(9) DEVELOPMENT ADMINISTRATION (WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO RIGGS AND WEIDNER) By the end of this chapter, the student will be in a position to (1) ‘Trace the origin and changing profile of development administration (2) Elucidate its meaning, understand its nature and purpose. (3) Examine the interdependence of regulatory (non-development) ‘and development administration. (4) Analyse the main ideas of Riggs and Weidner with reference to their contribution to development administration ORIGIN, MEANING, PURPOSE, NATURE AND FUNCTIONS OF DEVELOPMENT ADMINISTRATION 1.1 Historical Context After the Second World War, the newly emerged independent Third World countries faced immense problems such as poverty, illiteracy, poor health, low ‘agricultural and industrial productivity and social instability. The governments ‘of these new nations assumed an array of developmental functions with a view to solve the various problems faced by them and take their societies on the Path of modernity. Thus, the idea of “development administration’ was born with the above-stated pragmatic concern. As Mohit Bhattacharya says, “The idea of “development administration’ as directly government-led effort to intervene in the process of socio-economic transformation was born at this juncture of Third World history.”564 Public Administration 1.2 Origin of the Concept ‘The term “development administration’ was frst coined by an Indian scholar ULL, Goswami in 1955. In that year, he published his journal article titled “The Structure of Development Administration in India.” However, George F. Grant, an American closely associated with the Tennessee Valley Authority, is ‘egarded as the father of the concept of ‘development administration’, He said that he, along with another scholar Egbert de Vries, had started using the term “development administration’ in 1955 or 1956, According to Prof. Kuldeep Mathur, the concept of development ‘administration, for all practical and academic purposes, is essentially Western in origin. Its genesis lay_in the Western model of development in which ‘administration was the vehicle through which modernization could be brought about in developing nations. In the 1960s, the CAG recognized development administration as a autonomous sub-field of comparative public administration. From the mid- 1960s onwards, the writings of a number of American scholars such as Weidner, Riggs, Ferrel Heady, Irving Swerdlow, Alfred Diamant and many others have {aid the intellectual foundations of development administration and contributed {0 its growth and popularity. Since then, development administration has become dominant issue as well as « kind of administrative ideology in the developing countries. 1.3 Meaning and Definitions Development administration concentrates on developing nations and the developmental plans, policies, programmes and projects undertaken by their ‘governments to bring about speedy socio-economic change. As Pai Panandikar ‘ays, development administration is mainly “administration of planned change.” He observes that its essence is “holistic change undertaken through integrated, organized and properly directed governmental action,” Thus, as Martin Landau Says that itis the “engineering of social change.” His accent is also on planned change. {ts image is transformational, directive and cross-cultural. Development both social and technical, in the fined it in a narrow sense. On the other hand, Riggs and Weidner have used the term developmentDevelopment Administration 565 administration in a broader sense. We shall now quote some of the definitions here. (1) According to Montgomery, development administration is concerned ‘with “carrying planned change in the economy or capital infrastructure and to a lesser extent in the social services, especially health and education.’ (2) According to Merle Fainsod, development administration “embraces the array of new functions assumed by developing countries embarking, ‘on the path of modernization and industrialization.” It “ordinarily involves the establishment of machinery for planning economic growth ‘and mobilization and allocating resources to expand national income.” (3) According to Riggs. development administration “refers to the administration of development programmes, to the methods used by large-scale organizations, notably governments to implement policies and plans designed to meet their developmental objectives.” (4) Edward Weidner defines development administration as “an action- oriented, goal-oriented administrative system.” Development adminis- tration, he says, is concerned with “the process of guiding an ‘organization towards the achievement of progressive political, economic and social objectives that are authoritatively determined in one manner or another.” It is “concerned with maximizing innovation for development.” Innovation means the “process of planned or intended change in the direction of modernity or nation-building and socio- economic change.” (3) Irving Swerdlow defines development administration as “administration in poor countries.” In the opinion of S.R, Maheswari, Swerdlow’s definition makes it clear that the dichotomy between development ‘administration and regulatory administration is senseless. It covers both. It is also the most practical one and hence acceptable. (6) According to Donald Stone, “...Broadly, development administration is concerned with achieving national development.” “Development administration, therefore, is concerned primarily with the tasks and ‘processes of formulating and implementing the four Ps—plans, policies, Programmes and projects.” (7) In the words of George F. Gant, “Development administration is the administration of policies, programmes and projects to serve development purposes.” From an examination of the various definitions quoted above, it becomes clear that development administration is concerned with achieving national development in poor Third World countries.566 Public Administration 1.4 Two Aspects of Development Administration Development administration has two aspects: (1) Administration of development. (2) Development of administration. ‘The first refers to the administration of developmental programmes that ‘aim at socio-economic transformation of society. The second involves the reforming and strengthening of administrative capabilities. These two aspects of development administration are interrelated and interdependent. Their simultaneous presence is needed for the success of developmental programmes in the Third World countries. According to Riggs, the reciprocal relatedness Of these aspects involves a chicken and egg type of causation, Administration cannot normally be improved very much without changes in the environmental constraints that hamper its effectiveness; and the environment itself cannot be changed unless, the administration of developmental programmes is strengthened. Thus they are intertwined. 15 Distinction between Conventional Public Administration and Development Administration Development administration is public administration with a difference. Development administration is an aspect of public administration. While conventional public administration deals with regulatory aspects of administration such as law and order, judicial administration and revenue collection, development administration is concerned with the socio-economic developmental activities. Traditional administration is structure-oriented while developmental administration is action-oriented. The former is more administration than management, while the latter is more management than administration. Development administration differs from conventional or non- development administration in the following respects. Development Administration Conventional or ‘Non-Developmental Administration (2) Development administration is (1) Conventional administration is structure action-oriented. oriented. (2) It is change oriented and carrier (2) It is status quo-oriented as it resists of innovation, Itis interested in organizational change. ‘organizational development in res- ponse to environmental demands. (3) Itis oriented towards programme (3) It is oriented towards efficiency and effectiveness and achievement of economy. results. (4) Itis client-oriented in character. (4) It is regulatory in its nature.LPL mk Bm | Development Administration Conventional or Non-Developmental Admin (5) Itis flexible and dynamic. (5) Ik is rigid. (6) Itencourages participative. (6) It gives importance to centralized decision-making. decision-making, (1) It gives position to the ©) Init people have no right i representatives of people’ in the administration except the right of administrative process of making appeal and petition. and implementing decisions (8) It is time-oriented. (8) It has no temporal dimension. (9) It requires functional leadership. (9) It relies on status leadership. (10) It is concerned with problem (10) It is interested in problem solving. finding. (11) It is decentralized system and (11) It lays emphasis on centralized responsive to the people’s needs. administration and unresponsive to the needs of the people. (12) It is concerned with new tasks (12) It deals with routine operations, which and problems which are some- ate predictable. times unpredictable. 