Foster, K. R. “Dielectric Properties of Tissues.

”
The Biomedical Engineering Handbook: Second Edition.
Ed. Joseph D. Bronzino
Boca Raton: CRC Press LLC, 2000
 89
Dielectric Properties
of Tissues
89.1 Definitions and Basic Phenomena
89.2 In Vivo Versus in Vitro Properties
89.3 Temperature Coefficients
Kenneth R. Foster Reversible Changes • Irreversible Changes
University of Pennsylvania 89.4 Dielectric Data: Tabulated

The bulk electrical properties of tissues and cell suspensions have been of interest for many reasons for
over a century. These properties determine the pathways of current flow through the body. This gives
them fundamental importance in studies of biologic effects of electromagnetic fields, in measurements
of physiologic parameters using impedance, and in basic and applied studies in electrocardiography,
muscle contraction, nerve transmission, and numerous other fields.
I will briefly define the quantities used to characterize the bulk electrical properties of tissues and give
some of the background information needed to interpret the data. A more extensive review is presented
elsewhere [1]. Other reviews of tissue properties are by Schwan [2], Pethig [3], Grant et al. [4], Schanne
and P.-Ceretti [5], and Duck [6]. Other tabulations of tissue properties are by Schwan [2], Geddes and
Baker [7], and Stuchly and Stuchly [8]; Schwan [9] has published an extensive review of practical
measurement techniques.

89.1 Definitions and Basic Phenomena

The dielectric permittivity 0 and conductivity σ of a material are, respectively, the dipole and current
densities induced in response to an applied electric field of unit amplitude.1 The significance of these
quantities can be illustrated by considering an ideal parallel-plate capacitor, whose plates have surface
area A and separation d. The capacitance C and conductance G of the capacitor are then

 0 A
C=
d
(89.1)
σA
G=
d
(This neglects the effects of fringing fields and applies at low frequencies where propagation effects can
be neglected.) At radian frequency ω, the admittance Y of the capacitor can be written

1
*In MKS units, the permittivity and conductivity have units of farads per meter and siemens per meter, respec-
tively. For convenience, we write the permittivity as  (the relative permittivity) times 0, the permittivity of vacuum.
0 = 8.85 (10–12 F/m). The resistivity ρ = 1/σ.

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 (
Y = G + jωC )
= (σ + jω )
A
0
d
(89.2)
A
= σ*
d
A
= jω *  0
d

where σ * = σ + j ω0 is the complex conductivity, and * =  – j σ /ω0 is the complex permittivity.2 In
the usual notation, * = ′ – j″, where ″ is the loss and tan (″/′) is the loss tangent. Typically, for soft
tissues at low frequencies,

σ >> ω o

and the tissue can, for many purposes, be approximated adequately by considering it to be a pure
conductor and neglecting the permittivity entirely.
For tissues, both  and σ are strong functions of frequency (Fig. 89.1). This frequency dependence
(dispersion) arises from several mechanisms. These mechanisms are discussed, with reference to simple
biophysical models, in Foster and Schwan [1]. For a typical soft tissue, different mechanisms dominate
at different frequency ranges:
• At low frequencies (typically below several hundred kilohertz), the conductivity of the tissue is
dominated by conduction in the electrolytes in the extracellular space. The bulk conductivity of
the tissue is then a sensitive function of the volume fraction of extracellular space and the con-
ductivity of the extracellular medium.
• At low frequencies, the tissue exhibits a dispersion (the alpha dispersion), centered in the low-
kilohertz range, due to several physical processes. These include polarization of counterions near
charged surfaces in the tissue and possibly the polarization of large membrane-bound structures
in the tissue. At frequencies below the alpha dispersion, the relative permittivity of tissue reaches
very high values, in the tens of millions. The alpha dispersion is very apparent in the permittivity
but hardly noticeable in the conductivity of the tissue.
• At radiofrequencies, the tissue exhibits a dispersion (the beta dispersion), centered in the range
0.1 to 10 MHz, due to the charging of cell membranes through the intracellular and extracellular
media. Above the beta dispersion, the cell membranes have negligible impedance, and the current
passes through both the extracellular and intracellular media. The beta dispersion is apparent in
both the permittivity and conductivity of the tissue.
• At microwave frequencies (above 1 GHz), the tissue exhibits a dispersion (the gamma dispersion)
due to rotational relaxation of tissue water. This dispersion is centered at 20 GHz and is the same
as that found in pure liquid water.
In addition to these three major dispersions, other smaller dispersions occur due to rotational relax-
ation of bound water or tissue proteins, charging of membranes of intracellular organelles, and other
effects. These dispersions overlap in frequency and lead to a broad and often featureless dielectric
dispersion in tissue.

