Republic of the Philippines

Bohol Island State University

Candijay Campus
Cogtong, Candijay, Bohol

EUROPEAN LITERATURE

Members:
Greek Literature

Greek mythology is the body of myths originally told by the ancient Greeks. These stories
concern the origin and the nature of the world, the lives and activities of deities, heroes, and
mythological creatures, and the origins and significance of the ancient Greeks' own cult and ritual
practices. Modern scholars study the myths in an attempt to shed light on the religious and
political institutions of ancient Greece and its civilization, and to gain understanding of the nature
of myth-making itself.[1]

The Greek myths were initially propagated in an oral-poetic tradition most likely by Minoan and
Mycenaean singers starting in the 18th century BC;[2] eventually the myths of the heroes of the
Trojan War and its aftermath became part of the oral tradition of Homer's epic poems, the Iliad
and the Odyssey. Two poems by Homer's near contemporary Hesiod, the Theogony and the Works
and Days, contain accounts of the genesis of the world, the succession of divine rulers, the
succession of human the origin of human woes, and the origin of sacrificial practices. Myths are
also preserved in the Homeric Hymns, in fragments of epic poems of the Epic Cycle, in lyric
poems, in the works of the tragedians and comedians of the fifth century BC, in writings of
scholars and poets of the Hellenistic Age, and in texts from the time of the Roman Empire by
writers such as Plutarch and Pausanias.

Aside from this narrative deposit in ancient Greek literature, pictorial representations of gods,
heroes, and mythic episodes featured prominently in ancient vase-paintings and the decoration of
votive gifts and many other artifacts. Geometric designs on pottery of the eighth century BC
depict scenes from the Trojan cycle as well as the adventures of Heracles. In the succeeding
Archaic, Classical, and Hellenistic periods, Homeric and various other mythological scenes
appear, supplementing the existing literary evidence.[3]

Greek mythology has had an extensive influence on the culture, arts, and literature of Western
civilization and remains part of Western heritage and language. Poets and artists from ancient
times to the present have derived inspiration from Greek mythology and have discovered
contemporary significance and relevance in the themes.[4]

Greek Gods and Goddesses

The ancient Greeks worshipped a number of different gods and goddesses, who were in charge of
various aspects of daily life. They identified six principle goddesses and six gods, who were
known as the twelve Olympians because they were said to live on top of Mount Olympus.

The Olympians are all the descendants of Kronos and Rheia, with the exception of Aphrodite who
is a more primal Goddess, conceived when Uranus was castrated by his son Kronos.

In Greek mythology, the Olympians feature in numerous stories and emerge as highly distinctive
personalities forming part of an extended and often dysfunctional family. Through the ages, the
twelve Olympians have inspired countless works of literature and art, continuing to exert a
profound influence over western culture even after their regular worship came to an end.

Zeus the King of the Gods

Zeus was often portrayed in ancient art as a

powerful man with a full beard. As God of the
heavens, Zeus wields a thunderbolt and has
power over the weather. He is also seen as
looking down on the world of mortal men
and women and is angered by certain kinds of wrongdoing, in particular the breaking of oaths, ill
treatment of guests or murder between family members.

Zeus himself however, was not to be taken as an example of good behaviour for mortals.
Although married to Hera, he is known for his many amorous liaisons with both mortals and with
nymphs (minor nature goddesses who lived on earth and lived in the woods, on mountains,
streams or pools).

He is particularly known for turning himself into different animals in order to trick and gain
access to those who took his fancy, for example he turned into a swan to approach Leda, who
became the mother of Helen the beautiful woman whose abduction lead to the famous war
between Greece and Troy.
Hera the Wife of Zeus

Hera is the queen of the gods, the wife and sister of Zeus.
She is portrayed as a tall and beautiful matron, usually decorously robed.

Hera is the patron of women, marriage and the family. Her own married life was difficult, as Zeus
was constantly unfaithful to her and she is often described in myth as being jealous and angry
with him because of this. She could also be cruel and vengeful to the women whom Zeus
favoured - even if they had had little choice in the matter.

Poseidon the God of the Sea

Poseidon was the brother of Zeus and Hera.

Poseidon is often shown as a great bearded man holding a trident as he is God of the Sea. He is
also God of earthquakes and of horses.

Hades and his wife Persephone.

Hades the God of the Underworld

Hades, another brother of Zeus, was God of the Underworld,

the land of the dead.

The Greeks usually did not think of their dead going to Heaven or Hell but rather to a dark and
shadowy place where they would live a sort of ghostly imitation of their earthly life. Hades was
married to Persephone, queen of the dead. Persephone was the daughter of Demeter, goddess of
crops and the fertility of the land, and he abducted her as a young girl.

Demeter Goddess of Grain

Demeter, another sister of Zeus, is the goddess of agricultural

fertility, thus her favour was vital for ensuring the success of the
harvest and the survival of the community.

The most important story about her is the abduction of her daughter Persephone by Hades, God of
the Underworld. Demeter wandered the earth in her grief looking for her daughter, and when she
discovered what had happened she let the earth become barren and the crops fail so that humanity
faced starvation. Zeus was forced to intervene. He ruled that if Persephone had eaten nothing in
the Underworld, she was free to return to her mother.

Unfortunately, Persephone had been tempted to taste just five pomegranate seeds, in Hades’
garden. As a compromise, Zeus got Hades and Demeter to agree that the girl should spend six
months of the year in the Underworld and the other half of the year with her mother.

Aphrodite, the apple she is holding is the prize she won

for beauty at the Judgement of Paris
Aphrodite Goddess of Love

Aphrodite is the beautiful goddess of love. The story

of her birth is a strange one; before Zeus became king of the gods, he overthrew his father Kronos
and castrated him with a sickle throwing his genitals into the sea. Thus Aphrodite was conceived,
amid the waves and emerged gloriously from the sea at Paphos, in Cyprus. She is married to
Hephaistos the Smith God, but had an affair with Ares, God of War.

Aphrodite has a son Eros, a mischievous boy with a bow, whose arrows cause their victims to fall
helplessly in love with the person they are looking at.
Hephaestus is the God of fire, smiths and metalwork.

He is the son of Hera, produced by her without a father, in a show

of independence. It is said that Hephaestus was born lame,
disgusted; Hera threw him down from Mount Olympus into the sea where he was brought up by
sea goddesses Eurynome and Thetis.

Another version of the story has Zeus flinging Hephaestus down from the mountain when he tried
to intervene in their quarrels. Hephaestus was married to Aphrodite, goddess of love but she had
an affair with Ares, God of war.

Ares is the God of war and thus an unpopular deity.

He is the son of Zeus and Hera. He had an affair with Aphrodite,

Goddess of love but her husband Hephaestus discovered what was happening. In order to get
revenge, the craftsman-god created a web of beaten metal, so fine that it could not be seen. He
placed this web above the bed so that it fell on Ares and Aphrodite when they were in bed
together and Hephaestus brought the other gods and goddesses to witness their disgrace.

Hestia the Goddess of the Hearth

Hestia is the goddess of the hearth. The hearth was very important
in ancient Greek homes; it was a source of light and warmth and
where food was prepared for the family to eat. Although Hestia
was important in terms of everyday Greek religious worship, there are not many stories about her
in mythology; she was a quiet goddess.

It is said that when Heracles, the son of Zeus, was deified after his death, Hestia gladly yielded
her place to him as one of the twelve Olympians, preferring to live in obscurity.
Athene in her war helmet
Athene Goddess of Wisdom

Athene is another daughter of Zeus and the story of her birth is

curious. Zeus was once in love with a nymph called Metis but was told that if he had a son by her,
that son would eventually overthrow him as king of the gods. To prevent this happening, he
swallowed Metis whole. As Metis was very wise, she used to give Zeus advice from inside him.
Not long after he swallowed her, Zeus was suddenly struck with agonising pains in his head.
Eventually, Hephaestus the god of metalwork, took an axe and cracked open Zeus’ skull,
immediately the goddess Athene leapt out, fully armed and uttering her war cry.

Athene is portrayed as a virgin goddess, a young woman fully armed and wearing a war helmet.
She combines traditionally masculine and feminine characteristics; she is a goddess of wisdom
and good counsel for rulers and war leaders, she is a patron of wool-working and other traditional
women’s crafts and also for other kinds of craft such as metal work, carpentry and ship building.
She is the patron goddess of Athens.

Apollo is often depicted playing the lyre.

Apollo the God of Music, Prophecy and Healing

Apollo was the son of Zeus and a goddess called Leto,

one of the earlier generation of Titan deities who reigned before the triumph of the Olympians.

Apollo is associated with archery, knowledge, prophecy, the arts and music. He is often
represented as leader of the nine Muses, who are patrons of various types of musical performance,
dance and poetry. Apollo is portrayed as a handsome young man, often holding a bow or playing
the lyre. He is also crowned with a laurel wreath.

Apollo was the patron of the Delphic Oracle, a shrine where a priestess would tell the future to
those who asked. For centuries people would come from all over Greece to ask questions of this
Oracle but the answers given were often riddling and easily misunderstood. Apollo is also known
for his affairs with mortals and nymphs. He never took a bride but remains always in the character
of the young bachelor. The god also has a darker side; those who died of plague or other disease
were often imagined as shot by the arrows of Apollo.

Artemis was the Goddess of the woodlands and carried a bow.

Artemis Goddess of the Woodlands

Artemis was the twin sister of Apollo. A virgin goddess she is

portrayed as a young girl who carries a bow and is often accompanied by dogs. She is goddess of
hunting, of woodlands and wild places, of young girls and is protectress of babies and all young
animals. She is accompanied by a train of nymphs as she wanders the open spaces hunting with
her dogs and bow.

Artemis guards her virginity fiercely and, like her brother Apollo, she can be cruel and ruthless.
Myth tells us that when a young man called Actaeon, lost out hunting in the forest, accidentally
spied upon Artemis bathing in a pool, she flung water at him turning him into a deer; he was torn
apart by his own hunting dogs.