1.6 Development Administration and Regulatory Administration are Interdependent The distinction between development administration and the so-called regulatory administration is meaningless. Hence, it should not be carried too far. The routine land revenue and law and order administration create conditions for development, Proper and effective revenue collection will generate funds for developmental activities. Developmental effort will not succeed if the state fails to maintain law and order. Again, failure of developmental efforts, in turn, may lead to discontent in the people and may create serious law and order problem for regulatory administration. What is more, development itself is a tension-generating process; its success inevitably beget new social problems, demanding the attention of development administration. Development administration creates capital assets like, roads, irrigation dams, tube wells, etc. out of developmental funds. Such assets must be ‘maintained properly. If they are allowed to fall into disrepair, the entire investment on them is wasted. Therefore, routine maintenance management is as important as development management. This clearly shows high degree of interdependence between development administration and other routine aspects of administration, Development administration and public administration are related in another way also, Developmental administration is rooted in field, actual experiences,568, Public Administration ‘context in which general public administration theory is tested, validated or discarded, According to Prof. M. Bhattacharya, “Practically, the differentiation between development and non-development administration was highly artificial. In the practical world of administration, there isa lot of overlap and interdependence ‘between the cognate arms of administration. There is, therefore, no development administration as a special administrative terrain.” In this light, Irving Swerdiow’s definition of development administration as “Administration in Poor countries” is quite practical and appropriate. 1.7 Purposes or Objectives of Development Administration According to George Gant, “The purposes of development administration were to stimulate and facilitate defined programmes of social and economic Progress. They were purposes of change and innovation and movement as contrasted with purposes of maintaining the status-quo.” The various purposes of development administration may be briefly stated as follows: (1) Economic growth: The primary goal of development administration is to promote economic growth. This requires industrialization and improvi agricultural productivity. It also involves creation of capital assets such as dams, roads, etc. Economic development results in economic betterment of the lives of the people by raising their living standards, It aims at meeting an individual’s basic needs—food, clothing and shelter. (2) Societal change in the direction of modernity: The crux of development administration is societal change in the direction of modemity. According to Pai Panandikar, the framework of development gravitates around a planned change which is derived from a purposeful decision to effect improvement in the social system. An important aim of development ‘administration is to transform an unequal and unjust socio-economic system into a system that is capable of restoring the dignity and self-respect of every individual. (3) Social Justice: In recent times, the goal of development is redefined as growth with social justice. Hence, development administration aims at promoting social justice through equitable distribution of social and economic benefits among the various social groups in society such as children, senior citizens, women, backward classes, scheduled castes and tribes. (4) Attitudinal changes: Development administration calls for positive, persuasive and innovative stances from the bureaucracy. The bureaucrats should ‘exhibit initiative, drive and a sense of responsibility in making decisions, ‘concern for the needs of the citizens. They should be flexible enough to adapt themselves to changing situations. Development administration also requires change in the individual and group values and norms, and the attitude of the Political executive. oe =. 5.2 ¢ 2allele Re | a ee ed Development Administration 569 (5) Nation-building: An important aim of development administration to develop a sense of nationhood, i.e., creation of an integrated political community. In a country like India, this is greatly needed. Development should ‘ot overlook the achievement of national unity by welding together people with diverse cultural and racial backgrounds so that they feel one with a commonly shared destiny. (6) Political development: Development administration is also concerned with political development, Political development comprises: (a) equality of all people in the eyes of law, (b) the capacity of the political system to produce according to demands of the people. (c) differentiation of governmental roles and organization in the process of meeting the challenges of developmental tasks, and d) as mentioned earlier, creation of a sense of nationhood. (7) Modernization of administration: This is another goal of development admi i of new administrative structures and feorientation of the existing administrative institutions to suit the needs of developmental programmes. (8) Sustainable development: It means development that is environment friendly and sensitive to the needs of the present as well as the future generations. Hence, intergenerational equity should be a main objective of development. (9) New goals: Since the 1960s, the objectives of development administration have been changing. These include: (a) provision of education, (b) safeguarding public health, (c) controlling environmental pollution, (d) ‘conservation and proper utilization of natural resources, (e) preserving forests, /) promoting wildlife, (¢) elimination of poverty, unemployment, inequality, Uuppressive social structures and so on, 1.8 Nature of Development Administration A brief reference to the nature of development administration is not out of place here: (1) Development administration is relatively a recent development, a post- Second World War phenomenon, It is a byproduct of comparative study of public administration. It has a distinctive identity in relation to developing countries. (2) Ibis rooted in the field since most of the developmental activities take Place at the field level away from the headquarters. (3) Itemphasizes decentralization of authority, It enables the field units to take decisions on the spot in response to people's demands. (4) It focuses on the participative, responsive and accountable management. It is its distinguishing mark and constitutes its essence.370 Public Administration (5) Itis ecological in nature because the outcome of any developmental activity is conditioned by its environmental factors—social, cultural, ‘economic and political. (©) Itis closely linked with politics, The impulse for socio-economic change comes more often from the political leadership of the nation. The ‘what’ and ‘how’ of development are political questions which are usually decided by political leadership. 