage rectifies the incoming AC line power to a DC power source and prepares it
for use in the drive. Two types of input stages are used in most AC drives:

. Diode rectifier

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. Silicon-controlled rectifier (SCR)

Diode rectifier input stages use a pair of diodes for each phase. They convert the incoming
AC line voltage to a unregulated DC voltage. They then apply this DC voltage to the
intermediate stage.

SCR input stages use a pair of SCRs for each phase. They also convert the incoming AC line
voltage to DC; but unlike the voltage produced by diode rectifier input stages, SCR input
stages produce regulated DC voltage.

The intermediate stage filters and modifies the fixed or variable DC voltage that it receives
from the input stage. Two types of intermediate stages are used in AC drives:

. Filter

. Chopper

Filter intermediate stages use capacitors and inductors. Capacitor filters smooth out the
voltage waveforms applied to them; inductor filters smooth out the current waveforms
applied to them. The filtered DC voltage, which may be either fixed or variable magnitude, is
then applied to the output stage.

Chopper intermediate stages use transistors to chop the DC voltage applied to them. This
results in a DC voltage pulse train. By varying the duty cycle of pulses in the pulse train, the
average DC voltage level is varied. This changing pulse train is applied to the output stage.

The output stage converts the fixed or variable amplitude DC voltage applied to it to variable
frequency AC voltage. If the voltage is not already variable, the output stage also varies the
voltage amplitude as well as the frequency. (Remember this important point : amplitude may
be varied in the input, intermediate, or output stages; but frequency is varied only in the
output stage.)

Four types of output stages are used in most AC drives:

. Transistor

. SCR ( Silicon Controlled Rectifier)

. GTO (Gate Turned On Transistor)

. IGBT (Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor)

IGBT is used mostly by all manufacturers in present day Drive technology

Transistor output stages consist of a pair of transistors for each output phase. The logic
section applies and removes a pulse to the base of each transistor to turn it on and off.

13
Turning the transistors on and off at the proper time generates an AC type of voltage. This
voltage is applied to an AC motor to control its speed.

SCR output stages also consist of a pair of SCRs for each output phase. The logic section
applies a pulse to the gate of each SCR to turn it on. However, removing the pulse from the
gate of the SCR does not turn it off because the DC bus never crosses zero. The SCRs in the
output stage must be turned off by a method called forced communication. In forced
communication, capacitors are charged-up and discharged across the SCRs at the proper time
to force them off. The resultant AC type of voltage is applied to an AC motor to control its
speed.

Like transistor and SCR output stages, GTO output stages consist of a pair of GTOs for each
output phase. GTOs are like SCRs except that GTOs have two gates- one for turning the
device on and another for turning it off. The logic section applies pulses to one gate to turn
the GTO on and another pulse to the other gate to turn the device off. Turning the GTOs on
and off at the proper time generates an AC type type of voltage which is applied to an AC
motor to control its speed.

• IGBT

IGBT output stage uses a pair of IGBTs for each output phase. This device is presently used
widely now-a-day in the AC Drives. This device has certain advantages over the other
devices. Unlike Bipolar transistor, IGBT requires low gate drive to switch on and is a voltage
Constant Drive. IGBT can operate at a higher frequency which enables modern AC Drive to
run at a higher carrier frequency.

B) Logic Section

An AC drive varies the frequency and voltage of the power that it supplies to an Ac motor.
By changing frequency, motor speed is controlled. By changing voltage, motor current and
torque is controlled.

The logic section consists of a set of circuits, which monitor and control the overall operation
of the drive to control motor operation. In general, a typical logic section consists of the
following circuits.

. Processors

. Acceleration/deceleration

. Volts (V/Hz)

. Frequency

. DC boost

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. Star/stop

. Driver

.Protection

The processor monitors signals from the acceleration/deceleration, volts, frequency, DC

boost, start/stop, and protection circuits in the logic section. It also monitors signals in the
input, intermediate, and output stages of the output section.

Once the processor determines the frequency and voltage that the drive should output, it
sends signals to the driver circuits. The driver circuits output the proper pulses to turn-on and
turn-off the semiconductor devices in the power section. The power section produces the
required output frequency and voltage to run the motor and its load.

To properly run a motor and its load, the drive must be designed and set to match the specific
operating requirements of the motor and the load. These requirements generally include the
following:

. Maximum and minimum speed limits

. Acceleration and deceleration

. Volts-per-hertz ratio

. DC boost level

These parameters are set by controls that are usually mounted in the logic section. However,
some may be found as part of the interface. These controls may be digital or analog.

