Airplane Design Part VI

Airplane Design Part VI: Preliminary Calculation of Aerodynamic, Thrust and Power Characteristics Dr. Jan Roskam Ackers Distinguished Professor of Aerospace Engineering The University of Kansas, Lawrence 2004 11440 Wakarusa Drive, Suite 500 ¢ Lawrence, Kansas 66049, U.S.A,PUBLISHED BY Design, Analysis and Research Corporation (DARcorporation) 1440 Wakarusa Drive, Suite 500 Lawrence, Kansas 66049 US.A. Phone: (785) 832-0434 Fax: (785) 832-0524 e-mail: info@darcorp.com http://www.darcorp.com Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 97-68580 ISBN 1-884885-52-7 In all countries, sold and distributed by Design, Analysis and Research Corporation 1440 Wakarusa Drive, Suite 500 Lawrence, Kansas 66049 USA The information presented in this book has been included for their instructional value. They are not guaranteed for any particular purpose. The publisher does not offer any warranties or representations, nor does it accept any liabilities with respect to the information. It is sold with the understanding that the publisher is not engaged in rendering engineering or other professional services. If such services are required, the assistance of an appropriate professional should be sought. Copyright © 2004 by Dr. Jan Roskam. All rights reserved Printed in the United States of America First Printing, 1987 Second Printing, 1990 Third Printing, 2000 Fourth Printing, 2004 Information in this document is subject to change without notice and does not represent a commitment on the part of DARcorporation. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without, written permission of the publisher, DARcorporation.TABLE OF CONTENTS TABLE OF SYMBOLS xiii ACKNOWLEDGEMENT xxix 1. INTRODUCTION 1 2, IMPORTANT DEFINITIONS 3 2.1 FLOW REGIME DEFINITIONS 3 2.1.1 Subsonic Flow Regime 3 2.1.2 Transonic Flow Regime 5 2.1.3 Supersonic Plow Regime 8 2,2 IMPORTANT GEOMETRIC DEFINITIONS 8 2.2.1 Wing Planform Geometries 8 ° 2.2.2 Empennage Planform Geometries 1 3. SUMMARY OD DRAG CAUSES AND DRAG MODELLING 13 3.1 PHYSICAL CAUSES OF DRAG 13 3.2 DRAG BREAKDOWN METHOD 16 3.3 DRAG MODELLING FOR PERFORMANCE CALCULATIONS 16 4. DRAG POLAR PREDICTION METHODS 21 4.1 DRAG BREAKDOWN PROCEDURE 21 4.2 WING DRAG COEFFICIENT PREDICTION 23 4.2.1 Subsonic Wing Drag Coefficient 23 4.2.1.1 Wing zero-lift drag coefficient 23 \ 4.2.1.2 Wing drag coefficient due to lift 27 4.2.2 Transonic Wing Drag Coefficient 28 4.2.2.1 Wing zero-lift drag coefficient 28 4.2.2.2 Wing drag coefficient due to lift 34 4.2.3 Supersonic Wing Drag Coefficient 36 4.2.3.1 Wing zero-lift drag coefficient 36 4.2.3.2 Wing drag coefficient due to lift 40 4.3 FUSELAGE DRAG COEFFICIENT PREDICTION 44 4.3.1 Subsonic Fuselage Drag Coefficient 44 4.3.1.1 Fuselage zero-lift drag coefficient 44 4.3.1.2 Fuselage drag coefficient due to lift 46 4.3.2 Transonic Fuselage Drag Coefficient 48 4.3.2.1 Fuselage zero-lift drag coefficient 48 4.3.2.2 Fuselage drag coefficient due to lift 49 4.3.3 Supersonic Fuselage Drag Coefficient 49 Part VI Contents Page iPart VI 4.3.3.1 Fuselage zero-lift drag coefficient 4.3.3.2 Fuselage drag coefficient due to lift 4.3.4 The Area Rule Concept EMPENNAGE DRAG COEFFICIENT PREDICTION 4.4.1 Subsonic Empennage Drag Coefficient 4.4.1.1 Empennage zero-lift drag coefficient 4.4.1.2 Empennage drag coefficient due to lift 4.4.2 Transonic Empennage Drag Coefficient 4.4.2.1 Empennage zero-lift drag coefficient 4.4.2.2 Empennage drag coefficient due to lift 4.4.3 Supersonic Empennage Drag Coefficient 4.4.3.1 Empennage zero-lift drag coefficient 4.4.3.2 Empennage drag coefficient due to lift NACELLE/PYLON DRAG COEFFICIENT PREDICTION 4.5.1 Isolated Nacelle/Pylon Drag Coefficient 4.5.1.1 Nacelle drag coefficient 4.5.1.2 Pylon drag coefficient 4.5.2 Installed Nacelle/Pylon Drag Coefficient Increment 4.5.2.1 Wing/nacelle interference drag coefficient 4.5.2.2 Puselage/nacelle interference drag coefficient 