1.9 Scope of Development Administration ‘The scope of development administration covers both: (1) the administration of development, i.c., the activities initiated by government to achieve social reconstruction and economic development and (2) development of administrative ‘capabilities ‘Tarlok Singh has divided the “field of study and action represented by development administration” into the following arcas: (a) Extension and community services: These include technical, institutional and financial services provided by government agencies as well as services provided by voluntary organizations. These services make the operational services successful through people's participation, Programme planning: This is to be made on the basis of an accurate ‘analysis of available resources—supplies and inputs. Project management: Various projects in fields of irrigation, power, Production of goods are to be prepared and implemented to achieve the developmental goals within a specific time frame. It is said that project implementation has been badly neglected in the Indian planning. Area development: This means development of a specific area like tribal area, hilly area or any backward area. The problems of any Particular area are dealt with by local agencies such as Panchayati Raj institutions and municipal committees. In doing this, they act on their ‘own within the framework provided by govemment. Government gives them grants-in-aid to strengthen their financial position, Urban development: There is much need to secure the effective working of municipal institutions in urban areas in relation to civic life and development. There is a need to involve urban communities in the solution of their own problems or in the efficient administration of social services. Larger resources must also be allocated for intensive and systematic municipal personnel. Personnel development and administration: This includes development of bureaucratic capabilities, ie, development of skills, character and motivation of personne! engaged in developmentalDevelopment Administration om ‘activities. This requires systematic training and effective use of trained personnel. ‘The scope of development administration today extends to implementing the central and state plans in various sectoral areas of health, sanitation, cottage industries, employment generation, agriculture development, women and childcare activities. Thus, the scope of development administration is very wide as it covers many areas and activities, 1.10 Characteristics of Development Administration ‘The most important characteristics of development administration are noted below: (1) Goal-orientation: Development administration is a goal-oriented administration. It is a process of action motivated by and oriented to the achievement of certain pre-determined goals. It is concerned with the mobilization and proper utilization of the existing and new resources and improving administrative capabilities to achieve the goals of dynamic developmental policies. (2) Change-orientation: The central concern of development ‘administration is to bring about desirable and progressive total socio-economic transformation. Such changes occur in the substance of a field of activity as ‘well as in the values. and attitudes of the people and bureaucracy. (3) Result-orientation: It aims at achieving the physical targets of developmental policies and specific programmatic results. The evaluation of its performance is done on the basis of sectoral achievements. (4) Time-orientation: It has concern for completion of developmental programmes and projects, i.¢., within the limits of a time frame. (5) Client-orientation: Development administration offers services in the context of beneficiaries. Usually, developmental projects are tailor-made for specific target groups such as tribals, women, children, etc, Client-orientation provides an important criterion for evaluating its performance. (©) Commitment: The administrators are expected to be personally and ‘emotionally involved in the work of the projects entrusted to them. They should be highly motivated to complete the projects within the time limits. ‘The expected directional change depends much on this. (7) Innovation: Development administration necessitates the introduction of administrative and other innovations to overcome dogmatic values and conservative methods, which obstruct progress and development, (8) People’s participation: Since the aim of development administration is capacity building at grassroots level, people must directly involve in local development programmes. No development programme can be successful ‘without the involvement and participation of its beneficiaries. Meaningful372 Public Administration citizens’ participation calls for creation of institutional opportunities such as Panchayati Raj. Such decentralized administrative institutions allow citizens’ active participation in the development effon, This makes developmental planning realistic to suit local needs. Thus development administration aims at the bottom-up approach, 1.11 Functions of Development Administration According to J.N. Khosla, the principal functions of development administration are: (1) Formulation of development goals and policies. (2) Programme formulation and programme/project management. (3) Reorganization of administrative structures and procedures. (4) Evaluation of results. (6) Promoting growth of social and political infrastructure. ‘The activities mentioned above require a competent, incorruptible, action- oriented, goal-oriented and change-oriented dynamic public administration. 1.12 Problems of Development Administration Development administration is not free from any problems. Some of the important problems faced by the development administration may be noted below: (2) Public administration in the developing countries is conditioned by their colonial past. It is characterized by features of centralized authoritarian administrative system. The basic administrative structures in these countries are elitist in character. Rules, regulations and forms take precedence over the substance. The borrowed Western model of ‘Administration, which is not indigenous to the society, does not fit into the needs of development administration. It, therefore, fails to fulfil its promises of socio-economic transformation and nation building. ‘There is the undue concentration of authority at the senior executive levels and in the ministries’ offices. Delegation of authority is limited. The senior executives want to control everything. Even the simplest ‘administrative decisions require the approval of the top in the hierarchy. ‘Such heavy concentration of authority at the top-level saps the initiative and drive of the personnel working in the field. The lengthy administrative procedures and methods also are not suitable for carrying out developmental tasks quickly. As a result of procedural delays, quick decisions cannot be taken to face emerging challenges and achieve the goal of speedy socio-economic transformation. Further,Development Administration 3 the administrative system of developing nations lack modern ‘management techniques. Another problem is lack of experienced administrators as well as shortage of technically qualified and trained technocrats in specialized fields. The administrators lack commitment to developmental plans ‘and programme implementation. They lack the necessary skills and competence to carry out developmental tasks. They are not also sensitive enough to the needs of the poor and the oppressed sections of the society, A serious problem is acute corruption, which is institutionalized and out of control. Development funds are often siphoned off to hire relatives or friends. Sometimes, these simply disappear. Corruption and inefficient be built unless corruption is checked or at least restricted to the lowest limits. Besides, there is lack of political will and support to the developmental plans, programmes and projects. In the developing countries, a large majority of the people still have traditional attitudes, old customs, inappropriate language, religious beliefs and superstitions, Thus, people lack appropriate attitudes and ‘are unable to adjust themselves to the needs and circumstances of modem technological civilization. Their lack of participatory spirit and their poor response to the developmental programmes have flopped ‘many major programmes of societal transformation. It also suffers from its inability to prevent alienation at grassroots. Poor direction, coordination and relationships between the generalists and specialists also pose a problem in the field of development administration. Poor organization of public enterprises, government departments, boards and regulatory agencies and financial institutions. Lastly, insufficient finances and material resources are also severe obstacles to implement developmental programmes and projects successfully. 