AC motors have a maximum safe operating speed, and many have minimum safe operating
speeds. Should the motor exceed these limits, it could be damaged. The logic section ensures
that the drives does not allow a motor to rise above its maximum safe operating speed nor
fall below its minimum safe operating speed. The maximum and minimum speed limit
controls send reference signals to the frequency circuit, which then conditions these signals
so the processor can use them.

AC Motor also has certain acceleration and deceleration limits. Should the motor exceed
these limits, it or the load may be damaged. An AC drive’s logic section must be set so that it
safely accelerates and decelerates the motor within these limits. The acceleration control
establishes the time that the drive allows the motor to accelerate from zero speed to set speed.
Conversely, the deceleration control establishes the time that the drive allows the motor to
decelerate from running speed to zero speed. Both controls send reference signals to an
acceleration/deceleration circuit in the logic section, which in turn conditions these signals so
the processor may use them.

15
AC motor has a certain volts-per-hertz requirement. As frequency increases or decreases,
voltage must increase or decrease proportionally to maintain the required torque. The logic
section establishes the proper ratio between volts and hertz as motor speed is increased or
decreased. The volts-per-hertz control sends a reference signal to the volt circuit, and the
volts circuit provides a properly conditioned signal to the processor.

Many AC motors have a special requirement called DC boost. At zero or near zero speed,
they require an additional boost of voltage for starting torque. The logic section establishes
the additional DC boost level for motors, which require it. DC boost control establishes a
reference signal to a DC boost circuit, which in turn conditions the signal so the processor
can use it:

The logic also controls the desired motor operating speed and motor start-up and shutdown.
A speed control in the interface sends a signal to the frequency circuit in the logic section to
establish the desired operating speed. Similarly, a start/stop control also in the interface sends
signals to a start/ stop circuit in the logic section to start or stop the drive.

Finally, the logic section provides protection to both the motor and the drive. Generally, this
includes protection against the following kinds of conditions.

. Over current

. Undercurrent

. Over voltage

. Under voltage

. Over temperature

. Short circuit

. Instantaneous over current

5. DIFFERENT TYPE OF AC DRIVES USED IN INDUSTRY

. AC Drives, Frequency Control, PWM (Pulse Width Modulation)

. AC Drives, Flux Vector Control, PWM

. AC Drives, Direct Torque Control

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A.C Drives frequency control using PWM

Pulse-width-modulated units are the state-of-the-art drive option. They are available in sizes
up to several thousand Horse Power. Some manufacturers still build current-source-inverter
and variable-voltage-inverter units in their higher hp sizes, but competition is starting to drive
them to develop pulse-width-modulated designs to meet demand for improved efficiency and
performance.

The pulse-width-modulated design differs from current-source-inverter and variable-voltage-

inverter units by the use of a diode bridge in the rectifier that provides a constant voltage dc
bus. The inverter section uses a pulse-width-modulated algorithm to produce a near sine
wave output to the motor. Motor heating, caused by the harmonics of the six-step drive, is
significantly reduced.

The design of the constant-voltage dc bus lends itself to common bus connections. Here, a
single-diode bridge circuit powers a common bus that may have several inverters connected
to it. The inverter sections are regenerative between the motors and the dc bus. This
arrangement allows regeneration from one load to be returned to the bus, and used by other
inverters. Thus, the diode assembly has to supply only the difference from the power line.

In early pulse-width-modulated units, the carrier switching frequency was in the 2 kHz range,
which sometimes caused annoying audible problems. Most manufacturers now offer drives
with a higher carrier frequency in the 15 kHz to 20 kHz range that use insulated gate bi-polar
transistors in the output circuit. This approach, however, may cause power quality problems
on the motor side, including insulation and bearing failures. These issues should be covered
in discussions with the drive vendor to identify the potential problems and the economics of
the solutions.

Frequency Control
V
FREQENCY V/F RATIO MODULATOR MOTOR 3~
REFERENCE F

CONTROL LOOP OF AN AC DRIVE WITH FREQUENCY CONTROL USING

PWM

Features: Controlling variables are voltage and frequency

Simulation of variable AC sine wave using modulator
Flux provided with constant v/f ratio
Open loop drive
Load dictates torque level

17
Unlike a DC drive , the AC drive, the AC drive frequency control technique uses parameters
generated outside of the motor as controlling variables, namely voltage and frequency.