Hermes God of Messengers, travellers, trade and thieves.

Hermes Messenger of the Gods

Hermes is the herald and messenger of the gods, portrayed with

winged helmet and sandals.

He is the son of Zeus and a nymph called Maia who brought him up in her cave.

A cunning god, when he was a baby, Hermes was caught stealing cattle belonging to Apollo.
Hermes is the God of messengers, trade, travellers and thieves. He also leads the souls of the dead
to the Underworld.

Hermes often appears in Greek mythology as an intermediary between Gods and mortals, and as
mediator between the Olympians themselves
Tykhe, also known as Tyche, was the Greek goddess of chance,
fate and fortune. She represented not only the positive aspects
of these characteristics but also the negative ones. The ancient
Greeks thought she was the reason for unexpected events in their
lives, good and evil. For example, if someone had much success in life […]

Dionysus was primarily known as the God of the Vine. Upon

reaching adulthood, Dionysus wandered the Earth, teaching
men the culture of the vine.Dionysus was the last god to enter Olympus.

Iliad
The Iliad is the first of the two books, taking place during the final weeks of the Trojan War, a
major period of warfare between several of the powerful Greek cities. The most notable
combatants were the city of Mycenae, led by Agamemnon, and the city Troy, governed by Hector.
You don't really need to know the whole background of this war, but suffice it to say that it was
caused by human emotions. People act out of vanity, pride, and lust, and the result is a major war
that splits the Greek world. There's a pretty clear message here that these actions have negative
consequences.

As the story begins, the Greek armies are heading towards a final, major battle resulting from the
interference of the gods at the request of each city. Key to this is Achilles, a half-divine hero who
is the greatest warrior in the world, and who is obsessed with proving his status as a hero. Achilles
has to immortalize his name as a great warrior because he is mortal, despite the efforts of his
immortal mother to give him eternal life. Achilles' mother, a nymph, dipped him in sacred water
as a baby, making every part of his body impenetrable except his heel, where she held him.
Although originally he fought for Menelaus, the brother of Agamemnon, Achilles is offended by
the king and leaves, asking Zeus to bring the battle to a tipping point so that Menelaus will realize
just how much he needs Achilles.

With that, the Trojan War reaches a major moment as the armies prepare to fight. There are
several major battles, with each side being aided by the gods, and eventually Hector kills Achilles'
close friend, Patroclus. Achilles rejoins the war, not for Menelaus but out of grief for his friend,
and with armor from the gods, he kills Hector.

As this happens, the gods are also fighting amongst themselves about the fate of humanity.
Achilles refuses to give the Trojans the body of their king, preventing them from burying it, until
Hector's father sneaks into Achilles' tent and begs him for the body. He and Achilles share a meal
and together mourn the people they lost during this war.

Hector's body is returned to Troy and buried. Although the story ends there, it also contains
foreboding prophesies, including the fall of Troy and the inevitable death of Achilles. These
events are never described in either the Odyssey or the Iliad, except vaguely in passing. It seems
likely that ancient Greek readers were expected to already know what happens, probably because
the Trojan War was a major moment in Greek history.

The Odyssey is about what happened after the Trojan war. Odysseus, one of the Greek heroes is
on his way home back to Ithaca. However, his journey is fraught with twists and turns. In a word,
things get very complicated. For instance, he has to face many dangers - the sirens, Polyphemus,
Circe, Calypso, and many more. When he finally gets back, he realizes that there are many suitors
that have taken over his home. So, he needs to fight them and he does. In short, this work is about
his journey and homecoming.

Literature of Rome
Pygmalion
On the island of Cyprus, there is a group of women called the Propoetides. These ladies are
rather uppity, and they refuse to acknowledge that Aphrodite is a goddess.
This, predictably, doesn't fly with Aphrodite. As punishment, she robs the women of their sense of
shame, and… they begin to prostitute themselves. Great.

The sculptor Pygmalion sees these women doing their thing and is totally grossed out by their
behavior. (Oh, a few authors say that Pygmalion was also the King of Cyprus, but most limit him
to being a sculptor.)

Anyway, he's so disgusted by the Propoetides that he vows to ignore all women forever. That
seems kind of rash, but hey—to each his own.
Without a girlfriend, Pygmalion has a lot of time on his hands. To stave off boredom, he decides
to make an ivory statue of his ideal woman. The brilliant sculptor that he is, Pygmalion produces
a statue that is extremely lifelike and super-hot.

So hot, actually, that he begins to fall in love with it. Pygmalion knows that the statue is made
of ivory (he was the one who made it, after all), but he can't help smothering it with kisses.
Gross.

He continues to fantasize that she's a real woman, and at one point, he gropes the statute so
hard that he's afraid he's damaged her limbs.
Don't worry, she's fine. (Ivory is really strong). Perhaps in an attempt to be even creepier, the
sculptor starts to give gifts to his creation. His presents include clothes, pearls, shells, earrings,
rings, pretty stones, singing birds, flowers, and talking parrots. Jackpot for the statue!

Then, to top it off, Pygmalion lays his naked statue on a luxurious bed covered in purple
blankets. He even provides a squishy pillow for her head.
Once she's on the bed, Pygmalion calls the statue his "bride." The relationship has clearly
progressed to the next level, at least in his mind. Wanting to honor Aphrodite (and perhaps get
some fresh air), Pygmalion leaves his studio to attend a festival in her honor.

Once he's there, he prays to Aphrodite to provide him with a woman who "has the likeness" of
his statue. He would have just prayed for his statue to come to life, but shame prevents him from
saying these words out loud.
Aphrodite is pretty clever, though. She knows that, in his heart of hearts, Pygmalion just wants his
statue to be alive.

According to some versions of the myth, Aphrodite visits Pygmalion's studio to inspect the
statue before bringing it to life. She discovers that the statue looks just like her, and she's so
flattered that she decides to make Pygmalion's wish come true.
At the festival, the fire leaps three times, which is a good sign. Seeing these flames, Pygmalion
gets a burst of hope and runs home to his statue.He dashes to his luxury bed and kisses the statue.
And get this: instead of being cold and hard, her lips are soft and red!

Could it be? He touches her skin… it seems alive and firm. Finally, he checks a vein and
discovers a pulse. She's alive! Overjoyed, Pygmalion gives thanks to Aphrodite.
When he kisses the statue again, she wakes up. Now the statue is a real woman. She even gets a
name: Galatea (18th-century authors made that up). Galatea and Pygmalion get married and have
two children: a son, Paphos, and daughter, Metharme. According to legend, Paphos went on to
found the city of Paphos in southwestern Cyprus and Metharme later became the mother of
Adonis, one of the most handsome mortals in Greek mythology. Not a bad family tree.

Background of the Author

Ovid was born on March 20, 43 B.C. After holding brief judicial posts as a young man, Ovid
turned to writing poetry. Works such as Ars amatoria and Metamorphoseswere very popular, but
for reasons that remain mysterious today, Emperor Augustus banished him to the island of Tomis
in 8 B.C. Ovid wrote Tristia andEpistulae ex
Ponto in exile. He died in Constanta, Romania, in
17 A.D.

Early Life

Born Publius Ovidius Naso on March 20, 43

B.C., Ovid would become one of the best known
poets in the Roman Empire. Coming from the small town of Sulmo, near Rome, his well-
established family set him on a life course of public service. With his elder brother, Ovid went to
Rome to study rhetoric and law. His father had hopes of him entering politics and becoming a
great orator. However, Ovid neglected his studies to follow his passion for poetry.

Most of what is known about Ovid's private life comes from his writings. Married three times and
divorced twice before the age of 30, he had one daughter. In his youth, he traveled to Athens and
Asia Minor. For a time, his father was able to convince him to return home for a time, where he
held minor judicial posts. Ovid finally abandoned a political career altogether and directed his
attention to poetry and writing full-time.

Amorous Poetry

Ovid's first major work, written in approximately 16 B.C., was Amores (The Loves), a collection
of erotic poems based on an imaginary woman, Corinna. The work was an immediate success, as
it was quite descriptive of his passion and acts of love. It was followed by Epistolae Heroidum or
Heroides (Epistles of Heroines), a series of letters from mythical heroines to their absent husbands
or lovers. The common theme of his early works was love and intrigue, reflecting in the
sophisticated and pleasure-seeking society in which he inhabited.

Probably Ovid's most ambitious and popular work was Metamorphoses, a long poem totaling
nearly 12,000 lines written in dactylic hexameter. It is a collection of mythological and legendary
stories in which metamorphosis (transformation) plays some part. The stories chronicle time from
the creation of the universe through major events in Roman mythology, to the death and
veneration of Julius Caesar.

Conspiracy and Exile

For reasons not totally clear to historians, Ovid was exiled from Rome around 8 A.D. by Emperor
Augustus. In his poem Epistulae ex Ponto, he states the reason was "a poem and a mistake."
Historians speculate that the poem might have been Amores, and that Ovid was banished for
making fun of respectable love and revealing lurid portrayals of contemporary Roman society.
Others believe that Ovid was indirectly involved in a conspiracy against Augustus.

Ovid was sent to Tomis, on the Black Sea, in what is now Romania, and his works were banished
from Roman libraries. During this time, he wrote the poems Tristia and Epistulae ex Ponto, which
reflected his sadness and desire to return to Rome, though he never did. Ovid died in Tomis in 17
A.D. His works are known to have influenced Chaucer, Shakespeare, Goethe and Ezra Pound.

Literature of Italy
The Divine Comedy
by Dante Alighueri

INFERNO
"Midway in our life's journey, I went astray
from the straight road and woke to find myself
alone in a dark wood. How shall I say

what wood that was! I never saw so drear,

so rank, so arduous a wilderness!
 Its very memory gives a shape to fear.

Death could scarce be more bitter than that place!