1.13 Some Suggested Solutions to the Problems The preceding discussion shows that the real problem of development administration is a low level of administrative capabilities that impede development efforts, Added to this are the poor financial and material resources, which also come in the way of achieving developmental goals, Hence, important solutions to these basic problems are strengthening administrative capabilities and improving financial resources. The various criticisms levelled against theom Public Administration development administration reveal some of its structural weaknesses as well as the behavioural consequences that flow from the structure. Therefore, what is needed “is to make the governmental organizations, structurally and behaviourally, geared to the task of development,” The following are some of the solutions suggested to make the administrative system fit for developmental asl (1), There should be de-emphasis of hierarchy in the conventional pyramidal type of organization. This type of organizational structure should be redesigned to enable cooperative decision-making and promote collaborative problem solving. The traditional centralized authority system should be replaced by decentralization of authority. This enables the field units to make decisions quickly on the spot as far as possible. Decentralized decision- ‘making avoids delay in meeting the changing developmental situations at field level There should be free flow of reliable information in the organization for speedy and effective decision-making. Recruitment of public servants, their promotion and evaluation of their performance must be based on merit, Highest ethical standards in the public services must be promoted. }) The traditional administrators should be converted into modern ‘administrators through appropriate training programmes. Through proper training, itis possible to change the essentially status-based bureaucracy ‘and its behaviour into a change-oriented, action-oriented, client-oriented and service-motivated bureaucracy. ‘There should be continuous manpower planning for the public services to identify the types and number of administrative and other professional and technical personnel required. More professionalism and specialism ‘must be introduced into the civil service. Professional mobility should be encouraged. Bureaucracy should be flexible and adaptable to meet quickly the changing development situations. For this purpose, lengthy time, consuming procedures and dilatory methods of administration resulting in red-tape should be avoided. In other words, organizational rules and procedures should not be allowed to get precedence over target achievement. Modern management techniques such as cost-benefit analysis should be introduced. ‘The supremacy of the politician must be accepted and bureaucracy ‘must work alongside him as a copartner in the development enterprise. Administrative power should be under the direction and control of political authority.Development Administration 515 (9) Bureaucracy must secure the cooperation’ and participation of the citizens in the development work. The citizens have to be the primary actors in the development drama. They must understand that self-help is the best help. It is in their own interest not to be dependent on the ‘administration for everything, A change from elite to mass participation developmental activities must also be brought about. Popular participation in developmental activities is a resource. Bureaucracy ‘must work very closely with the people under a general rubric of ce ethic. If citizens’ participation in development activities is to have a meaningful content, thei literacy rate has to go up substantially, ‘The future direction of development administration would be decided by the policies of community participation in resource decisions. In fact, today, development administration has inspired dynamism, ‘movement and participation at various levels of society. The problem of paucity of funds can be solved to some extent by vigorous and impartial collection of revenues at all levels. Wasteful expenditure for improper purposes should be avoided. These measures are essential both to maximize the funds available for development and to create citizen confidence in the integrity of the system, 2. CHANGING PROFILE OF DEVELOPMENT ADMINISTRATION ‘The concept of development administration is a post-World Warll phenomenon. Its emergence is closely linked to the emergence of the post- colonial new Third World countries. At the outset, we should remember that the goals and content of development administration have been changing since its beginning in the 1950's. In the 1950's, development administration was inaugurated with its foremost emphasis on economic growth and increase in production with a view to raise people's standard of living. In the beginning, it was to be state-led development and conceived in technical terms. As Mohit Bhattacharya points out that the nature of the state— the power structure that it represents— was not considered a problem then. By the later 1960's and early 1970's, it was realized that economic development took place, but it failed to remove poverty, unemployment an¢ social inequity. It failed to improve substantially the quality of life of the general masses. It gave birth to imbalances and other hardships. The gulf between the rich and the poor in the ‘Third World countries, and also between the developed and developing nations widened. Development turned out to be anti-human and eco-destructive. It was also realized that development has been unnecessarily technicized and dehumanized. Thus, development administration showed unmistakable signs of failure in many respects516 Public Administration Hence, in the later 1970's and 1980's, there was a paradigm shift in development administration— from growth-centric to people-centred approach, ‘The goal of development administration came to be redefined as growth with Social justice that has to be secured with people's participation. Its goals are elimination of poverty, unemployment, inequality, oppressive social structure, ete. Besides such issues as gender equality, child development and other sitwation- specific. problems have secured place on the agenda items of development. The concept of development has become more encompassing ‘and. humanistic. Development is now to take care of total human being who has his social and ethical dimensions. A broad-based concept of ‘development embraces both moral and material components. In the context of preceding discussion, we should remember that in the 1950's and 1960's centralist development theories dominated the scene. The centralist approach is also known as top-down vision. This so-called development from above has actually meant deprivation for below. People at the grassroots level are more and more marginalized and rendered poor by such development plans. Therefore, later in the 1970's, certain changes involved ‘ore field orientation and people's participation in development. But the concept of top-generated and top-directed development remained the same. The above changes in the profile of development administration have been aptly stated by Robert Chambers in the following words, “In 1950's, blue prints for development were drawn up from an ‘aeroplane’ perspective. In the 1970's, the field oriented, participatory approach prompted a ‘helicopter’ vision, and for the experts sitting in the low flying craft could now claim to have a ‘more accurate perception of their target population. They could even land ‘anywhere amongst the people below to enquire about their views.’ But the change from ‘aeroplane’ to ‘helicopter’ did not essentially change the top-down vision of reality. In both cases, the experts thought that “they knew better than the ‘underdeveloped’ populations living down below.” This ‘means development is what the centre visions and plans. This type of development plans could not solve the complex and widespread socio-economic problems of most developing countries. It is in the above context that development from below assumes much importance. Development from below is recognized as development from Within. This is what Robert Chambers has called the idea of ‘reversals’. Development to be real must be people centred. This necessitates the reversal of the tendency towards concentrating power in impersonal and unaccountable institutions. For development to be locally meaningful, power needs to be returned to the people and communities through the creation of member- accountable institutions and strengthening of local resources control and ownership. Decentralization is, thus, considered indispensable for theDevelopment Administration si management of local resources like forests, wetlands and bio-diversity in general. In the 1990's, the concept of environment-friendly development has assumed significance. In this context, the concept of “sustainable development’ advanced by the Brundtland Report of 1987 has secured an important place on the agenda of development administration. Lester Brown has recently ‘advocated a paradigm shift that emphasizes economy as & sub-sector of the eco-system. We shall briefly examine these two new developments. 