Both voltage and frequency reference are fed into a modulator which simulates an AC sine
wave and feeds this to the motor’s stator windings. This technique is called Pulse Width
Modulation (PWM) and utilizes the fact that there is a diode rectifier towards the mains and
the intermediate DC voltage is kept constant. The inverter controls the motor in the form of a
PWM pulse train dictating both the voltage and frequency.

Significantly, this method does not use a feedback device which takes speed or position
measurements from the motors shaft and feeds these back into the control loop.

Such an arrangement, without a feedback device, is called an “open-loop” drive.

A.C Drives flux-vector control using PWM

The most common pulse-width-modulated ac inverter control provides an output frequency

that is scaled to the output voltage, and thus has a volts-per-Hz control function. Several
scalar controls have a number of programmable functions, giving them the sophistication that
can provide customized volts-per-Hz curves to match the required system performance. The
control is digital and is not subject to the drift problems associated with analog systems.
Computer chips containing programs with digital control algorithms provide control
precision determined by the bit size of the chip. An eight-bit unit will provide frequency
regulation within 0.5 Hz, while a 16-bit unit can control within 0.01 Hz.

True torque control and line regeneration is difficult to attain with standard scalar controls,
either digital or analog. Flux vector control was introduced as a specialized type of drive for
ac motors in the 1990s. Flux vector control also is known as field-oriented control, flux
control, torque control and slip or speed control. Several manufacturers offer proprietary flux
vector control systems.

Early flux vector drives lacked good current control and were difficult to tune. A number of
technical issues, particularly the need for current sensors, also had to be resolved. The
perception of complexity, and reservations on the part of end users to the new technology,
hindered early acceptance of flux vector drives.

In addition, flux vector drives were prohibitively expensive in large hp applications due to
limitations of ac power electronics.

At present, highly reliable ac power electronics, high-power microprocessors, and custom

chips help flux vector drives compete with dc drives. Flux vector drives now provide
comparable levels of torque, accuracy, and speed control. To change speed, the controller
delivers adjustable frequency and voltage, an approach that is common in all adjustable

18
frequency drives. Through advanced software methods, flux vector drives individually
control and orient the magnetizing and torque-producing vectors of motor current to derive
the maximum output torque. In short, flux vector drives model the desirable characteristics of
their dc counterparts without the long-term maintenance problems associated with dc drives.
Flux vector drives are more complex and expensive than the scalar systems, and operators
generally need a higher level of experience to apply the drive correctly. A correctly applied
flux vector drive, however, can match dc drive performance with much less motor
maintenance and maintain a high displacement power factor at all speeds and loads.

Regenerative front-ends also are available for those applications where highly regenerative
inertial loads must be controlled. An encoder mounted on the motor shaft may be required to
improve speed regulation. Flux vector drives usually will offer motor temperature
compensation to assure that the actual torque output matches the desired torque without using
costly motor temperature sensors. Without compensation, the actual torque output can vary
as much as 20 percent from a change in motor temperature.

Leading applications for flux vector drives include paper machines, steel casting lines, plastic
extruders, wire drawing, material handling, coiling applications, high speed elevators, cranes,
winding equipment, and spindle drives. Prime candidates are applications that require fast
and accurate motor torque control at all speeds; very fast acceleration at torque limit;
dynamic reversing; rated torque at standstill; and the ability to start into a spinning load in
either direction.

Newer flux vector drives can provide a simple menu-driven start-up procedure that leads the
operator through entering the motor nameplate information and running the auto-tune tests.
The speed auto-tuning feature allows the drive to tune the speed loop to the connected load
without the use of complicated formulas or procedures. In addition, the drive tests for motor
inertia-when disconnected from the load, system inertia, and system friction. This
information is used to tune the speed loop. The torque loop auto-tuning feature allows the
drive to tune the torque loop to the motor without any special equipment or hard-to-find
motor information. This helps the drive adapt to use with most motors.

Flux –Vector Control

Motor 3
Speed Control Torque Control Modulator

CONTROL LOOP OF AN AC DRIVE WITH FLUX VECTOR CONTROL USING

PWM

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Features: Field oriented control- simulates DC drive
Motor electrical characteristics are simulated- “Motor Model”
Closed –loop drive
Torque controlled indirectly
To emulate the magnetic operating conditions of a DC motor, i.e. to perform the field
orientation process, the flux- vector drive needs to know the spatial angular position of the
motor flux inside the AC induction motor.

