Running head: DECEPTION IN RESEARCH 1

Deception in Research

Jessica Machovec

Loras College
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Deception in Research

Take a minute to think about the definition of deception. Most think of the verb to

deceive as a negative implication and many individuals correlate the term with other words like

scam, cheat, or mislead. However, many individuals deceive each other in everyday life without

even thinking about it. The most common use of deception is replying to people, “it’s going

well,” when in reality it might not be going too great for you. We say things like this to avoid

sympathy or shame from others when they ask how we are doing. White lies are told to hide the

truth to save someone from embarrassment or harm. The code of ethics has allowed for

deception to be used with strict guidelines to not cause harm to a participant. There are stern

procedures within informed consent that restricts researchers from causing harm. If deception is

allowed and not seen as dishonest in everyday life, why is it debated during experiments?

Deception in research poses minimal psychological harm to participants, is only used when the

results cannot be found without it, and it helps keep results as reliable and valid as possible.

Deception in research keeps information from participants in the research study. The

main goal of deception is to see the results of the dependent variable. Most researchers deceive

their participants to keep the study as fluid and as valid as a real-life scenario. The less influence

from outside variables in an experiment the higher one’s effect size can be. Deception allows the

experiment to feel more normal and as real-life as possible. Deception by omission intentionally

withholds information and should not change the behavior of the participant (Rousu et al., 2015).

Whereas explicit deception intentionally gives out false information to participants (Rousu et al.,

2015). Many researchers use it to keep participants honest in their behavior because if people

know they are being watched for a certain behavior they are more likely to react how a

researcher wants them to. Psychologists are aware of the effects that deception can have which is
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why many refrain from the use of deception unless it is necessary. However, with the ethical

guidelines that need to be followed deception shows little threat to individuals participating in

experiments.

A study in 1995 divided deception into eight different categories which include the

following: false information about study’s main purpose, exposing subjects to a false or broken

device, false feedback on own subject’s performance, providing false feedback about others’

performances, use of confederates, being unaware of participation, not knowing when or how

oneself is being studied, and telling subjects two or more studies are unrelated, but they actually

are (Rousu et al., 2015). These are the main forms of deception and all cause little to no distress

in participants. People even need to give consent after being observed if they were unaware at

the time.

Deception poses little psychological harm to participants. Deception in research can

occur by lying or concealing information during the experiment (Barrera, 2018). Participants can

be debriefed after the experiment and show little to no harm done to them. Most people are

aware that they could be deceived when participating in a research experiment. However,

deception helps control the validity of an experiment (Barrera, 2018). The code of ethics now

has limitations on deception to reduce harm for participants. Section eight in the code of ethics

discusses informed consent, debriefing, reporting results, and deception in research. Deception is

only allowed when conditions of the following are met: no other methods exist, the study makes

forward advance in science, the deception will not cause severe harm or distress, and participants

are debriefed at some point (Boynton, Portnoy, & Johnson, 2013). Participants are allowed to

withdraw from participation at any point during an experiment (Menges, 1973). IRB boards do

not let experiments pass if there is a chance the experiment could cause any sort of harm.
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Deception in research is more common than thought to be. One study found that half of the

participants studied had participated in deceptive research (Baumrind, 1985). Under the correct

circumstances, there is little cost, to society or participants. Often, deception is the only way to

get accurate information in research studies.

Some experiments that provide useful information can only be done by using deception.

Rousu and others state, “Subjects can be deceived about a purpose, plan, or setting of an

experiment (2015, p. 1). Deception is the most useful way to get the most accurate information

because it allows the experiment to seem more real-life to participants. Some researchers claim

objective results can only be possible because of deception (Tai, 2012). In the Bystander Apathy

Experiment researchers had a confederate pretend to be injured and looked to see if anyone

would help. This experiment helped identify a social construct concept in human interaction

because it showed that people were less likely to help if there were other people around that

could do the job.