But since it came to good, I will recount
all that I found revealed there by God's grace."
Inferno, Canto I, lines 1-9
So begins the Inferno. Dante realizes he has wandered from the "True Way" in mid-life, and finds
himself in the Valley of Evil. He is rescued by the spirit of Virgil (author of the Aeneid), who tells
him he has been sent to guide him out of Hell because of prayers by Beatrice, the woman whom
Dante admired all his life. To leave Hell, they must go through all nine circles of Hell, the deeper
the circle, the more grave the sin and its appropriate punishment. Perhaps the worst punishment is
that no one helps or no one helps for another in he'll.
By going through Hell, Dante - and the reader - learn to recognize and detest man's sinful nature
and the power of evil, and the need to guard against it. Dante learns those in Hell choose to go
there by their unrepentance. Dante enters Hell on Good Friday and reads the following posted
above the gates of Hell as he is about to enter (Canto III, line 9):
"Abandon all hope ye who enter here."

PURGATORIO
Dante and Virgil emerge from Hell just before the dawn of Easter Sunday, and in Purgatorio
Dante begins the difficult climb up Mount Purgatory. Souls that are repentant of their sins against
God and man go to Purgatory and become free of temptation, and know that they will eventually
be with God. Purgatory is a Mountain with seven ledges or cornices, one for each of the seven
deadly sins (pride, envy, anger, sloth, greed, gluttony, and lust). The renunciation of sin occurs in
Purgatory, as one begins his ascent to Purity by practicing virtue. A virtue is an habitual and firm
disposition to do the good (Philippians 4:8). For each cornice, Dante first offers biblical and
classical examples of the particular virtue to encourage the penitents, and after they are reformed,
examples of the sin to remind them of its destructive nature. On the first cornice (just above Hell)
one is purified of pride, inordinate self-love or conceit, by learning the contrasting virtue,
Humility. When one is cured of pride, he moves up to the second cornice, envy, resentful
awareness of another's good fortune and the desire to obtain the same advantage. Envy is purified
by the virtue of Caritas, love of others. Anger is offset by Meekness and Patience, which leads one
to become a peacemaker. Sloth, spiritual apathy and inactivity, is cured by Zeal and Diligence.
Generosity is the virtue that overcomes greed. Gluttony, an excessive appetite for food and drink,
is controlled by Temperance through Fasting and Abstinence. On the seventh and last cornice, lust
is overcome by the virtue of Temperance through Chastity. Dante offers many Biblical examples
of the Virtues that offset the seven deadly sins as well as the sins themselves:

Virgil, the voice of Reason, takes Dante step-by-step up the mountain of Purgatory to the Garden
of Eden, where man resided before his fall, and releases him in Canto XXVII (27) to himself, as
he is now purged from sin. He meets Beatrice, the unrequited love of his earthly life, in Canto
 XXX (30), and she leads him to Heaven. Repentant souls, even those with great sin, and even if
they repent just prior to death, still go to Purgatory, as we learn from Canto V:
"We are souls who died by violence,
all sinners to our final hour, in which
the lamp of Heaven shed its radiance

into our hearts. Thus from the brink of death,

repenting all our sins, forgiving those
who sinned against us, with our final breath

we offered up our souls at peace with Him

who saddens us with longing to behold
His glory on the throne of Seraphim."
Purgatorio, Canto V (5), lines 52-60:

PARADISO
Paradiso is Dante's imaginative conception of Heaven. The more one loves on earth, the closer in
Heaven one is to God, who is All-Love. The Seven Primary Virtues of Faith, Hope, Charity,
Prudence, Justice, Temperance, and Fortitude are fully displayed in Paradiso. Beatrice takes Dante
through the 9 Spheres of Heaven to Canto XXXI (31), where Beatrice turns Dante over to St.
Bernard, who leads him to the Beatific Vision of God. The passages are from the poetic and
readable translation by the late John Ciardi (copyright John Ciardi 1970, Publisher, WW Norton
Company, New York and London). The following is Canto XXXIII (33) of Paradiso, the final
Canto of the Divine Comedy. The canto begins with a unique expression referring to the Blessed
Virgin Mary, "O Virgin Mother, daughter of thy Son."
St. Bernard offers a Prayer to the Virgin so that Dante is permitted the Beatific Vision of God.
The vision passes and Dante is once more mortal and fallible.
Yet the truth is stamped upon his soul, which he now knows will return to be one with God's love.
"O virgin mother, daughter of thy Son,
humble beyond all creatures and more exalted;
predestined turning point of God's intention;

Thy merit so ennobled human nature

that its divine Creator did not scorn
to make Himself the creature of His creature.

The Love that was rekindled in Thy womb

sends for the warmth of the eternal peace
within whose ray this flower has come to bloom.

Here to us, thou art the noon and scope

of Love revealed; and among mortal men,
the living fountain of eternal hope.
 Lady, thou art so near God's reckonings
that who seeks grace and does not first seek thee
would have his wish fly upward without wings.

Not only does thy sweet benignity

flow out to all who beg, but oftentimes
thy charity arrives before the plea.

In thee is pity, in thee munificence,

in thee the tenderest heart, in thee unites
all that creation knows of excellence!

Now comes this man who from the final pit

of the universe up to this height has seen,
one by one, the three lives of the spirit.

He prays to thee in fervent supplication

for grace and strength, that he may raise his eyes
to the all-healing final revelation.

And I, who never more desired to see

the vision myself that I do that he may see It,
add my own prayer, and pray that it may be

enough to move you to dispel the trace

of every mortal shadow by thy prayers
and let him see revealed the Sum of Grace.

I pray the further, all-persuading Queen,

keep whole the natural bent of his affections
and of his powers after his eyes have seen.

Protect him from the stirrings of man's clay;

see how Beatrice and the blessed host
clasp reverent hands to join me as I pray."

The eyes that God reveres and loves the best

glowed on the speaker, making clear the joy
with which true prayer is heard by the most blest.

Those eyes turned then to the Eternal Ray,

through which, we must indeed believe, the eyes
of others do not find such ready way.
 And I, who neared the goal of all my nature,
felt my soul, at the climax of its yearning,
suddenly, as it ought, grow calm with rapture.

Bernard then, smiling sweetly, gestured to me

to look up, but I had already become
within myself all he would have me be.

Little by little as my vision grew

it penetrated faintly through the aura
of the high lamp which in Itself is true.

What then I saw is more than tongue can say.

Our human speech is dark before the vision.
The ravished memory swoons and falls away.

As one who sees in dreams and wakes to find

the emotional impression of his vision
still powerful while its parts fade from his mind -

just such am I, having lost nearly all

the vision itself, while in my heart I feel
the sweetness of it yet distill and fall.

So, in the sun, the footprints fade from snow.

On the wild wind that bore the tumbling leaves
the Sybil's oracles were scattered so.

O Light Supreme who doth Thyself withdraw

so far above man's mortal understanding,
lend me again some glimpse of what I saw;

make Thou my tongue so eloquent it may

of all Thy glory speak a single clue
to those who follow me in the world's day;

for by returning to my memory

somewhat, and somewhat sounding in these verses,
Thou shalt show man more of Thy victory.

So dazzling was the splendor of that Ray,

that I must certainly have lost my senses
had I, but for an instant, turned away.
 And so it was, as I recall, I could,
the better bear to look, until at last,
my Vision made one with the Eternal Good.

Oh grace abounding that had made me fit

to fix my eyes on the eternal light
until my vision was consumed in It!

I saw within Its depth how It conceives

all things in a single volume bound by Love,
of which the universe is the scattered leaves;

substance, accident, and their relation

so fused that all I say could do no more
than yield a glimpse of that bright revelation.

I think I saw the universal form

that binds these things, for as I speak these words
I feel my joy swell and my spirits warm.

Twenty-five centuries since Neptune saw

the Argo's keel have not moved all mankind,
recalling that adventure, to such awe

as I felt in an instant. My tranced being

stared fixed and motionless upon that vision,
even more fervent to see in the act of seeing.

Experiencing that Radiance, the spirit

is so indrawn it is impossible
even to think of ever turning from It.

For the good which is the will's ultimate object

is all subsumed in It; and, being removed,
all is defective which in It is perfect.

Now in my recollection of the rest

I have less power to speak than any infant
wetting its tongue yet at its mother's breast;

and not because that Living Radiance bore

more than one semblance, for It is unchanging
and is forever as it was before;
 rather, as I grew worthier to see,
the more I looked, the more unchanging semblance
appeared to change with every change in me.

Within the depthless deep and clear existence

of that abyss of light three circles shown -
three in color, one in circumference;

the second from the first, rainbow from rainbow;

the third, an exhalation of pure fire
equally breathed forth by the other two.

But oh how much my words miss my conception,

which is itself so far from what I saw
than to call it feeble would be rank deception!

O Light Eternal fixed in Itself alone,

by Itself alone understood, which from Itself
loves and glows, self-knowing and self-known;

that second aureole which shone forth in Thee,

conceived as a reflection of the first -
or which appeared so to my scrutiny -

seemed in Itself of Its own coloration

to be painted with man's image. I fixed my eyes
on that alone in rapturous contemplation.

Like a geometer wholly dedicated

to squaring the circle, but who cannot find,
think as he may, the principle indicated -

so did I study the supernal face.

I yearned to know just how our image merges
into that circle, and how it there finds place;

but mine were not the wings for such a flight.

Yet, as I wished, the truth I wished for came
cleaving my mind in a great flash of light.

Here my powers rest from their high fantasy,

but already I could feel my being turned -
instinct and intellect balanced equally
 as in a wheel whose motion nothing jars -
by the Love that moves the sun and other stars.