With flux vector PWM drives, field orientation is achieved by electronic means rather than
the mechanical commutator / brush assembly of the DC motor.

Firstly, information about the rotor status is obtained by feeding back rotor speed and angular
position relative to the stator field by means of a pulse encoder. A drive that uses speed
encoders is referred to as a” closed – loop drive”.

Also the motor’s electrical characteristics are mathematically modeled with microprocessors
used to process the data.

The electronic controller of a flux –vector drive creates electrical quantities such as voltage,
current and frequency, which are the controlling variables, and feeds these through a
modulator to the AC induction motor. Torque, therefore, is controlled indirectly.

To emulate the magnetic operating conditions of a DC motor, i.e. to perform the field
orientation process, the flux-vector drive needs to know the spatial angular position of the
rotor flux inside the AC induction motor.
With flux-vector PWM drives, electronics means rather than the mechanical commutator/
brush assembly of the DC motor achieve field orientation.

Firstly, information about the rotor status is obtained by feeding back rotor speed and angular
position relative to the stator field by means of a pulse encoder. A drive that uses speed
encoder is referred to as a “closed loop drive” .

Also the motor’s electrical characteristics are mathematically modeled with microprocessors
used to process the data.

The electronic controller of a flux –vector drive creates electrical quantities such as voltage,
current and frequency, which are the controlling variables, and feeds these through a
modulator to the AC induction motor.
Torque, therefore is controlled indirectly.

Advantages: Good torque response

Accurate speed control
Full torque at zero speed
Performance approaching DC drive
Flux –vector control achieves full torque at zero speed, giving it a performance very close to
that a DC drive.

20
Drawbacks: Feedback is needed
Costly
Modulator needed
To achieve a high level of torque response and speed accuracy, a feedback device is required.
This can be costly and also adds complexity to the traditional simple AC induction motor.
Also a modulator is used, which slows down communication between the incoming voltage
and frequency signals and the need for the motor to respond to this changing signal.
Although the motor is mechanically simple, the drive is electrically complex.

A.C DRIVES DIRECT TORQUE CONTROL

Evolution of Direct Torque Control(DTC)

Advantages: Low cost

No feedback device required-simple

Because there is no feedback device, the controlling principle offers a low cost and simple
solution to controlling economical AC induction motors.
This type device is suitable for applications, which do not require high levels of accuracy or
precision, such as pumps and fans. Due to exceptionally fast torque step response,
mechanical oscillations in the associated machine are substantially attenuated. Due to the
high switching frequency, resonance’s with other parts are reduced considerably. Thus the
noise is also reduced substantially. Also due to optimized switching control, which produces
nearly a pure sine current, the heating of an AC motor is reduced. Thus the motor can be
utilized more efficiently than with any other motor control method.

Drawbacks: Field orientation not used

Motor status ignored
Torque is not controlled
Delaying modulator used
With this technique, sometimes known as scalar control, field orientation of the motor is not
used. Instead, frequency and voltage are the main control variables and are applied to the
stator windings The status of the rotor is ignored, meaning that no speed or position signal is
fed back.
Therefore, torque control cannot be controlled with any degree of accuracy. Further more, the
technique uses a modulator, which basically slows down communication between the
incoming voltage and frequency signals and the need for the motor to respond to this
changing signal.

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 DIRECT TORQUE CONTROL (DTC)
SPEED TORQUE MOTOR3~
CONTROL CONTROL

CONTROL LOOP OF AN AC DRIVE USING DTC

Controlling variables
Direct Torque control (DTC)is the unique method of AC motor control with optimized
switching. In DTC, every switching is determined separately based on the values of flux and
torque, rather than switching in a pre determined pattern as in flux vector drives which are
based on PWM. Thus DTC produces optimal switching resulting in a superior response time.

How DTC works :

With the revolutionary DTC technology developed by various companies, field orientation is
achieved without feedback using advanced motor theory to calculate the motor torque
directly and without using modulation. The controlling variables are motor magnetizing flux
and motor torque.