Deception can also be used to combat social issues and concerns (Tai, 2012).

Consequentialists see deception as a benefit to society and support it because it benefits

populations (Rousu et al., 2015). The Asch Experiment filled a room of confederates with one

participant, and they answered the questions wrong intentionally. Eventually, the participant

went along with their answers to refrain from standing out. Deception ensures accuracy in

research and takes human interaction a step further than regular research can. Reliable and

unbiased research results use deception to get the best results (Wendler & Miller, 2004). Role-

playing has not been found as a good substitute for deception because people are aware that it is

fake (Menges, 1973). Using placebos is a form of deception and many studies include a placebo

or a control group to compare results (Petkovic et al., 2015). Informing subjects can make altered
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responses because participants may act differently. Deception helps get the most accurate

information. Deception is a defining characteristic in psychological and sociological

experiments. You need a control group for some experiments to see if anything is being changed.

In experiments it is difficult to get participants to behave in a normal way and using deception

allows participants to behave more normally.

Some research needs deception to prevent participants altering their behavior. Deceptive

research experimentation has a small standard of error (Levine, 2015). This means that the effect

size is larger when deception is used in experiments that need it. Researchers cannot get accurate

information if people are not acting like themselves. This ruins the concept of having the

research seem as natural as possible. The whole goal of a research experiment is to stop as many

variables as possible from altering the experiment. Researchers use deception to make the

experiment as fluid as possible. Furthermore, researchers also run into the problem of

participants trying to behave in a certain way to help the researcher. Using deception helps

combat this issue of validity (Suchotzki et al., 2017). Overall, studies need to seem as realistic as

possible.

Those who are unaware of what is being studied will be less likely to alter their behavior

to get the results the researchers are looking for. Humans are poor lie detectors and can have

trouble figuring out when they are being lied (Suchotzki et al., 2017). Placebos are used in many

research studies as a form of deception. These placebos are used to determine if there is anything

else causing the issue or if the independent variable is making a change (Petkovic et al., 2015).

While deception is great for receiving accurate information, there are still some dilemmas that

arise from using deception in research.

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Deception can take advantage of trust between participants and the researcher.

Participants can feel as if their trust and obedience to the experimenter is jeopardized (Tai,

2012). These individuals feel like they are doing something for the common good, but if they

feel betrayed in any way they may lose morale. If a person feels like they have been harmed

because of deception, it will be hard to get that same participant to volunteer for experiments

again (Wendler & Miller, 2004). Ethically, deception is seen as wrong. Participants should feel

no loss of confidence or integrity when participating in studies (Baumrind, 1985). Methodical

deception can cause harm or violate human rights (Rousu et al., 2015). It is hard to tell if

deception will ever cause harm, but the protection of the client is important. That is why many

believe it should be removed altogether because there is truly no way of knowing if the

experiment could cause distress. Therefore, deception should be avoided at all costs. However, in

the code of ethics, there are strict rules on deception and informed consent helps explain the risk

of being deceived.

Informed consent combats the idea of being misled. When deception is being used many

researchers are being required to mention in their informed consent the risk of being deceived

(Wendler & Miller, 2004). However, many boards waive the informed consent right when the

research poses no risk to participants (Wendler & Miller, 2004). Boards will carefully review

research requests. These forms are lengthy and require extensive information about the

experiment and what exactly is going to be done. These reviews make sure all of the code of

ethics will be followed. How does one determine what are the most important ethics codes to

follow? Ethical principles of psychologists allow investigators only to deceive when certain

conditions are met (Wendler & Miller, 2004). IRB boards will not allow certain psychological

experiments because of the updated code of ethics. Past experiments have shown the harm that
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was done using deception. Because of these experiments, there are now laws in place for

researchers to follow. Even though deception is in the code of ethics some individuals still see it

as unethical.