2The term dielectric constant is used, often in the chemical literature, to indicate the relative permittivity of pure

liquids at low frequencies, where  is essentially independent of frequency.

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FIGURE 89.1 Data from liver tissue (the composite of several sets of data, from the Table 89.1). () Relative permittivity
, () conductivity σ, () ω0. When σ >> ω0, the tissue may be regarded for many purposes as a pure conductor.
The major dispersion regions (α,β,γ) are indicated on the figure. The lines are regression lines through the data.

These dispersions do not affect the permittivity and conductivity in the same way. For a single-time-
constant dispersion centered at frequency fc , the change in permittivity ∆  is related to the change in
conductivity ∆σ :

∆σ = 2πfc ∆ 0

Thus the alpha dispersion (at kilohertz frequencies) is associated with a small (usually imperceptible)
increase in tissue conductivity but a very large decrease in permittivity. By contrast, the beta dispersion
represents a large decrease in the permittivity (from several thousand to less than 100) and a large increase
in conductivity (by a factor of 10 or so).

89.2 In Vivo Versus In Vitro Properties

The dielectric properties of the tissues that are summarized in the Table 89.1 pertain, for the most part,
to excised tissues. The relation between these properties and the dielectric properties of tissue in vivo is
a complicated matter.
At low frequencies (below about 0.1 MHz), electric current largely passes through the extracellular
space, and the tissue conductivity is a sensitive function of the extracellular volume fraction. Any changes
in the fluid distribution between intracellular and extracellular compartments can lead to a pronounced
change in the low-frequency conductivity of the tissue.
For example, substantial (twofold) decrease in the conductivity of rat kidney [10] and sheep myocar-
dium [11] have been reported within a few minutes after death of the animal or after experimentally

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 TABLE 89.1 Dielectric Properties of Selected Tissues
A B C D E F G H I J K
Skeletal
Skeletal Muscle Brain Brain
Muscle Perpendicular White Gray Whole
Frequency Parallel (Nonoriented) Liver Lung Spleen Kidney Matter Matter Bone Blood Fat

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Conductivity (S/m)
1 0.52 0.076 0.12 0.089

2  10 Hz

3
4 0.52 0.076 0.13 0.092 0.0126 0.60

5  100 Hz

6
7 0.52 0.08 0.13 0.096 0.0129 0.02–0.07

8  1 kHz

9 0.68
10  0.55 0.085 0.15 0.11 0.0133

11  10 kHz 0.68

12 
13  0.65 0.40 0.15 0.62 0.24–0.25 0.12–0.15 0.17 0.0144 0.55

14  100 kHz 0.56–0.59 0.16 0.68

15  0.38–0.44
16  0.27 0.63 0.37–0.39 0.14–0.19 0.21 0.0173 0.71

17  1 MHz 0.83–0.85 0.30

18  0.58–0.63
19  0.86–0.87 0.47 0.84 0.64–0.68 0.21–0.28 0.35 0.0237

20  10 MHz 0.92–0.96 0.46 0.55–0.53 0.50–0.57 0.30 0.38 1.11

21  0.69–0.75 0.42–0.46 0.29–0.31 0.45–0.63
22  0.95–0.99 0.72 1.05 0.94–1.05 0.36–0.48 0.69 0.0574 1.0 0.02–0.07

23  100 MHz 0.9 ± 0.08 0.70 0.53 0.73–0.76 0.66–0.72 0.45 0.7

24  0.75–0.82 0.60–0.71 0.80 ± 0.02 0.75 ± 0.02 0.48–0.51 0.52–0.85 0.7–0.8
25  1.38–1.45 0.98 1.2 0.89–0.94 0.05 1.4–1.6