2.1 Sustainable Development In the 1990's, the idea of ‘sustainable development’ has emerged as a result of the new focus on ‘environment’. This phrase was coined by the World Commission on “environment and development’ in its report titled “Our Common Future” (1987). This commission was set up in 1983 by the UN General Assembly under the leadership of the Prime Minister of Norway, Gro Harlem Bruntland. Its purpose was to examine the state of global environment and development after the end of 20" century. Its latest instance is the Earth Summit held at Rio de Janeiro in Brazil in June 1992. Sustainable development is development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of the future generations to meet their own needs. In “Our Common Future” it is said, “In essence, sustainable development process of changing in which the exploitation of resources, the direction of investments, the orientation of technological development and institutional change are in harmony and enhance both current and future potential to meet human needs and aspirations. ‘Sustainable development” requires that mother earth should not be plundered in the name of development, Pollution must be controlled; forests ‘must be preserved: wildlife must be protected and promoted. Thus, sustainable development is environment friendly and sensitive to the needs of future ‘generations. It makes development both people-friendly and eco-friendly. Today, development is being in holistic terms, Implications of sustainable development: The term sustainable development has the following implications: (1) Development of a certain country should be done in the light of the present necessities with proper attention on the needs of future generations. (2) The earth’s eco-system and its bio-diversity must be understood and its sanctity must not be vitisted. This view militates against the practice of bringing about haphazard growth without caring the protection of the environment. It rejects the traditional view that economic development is a necessity, while environmental protection is a luxury.978 Public Administration (3) Itdiscards the idea of “development at any cost’. Instead, it desires no development at the cost of environmental protection. In this way, it integrates the case of development with the interest of the great society ‘of human beings and entire world having diverse types of life in flora ‘and fauna. Thus, development and environment should coexist. (4) It also implies that no state is an island unto itself and, as such, no state can have its development without concerning the effects on other states, 2.2 A Paradigm Shift in the Linkage of Environment and Economy ‘The latest is a paradigm shift in the linkage of environment and economy, ‘dvocated by Lester Brown, the author of the book “Eeo:Economy: Building ‘an Economy for Barth,” He is an eminent environmentalist. He has called for restructuring the global economy, including changes in the tax system; to ensure sustainable development. His paradigm shift emphasizes that economy must be viewed as a sub-sector of the ecosystem, Brown points out that the global economy is out of syne with ecosystems. He observes that the collapsing fisheries, shrinking forests and expanding deserts have evidenced this. In his view, as the world faces threat from increased carbon dioxide emissions, our civilization may decline. He warns: “There can bbe no economy without environment He even recommends tax breaks to be given to environment-friendly Systems and imposition of higher taxes on elements that impact on ecology. He says, “The market must tell the ecological truth.” Brown has stressed that developing countries such as India have to prepare their own environmental agendas to protect their economies. 3. RIGGS’ VIEWS ON DEVELOPMENT ADMINISTRATION WITH REFERENCE TO HIS PRISMATIC-SALA MODEL FOR DEVELOPMENT ADMINISTRATION 3.1 Introduction EW. Riggs, a pioneer in the field of comparative public ad ‘was also a significant contributor to the field of development ad He came to be regarded as the prime mover of academic interest in the area of development administration, which is semi-autonomous sub-field of comparative public administration. He developed his well-known model of ‘prismatic-society’ relating to the developing societies. He wrote several books and articles on development administration. His ideas on development administration are mainly found in his: (1) “Frontiers of Development Administration.”Development Administration (2) “Idea of Development Administration (3) “Administration in Developing Countries.” We shall now proceed to examine Riggs’ views on development administration with reference to his prismatic-sala model. 3.2 Meaning of Development Administration According to Riggs, development administration “refers to the administration of development programmes, to the methods used by large scale organizations, notably governments, to implement policies and plans designed to meet their developmental objectives.” It includes all org efforts to carry out developmental programmes, Riggs, like Weidner, believes that development administration is characterized by goal-orientation, change-orientation and innovativeness. Development administration is engaged in the task of achieving progressive economic, social and political goals. It is, thus, progressive in its policies. It is responsive to the needs of people and provides them opportunities to participate in the process of developmental activities. Riggs strongly believes that administrative system interacts with its environment in which it operates. This ecological approach also considers the impact of sdministration on social behaviour of people. He brings out the close relationship between administrative system and its environment in the following words: “Administration cannot normally be improved very much ithout changes in environmental constraints (infrastructure) that hamper its effectiveness, the environment itself cannot be changed unless the administration of development programmes is strengthened.” Riggs holds the view that different administrative systems evolve in accordance with their respective ecologies. In other words, public administration operates in different social and other environmental settings and adopts itself to the environmental conditions in order to achieve a set of social goals. 3.3 Development Administration and Administrative Development According to Riggs, development administration by implication involves development of administration. Administrative development means strengthening the capabilities of public administration to achieve the prescribed socio-economic developmental goals. Much of the effectiveness of development ‘administration depends upon the capacity of the administrative system itself. “Thus, development administration and administrative development are closely related to each other. They reinforce each other in achieving developmental objectives. ‘The administrative capacity approach is the crux of the concept of administrative development. Much of the effectiveness of a development580 Public Administration Criented system depends upon the capacity and capability of administrative system itself, It may be noted here that there is a similarity in Riggs’ stress on administrative development and F.W. Taylor's emphasis on increasing effectiveness of an administrative system in order to reach its prescribed goals From the preceding discussion, it becomes clear that Riggsian concept of development administration refers to administrative problems as well as govemmental reform. The problems relate to governmental developmental tasks im the fields of agriculture, industry, education, health and such other inatiers. Reforms of organizations and bureaucratic procedures have necessarily ‘© 80 with the administrative process connected with problem solving. 