Deception is unethical for participants because it cannot be determined if harm will be

done until it happens. Integrity, justice, and protection of the participant are some of the most

important ethics (Tai, 2012). Deception can make individuals believe in false information.

Providing false information to participants can confuse and lead to mistrust in research and

science in general. Those who realize they have been deceived may ask to remove themselves

from the experiment which can mess up the data. Incomplete data is useless and can waste

money and time.

If there is not enough participation in experiments, it is almost impossible to show

statistical significance that strengthens a concept or new method. If the effect size is not large

enough, the research cannot show solutions that would benefit a whole population. There are

other ways to do experiments without deception, and if it could potentially cause issues down the

road for the research it should be avoided altogether. Participants may also feel bad about

themselves because of the deception. Their autonomy can be harmed if they are not properly

informed (Boynton, Portnoy, & Johnson, 2013). Many humans do not like to be lied to or feel

uncertain about situations. If they have any suspicion about deception in an experiment it could

make them feel badly about themselves or frustrated at the experiment itself. If they are not

debriefed they could have long-lasting psychological effects relating to confidence or trust.

However, because deception is in the code of ethics it helps reduce potential harm.

Code 8.07 in the code of ethics discusses deception in a detailed manner. If deception is

in the code of ethics, then it is ethical to incorporate it within studies. The code states that
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deception is not allowed unless it is completely necessary. It also explains the need for debriefing

participants about the research and what the deception was. However, researchers are not

required to tell why they used deception, just that it was used. Psychologists do not have to share

their hypothesis with participants.

How can one determine what is the most important ethical standard is? They are all

equally important and can coexist. Sometimes the less the subject knows about the experiment

the better because it helps make more accurate results (Tai, 2012). Keeping information from

subjects for their own good is still deception, but researchers do it to create a more natural

environment for more accurate results (Tai, 2012). Experimenters and board members do not

have to choose between autonomy and valid data because debriefing and informed consent still

respects the dignity of a person (Wendler & Miller, 2004). Therefore, one can show respect to

clients while also deceiving them to reach a conclusion that will help the whole population.

Deception is only used when it is deemed necessary. Most deception is used for the

independent variable rather than the dependent variable (Menges, 1973). This means people were

more likely to be deceived about treatments. Many people participating in deception experiments

do not consider deception as inappropriate (Menges, 1973). IRB boards will not allow deception

if there is not a need. However, for specific experiments, deception helps get the most accurate

results that will help the population as a whole. Deception follows the ethical principles that

require the justification of the research, other non-deceptive ways will not work, participants are

not deceived about physical risks, and participants are debriefed at some point after the

experiment (Wendler & Miller, 2004). Some results can still be altered because of the suspicion

and unnatural way people behave.

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Human studies are difficult because it’s hard for people to behave as natural as possible

during an experiment. Most people feel awkward or are aware of the experiment and behave how

they think they should, or hold back from acting differently from others. Those who are

suspicious of the experimenter will still behave in an unnatural way (Tai, 2012). If an

experimenter is behaving oddly, or if the experiment seems strange it could cause participants to

act differently (Tai, 2012). Those who are in an experiment involving deception may behave

differently in their next experiments because of previous exposure to deception (Rousu et al.,

2015). A study done by Hertwig and Ortmann found 10 of 14 studies found suspicious subjects

were less comfortable during experiments compared to those who displayed less conformity

(Rousu et al., 2015). Those who learn about deception could no longer wish to participate or

could reduce potential participants for the experimenter.

Evidence about participants behaving differently has been mixed. Participants altering

their behavior depends on person to person and has not fully been shown to show behavior

changes if participants have been previously deceived. Individuals can be informed that

deception will occur, but will not know what the nature of the deception is (Wendler & Miller,

2004). Most information about deception in the conformed consent sounds like this, “You should

be aware that the investigators have intentionally misdescribed certain aspects of this study. The

use of deception is necessary the conduct the study. However, an independent ethics panel has

determined that this form accurately describes the major risks and benefits of the study. The

investigator will debrief you after the end of your participation,” (Wendler & Miller, 2004, p.