With DTC there is no modulator and no requirement for a tachometer or position encoder to
feedback the speed or position of the motor shaft. DTC uses the fastest digital signal
processing hardware available and a more advanced mathematical understanding of how a
motor works.
The measured motor current and voltage are inputs to an adaptive motor model which
produces exact actual values of torque and flux in every 25 microseconds. The motor torque
and flux are compared to the reference values of torque and flux produced by the reference
controllers. Depending on the present switch positions, the optimum pulse selector directly
determines new optimum inverter switch positions. DTC has no fixed switching frequency
because of the optimized switching control. Because of this, the noise spectrum has no high
frequency peaks, resulting in reduced audible inverter and motor noise levels.
The result is a drive with a torque response that is typically 10 times faster than any AC drive
or DC drive. The dynamic speed accuracy of DTC drives will be 8 times better than any open
loop AC drive and comparable to a DC drive that is using feedback.
DTC produces the first “universal” drive with the capability to perform like either an AC or
DC drive. The remaining sections in this guide highlight the features and advantages of DTC.

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A.C Drives frequency control using PWM

Frequency Control
V
FREQENCY V/F RATIO MODULATOR MOTOR 3~
REFERENCE F

CONTROL LOOP OF AN AC DRIVE WITH FREQUENCY CONTROL USING

PWM
A.C Drives flux-vector control using PWM

Flux –Vector Control

Motor 3~
Speed Control Torque Control Modulator

CONTROL LOOP OF AN AC DRIVE WITH FLUX VECTOR CONTROL USING

PWM
A.C DRIVES DIRECT TORQUE CONTROL

DIRECT TORQUER CONTROL (DTC)

SPEED TORQUE MOTOR3 ~
CONTROL CONTROL

CONTROL LOOP OF AN AC DRIVE USING DTC

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 DC DRIVES Armature Current,IA
Magnetizing Current,IM

AC DRIVES Output Voltage,V

(PWM) Output Frequency,f

DIRECT TORQUE Motor Torque,T

CONTROL Motor Magnetising flux,ψ

COMPARISION OF CONTROL VARIABLES

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Step 1 Voltage and Current Measurements
In normal operation, two motor phase currents and the DC bus voltage are simply measured,
together with the inverter’s switch position.

Step 2 Adaptive Motor Model

The measured information from the motor is fed to the Adaptive Motor Model.

The sophistication of this Motor Model allows precise data about the motor to be calculated.
Before operating the DTC drive, the Motor Model is fed information about the motor, which
is collected during a motor identification run. This is called auto-tuning and data such as
stator resistance, mutual inductance and saturation coefficients are determined along with the
motor’s inertia. Therefore identification of motor model parameters can be done without
rotating the motor shaft. This makes easy to apply DTC technology also in the retrofits. The
extremely fine tuning of motor model is achieved when the
Identification run also includes running the motor shaft for a few seconds.

There is no need to feed back any shaft or position with tachometers or encoders if the static
speed accuracy requirement is over0.5%, as it is for most industrial applications. This as a

25
significant advancement over all other AC drive technology. The Motor Model is , in fact,
key to DTC’s unrivalled low speed performance.

The Motor Model outputs control signals which directly represent actual motor torque and
actual stator flux. Also shaft speed is calculated within the Motor Model.

Step 3 Torque Comparator and Flux Comparator

The information to control power switches is produced in the Torque and Flux Comparator.

Both actual torque and actual flux are fed to the comparators where they are compared, in
microseconds, to a torque and flux reference value. Torque and flux status signals are
calculated using a two level hysteresis control method.
These signals are then fed to the Optimum Pulse Selector.

Step 4 Voltage and Current Measurements

Within the Optimum Pulse Selector is the latest 40MHz digital signal processor (DSP)
together with ASIC hardware to determine the switching logic of the inverter. Furthermore,
all control signals are transmitted via optical links for high speed data transmission.

This configuration brings immense processing speed, and in the range of microseconds the
inverter’s semiconductor switching devices are supplied with an optimum pulse for reaching,
or maintaining, an accurate motor torque.

The correct switching combination is determined every control cycle. There is no

predetermined switching pattern. DTC has been referred to as “just-in time” switching,
because, unlike traditional PWM drives where up to 30% of all switching changes are
unnecessary, with DTC each and every switching is needed and used.

This high speed of switching is fundamental to the success of DTC. The main motor control
parameters are updated few thousands times a second. This allows extremely rapid response
on the shaft and is necessary so that the motor model ( see Step 2) can update this
information.