Author's Background

Dante Alighieri (1265-1321) remains Italy's greatest poet. He was born in the city of Florence, in
the region of Tuscany, Italy in the spring of 1265. He was betrothed in marriage to Gemma Donati
and they were blessed with five children. He wrote La Commedia, the Divine Comedy, from 1308
to 1320, completing the work the year before he died. The Divine Comedy is one of literature's
boldest undertakings, as Dante takes us through Hell (Inferno), Purgatory (Purgatorio), and then
reaches Heaven (Paradiso), where he is permitted to partake of the Beatific Vision. Dante's
journey serves as an allegory of the progress of the individual soul toward God. The work is
arranged in 100 cantos in 3 parts, 34 for the Inferno, 33 each for Purgatorio and Paradiso. The
work is written in groups of 3 lines, or tercets, reminiscent of the Trinity. While Dante was critical
of the Catholic Church as an institution, his writings remained faithful to his schooling by the
Dominicans, where he learned the theology of St. Thomas Aquinas (1224-1274). The Divine
Comedy signaled the beginning of the Renaissance. Rather than Latin, Dante wrote La Commedia
in the Tuscan dialect of Italian, which had an everlasting impact and became the national language
of Italy. During that time, literary works were either Comedies or Tragedies, and since the poem
ended on a positive note in Heaven, Dante called it a Comedy. He died in political exile in
Ravenna, Italy in September 1321.

Literature of England
Romeo and Juliet
AUTHOR: WILLIAM SHAKESPEARE
Summary
The story starts on one warm night in July, when Sampson and Gregory, Capulet’s servants,
roam the city in search of a brawl. An ideal opportunity for that opens up for them at the moment
when they meet the servants from the other, rival, family – the Montagues. Soon enough, a fight
of fists and swords breaks out and eventually grows, as the heads of the feuding families of
Verona join in. The fight is interrupted by the arrival of Prince Escalus, as he warns them that they
will be punished if the disorder occurs again.
Father and mother Montague are happy that their son Romeo did not take part in the quarrel.
However, they are concerned about his weird behavior lately. He was seen roaming the woods,
and he is avoiding company, locking himself in his room. The worried parents try to find out the
real truth from Romeo’s cousin Benvolio. Benvolio is not only Romeo’s cousin, but also his best
friend. He soon finds out the truth and the real reason for Romeo’s unusual behavior. Romeo is
unhappily in love because the lovely Rosaline does not care for him. To cheer him up again,
Benvolio suggests that they secretly go the ball at the Capulets’, persuading him that he shall find
a cure for his disease there. Though finding that suggestion odd, Romeo accepts it. In the
meantime, there is a lot going on in the House of Capulet and excitement grows by the hour. Not
only does the ball occupy their thoughts – count Paris came to ask for the hand of Capulet’s
daughter Juliet. Although the old Capulet thinks what Juliet is too young for marriage, he does not
hide the satisfaction about a young count showing interest for his daughter. Juliet is a young girl
at the age of thirteen and unexperienced in love, but she gives her father her promise to try and
make Paris like her when they meet at the ball.
However, at that very evening, Juliet meets Romeo, and Paris and Rosaline are immediately no
longer in the picture. Unfortunately, the special moment between them does not last for long,
since Tybalt, Lady Capulet’s nephew, recognizes Romeo under the mask and wants to fight him
immediately. Although old Capulet managed to calm him down, his thirst for revenge is not
quenched. Soon after the ball and that unwelcome event, Romeo finds himself under Juliet’s
window and at that moment they declare eternal love to each other and decide to get married.
Friar Lawrence, who accepted to marry them, is concerned about the love that happened so
suddenly. Despite his concern about the love that the two young people share, he hopes that the
wedding between them would end the long-lasting dispute between the two families.
Unfortunately, destiny took care that things get complicated, and Romeo, who just married Juliet,
finds his friends, Mercutio and Benvolio, fighting with Tybalt, who came to seek revenge. Tybalt
challenges Romeo to a duel, but Romeo does not accept it. He admits to loving the Capulets as
much as his family. The said confession was met with a shock of all present. Mercutio accepts
Tybalt’s challenge, and Tybalt stabs him. Romeo, feeling guilt and anger for causing his friend’s
death, attacks Tybalt. In a life-or-death battle, Romeo wins and must run away. Juliet is waiting
excited for their first wedding night when the nanny comes with terrible news about Tybalt’s
death and tells her that the prince banished Romeo out of town. Devastated Juliet reveals to her
nanny that Romeo is hiding at Friar Lawrence’s.
The old Capulet cannot believe that Tybalt is dead and is even more upset by the suffering of
his daughter Juliet. Therefore, he decides to hurry her marriage with Count Paris. Juliet refuses to
marry the count, thus making the old Capulet angry. Since she is neither understood nor helped by
anyone, Juliet visits Friar Lawrence to think of a destructive plan.
Juliet is supposed to drink a potion that would stop her breathing for 42 hours, causing
everyone to think she is dead. In the meantime, Friar Lawrence will send a messenger to Romeo,
who is now already located in Mantua. After that, both Romeo and Lawrence will hide in the
tomb and wait until Juliet wakes up. Romeo will then take her with him, and when Friar
Lawrence announces that they are married, they will be able to return to Verona. Finally, Juliet
drinks the potion.
The nanny comes next morning to prepare the bride for the wedding and is shocked when she
realizes that Juliet is not breathing. Sorrow pervades the house of the Capulets. According to the
plan, Friar Lawrence sends the message to Romeo, but the messenger fails to arrive in Mantua.
Romeo’s servant Balthasar arrives first and tells Romeo that Juliet is dead. Distraught by the
shocking news, Romeo purchases poison and heads to Verona. There he finds the mourning Paris,
after which there is a battle between them and Paris is killed.
Paris’ last wish was to be buried next to Juliet, and Romeo promises to fulfill it before he dies
himself. When he sees Juliet lying, Romeo thinks that she is dead, so he drinks poison and dies.
Friar Lawrence hastens to the tomb, only to find Paris and Romeo lying dead. The potion that
Juliet drank stops working, and she wakes up. When she notices that Romeo is dead, she refuses
to leave the tomb, takes a knife and ends her life. In the end, the tragic death reunites the two
families and breaks the long-lasting hatred.

Shakespeare’s Biography

William Shakespeare (1564-1616) was one of the greatest authors in England, but also
throughout the world. He was born in Stratford-upon-Avon in 1564. Michelangelo died that same
year in Rome. Shakespeare was the oldest of eight children and lived in a wealthy family.
Little is known about his life. He married Anne Hathaway, who was eight years older than him.
Soon after that, they had a daughter, Susan, and twins, Judith and Hamlet.

It is not known what he did till 1592 because all traces of him were lost. Afterward, he was
engaged in writing and acting in London. Soon after, his poems “Venus and Adonis” and “The
Rape of Lucrece” were published.

He wrote much, and his dramas were gladly performed. He also became co-owner of the Globe
Theater. In the final years of his life, he decided to return to Stratford, where he died in 1616.

Shakespeare wrote 37 dramas, which are categorized into romantic plays, royal dramas and
historical tragedies and comedies. His most famous pieces are “Henry IV”, “Richard III”, “Romeo
and Juliet”, “Taming of the Shrew”, “The Comedy of Errors”, “Two Gentlemen of Verona”,
“Love’s Labours Lost”, “The Merchant of Venice”, “Hamlet”, “Othello”, “King Lear”, “Measure
for Measure”, “Winter’s Tale”, “The Tempest”.
 Beowulf
Summary
King Hrothgar, the ruler of the Danes, is troubled by the rampages of a demon named Grendel.
Every night, Grendel attacks King Hrothgar's wealthy mead-hall, Heorot, killing Danish warriors
and sometimes even eating them. Hrothgar was a great warrior in his time, but now he's an old
king and can't seem to protect his people. Fortunately, a young Geat warrior named Beowulf
travels to Heorot Hall from his own lands overseas to lend a helping hand—literally.
After explaining that he owes Hrothgar a favor because Hrothgar helped out his father,
Beowulf offers to fight Grendel himself. King Hrothgar gratefully accepts his offer. The next time
Grendel attacks Heorot Hall, Beowulf is waiting for him. Choosing to fight Grendel in hand-to-
hand combat, Beowulf wrestles the demon into submission and eventually tears off his arm at the
shoulder. Mortally wounded, Grendel flees into the wilderness and dies. Beowulf, Hrothgar, and
their followers throw a wild party to celebrate. Hrothgar also gives Beowulf many presents and
treasures to reward him for his heroic defeat of the demon. Unfortunately, Grendel has an
overprotective mother who decides to avenge her son. While all the warriors are sleeping off the
party, she attacks Heorot Hall. But when the warriors wake up, she panics and flees back to her
lair, a cave underneath a nearby lake. Beowulf, his Geatish warriors, and some of Hrothgar's
Danish warriors track her there. Beowulf dives into the lake and finds the cave, where he takes on
Grendel's mother in another one-on-one battle. Seizing a nearby sword from Grendel's mother's
stash of treasure, he slays her, even though her poisonous demon blood melts the blade. When
Beowulf returns to the surface, carrying the sword hilt and Grendel's severed head, the Danish
warriors have given him up for dead, but his own Geatish followers are still waiting patiently.
When everyone sees that Beowulf has survived this second challenge, there's even more partying
and gift-giving.
Finally, the Geats take their leave of the Danes; Beowulf says goodbye to King Hrothgar and
sails back to Geatland, where he is a lord in the court of King Hygelac. Eventually, Hygelac and
all his relatives are killed in different blood-feuds, and Beowulf becomes the King of the Geats.
Beowulf reigns as king for fifty years, protecting the Geats from all the other tribes around them,
especially the Swedes. He is an honorable and heroic warrior-king, rewarding his loyal thanes
(warrior lords) and taking care of his people. But one day, Beowulf finally meets his match: a
dragon, woken by a thief stealing a goblet, begins attacking the Geats, burning villages and
slaughtering people. Beowulf takes a group of eleven trusty warriors, plus the thief who knows
where the dragon's lair is, to the barrow for a final showdown with the monster. When they see the
dragon, all but one of the warriors flee in terror. Only one man, Wiglaf, remains at Beowulf's side.
With Wiglaf's help and encouragement, Beowulf is able to defeat the dragon, but he is mortally
wounded in the process.
After Beowulf's death, the Geats build an enormous funeral pyre for him, heaped with
treasures. Once the pyre has burned down, they spend ten days building an enormous barrow (a
large mound of earth filled with treasure) as a monument to their lost king.