598). This sentence states clearly that deception is going to occur and the individuals will have

an explanation after the study. The form will also state that they do not have to complete the

study and can stop at any time.

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Rousu and others state that overall, deception in research is beneficial because it can help

the population as a whole (2015). Subjects are not allowed to be deceived about their

willingness to participate as well as risks and benefits (Wendler & Miller, 2004). Studies show

there isn’t a determined correlation (Rousu et al., 2015). Deception is used to avoid the unnatural

behavior in participants. One study found that people did not alter their behavior until after

several exposures to deception (Rousu et al., 2015). The repetition alone could cause people to

behave differently. People have a hard time identifying if people are lying to them (Levine,

2015). Therefore, when one is being deceived in a study, it is difficult for them to be aware of it.

Participants are so focused on the study itself and completing what they are told to do they rarely

get suspicious about why certain scenarios are occurring. Most deception revolves around

conditioning participants to behave in a specific way. Subjects who will read a list of positive

words are more likely to help out a person in need compared to those who were given a list of

negative words. This was done with the help of a confederate. No subjects were harmed, but the

research suggests that humans change mood and empathy based on their surroundings. Those

who read words that related to aging and older adulthood walked slower in the hallway, than

those who read adolescent and upbeat words.

To recap, deception is a concept in research that is needed to conduct certain experiments

because they simply cannot be executed without it. Deception in the last decade has needed to

follow strict rules within the code of ethics because of inappropriate deception in the past. These

experiments posed significant trauma and stress that participants carried with them through their

life. Now psychologists understand what the human brain is capable of and the limits that it can

bare. The people that are against deception are against it because of the harm that it has caused in

the past. They are forgetting about the updated code of ethics and how many researchers now do
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not intend to cause harm with their deception. They are only including the use of deception to

minimize the amount of outsider influence in their experiment. In the past, researchers

intentionally deceived and almost treated the deception as the independent variable. Now,

researchers only use deception if it is necessary.

Deception is only used when necessary in experimental research. Psychologists have

recognized the harm that deception can cause, but also understand it is needed to find out

specific information. If deception is used correctly it can find evidence that could potentially

help thousands of individuals. As discussed, deception is within the code of ethics and describes

the way deception can be used in experiments. People have understood the high necessity for

deception and have made a point to add it within the ethical principles. The principles must be

followed with no exceptions. Deceiving in research is necessary to find out the truth about

human interactions. It is the closest thing researchers can do to help experiments feel like real-

life situations. If participants are not being harmed physically or mentally, deception can give the

most statistically significant answer. Deception in research can find results that will help benefit

a certain population, which is what experimental research is all about. Some research needs

deception to find the most accurate representation of the population that presents participants

from behaving abnormally.

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References

Barrera, D. (2018). Deception and research. Springer International Publishing AG, 1–4. doi:

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Baumrind, D. (1985). Research using intentional deception. American Psychologist, 40(2), 165–

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Boynton, M. H., Portnoy, D. B., & Johnson, B. T. (2013). Exploring the ethics and psychological

impact of deception in psychological research. IRB: Ethics and Human Research, 35(2),

7–13.

Cheng-Tek Tai, M. (2012). Deception and informed consent in social, behavioral, and

educational research (SBER). Tzu Chi Medical Journal, 24(4), 218–222. doi:

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tcmj.2012.05.003

Levine, T. R. (2015). New and improved accuracy findings in deception detection

research. Current Opinion in Psychology, 6, 1–5. doi:

dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2015.03.003

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research. American Psychologist, 1030–1034.

Petkovic, G., Charlesworth, J. E. G., Kelley, J., Miller, F., Roberts, N., & Howick, J. (2015).

Effects of placebos without deception compared with no treatment: Protocol for a

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