It is this processing speed that brings the high performance figures including a static speed
control accuracy, without encoder of +/- 0.5% and the torque response less than ms.

26
Step 5 Torque Reference Controller
Within the Torque Reference Controller, the speed control output is limited by the torque
limits and DC bus voltage.

It also includes speed control for cases when an external torque signal is used. The internal
torque reference from this block is fed to the Torque Comparator.

Step 6 Speed controller

The Speed Controller block consists both of a PID controller and an acceleration
compensator. The external speed reference signal is compared to the actual speed produced
in the Motor Model . The error signal is then fed to both the PID controller and the
acceleration compensator. The output is the sum of outputs from both of them.

Step 7 Flux Reference Controller

An absolute value of stator flux can be given from the Flux Reference Controller to the Flux
Comparator block. The ability to control and modify this absolute value provides an easy
way to realize many inverter functions such as Flux Optimization and Flux Braking

6. SELECTING THE RIGHT DRIVE FOR APPLICATION

Recent advances in AC vector drive technology means that drives can now offer performance
approaching that of servo motion control systems. However, not every application demands
this level of sophistication, and now, more than ever, users need to choose wisely. When
selecting a drive for a particular application, the first consideration should be the expected
characteristics of the motor load. Most loads fall into one of three categories: variable torque;
constant torque with no need for overload; constant torque with overload requirements.
In applications requiring constant torque, the continuous and peak torque, and hence the
steady and overload motor current need to be determined so that a drive of the correct rating
is selected. Matching the right type of drive to the application is essential for reliable, cost
effective operation. More control does not always mean better control, and a drive that is
overly complex is more difficult to set up and operate. If the drive is to be networked, its
ability to communicate via the chosen network or other system also has to be taken into
account.

27
 For example, some drives offer enhanced functions that are not available with other
products. The performance of general purpose sensor less vector drives continues to improve,
and these products are increasingly used in applications requiring approximate positioning,
rapid acceleration, high torque at or near zero speed and wide speed ranges. Thus, accuracy
of motor speed control and speed of response required for the application need to be
considered so that the appropriate type of drive can be selected.

Conveying applications usually require constant torque, though they may also need an
overload capacity if shock loads are likely or the drive needs to start under heavy load.
Inclined conveyors also require constant torque but the
drive’s continuous rating needs to be higher and starting torques may also be similarly
increased. Most AC drives fall into three categories:
• Volts/Hertz (V/Hz)
• Sensor less vector
• Field-oriented control
As speed control is unlikely to be critical, conveying applications are well suited to basic
V/Hz drives, although conveyors with very high starting loads or close control of speed may
require a sensor less vector drive. Drives for conveyor control have historically been
standalone, but communications are becoming more important in distributed control
applications. Networking a drive provides rapid diagnostics and configuration, allowing more
flexibility and reducing downtime. If the drive is to be mounted on or close to the conveyor
motor, the IP rating may also be an important consideration.

Blowers, pumps and fans are generally variable torque applications and, other than positive
displacement pumps; do not usually require a high starting torque or a large overload
capacity. These applications are ideal for basic V/Hz drives, sized for the continuous load,
while the ability to connect to a network for remote
diagnostics and control is increasingly important.

Mixers require high starting torque, and in applications such as dough mixing, a high
running torque. Therefore, a mid-performance sensor less vector drive is required, carefully
sized to cope with the peak starting torque and occasional shock loads without being over-
sized for the continuous operating load. Mixing
applications are usually standalone though they occasionally require the ability to network
the drive.

Extruders, often found in the steel, aluminium and plastics industries, require high starting
and running torque, and a high performance sensor less vector drive with encoder feedback is
the minimum requirement for this type of application. Some extruders require close control
of the tension of the material, and this requires the precise torque regulation of a field-
oriented control drive.

Winding applications, such as paper or wire making machinery, require a close control of
torque and speed that can only be provided by field-oriented control drives. Even slight
oscillations in the torque can damage the material, especially during start up, leading to high

28
wastage and lost production. As the performance of general purpose drives continues to
increase, matching a drive to the application becomes more important if “over-kill” is to be
avoided. Over-specifying results in higher costs and more complexity, this in turn can lead to
increased commissioning time, lower reliability and reduced productivity.
All AC drives work on the principle of controlling the frequency and current supplied to the
motor, but each type offers very different performance for reference.