Interpretation

The history of modern Beowulf criticism is often said to begin with J. R. R. Tolkien,[111] author
and Merton professor of Anglo-Saxon at University of Oxford, who in his 1936 lecture to the
British Academy criticised his contemporaries' excessive interest in its historical implications.
[112][citation not found] He noted in Beowulf: The Monsters and the Critics that as a result the
poem's literary value had been largely overlooked and argued that the poem "is in fact so
interesting as poetry, in places poetry so powerful, that this quite overshadows the historical
content..."[113]

Paganism and Christianity

In historical terms, the poem's characters would have been Norse pagans (the historical events of
the poem took place before the Christianisation of Scandinavia), yet the poem was recorded by
Christian Anglo-Saxons who had mostly converted from their native Anglo-Saxon paganism
around the 7th century – both Anglo-Saxon paganism and Norse paganism share a common origin
as both are forms of Germanic paganism. Beowulf thus depicts a Germanic warrior society, in
which the relationship between the lord of the region and those who served under him was of
paramount importance.[114]

In terms of the relationship between characters in Beowulf to God, one might recall the
substantial amount of paganism that is present throughout the work. Literary critics such as Fred
C. Robinson argue that the Beowulf poet arguably tries to send a message to readers during the
Anglo-Saxon time period regarding the state of Christianity in their own time. Robinson argues
that the intensified religious aspects of the Anglo-Saxon period inherently shape the way in which
the Poet alludes to paganism as presented in Beowulf. The Poet arguably calls on Anglo-Saxon
readers to recognize the imperfect aspects of their supposed Christian lifestyles. In other words,
the Poet is referencing their "Anglo-Saxon Heathenism." In terms of the characters of the epic
itself, Robinson argues that readers are "impressed" by the courageous acts of Beowulf and the
speeches of Hrothgar (181). But one is ultimately left to feel sorry for both men as they are fully
detached from supposed "Christian truth" (181). The relationship between the characters of
Beowulf, and the overall message of the Poet, regarding their relationship with God is largely
debated among readers and literary critics alike.
At the same time, Richard North argues that the Beowulf poet interpreted "Danish myths in
Christian form" (as the poem would have served as a form of entertainment for a Christian
audience), and states: "As yet we are no closer to finding out why the first audience of Beowulf
liked to hear stories about people routinely classified as damned. This question is pressing,
given... that Anglo-Saxons saw the Danes as 'heathens' rather than as foreigners."[115] Grendel's
mother and Grendel are described as descendants of Cain, a fact which some scholars link to the
Cain tradition.[116]

Other scholars disagree, however, as to the meaning and nature of the poem: is it a Christian work
set in a Germanic pagan context? The question suggests that the conversion from the Germanic
pagan beliefs to Christian ones was a prolonged and gradual process over several centuries, and it
remains unclear the ultimate nature of the poem's message in respect to religious belief at the time
it was written. Robert F. Yeager notes the facts that form the basis for these questions:

That the scribes of Cotton Vitellius A.XV were Christian beyond doubt, and it is equally sure that
Beowulf was composed in a Christianised England since conversion took place in the sixth and
seventh centuries. The only Biblical references in Beowulf are to the Old Testament, and Christ is
never mentioned. The poem is set in pagan times, and none of the characters is demonstrably
Christian. In fact, when we are told what anyone in the poem believes, we learn that they're are
pagans. Beowulf's own beliefs are not expressed explicitly. He offers eloquent prayers to a higher
power, addressing himself to the "Father Almighty" or the "Wielder of All." Were those the
prayers of a pagan who used phrases the Christians subsequently appropriated? Or, did the poem's
author intend to see Beowulf as a Christian Ur-hero, symbolically refulgent with Christian
virtues?[117]

The location of the composition of the poem is also intensely disputed. In 1914, F.W. Moorman,
the first professor of English Language at University of Leeds, claimed that Beowulf was
composed in Yorkshire,[118] but E. Talbot Donaldson claims that it was probably composed more
than twelve hundred years ago, during the first half of the eighth century, and that the writer was a
native of what was then called West Mercia, located in the Western Midlands of England.
However, the late tenth-century manuscript "which alone preserves the poem" originated in the
kingdom of the West Saxons – as it is more commonly known.[119] Donaldson wrote that "the
poet who put the materials into their present form was a Christian and ... poem reflects a Christian
tradition".[120]

Politics and warfare

Stanley B. Greenfield has suggested that references to the human body throughout Beowulf
emphasise the relative position of thanes to their lord. He argues that the term "shoulder-
companion" could refer to both a physical arm as well as a thane (Aeschere) who was very
valuable to his lord (Hrothgar). With Aeschere's death, Hrothgar turns to Beowulf as his new
"arm."[121] Also, Greenfield argues the foot is used for the opposite effect, only appearing four
times in the poem. It is used in conjunction with Unferð (a man described by Beowulf as weak,
traitorous, and cowardly). Greenfield notes that Unferð is described as "at the king's feet" (line
499). Unferð is also a member of the foot troops, who, throughout the story, do nothing and
"generally serve as backdrops for more heroic action."[122]

Daniel Podgorski has argued that the work is best understood as an examination of inter-
generational vengeance-based conflict, or feuding.[123] In this context, the poem operates as an
indictment of feuding conflicts as a function of its conspicuous, circuitous, and lengthy depiction
of the Geatish-Swedish wars—coming into contrast with the poem's depiction of the protagonist
Beowulf as being disassociated from the ongoing feuds in every way.[123]

I Wandered Lonely as a Cloud

BY WILLIAM WORDSWORTH

I wandered lonely as a cloud

That floats on high o'er vales and hills,
When all at once I saw a crowd,
A host, of golden daffodils;
Beside the lake, beneath the trees,
Fluttering and dancing in the breeze.

Continuous as the stars that shine

And twinkle on the milky way,
They stretched in never-ending line
Along the margin of a bay:
Ten thousand saw I at a glance,
Tossing their heads in sprightly dance.

The waves beside them danced; but they

Out-did the sparkling waves in glee:
A poet could not but be gay,
In such a jocund company:
I gazed—and gazed—but little thought
What wealth the show to me had brought:

For oft, when on my couch I lie

In vacant or in pensive mood,
They flash upon that inward eye
Which is the bliss of solitude;
And then my heart with pleasure fills,
And dances with the daffodils.
 Interpretation
Wordsworth’s poem “I wandered Lonely as a Cloud” is a reflective poem in which he expresses
the joy after taking pleasure of the beauty of the daffodils. He starts off as talking about the
loneliness he faces and vows to remember the scene of daffodils again whenever he falls into
sadness because they induce the feeling of happiness and rejoice in him. This poem was
composed in the early 19th century. It is highly influenced by the Romanticism. This poem raises
the imaginative issues such as human-nature relation, elevation of natural objects, reflective
approach and sublimity/eternity.
Man and nature are shown to be in harmony in the poem. Through the use of reverse
personification, the poet transcends into feeling like a wandering cloud. In further description, we
find the personification of daffodils as if they are humans who “dance” in the breeze. The concept
of unity among the people and the terrestrial objects are found in the theory put forth by Von
Schelgel. He says “Nature and human beings are the proper and immediate subjects of poetry.” In
Romantic poetry, we find the praise of admiration of nature because it brings joy to the onlookers
and bliss during the “solitude” to think upon them.The poem glorifies, elevates, and raises
common-place things. “Daffodils” are compared to the stars that shine and occupy the cosmos,
evoking the scene of the heavenly realm. Just like Von Schelgel’s theoretical concept, the
common place things are written in such a way that it illuminates the brilliance of the poem. By
elevating common things with a much significant and marvelous object, it makes us understand
the “deeper purpose” and the “higher signification” of the theme that is trying to be conveyed.
Wordsworth wit fully weaves the issue of reflective approach in the poem. He recollects his
feelings, emotions, passion and sentiments of witnessing the magical dance of daffodils in a cool
breeze. He doesn’t immediately jot down the scene and details into a poem, rather he thinks about
the scene for a long time, and decides to reflect and write about what feelings it evoked on him. In
his recollection of the memory of daffodils, he scribbles the poem after much thoughts and time
that has passed. This is related to Von Schelgel’s idea that “what’s written in near and present”
becomes “unpoetical and common” but when there is a gap between the scene and composition, it
brings greatness to the poem.Sublimity and eternity are also the concepts found in the poem.
Here, sublimity is the communion of natural soul and individual soul. It brings out the
magnificence of the poem and deeply moves the observer. The poet in the poem feels amusement
at observing the nature. The final line of the poem tells that his “heart fills with pleasure” and “it
dances with the daffodils”. It shows the never-ending pleasure that he will forever extract thinking
upon the lovely sight of the daffodils. Von Schelgel’s notion of a truly sensible representation lies
on the poem that is able to embrace, the past, the present and the future, and that’s what brings the
eternity in it.Thus, “I wandered Lonely as a Cloud” is a meditative, reflective, and thoughtful
poem written during the Romantic Era. It has close relation with the ideas, and notions of Von
Schelgel who sought out to form a theory of his own that helps to read poetry in a best way, for no
such effective theory has been made before. This poem reflects the theory of Von Schelgel, for
whom, the poetry is representation of the actual life, and it should be entwine the future and the
present, and lay before us, the mysteries of the internal man

How Do I Love Thee? (Sonnet 43)

Elizabeth Barrett Browning, 1806 - 1861

How do I love thee? Let me count the ways.

I love thee to the depth and breadth and height
My soul can reach, when feeling out of sight
For the ends of being and ideal grace.

I love thee to the level of every day's

Most quiet need, by sun and candle-light.
I love thee freely, as men strive for right.
I love thee purely, as they turn from praise.

I love thee with the passion put to use

In my old griefs, and with my childhood's faith.

I love thee with a love I seemed to lose

With my lost saints. I love thee with the breath,
Smiles, tears, of all my life; and, if God choose,
I shall but love thee better after death.
 Interpretation

Lines 1-4

This sonnet helped kick-start many more on the theme of modern (Victorian) love, from a
woman's perspective. Note the emphasis is on the repetition and reinforcement of the speaker's
love for someone; there is no mention of a specific name or gender, giving the sonnet a universal
appeal.