3-4 Riggs Prismatic-Sala Model A brief reference to Rigas's prismatic-sala mode! is not out of place here Following the structural-functional approach, Riggs constructed three ideal {ypical categories of societies: “fused society”, “prismatic society”, and “iffracted society." He delineates these societies according to different social Structures, He used two-dimensional (differentiation and integration) approaches ‘0 explain the process of development in them, ‘The “used society” has almost no specialization of rules. Ii undeveloped because in it, there is a low level of structural differentiation with a Comesponding level of integration. On the contrary, the “diffracted society” is 8 developed one because itis atthe high level of structural differentiation with Comesponding level of integration. The “prismatic society" forms the intermediate category, It is a developing society because in it differentiation of Structures occurs faster than their integration with the old structures, ‘The Condition of the Third World countries provided the initial impetus and data for the construction of the “prismatic” model. In the prismatic society exists: (1) a high degree of formalism, ie., the wide gap between the norms and realities, (2) overlapping, ic., the extent to which the administrative behaviour is determined by non-administrative eitera, and (3) heterogeneity, i, the mixture of old and new ideas he brismatie-sala model emphasizes ecology. I is designed by Riggs to Study administration in the developing countries and to analyse the behaviows nded to capture the essence ofthe administrative sub-system in the developing Third World countries, hy fact itis on account of environmental influences that the administrative system of a prismatic society develops the characteristic features of heterogeneity, formalism and overlapping. Riggs has been primarily interested in social change in the prismatic ‘ransitional society. In a prismatic society, pressure for change is external asDevelopment Administration Well as internal. When it is extemal, it is termed as “exogenous”, and when internal, it is termed as “endogenous.” In a situation where the pressures for change from external as well as internal source are-equal in strength, it may bbe called “equi-genetic.” 3.5 Limitations Riggsian analysis of development administration is not free from certain limitations. (1) Development administration as.a design or structural problem is not the focus of Riggsian analysis. Nor does Riggs examine the operational problems of development administration in diverse situations, The structural or operational issues have to be explained on the basis of empirical findings on the ground realities. Such issues cannot be discussed a priori (2) The prismatic model has doubtful utility in analysing the process of social change in development because Riggs has not analysed the Process of refraction from a development perspective. Hence, itis not very useful when the objective of development administration is social change or to find out the stages of development. This model is also not a prescriptive model of administrative organization for development. (3) The nature of the prismatic society adversely tells upon the phenomenon of administrative development that in turn hinders the working of development administration. The nature of administration and behaviour of bureaucracy come in the way of achieving the objectives in developing programmes. The administration is associated with institutionalized corruption, red tape, passing the buck, etc. Very often, government officials work for the realization of goals other than the achievement of programme objectives. Self-aggrandizement and self-protection rather than service to the people ‘characterizes bureaucratic operation in the prismatic society. Thuis, the {otal impact of sala administration defeats the main aim of development, i.e., social change and economic development. 3.6 Significance ‘The prismatic-sala model of Riggs contributes to a better understanding of actual societies that are undergoing rapid socio-economic and administrative ‘changes. It has revealed the influence of ecology on the administrative systems of developing countries. It is sensitive to the context of administration of a country. Thus, itis very useful to analyse and understand the actual functioning and problems of public administration in a developing country. The sala model has some practical utility to the professional administrators. in the developing countries. It reveals the fact that now the prismatic conditions582 Public Administration of a developing society adversely affect the efforts of development ‘administration, The sala mode! is, therefore, useful to the administrators in directing them on the right lines in their efforts to administrative problems in the transitional societies in accordance with the local conditions. It also provides sights in the policy formulation process in the area of administrative development. (Note: For more details, see Riggs on CPA) 4 WEIDNER’S IDEAS ON DEVELOPMENT ADMINISTRATION 4.1. His Works Edward Weidner is the foremost advocate of development administration for the post-colonial Third World countries. He worked in the universities of Chicago and Michigan. He wrote many books and several articles on development administration. His important works are: (1) “Development Administration: A New Focus for Research” (1962), (2) “Technical Assistance in Public Administrarion Overseas: The Case for Development Administration” (1964), (3) “Development Administration in Asia" (1970), (4) “The Elements of Development Administration.” ‘These works have made Weidner a distinguished pioneer in the field of development administration. His research articles have gained much popularity with the students of development administration. We shall briefly analyse Weidner’s most important ideas on development administration in the pages that follow. 4.2 Concepts of Development Administration Weidner defines development as a process of growth “in the direction of modernity ... nation-building and socio-economic progress.” He says that development is “a state of mind, a tendency, a direction, Rather than a fixed goal, it is a rate of change in particular direction.” He observes, “Development is never complete; it is relative, more or less of it being possible.” To Weidner, development is a process of social change as much as economic change. He defines development administration as “the process of guiding organization towards the achievement of progressive political, economic and social objectives that are authoritatively determined in one manner or another.” He describes it as “an action-oriented and goal-oriented administrative system.” According to him, “Development administration is concerned with maximizing innovation for development.” He defines innovation for development as “The Process of planned or intended change in the direction of modemity or nation- building and socio-economic change.”Development Administration He concentrates his attention on the administrative requisites for achieving developmental goals. In his opinion, “The study of development administration can help to identify the conditions under which a maximum rate of development is sought and the conditions under which it has been obtained.” ‘Thus, Weidner Points out the usefulness of development administration in relation to developmental goal achievement. 