Table 1: AC Drive operating characteristics

Volts/Hertz Sensor less vector Field-oriented control

Speed control Frequency control Frequency control with Velocity control or Encoder feedback
with slip slip compensation or
compensation encoder feedback

Speed regulation 1% Slip comp 0.5% Open loop 0.5%

Encoder 0.1% Closed loop 0.001%

Torque regulation N/A N/A 2-5%

Speed range 40:1 120:1 Open loop 120:1

Closed loop >1000:1

Starting torque 150% 260% 150%-400%

Fast-acceleration 150% 1505 150%-400%

torque

Peak running torque 250% 260% 150%-400%

Dynamic response N/A 6-12 Radians 30 Rad open loop

100 Rad closed loop

GENERAL DRIVE SELECTION CRITERIA

Motor Selection

To specify a motor, first determine the speed range of the driven machine. Then determine
the maximum short-term and continuous torque/power as a function of speed.

The relationship between power and torque is given by:

Equation A: P= N.T/9550 [kw]

P=N . T/5250 [HP]

29
where P= power (KW/HP), N= speed (rpm/rpm) and T= torque(Nm/ft.-lbs)

The rated motor power must be selected so that it is higher than the continuous power
required by the driven machine. As a general rule, the motor rated speed should be selected
so that the motor’s continuous load capacity throughout the required speed range is as high as
possible.

The thermal load capacity of the motor has to be taken into account because of the reduced
cooling capacity of self-ventilated motor at low frequencies. The following factors must be
considered when choosing the motor for inverter duty:

. Continuous load capacity of the motor

. Short-term overload capacity of the motor
. Peak overload capacity of the motor

Drive Section Selection

The inverter is selected according to the required motor power and overload capacity. The
voltage level is the same as the motor supply voltage.

The inverter is selected by the calculated continuous motor current or in a duty cycle case by
the rms current. The current must be checked for both N base and Nmax.
The maximum inverter current must be greater than the maximum current require for the
load. The selected inverter is checked for the maximum output current. If it is greater than the
inverter rating, then a larger inverter must be selected. The maximum current must be
checked for both Nbase and Nmax.

Supply Section Selection

The diode or thyristor bridge is selected according to the nominal and maximum current. In
case of a thyristor bridge, the braking direction must be taken into the consideration.

The total motoring load of the system has to be calculated. In addition, the continuous load of
the system must be calculated.

7. TROUBLE SHOOTING OF AC DRIVES

There are five basic steps (or stages) in most troubleshooting situations. They are as follows:

1. Gathering information
2. Performing tests and isolating the problem
3. Repairing the problem
4. Verifying the repair
5. Documenting the repair

30
These five steps will apply to troubleshooting most AC drive systems. However, you should
not view them as hard and fast rules. Rather, you should consider them as one method of
solving malfunctions systematically and efficiently.

In the first step, gathering information, you should look for the obvious. You can do several
possible things. One, you can talk with the operator of the equipment. Ask him or her what
has happened. Has it happened recently? Has it happened repeatedly?

Second, you can check the maintenance log and other equipment documentation. Has the
problem occurred before? Could a recent repair have caused the new problem?

Third, you can make a quick visual check to see it there is anything particular unusual with
any of the equipment in the system. Has some object jammed a conveyor roller? Is a motor
excessively hot and discolored? Is an indicator always lit?

Once you have gathered some information, make some informed guesses as to the possible
causes of the problem. Ask yourself, “What could have caused the problem?” then perform
some tests to check out your best guesses.

In step 2, performing tests and isolating the fault, you should follow the troubleshooting
procedures in your documentation. Most manufacturers provide troubleshooting procedures.
Often, these procedures are labeled troubleshooting, troubleshooting diagnostics, or
diagnostics procedures.

Troubleshooting procedures usually are given in the form of a table of fault indicators or
some other type of decision table. Sometimes, they are in the form of a flowchart. Locate
these procedures and troubleshooting aids that the manufacturer provides you. They will
serve as invaluable tools.

In many cases, the fault will lie outside of the AC drive because of the high reliability of
solid state devices. Frequently, problems that show up at the drive actually have their sources
somewhere else in the system. The problem often occurs in the load, the motor, or the
electrical components associated with the input and output power. In fact, many of the faults
that do occur are the result of human error. Common human errors include making poor
connections, choosing incorrect cabling, and running control cabling alongside power
cabling. Below shows common problems associated with the input power, output power, and
the drive itself.