The first line is unusual because it is a question asked in an almost conversational manner - the
poet has challenged herself to compile reasons for her love, to define her intense feelings, the
ways in which her love can be expressed.

There then follows a repetitive variation on a theme of love. To me this conjures up an image of a
woman counting on her fingers, then compiling a list, which would be a very modern, 21st
century thing for a female to do.

This poem comes from another era however, a time when most women were expected to stay at
home looking after all things domestic, not writing poems about love.

The second,third and fourth lines suggest that her love is all encompassing, stretching to the
limits, even when she feels that her existence - Being - and God's divine help - Grace - might end,
it's the love she has for her husband Robert that will sustain.

Note the contrast between the attempt to measure her love with rational language - depth, breadth,
height - and the use of the words Soul, Being and Grace, which imply something intangible and
spiritual.

Her love goes beyond natural life and man-made theology. These are weighty concepts - the
reader is made aware that this is no ordinary love early on in the sonnet. The clause, lines 2-4,
contains enjambment, a continuation of theme from one line to the next.

Is she suggesting that the simple notion of love for a person can soon flow into something quite
profound, yet out of reach of everyday language and speech?

Lines 5-8
The speaker, the poet Elizabeth Barrett Browning continues with her passionate need to
differentiate the many ways her love for her husband manifests. In line five she clearly tells the
reader that, be it day or night, her love fills those quiet moments, those daily silences that occur
between two people living together.

Her love is unconditional and therefore free; it is a force for good, consciously given because it
feels like the right thing to do. She doesn't want any thanks for this freely given love; it is a
humble kind of love, untainted by the ego.

Lines 9-14

The sestet starts at line nine. The speaker now looks to the past and compares her new found
passions with those of the old griefs. Elizabeth Barrett Browning had plenty of negativity in her
adult life - she was mostly ill and lived like a recluse, seeing only old family friends and family.

Her father in particular oppressed her and wouldn't allow her to marry. There were no romantic
relationships in her life by all accounts. She must have been driven to the point of willing herself
dead. Little wonder that when Robert Browning came along she was given a new lease of life.

In contrast her childhood had been a happy one and it's this she refers to in the second half of line
ten. A child's faith is pure and innocent and sees fresh opportunity in everything.

Turning to religious feelings in line eleven, the speaker refers to a lost love she once had for the
saints - perhaps those of the christian church, of conventional religion. Or could she be looking
back at the saintly people in her life, those she held in great regard and loved?

She suggests that this love has now returned and will be given to her husband. In fact so stirred up
is she with these innermost feelings she goes on to say in line twelve, with just a dash to separate -
this returned love is her very breath. Not only that, but the good and the bad times she's had, is
having, will have - this is what the love she has is like. It is all enveloping.

And, in the final line, if God grants it, she'll carry on loving her husband even more after she dies.

So her love will go on and on, beyond the grave, gaining strength, transcendant.
 Easter Wings
by George Herbert

Lord, who created man in wealth and store,

Though foolishly he lost the same,
Decaying more and more,
Till he became
Most poor:
With thee
O let me rise
As larks, harmoniously,
And sing this day thy victories:
Then shall the fall further the flight in me.

My tender age in sorrow did begin:

And still with sicknesses and shame
Thou didst so punish sin,
That I became
Most thin.

With thee
Let me combine
And feel this day thy victory:
For, if I imp my wing on thine,
Affliction shall advance the flight in me.
 Interpretation
George Herbert’s “Easter Wings” is a celebration of Christ’s resurrection, which is presented as
the means by which humankind overcomes sin and attains freedom. The poem consists of two
ten-line stanzas of varying line lengths, which in their printed form on the page resemble the
wings of a bird.

The poem is addressed directly to God or Christ (“Lord”). The first stanza begins by emphasizing
how complete humankind was when first created by God. People had “wealth and store,” meaning
that they were created in the image of God and were meant to preside over the natural world,
which existed only to serve them. They had everything they needed, in abundance.

In line 2, the poet points out that humankind lost its wealth. This is a reference to the Fall of Man
described in the book of Genesis, a doctrine that is an essential part of the Christian faith. This
line also emphasizes that the Fall was the result of human foolishness, a reference to Adam and
Eve’s disobedience of God’s instructions not to eat of the fruit on the tree of the knowledge of
good and evil in the Garden of Eden. The blame for humanity’s loss of its original “wealth”
therefore lies not with God but with people. As a result of the Fall, as line 3 shows, the human
condition deteriorated. Humans “fell” further and further into sin, continually “decaying” from
their original purity, until they reached the lowest point in their fortunes (“Most poore”).

In line 6, the poet begins his request that he may be allowed to rise again with the resurrected
Christ, who was sent by God to save humanity. The reference is to the Christian belief that after
Christ had been crucified, he rose from the dead three days later. The poet asks that he may rise
like a lark and sing of how Christ has vanquished death. The last line of the first stanza, “Then
shall the fall further the flight in me,” refers to the Christian notion of the Fortunate Fall. If it had
not been for the Fall, there would have been no need for salvation, and so no need for the
incarnation of Christ as human. Because of the greatness of the Redeemer, humans are therefore
better off than they would have been had they not sinned.

Stanza 1 began with a general statement about humans’ first disobedience; in stanza 2, the poet
makes this statement personal. Like all men, the poet was born into sin, so even as a child his life
was full of sorrow. God punished him with sickness and shame for his sins until he became “most
thinne.” The two-word line 15—“Most thinne”—parallels the “Most poore” of stanza 1, but it is
applied to the personal life of the poet rather than to humankind as a whole. As in stanza 1, the
lines then get longer, and the poet requests that he be allowed to join with Christ and so
participate in Christ’s victory over death. To convey this idea he uses a term from falconry; to
“imp” means to engraft feathers in the damaged wing of a bird to enable it to fly again. If the poet
is able to “imp” his “wing” with that of God, “Affliction shall advance the flight in me.” This line
is similar in meaning to the final line of stanza 1. The poet says that all his sufferings will have
had a purpose and will even have advanced his spiritual progress.

French Literature
Les Miserables
 by Victor Hugo
Summary

Set in the post-Napoleonic era just after the French Revolution, Les Misérables is the story of
Jean Valjean, a convict, who has just been released from prison after serving 19 years for stealing
a loaf of bread. Influenced by the bishop to begin a new life, Jean assumes a new name and moves
to a new location where he becomes a respected citizen and makes a fortune in manufacturing.
The police inspector, Javert, is suspicious of him, but it is not until Jean’s conscience prods him to
reveal his true identity that he is forced to flee.

The rest of the novel is set in Paris, where Jean changes residences frequently and assumes a
number of identities in order to avoid arrest. Fulfilling a promise to her dying mother Fantine, he
rescues a young girl named Cosette from the evil Thénardier family and becomes her guardian.
They spend many years in a convent where Cosette grows into a beautiful young lady. Eventually,
Jean leaves this safe haven so that Cosette may have a more normal life.

Cosette falls in love with Marius, a young lawyer, who joins a band of revolutionists at a
barricade. Unbeknownst to Marius, Jean is also at the barricade; when he is wounded, Jean, who
has spared the life of his constant adversary Javert, risks his life to carry Marius to safety through
the sewer system of Paris, returning him to his family and Cosette.

Against all odds, Jean struggles to follow the bishop’s teachings and become a good man. It is
not until after the wedding of Cosette and Marius and he is on his deathbed that he is at last able
to stop running from his past and reveal all. Not until then does he finally find peace.

The Life and Work of Victor Hugo

Victor Hugo (1802-1885) was the most influential and best known of the nineteenth century
French poets. A poet, novelist, and dramatist, he was a leader of the Romantic movement in
France. Born in 1802, Victor was a sickly child who was the youngest of three sons. His father
was a soldier of the Revolution whose military career required the family to move often after
Napoleon’s rise to power. After his parents separated when he was 16, Victor lived with his
mother, a royalist and conservative, whose political views strongly influenced him. He reconciled
with his father after her death in 1821.

Recognized as a child prodigy, Hugo became a prolific and successful writer at an early age.
His first published volume of poems led to an annuity of 1200 francs from King Louis XVIII, a
sum permitting him to marry Adele Fancher, his childhood sweetheart. They were to have two
sons and two daughters.

Hugo’s early dramas also expanded his reputation. In 1829, his drama Marion de Lorme was
censored because of its negative portrayal of Louis XIII. When the romantic drama Hernani was
staged soon after, his fellow writers and other artists organized to support it. Throughout his
career, Hugo challenged not only established literary conventions, but also the governments under
which he lived. The publication of The Hunchback of Notre Dame in 1831, a long novel about
medieval Paris, enhanced his prestige and popularity.

In 1833, Hugo fell in love with Juliette Drouet and she became his mistress. Their affair lasted
50 years and inspired some of his lyric poetry. Claude Guex, published in 1834, expressed Hugo’s
interest in the social problems caused by poverty as well as his views on abolishing the death
penalty. In 1841, he was honored by being elected to the French Academy.

Hugo began work on Les Misérables in 1845, but his work was interrupted by the Revolution
of 1848. Initially, he supported the conservative party and Napoleon’s son, Louis Napoleon, for
the presidency, but he broke with both over social and political issues. In 1851, when Louis
Napoleon declared himself Emperor Napoleon III, Hugo began a 19-year exile which led him first
to Jersey and later to Guernsey where he collaborated with other artists and writers also in exile.
Many of them were offered pardons and returned to France, but Hugo rejected amnesty and
continued to criticize the government from abroad.

During this period, he wrote some of his greatest works, including nature poetry and poems
inspired by his daughter Leopoldine, whose drowning in the Seine following a boating accident in
1843 was a great tragedy. His most famous novel, Les Misérables, was published in 1862 and
received instant acclaim.