4.3 Objectives of Development Administration ‘Weidner’s definition of development administration is neither precise nor comprehensive. However, it does sketch the principal interests or goals of development. These relate to nation-building socio-economic change and modernity. (1) Nation-building: It requires the integration of diverse ethnic, communal, tribal, regional, linguistic and religious groups into @ national political community. In the developing societies there is an urgent need of nation- building because without it socio-economic development is not possible. But, the achievement of this goal is a difficult task because of the widely prevalent sectarian, communal, tribal and ethnic rivalries, sub-national struggles and secessionist movements in the developing societies. Here it may be noted that there is no single method that can be used by all the countries to achieve this goal. To achieve this goal, each county adopts'a method that suits the situation prevailing in it. Nation-building emphasizes the cultural aspects of political development. (2) Socio-economic change: The crux of development administration is social change. Development administration actively and consciously attempts to bring about changes in the values and attitudes of the people. This is necessary to reorient people in the direction of developmental goals and tasks and make them participate in developmental activities and programmes. and share the benefits of material development. Developmental administration is concerned with the economic growth by, ‘means of industrialization. It aims at transforming an agrarian society into an industrial society. Certain aspects of socio-economic development such as ‘growth in the per capita income, increases in the percentage of literacy and the like are quantifiable. Weidner points out the close relationship between economic development and the administrative system. He says, “The relationship ‘between modernization of administrative systems and economic development ‘are complex. Economic development itself is a major requisite for administrative change especially in the long run, Administrative change, properly conceived can also further economic development; but administrative change, improperly ‘conceived, may delay or slow it.” (3) Modernization: According to Weidner, modernization is an important {goal of development. As a nation develops, it also becomes modernized. Thus,384 Public Administration ‘modernization is one of the many factors closely linked with the other variables such as industrialization, social change and attitudinal change. It implies change from the traditional to the modern system, The level of the modernization of 4 society is linked to the extent to which the existing values of that society hhave changed yielding place to higher values. In a sense, modernization is one of the results of system change 4.4 System Change and Development According to Weidner, system change is an important condition for the development of society. In order that growth proceeds in the direction of developmental goals, Weidner suggests, “System change in the form of differentiation and coordination, together with appropriate accompanying specialization would be required.” It also implies that bureaucracy as an agent of public administration system needs to be adopted itself to rapid changes in the environment and developmental goal achievement. In the opinion of Weidner, system change would be instrumental in the analysis of development administration in the developing countries. It is also useful to study ‘administrative problems in developed nations. 4.5 Development Administration and Result Specific Since development administration is action-oriented and goal-oriented, it entails fully clear-cut identification of what is got to be done and for what Purpose. In this sense, development administration is result specific. It expresses in most areas fairly clear-cut norms of performance preferably in quantitative terms as in the economic and industrial spheres. Even in the social spheres, such as health and education the norms are reasonable clear-cut and measurable. 4.6 Development Administration and Environmental Factors ‘Weidner, like Riggs, believes that development administration is conditioned by ecological factors. Strategies of development require that environmental factors do not intervene to make the attainment of any set of goals difficult. ‘Weidner observes, “Environmental factors in general and cultural factors in particular are important to those who attempt to bring about major change in ‘any society. Such factors condition the outcome of any governmental programme or other innovation. Therefore, changes in man’s culture and environment are among the goals of highest priority in the countries most committed to change.” 4.7 Development Administration and Political Factors Weidner acknowledges the crucial role played by political factors in determining the output of the effect of development administration. The politicalDevelopment Administration 585 conditions of a country may be favourable or unfavourable to the developmental efforts made by the administrative system. Therefore, the shape of developmental administration depends much on political direction. According to Weidner, political involvement in development administration is something necessary because it can make development administration more effective. He hhas acknowledged the desirability of maintaining a competitive balance between the political and administrative elements in the political system. In Weidner’s opinion, politics cannot be separated from the study of development administration 4.8 Development Administration and Bureaucracy What is the role of bureaucracy in the development administration? Weidner hhas suggested that the role of bureaucracy in development administration, as compared with the roles of other parts of government or society, varies from country to country, The role of bureaucracy, says Weidner, “ranges. widely from country to country in regard to the original formulation and later ‘modification and refinement of development values. Variations in its role in securing these values are equally great." Weidner does not deny the tendency for the bureaucracy in developing countries to occupy an inordinately strong position relative to other political organs. But he is inclined to regard this as inevitable, perhaps desirable, at any rate not easily susceptible to external manipulation: He has subscribed to the view that strengthening bureaucratic capabilities is beneficial rather than disadvantageous to developmental efforts. He says that an enlightened and capable bureaucracy may be willing and able to take leadership in bringing along the lagging sectors in order to meet developmental objectives. Weidner’s inclination, therefore, is not to advise abandonment of bureaucratic improvement as a legitimate objective in external aid programmes. 4.9 Developmental Models ‘Weidner formulated eight development models on the basis of directional growth, system change and planning. A brief deseription of them is given below: (2) Ideal model: This model is based on planned directional growth with system change. This model necessitates the creation of planning machinery to formulate and implement plans in order to achieve orderly socio-economic progress: This ideal model is too idealistic to be practicable. The reason is that the administrative system does not have the capability to affect the ideal conditions for its operation. (2) Short run pay off: This model provides for planned directional growth ‘with no system change. It seeks to achieve development in the shortPublic Administration ‘un without disturbing the existing system. The development sought ‘may be in terms of consumption or nation-building or socio-economic Progress. (3) Long run pay off: This provides for the planned system with no directional growth. Under this situation, system change may not result in immediate growth, but it facilitates growth in the levels of the economy and increase in its productive efficiency. (4) Failure model: It implies planning with no growth and no system change. Despite development plans, there is no considerable development in the society for such reasons as population explosion, natural calamities, and so on. It does not effect any change in the system, Environmental stimulus model: In this model, there is unplanned directional growth. with system change. Even though there is no planning, such factors in the social environment as competition, decentralized initiative and emulation by entrepreneurs, leaders or ‘groups may trigger off such a situation as conducive to development with changes in system, Pragmatism model: In this model, there is unplanned directional growth with no system change. There will be decentralized interactive competition, adaptation and emulation, It will generate less problems ‘and more liberalizing, Weidner considers this condition a natural strategy and an attractive course to follow. (7) Crisis model: It means unplanned system change with no directional growth, This situation is generally the effect of adjustment made to ‘meet emergencies like epidemics, floods, war and the like, (8) Static model: In this model, no plans, no change. There are a few societies in which there is no change at all 4.10 An Estimate ‘Some criticisms have been levelled against Weidner's ideas on development administration. Critics like Samuel Katz have observed that it is