26  1 GHz 1.3 1.2 0.73 1.09–1.13 0.95–0.97 0.80 1.1 1.3 0.03–0.09

27  1.5 0.95–1.0 2.0 1.0 0.81–0.82 0.89–1.17
28  2.0 2.5 ± 0.03 1.8–2.1 0.16 2.5–3.1

29  3 GHz 2.7 ± 0.07 2.4 1.5 2.0

30  2.8 2.8 2.7 2.3 ± 0.05
31  8.3 5.8–6.7 6.5 0.5–1.7 9.1 0.3–0.4

32  10 GHz 7.7 10.0 10 10.5

33  8.8 10.0 4.5–7.4 8
 Relative Permittivity
1 107 106 5 × 107 2.5 × 107

2  10 Hz

3
4 1.1 × 106 3.2 × 105 8.5 × 105 4.5 × 105 3,800 1.5 × 105

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
5  100 Hz

6
7 2.2 × 105 1.2 × 105 1.3 × 105 8.5 × 104 1,000 5 × 104

8  1 kHz 2,900

9
10  8 × 104 7 × 104 5.5 × 104 2.5 × 104 640

11  10 kHz 2,810 2 × 104

12 
13  1.5 × 104 3 × 104 9760 3,260 10,900–12,500 1,960–3,400 3,800 280 4,000

14  100 kHz 24,800–27,300 1.4 × 104 2,740

15  14,400–15,800
16  1,970 1,450 2,390–2,690 543–827 1,250 87

17  1 MHz 2,460–2,530 1,970

18  1,900–2,150 2,040
19  170–190 338 321 431–499 163–209 352 37

20  10 MHz 187–204 300 352–410 190–204 200 380 200

21  162–181 251–265 190–191 237–289
22  67–72 77 83 89–95 57–66 90 23 4.5–7.5

23  100 MHz 68 ± 2 79 35 71–76 56–62 65 90 67

24  64–70 65–68 81 ± 3 85 ± 1 58–64 65–80 72–74
25  57–59 46 54 40–44 8 58–62 4.3–7.5

26  1 GHz 58 55 35 50–51 43 35 45 63–67 3–6

27  48 47–49 50 46 38–39 47–51 63
28  42 520.6 35–41 7.5 55–56 4–7

29  3 GHz 52.5 ± 0.7 53 33 44

30  46 42–43 46 47.5 ± 1
31  40–42 34–38 42 8 50–52 3.5–4.0

32  10 GHz 37 37 25 40 45

33  35 38 30–37
 References

Coordinates Ref. Tissues Coordinates Ref. Tissues

1 A,B 19 Dog skeletal muscle, 37°C (av of 5 measurements, SD ~ 30%) 33 A,B

4 A,B 1C 23 Dog liver, in situ (av of 20 measurements, SD ~ 25%)
7 A,B 4C

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10 A,B 7C
13 A,B 10 C
15 A,B 20 Nonoriented dog skeletal muscle, 37°C 1D 23 Dog lung, inflated, in situ (av of 20 measurements, SD ~ 25%)
18 A,B (range of 3 measurements) 4D
21 A,B 7D
24 A,B 10 D
14 A,B 20 Nonoriented rat skeletal muscle, 37°C 7K 23 Dog fat, in situ
17 A,B (range of 2 measurements) 10 K
20 A,B 19 A,B 24 Cat skeletal muscle, in vivo, 31°C (range of 3 measurements)
13 C 20 Dog liver, 37°C (single specimen) 22 A,B
16 C 25 A,B
19 C 20 E 24 Cat spleen, in vivo, 35°C (range of 3 measurements)
22 C 23 E
14 C 20 Rabbit liver, 37°C (single specimen) 26 E
17 C 20 F 24 Cat kidney, in vivo, 35°C (range of 3 measurements)
20 C 23 F
23 C 26 F
13 E 20 Dog spleen, 37°C (single specimen) 21 G,H 24 Cat brain, in vivo, 33°C (range of 3 measurements)
16 E 24 G,H
19 E 27 G,H
22 E 21 C 24 Cat liver, in vivo, 35°C (range of 3 measurements)
13 F 20 Dog kidney, 37°C (range of 2 measurements) 24 C
16 F 27 C
19 F 28 C 25 Bovine liver, 37°C
22 F 23 D,J 26 Beef blood
13 G,H 20 Dog brain, white and gray matter, 37°C 22 K Excised human tissues (deflated lung) 27°C (measurement
16 G,H (range of 2 measurements) 26 K frequencies 0.2–0.9 GHz)
19 G,H 26 D
22 G,H 27 J
27 E 21,22 Dog spleen, 37°C (values at 1,3 GHz interpolated, single 23 A,B 27 Various cat tissues, in vivo (av ± SD, 55 measurements in
30 E specimen) 26 A,B 4 animals); value at 10 GHz extrapolated from 8.0 GHz;
33E 29 A,B 1 GHz interpolated
 27 A,B 21,22 Dog skeletal muscle, 37°C (values at 1,3 GHz interpolated, 32 A,B
30 A,B single specimen) 24 E
25 E 17 J
28 E 20 J
31 E 13 J 30 Normal human blood, hematocrit 40%, 21°C (50 kHz)
24 F 25 C 16 Various tissues, dog, horse, 38°C (except 25 I, 28 I, 25°C); the