Hugo remained in exile until the downfall of Napoleon III in 1870 when he returned to Paris
with Juliette. He continued to publish novels, poetry, and plays until he was in his eighties. When
Juliette died of cancer in 1883, his health began to deteriorate, and he died two years later in May
of 1885. His body lay in state beneath the Arc de Triomphe, an honor usually reserved for heads
of state, and all of France mourned the man who had been the favorite author as well as the
conscience of the nation. He left an extraordinary number of completed works which were
published after his death.

Song of Roland

Summary

Charlemagne's army is fighting the Muslims in Spain. The last city standing is Saragossa, held
by the Muslim king Marsilla. Terrified of the might of Charlemagne's army of Franks, Marsilla
sends out messengers to Charlemagne, promising treasure and Marsilla's conversion to
Christianity if the Franks will go back to France. Charlemagne and his men are tired of fighting
and decide to accept this peace offer. They need now to select a messenger to go back to
Marsilla's court. The bold warrior Roland nominates his stepfather Ganelon. Ganelon is enraged;
he fears that he'll die in the hands of the bloodthirsty pagans and suspects that this is just Roland's
intent. He has long hated and envied his stepson, and, riding back to Saragossa with the Saracen
messengers, he finds an opportunity for revenge. He tells the Saracens how they could ambush the
rear guard of Charlemagne's army, which will surely be led by Roland as the Franks pick their
way back to Spain through the mountain passes, and helps the Saracens plan their attack.

Just as the traitor Ganelon predicted, Roland gallantly volunteers to lead the rear guard. The
wise and moderate Olivier and the fierce archbishop Turpin are among the men Roland picks to
join him. Pagans ambush them at Roncesvals, according to plan; the Christians are overwhelmed
by their sheer numbers. Seeing how badly outnumbered they are, Olivier asks Roland to blow on
his oliphant, his horn made out of an elephant tusk, to call for help from the main body of the
Frankish army. Roland proudly refuses to do so, claiming that they need no help, that the rear
guard can easily take on the pagan hordes. While the Franks fight magnificently, there's no way
they can continue to hold off against the Saracens, and the battle begins to turn clearly against
them. Almost all his men are dead and Roland knows that it's now too late for Charlemagne and
his troops to save them, but he blows his oliphant anyway, so that the emperor can see what
happened to his men and avenge them. Roland blows so hard that his temples burst. He dies a
glorious martyr's death, and saints take his soul straight to Paradise.

When Charlemagne and his men reach the battlefield, they find only dead bodies. The pagans
have fled, but the Franks pursue them, chasing them into the river Ebro, where they all drown.
Meanwhile, the powerful emir of Babylon, Baligant, has arrived in Spain to help his vassal
Marsilla fend off the Frankish threat. Baligant and his enormous Muslim army ride after
Charlemagne and his Christian army, meeting them on the battlefield at Roncesvals, where the
Christians are burying and mourning their dead. Both sides fight valiantly. But when
Charlemagne kills Baligant, all the pagan army scatter and flee. Now Saragossa has no defenders
left; the Franks take the city. With Marsilla's wife Bramimonde, Charlemagne and his men ride
back to Aix, their capital in sweet France.

The Franks discovered Ganelon's betrayal some time ago and keep him in chains until it is
time for his trial. Ganelon argues that his action was legitimate revenge, openly proclaimed, not
treason. While the council of barons, which Charlemagne gathered to decide the traitor's fate is
initially swayed by this claim, one man, Thierry, argues that, because Roland was serving
Charlemagne when Ganelon delivered his revenge on him, Ganelon's action constitutes a betrayal
of the emperor. Ganelon's friend Pinabel challenges Thierry to trial by combat; the two will fight a
duel to see who's right. By divine intervention, Thierry, the weaker man, wins, killing Pinabel.
The Franks are convinced by this of Ganelon's villainy and sentence him to a most painful death.
The traitor is torn limb from limb by galloping horses and thirty of his relatives are hung for good
measure.
Literature of Spain
EL CID

He was born Rodrigo (or Ruy) Díaz de Vivar. Vivar being the town where he was born. It is near
Burgos. He was born either in 1040 or 1043. Historians are not sure of the date. He died in
Valencia in 1099. His name, "El Cid" was given to him by the Moors. In the mixture of the
Spanish and Arabic language they used, they called him "As-Sid" (Lord or Chief). This was
pronounced by the Spaniards as "El Cid", but they themselves actually called him "Campeador"
(Champion).

El Cid was brought up in the court of King Fernand I and he lived in the household of the King's
eldest son, who was to be the future Sancho II. In 1065 Fernand I died. He divided his kingdom
among his three sons, Sancho, Alfonso and Garcia, and his two daughters, Elvira and Urraca.
(Unlike today, Spain was not one kingdom, but ruled by many kings including some Arabics. The
kingdom that Fernand left his children was only a portion of modern day Spain.)

Fernand had hoped that his children would be happy with their lands. Sancho being the eldest
thought that he should have inherited all of his father's lands. Sancho first needed to do battle
with the Kingdom of Aragon which was not under control of any of his family. El Cid proved to
be such a help in defeating the Kingdom of Aragon that he was named Commander of the Royal
Armies. At this time he was only about 23 years old.

About 1070 Sancho began his war against his brothers and sisters. He first waged war against his
brothers in Leon and Galicia. Both victories were accomplished with the great assistance of El
Cid who turned almost certain defeats into victories. Sancho exiled his brothers to the city of
Toledo. Sancho then took the city of Toro which was the domain of his sister, Elvira. He then
began a battle with his sister Urraca and her city of Zamora in 1072. However Sancho was killed
by one of Urraca's soldiers right at the city gates. Upon hearing of his brother's death, Alfonso
rushed to Zamora to claim his brother's lands and most importantly the throne. He became
Alfonso VI.

El Cid became concerned for his life. He had after all helped Sancho wage war against Alfonso
who was now the King. But El Cid had a couple of things in his favor. One he was a very good
soldier. Alfonso knew that he would need a leader like El Cid. Also the people in Castile were
not happy that they were being led by a king from Leon. El Cid was from Castile and was liked
by the people.

elCIDcasaj.jpg (30567 bytes)

Although the Alfonso removed El Cid as Commander of the Royal Armies, in 1074 he married El
Cid to his niece, Jimena. El Cid was now related to Alfonso. (Their house in Zamora is shown in
the picture on the left.)

Alfonso did not really like El Cid. He was afraid that El Cid might attempt to take the throne.
Alfonso sent El Cid to the king of Seville to collect money. When El Cid returned he accused El
Cid of keeping some of the money. He banished El Cid from his kingdom and from then on El
Cid was not able to live safely in any area ruled by Alfonso.
ferdosi.jpg (85410 bytes) El Cid now needed not only money, but also protection of a king. He
offered his services to the Ruler of Saragossa in northeastern Spain. The Ruler of Saragossa was
the arabic leader, al-Mu'tamin. Unlike Alfonso, al-Mu'tamin was quite happy to have such as
successful soldier as El Cid. El Cid served al-Mu'tamin and his successor, al-Musta'in for nearly
10 years.

In 1082 he defeated the Moorish (arabic) king of Lérida and the king's ally, the Count of
Barcelona. In 1084 he defeated a large army lead by King Sancho Ramírez of Aragon.
In 1086 Alfonso VI came under attack from the Almoravid armies from North Africa. He suffered
a great defeat at Sagrajas on October 23rd. Realizing that he needed El Cid's help to save his
Kingdom, Alfonso recalled El Cid from exile.

El Cid returned to Alfonso, but now he had his own plans. He only stayed a short while and
returned to Saragossa. El Cid was content to let the Almoravid armies and the armies of Alfonso
fight without his help. Even when there was a chance that the armies of Almoravid might defeat
Alfonso and take over all of Alfonso's lands. The reason El Cid did not want to fight was because
he was hoping that both armies would become weak. That would make it easier for him to carry
out his own plan which was to become ruler of the Kingdom of Valencia.

The first thing El Cid needed to do was to remove the influence of the Count of Barcelona.
Barcelona was the major city in the area and the Count was a powerful man. He defeated the
Count (Berenguer Ramón II) at the battle of Tébar in May 1090. Valencia, however was stilled
ruled by an Arabic leader, al-Qadir. El Cid became lucky when in October 1092 al-Qadir was
killed by one of his noblemen, Ibn Jahhaf. The city of Valencia was thrown into confusion. It
was at this time that El Cid decided to attack. He surrounded the city and began a long siege. In
May, 1094 Ibn Jahhaf surrendered the city.
Rodrigo de Vivar (1043?-99): His Life.
Born into the lower nobility in the Castilian village of Vivar (just north of Burgos) around 1043,
Rodrigo entered the court of Ferdinand I some time in his youth as a member of Sancho’s
household. He first distinguished himself in the Battle of Graus, 1063. Not a particularly
important battle in itself, it nevertheless exemplifies the political complexities of the time. King
Ramiro I of Aragón had attacked the Muslim (i.e. taifa) kingdom of Zaragoza. Ferdinand I of
León-Castile sent Sancho to help the king of Zaragoza, al-Muqtadir, recover Graus! Why? Very
simply because Ferdinand feared the expansion of Aragón. Sancho was successful and Ramiro
was killed in the battle. It so happens that Ramiro was Sancho’s uncle; so much for blood being
thicker than water! One historian describes the situation succinctly: a Castilian prince defeats and
kills his Aragonese uncle in order to preserve the territorial integrity of a Muslim ally (Fletcher
113).

When Ferdinand died, Rodrigo remained a loyal and important figure in Sancho’s court in Castile.
He was elevated to commander of the royal troops when only 22 years old, a sure recognition of
his military prowess and organising abilities. In the ensuing power struggles between Sancho and
Alfonso, Rodrigo was instrumental in helping Sancho defeat his brother. Following Sancho’s
assassination in Zamora in 1072, Rodrigo then passed into the service of Alfonso upon the latter’s
return from exile. Although he did not enjoy the same stature as he had under Sancho, Rodrigo
was nevertheless entrusted with various tasks for Alfonso, which he seems to have carried out
diligently.