difficult to define goals for development action. Goal identification is never simple; and in complex developmental change situations, itcan be very elusive and difficult. Lack of clarity on important aspects of goal orientation sometimes causes confusion about the true nature of development administration. ‘Weidner did not proceed to provide an operational framework indicating the kinds and nature of administrative change that will be necessary to transform non-development system into a developmental system. As Prof. P, Krishna Murthy points out that it is difficult to state in w! ‘model a developing country fits in, Some features of a developing country2 bt 5 ; ° it = , ns le a, he ed 20 a or at a ve ms ny oy © 4 ee gf se OFe Development Administration 987 ‘may be appropriate to one model, while some other features to another model. However, Weidner’s models are useful to identify the development direction of a country. Nevertheless, Weidner’s numerous writings on development administration ‘may be considered as his great contribution to the study of public administration in the developing countries. Weidner finds fault with the earlier administrative studies for its glorification of the means and forgetting the ends of administration, His concept of ‘goal-oriented’ development administration filled the gap in traditional administrative theory left by earlier public administration studies. The concept of development administration has served as a separate focus for research in public administration. Weidner’s goal-oriented approach, used in the study of development administration, makes possible cross-cultural studies in public administration. ‘Thus, Weidner's idea of development administration has opened new vistas of public administration research. EXERCISE (J) Which one of the following statements is correct? (@) ‘Development administration’ is one of the oldest concepts in public administration, (6) Development administration is mainly a post-World War I phenomenon. (©) The concept of development administration is a post-World War I phenomenon, (@) The idea of development administration originated in the pre- colonial period. Who among the following first coined the term “development administration"? (a) EW. Riggs (6) Lucian Pye (6) ULL. Goswani (@) Ferrel Heady ‘Who among the following is regarded as the father of the concept of ‘Development Administration"? (a) John D. Montgomery (© Milton J. Esman (©) George F. Gant @_ Weidner (4) Consider the following statements Development Administration (1) aims at socio-economic development and nation-building in the Third World countries (2) is directly government-led effort to intervene in the process of socio-economic transformationPublic Administration (3) is a post-World War 1 phenomenon (4) is a semiautonomous sub-field of comparative public administration Which of these are correct? (@ Vand 3 @® 2,3 and4 (© Vand 4 @ 1,2 and 4 Which one of the following is NOT 2 purpose of development administration? (@) Economic growth and to. (6). Social change without social increase production justice (©) Promotion of social justice (d) Changes in the attitudes of bureaucracy Development administration is the “engineering of social change”. ‘The above definition of development administration is given by (@) Edward Weidner (®) S.R. Maheswari (©) Mohit Bhattacharya (@ Martin Landau Consider the following statements: Development Administration (1) lays emphasis on the management of development policies programmes and projects. (2) is ecological in nature (3) emphasizes people participation in developmental acti (4) is ecodestructure in nature Which of these is/are correct? (a) 1 only (®) 2 and 3 () 1, 2,3, and 4 @ 1,2, and 3 Development administration is “an action-oriented, goal-oriented ‘administrative system.” The above definition is given by (a) EW. Riggs () RK. Hope (©) Edward Weidner (@) Merle Fainsod Which one of the following is NOT a difference between development administration and non-development administration. Development Administration Non-Development Administration (a) Action-oriented Structure-oriented () Flexible Rigid (©) Regulatory Client oriented (d) Participative-decision Centralized decision-making, making ‘The phrase ‘ststainable development’ is coined by (@) ARC. report in India ) Comparative Administration Group (©) Brundland report (d) Esman reportDevelopment Administration (11) The author of “Frontiers of Development Administration” is (@) Weidner (®) Riggs (©) Kuldeep Mathur (d) Alfred Diamant (12), Match List-I (Authors) with List-II (Books) and select the correct answer using the codes given below: List-I (Authors) List-Il Books) (A) ULL. Goswami (1) Development Administration in Asia (B) EW. Rigas (2) The Structure of Development Administration in India (© Weidner (3) Administration in Developing Countries (D) Mohit Bhattacharya | (4) Development Administration Codes @) (6) © @ List-l (Authors) List-ll (Definitions) (A) Edward Weidner (1) “Development administration is the administration of policies, programmes and projects to serve development purposes.” (B) Irving Swerdiow (2) “...Development administration is concerned. with achieving rational development.” (©) Donald Stone (3) Development administration * “administration in poor countries.” (D) GF Gant (4) Development administration is “an action-oriented, goal-oriented administrative system.”Public Administration @ wo © @) 4 Directions: The following 4 items consist of two statements, one labelled as the “Assertion (A)” and the other as “Reason (R)'. You are to examine these {wo stateinents carefully and select the answers to these items using the codes siven below: Codes: (@ Both °A’ and ‘RY are individually true and R is the correct explanation of A. (©) Both “A” and ‘R’ are individually true, but *R’ is not the correct explanation of A (©) A is true, but R is false @ Ais false, but R is true (14) Assertion (A): Some of the developing societies have realized that their countries are overgoverned. 4 Reason (R): They feel that downsizing of government would be in ‘everyone's interest. (15) Assertion (A): Developing societies need reforms in civil service fields, Reason (R): The expenditure on training and development of civil servants has been on the increase in such societies. (16) Assertion (A): Development approach to the study of public administration emerged «ue to increased realization of the irrelevance of the Western concepts in understanding the problems of Third World nations. Reason (R): Development approach aims at establishing propositions about administrative behaviour which transcend national boundaries, Assertion (A): In developing countries bureaucracy plays a dominant role, Reason (R): Weber brought out the merits of the bureaucratic system, ANSWERS, a) ® 2) ©) 8 © a @ (3) ® OM \ mm ®) (© oO © 0) (e) an ® | 120) 03) © Ma) (1s) (&) (16) () (17) @).Development Administration CIVIL SERVICES MAIN EXAMINATION SPECIMEN QUESTIONS (A) Comment on the following in not more 200 words each. Each question carries 20 marks. (1) “The nature of prismatic society adversely tells upon the phenomenon of administrative development which, in turn, hinders the working of development administration.” (2) Development administration is “an action-oriented, goal-oriented administrative system.” (3) The prismatic-sala model “enables us to cope with many problems of ‘transitional societies....." (Riggs). What are these problems and how can this model enable us to cope with them. () “Development administration calls for some revolutionary changes in the attitudes, behaviour, orientation and outlook of public services at all levels of administration’. (3) “The entire process of development and nation-building hinges on the effectiveness of administrative reforms.” (6) “Development administration is concerned with maximizing innovation for development’. Discuss. (B) Answer the following questions. The number of marks carried by each question is indicated at the end of the question. (2) Distinguish between administrative development and administration of development. 30 (2) Outline the features of development administration and explain the reasons for its marginal performance. 30 (3) What are the objectives of development administration? Also, examine the demands development administration places on the structure and practice of administration. 30 (4) “Practically, the differentiation between development and non- development administration was highly artificial.” Discuss. (Suggested Question) 30