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27 F 30 C measurements were made at 8.6 GHz and extrapolated to
30 F 25 K 10 GHz
33F 28 K
26 C 21,22 Dog liver, 37°C (value at 1.3 GHz extrapolated) 25 J
29 C 28 J
32 C 25 I
4I 28 Rat femur, 37°C, immersed in Hank’s buffered saline, radial 28 I
7I direction (single sample) 31 A,B,I,J,K
10 I 32 J 17 Human (9.4 GHz), 37°C
13 I 20 G,H 31 Dog brain, white and gray matter, 37°C
16 I 23 G,H
19 I 26 G,H
22 I 29 G,H
25 G 29 Mixed brain tissue, mouse, 37°C (value at 3 GHz interpolated) 32 G,H
28 G 4J 29 Sheep blood, 18°C
8J 15 Rabbit blood, room temperature 7J
11 J
14 J

Reprinted from Foster and Schwan, 1994.

induced ischemia. These changes are almost certainly a result of changes in fluid distribution within the
tissue associated with cell swelling. These changes are likely to be much less pronounced in the permittivity
and in the conductivity above about 0.1 MHz.
Most of the data in Table 89.1 were taken from excised tissues within minutes to hours after the death
of the animal and may well represent systematic under-estimates of the conductivity of tissues in vivo.
This calls for caution in their use.

89.3 Temperature Coefficients

The dielectric properties of tissues change with temperature. Below about 44 to 45°C these changes are
generally reversible. They principally reflect the changes in conductivity of electrolyte with temperature,
either directly (in the conductivity of tissue) or indirectly, as they affect the dielectric dispersion.
At higher temperatures, thermal damage will result in irreversible changes in the dielectric properties
of tissue. The extent of such changes depends on the tissue type, duration of heating, and other factors.
For canine skeleton, such changes occur above 44.5°C.
Figure 89.2 shows the temperature coefficient, defined in the figure, for the conductivity and permit-
tivity of canine muscle and brain. These data pertain to reversible changes only.

89.4 Dielectric Data: Tabulated

Table 89.1 presents selected permittivity and conductivity data from various tissues. Where available, the
table presents up to three values for the tissues, including measurements performed on excised tissues
of various species and in vivo. The aim is to present primarily new data; in some cases I have included
earlier data. Sources are References 15 to 31. The large variability in reported properties of these tissues
is illustrated in the table and is due in part to biological variability and in part to differences in condition
of the tissues. All data pertain to tissues at body temperature (37 to 38°C).
Another extensive tabulation of dielectric data has recently been prepared by Gabriel et al. [32]. These
data are available (as of time of publication) on the Internet at http://www.brooks.af.mil/AFRL/HED/
hedr/reports/dielectric/home.html and several other sites.

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FIGURE 89.2 Fractional change with reciprocal temperature of dielectric properties of (a) dog muscles and (b) brain
near 37°C (from Foster and Schwan, ref. 1). In most cases, the temperature coefficients have been calculated from
two measurements at 25 to 28 and 37°C.

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References
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