In 1074 or 1075, Rodrigo married a young noblewoman from León, Jimena Díaz. Little is known
about Jimena’s family, but it is believed that she was a niece or distant cousin of the king himself.
The couple had one son and two daughters. The son, Diego, was killed in Consuegra in 1097,
fighting against the Almoravids. The older daughter, Cristina, married the Prince of Navarra, and
the younger, María, married Ramón Berenguer III, Count of Barcelona.

In 1079 Rodrigo was in Seville charged with collecting the paria owed to Alfonso by that taifa
kingdom. Here he got himself entangled in local politics. Another mission had been sent by
Alfonso to the neighbouring taifa of Granada for the same purpose of collecting paria. Whilst the
two missions were in the respective taifa capitals, the two Muslim leaders took advantage of their
Christian visitors to settle scores between themselves. As a result the Cid found himself in battle
against fellow Christians from the court of Alfonso VI, the most notable being the Count García
Ordóñez. The events that followed were embarrassing for the Count. The forces from Granada
were defeated and the Count found himself a prisoner of the Cid for three days and then divested
of his weapons before being freed. It so happens that the Count García Ordóñez was one of
Alfonso’a closest advisers, and had accompanied the king during his exile in Toledo. With such a
powerful enemy at court, the Cid’s position was precarious and rumours soon circulated that the
Cid had kept for himself some of the paria from Seville.
Although El Cid was a soldier he understood some of the politics of being a ruler. Through his
service to Sancho II and then Alfonso VI he learned about Spanish politics. Through his service
to al-Mu'tamin and al-Musta'in he learned about Arabic politics. He knew that because Valencia
contained a great number of Moors (Arabs) that he would have to have the support of Ibn Jahhaf.
He forgave Ibn Jahhaf of all of his crimes including the killing of al-Qadir. Ibn Jahhaf agreed to
use his influence over the Moors so that they would accept El Cid as their ruler. Once this was
accomplished, El Cid decided that he did not need Ibn Jahhaf and had him arrested and killed.

El Cid technically ruled Valencia for Alfonso. But, Alfonso was not about to wage war against El
Cid, so he let him rule with almost no control. El Cid began to act as a king. He appointed a
Bishop and he encouraged people to settle in Valencia. He married one daughter, Cristina to a
prince of Aragon, Ramiro and his other daughter María to Count of Barcelona, Ramón Berenguer
III, whose father he had earlier defeated.
arg-castle-burning.gif (9808 bytes)

El Cid ruled Valencia until his death. After his death the Almoravids attacked the city and
Alfonso had to personally go there to save it. However, he decided that he could not defend
unless he kept a great number of soldiers there permanently. So he decided to abandon the city
and ordered it burned. On May 5, 1102, the Almoravids occupied Valencia and ruled it until
1238.

The body of El Cid was returned to Burgos and buried in a monastery. Almost immediately he
became regarded as a national hero of Castile. In the 12th century a 3700 line poem "El Cantar de
Mío Cid" (The Song of the Cid) was written about him. The poem and later writings such as a
play in 1637 made his exploits almost legendary to the point that some people began to doubt that
whether El Cid was ever a real person. Unlike King Arthur of English legend, El Cid really did
exist. And the poem about him (although it does in some cases stretch the truth), is considered to
be the beginning of Spanish literature.

Rodrigo de Vivar (1043?-99): His Life.

Born into the lower nobility in the Castilian village of Vivar (just north of Burgos) around 1043,
Rodrigo entered the court of Ferdinand I some time in his youth as a member of Sancho’s
household. He first distinguished himself in the Battle of Graus, 1063. Not a particularly
important battle in itself, it nevertheless exemplifies the political complexities of the time. King
Ramiro I of Aragón had attacked the Muslim (i.e. taifa) kingdom of Zaragoza. Ferdinand I of
León-Castile sent Sancho to help the king of Zaragoza, al-Muqtadir, recover Graus! Why? Very
simply because Ferdinand feared the expansion of Aragón. Sancho was successful and Ramiro
was killed in the battle. It so happens that Ramiro was Sancho’s uncle; so much for blood being
thicker than water! One historian describes the situation succinctly: a Castilian prince defeats and
kills his Aragonese uncle in order to preserve the territorial integrity of a Muslim ally (Fletcher
113).

When Ferdinand died, Rodrigo remained a loyal and important figure in Sancho’s court in Castile.
He was elevated to commander of the royal troops when only 22 years old, a sure recognition of
his military prowess and organising abilities. In the ensuing power struggles between Sancho and
Alfonso, Rodrigo was instrumental in helping Sancho defeat his brother. Following Sancho’s
assassination in Zamora in 1072, Rodrigo then passed into the service of Alfonso upon the latter’s
return from exile. Although he did not enjoy the same stature as he had under Sancho, Rodrigo
was nevertheless entrusted with various tasks for Alfonso, which he seems to have carried out
diligently.
In 1074 or 1075, Rodrigo married a young noblewoman from León, Jimena Díaz. Little is known
about Jimena’s family, but it is believed that
she was a niece or distant cousin of the
king himself. The couple had one son
and two daughters. The son, Diego, was killed
in Consuegra in 1097, fighting against the
Almoravids. The older daughter, Cristina,
married the Prince of Navarra, and the
younger, María, married Ramón
Berenguer III, Count of Barcelona.

In 1079 Rodrigo was in Seville charged with collecting the paria owed to Alfonso by that taifa
kingdom. Here he got himself entangled in local politics. Another mission had been sent by
Alfonso to the neighbouring taifa of Granada for the same purpose of collecting paria. Whilst the
two missions were in the respective taifa capitals, the two Muslim leaders took advantage of their
Christian visitors to settle scores between themselves. As a result the Cid found himself in battle
against fellow Christians from the court of Alfonso VI, the most notable being the Count García
Ordóñez. The events that followed were embarrassing for the Count. The forces from Granada
were defeated and the Count found himself a prisoner of the Cid for three days and then divested
of his weapons before being freed. It so happens that the Count García Ordóñez was one of
Alfonso’a closest advisers, and had accompanied the king during his exile in Toledo. With such a
powerful enemy at court, the Cid’s position was precarious and rumours soon circulated that the
Cid had kept for himself some of the paria from Seville.
Scandivanavian Literature

In this story, the Emperor loves fine clothing. Two men, swindlers, arrive in the city claiming to
be the best weavers imaginable. They claim that the clothing they make is the finest with
beautiful, intricate patterns. The swindlers say that this clothing is also magical and would appear
invisible to anyone who was stupid or incompetent.

The Emperor is excited about this amazing product, and he pays the men a huge sum to make
these magnificent clothes. The swindlers then pretended to weave and sew the clothing with
empty looms and needles without thread. The Emperor sends men to check on the swindler's
work. When each man realizes he sees nothing, he
does not want to admit it for fear he would be accused of
being stupid and incompetent. So, each man
lies to the Emperor, saying how the clothing was
magnificent.

The clothing is brought to the Emperor on the day of

a great procession. The Emperor sees nothing, but he, too, did not want to admit to being stupid or
incompetent, so he agrees that the clothing is exquisite. After being dressed in the invisible
garments, the Emperor marches in the procession in front of his entire kingdom. Everyone in the
kingdom sees the emperor without clothes, but for fear of being accused of being stupid or
incompetent, they all sing the false praises of their Emperor's fine clothing.

Finally, a child says, ''But he doesn't have anything on!'' Everyone realizes that if an innocent
child is saying this, then it must be true. Everyone starts exclaiming, ''He doesn't have anything
on!'' The Emperor must then finish the procession knowing that the people are right, and everyone
knows he is wearing nothing but his pride.

Hans Christian Andersen was born on April 2, 1805, in Odense, Denmark. Hans Andersen Sr.
died in 1816, leaving his son and a wife, Anne Marie. While the Andersen family was not
wealthy, young Hans Christian was educated in boarding schools for the privileged. The
circumstances of Andersen's education have fueled speculation that he was an illegitimate
member of the Danish royal family. These rumors have never been substantiated.
In 1819, Andersen traveled to Copenhagen to work as an actor. He returned to school after a
short time, supported by a patron named Jonas Collin. He began writing during this period, at
Collin's urging, but was discouraged from continuing by his teachers.

Writing Career
 Andersen's work first gained recognition in 1829, with the publication of a short story entitled
"A Journey on Foot from Holmen's Canal to the East Point of Amager." He followed this with the
publication of a play, a book of poetry and a travelogue. The promising young author won a grant
from the king, allowing him to travel across Europe and further develop his body of work. A
novel based on his time in Italy, The Improvisatore, was published in 1835. The same year,
Andersen began producing fairy tales.
Despite his success as a writer up to this point, Andersen did not initially attract attention for
his writing for children. His next novels, O.T. and Only a Fiddler, remained critical favorites.
Over the following decades, he continued to write for both children and adults, penning several
autobiographies, travel narratives and poetry extolling the virtues of the Scandinavian people.
Meanwhile, critics and consumers overlooked volumes including the now-classic stories "The
Little Mermaid" and "The Emperor's New Clothes." In 1845, English translations of Andersen's
folktales and stories began to gain the attention of foreign audiences. Andersen forged a
friendship with acclaimed British novelist Charles Dickens, whom he visited in England in 1847
and again a decade later. His stories became English-language classics and had a strong influence
on subsequent British children's authors, including A.A. Milne and Beatrix Potter. Over time,
Scandinavian audiences discovered Andersen's stories, as did audiences in the United States, Asia
and across the globe. In 2006, an amusement park based on his work opened in Shanghai. His
stories have been adapted for stage and screen, including a popular animated version of "The
Little Mermaid."

Death
Andersen sustained a serious injury in 1872 after falling from bed in his Copenhagen home.
His final publication, a collection of stories, appeared the same year.
Around this time, he started to show signs of the liver cancer that would take his life. The
Danish government began commemorating Andersen's life and work before his death. Plans got
under way to erect a statue of the author, whom the government paid a "national treasure" stipend.
Andersen died on August 4, 1875, in Copenhagen.