Input Power AC Drive Output Power

Cable size Connections Intermittent

Contactor bounce Contamination Loads
Frequency deviations Component failures Noise
Overloads
Grounding Grounding Regeneration

31
 Imbalances Logic settings Under loads
Noise Mounting
Parallel loads Noise
Sags Options
Transformer taps Static
Transients Vibration

Common Problems on AC Drive Systems

Symptoms Probable Causes Actions

Drive does not start. No input line voltage Measure line voltage
ON indicator is not lit check input
transformer
check contractor
check power cables
check input power
connections
open input line fuses check input fuses
shorted power section check filter capacitors
filter capacitors
shorted rectifier check input stage
diodes or SCRs semiconductors
shorted DC bus check drive bus cables and
connectors
Drive does not start. ON indica- Power supply fuses blown check power supply fuses
tor is lit. No diagnostic are lit. Faulty power supply Measurepower supply voltages
Faulty processor circuits check logic board or card
faulty start/stop logic circuit check logic board or card
check start/stop controls

Symptoms Probable Causes Actions

Drive starts but shuts down.
Under voltage indicator is lit
Drives starts but shuts down.
Over voltage indicator is lit.
Input line voltage is incorrect
Faulty under voltage protection
circuit
Faulty processor circuits
Drive DC bus voltage is excessive
Improper logic settings
Faulty processor circuits
Measure input line voltage
Check input transformer taps
Check for transients on input
supply
Check for excessive loading on
input
Check for phase imbalances on
input
Check logic board or card
check logic board or card
Check logic board or card
Measure input line voltage
Check logic settings
Check logic board or card

32

Drive starts but shut down
Over temperature indicators is lit Heat sink obstruction
Drive starts but shut down
Over current indicator is lit
Drive starts but shut down,
Phase protector indicator is
lit
Driver starts but shut down,
Output Ground fault indicator is winding
lit
Drive starts, but motor does not Open motor winding
run
Drive runs, but motor
over speeds
Drive runs but motor speed is
uncontrollable
Drive runs, but motor does not Drive generates low output frequency Check level settings
Noise
Vibration
Regenerative load
Ambient temperature exceeds
drive rating
Excessive current demands in
power section
Faulty over temperature protection
circuit
Faulty processor circuits
Motor current exceeds rated current
by overload limit (150% of rated
current)
Shorted output semiconductors
Faulty over temperature protection
circuit
Faulty processor circuits
Shorted phase A output SCR, GTO,
or transistor
Partial short in phase motor
Winding
Faulty phase drive circuit
Grounded phase A, B, or C motor
Grounded phase A, B, or C cable
Drive phase A, B, or C output
grounded
Improper output voltage per phase Check processor logic board
voltage per phase
Improper logic settings
Faulty logic circuit
Motor with wrong number of poles
Faulty speed potentiometer
Faulty speed potentiometer
Faulty logic setting
Faulty logic circuit
Check for noise on logic input
options
Check for excessive vibration or
Improper mounting
Check load and motor for
Regeneration
Measure ambient temperature
Surrounding drive
Check heat flow around drive
heat sink fins
Measure motor current
Check logic board card
Check temperature sensor
Check logic board or card
Measure motor current
Check section semiconductors
Check logic board or card
Replace logic board or card
Check out section semiconductors
Measure phase A motor winding
Resistance
Measure phase A motor current
Check drive board or card
Check motor winding for ground
Check motor winding connection
for ground
Check motor cable for ground
Check drive output connector
Check drive output cable
Measure motor winding resistance
Check logic settings
Check logic board or card
Check motor nameplate
Check speed potentiometer
Check speed potentiometer
Check logic settings
Check logic board or card
33
reach set speed
Drive runs, but motor stalls
or output voltage
Overload
Motor is phased incorrectly
Improper logic settings
Faulty logic circuit
Faulty processor circuits
Overload
Improper logic settings
Faulty logic circuit
Faulty process circuits
Check speed potentiometer
Check logic board or card
Check drive output voltages
Check load
Check motor
Check motor connections
Check motor windings
Check logic settings
Check logic board or card
Check logic board or card
Check load
Check motor
Check logic settings
Check logic board or card
Check logic board or card

The above diagnostic is a representative and not exhaustive. Every manufacturer has their
own diagnostic/troubleshooting manual. The respective manual may be referred for accurate
trouble-shooting/fault finding procedure.

34
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