4.5.2.3 Cooling drag coefficient increment 4.5.3 Windmilling Drag and Propeller Drag Coefficients 4.5.3.1 Windmilling drag coefficient due to jet engines 4.5.3.2 Windmilling drag coefficient due to propellers 4.5.3.3 Drag coefficient due to a stopped propeller LAP DRAG PREDICTION +6.1 Flap Profile Drag Increment +6.2 Induced Drag Increment due to Flaps +6.3 Interference Drag Increment due to Flaps LANDING GEAR DRAG PREDICTION CANOPY/WINDSHIELD DRAG PREDICTION 4.8.1 Canopy Drag Prediction 4.8.2 Windshield Drag Prediction STORE DRAG PREDICTION Fi 4 4 4 49 52 57 66 66 66 67 69 69 70 70 1 1 12 73 13 15 15 17 19 19 19 cr) 81 81 82 82 86 86 90 98 98 98 103 Contents Page ii4.10 TRIM DRAG PREDICTION 104 4.10.1 Trim Drag Due to Lift 104 4.10.2 Trim Drag Due to Profile Drag 105 4.11 INTERFERENCE DRAG PREDICTION 107 4.12 MISCELLANEOUS DRAG PREDICTION 107 4.12.1 Drag Due to Spoilers (or Speed Brakes)107 4.12.2 Drag Due to Surface Roughness 110 4.12.3 Drag Due to Other Causes ali 4.13 DRAG ADJUSTMENTS FOR LAMINAR FLOW 113 5. AIRPLANE DRAG DATA 117 5.1 DRAG POLARS 317 5.2 EQUIVALENT PARASITE AREAS 128 5.3 OSWALD'S EFFICIENCY FACTORS 128 5.4 EXAMPLES OF WETTED AREA BREAKDOWNS 128 5.5 VERIFICATION OF REALISM OF COMPUTED DRAG POLARS 135 6. INSTALLED POWER AND THRUST PREDICTION METHODS 139 6.1 POWER EXTRACTION REQUIREMENTS 141 6.1.1 Piston-propeller Driven Airplanes 141 6.1.2 Turbopropeller and Jet Driven Airplanes 145 6.2 INLET SIZING AND INTEGRATION 347 6.2.1 General Inlet Arrangements 152 6.2.1.1 Piston engine inlets 152 6.2.1.2 Turbopropeller inlets 152 6.2.1.3 Jet engine inlets: subsonic 152 6.2.1.4 Jet engine inlets: supersonic 159 6.2.2 Inlet Sizing 165 6.2.2.1 Piston engine installations 165 6.2.2.2 Turbopropeller installations 167 6.2.2.3 Jet engine installations: subsonic 168 6.2.2.4 Jet engine installations: supersonic 170 6.2.3 Inlet Pressure Loss Estimation 173 6.2.3.1 Piston engine inlets 174 6.2.3.2 Turbopropeller inlets 114 6.2.3.3 Jet engine inlets: subsonic 175 6.2.3.4 Jet engine inlets: supersonic 177 6.2.4 Inlet Extra Drag Estimation 180 6.2.4.1 Piston engine inlet extra drag 180 6.2.4.2 Turbopropeller inlet extra drag 180 6.2.4.3 Jet engine inlet extra drag: subsonic 180 6.2.4.4 Jet engine inlet extra drag: supersonic 181 6.3 EXHAUST OR NOZZLE SIZING AND INTEGRATION 183 6.3.1 General Exhaust/Nozzle Arrangements 183 6.3.1.1 Piston engine exhausts 183 6.3.1.2 Turbopropeller nozzles 184 Part VI Contents Page iii6.3.1.3 Jet engine nozzles: subsonic 184 6.3.1.4 Jet engine nozzles: supersonic 184 6.3.2 Exhaust/Nozzle Sizing 184 6.3.2.1 Piston engine exhausts 188 6.3.2.2 Turbopropeller nozzles 188 6.3.2.3 Jet engine nozzles: subsonic 189 6.3.2.4 Jet engine nozzles: supersonic 189 6.3.3 Estimation of Exhaust/Nozzle Extra Drag 190 6.3.3.1 Piston engines 190 6.3.3.2 Turbopropeller engines 190 6.3.3.3 Jet engines: subsonic 190 6.3.3.4 Jet engines: supersonic __ 192 6.4 PREDICTION OF INSTALLED POWER AND THRUST 193 6.4.1 Propeller Driven Airplanes 193 6.4.1.1 Piston propeller driven airplanes 193 6.4.1.2 Turbopropeller driven airplanes 195 6.4.2 Jet Driven Airplanes 198 6.4.2.1 Subsonic operations 198 6.4.2.2 Supersonic operations 198 7, INSTALLED POWER AND THRUST DATA 203 7.1 PROPELLER DRIVEN AIRPLANES 203 7.1.1 Piston Propeller Driven Airplanes 203 7.1.2 Turbopropeller Driven Airplanes 204 7.2, JET DRIVEN AIRPLANES 208 7.2.1 Subsonic Operations 208 7.2.2 Supersonic Operations 209 8, LIFT AND PITCHING MOMENT PREDICTION METHODS 213 8.1 PREDICTION OF LIFT COEFFICIENT VERSUS ANGLE OF ATTACK 214 8.1.1 Airfoil Lift and Maximum Lift: Flaps Up 215 8.1.1.1 Airfoil zero-lift angle of attack: ¢ 215 1 8.1.1.2 Airfoil lift curve slope: c, 215 @ 8.1.1.3 Airfoil linear range of angle of attack: a* 218 8.1.1.4 Airfoil angle of attack for maximum lift: « 218 °L max 8.1.1.5 Airfoil maximum lift coefficient: cy 218 max 8.1.1.6 Construction of airfoil lift curve: flaps up 225 Part VI contents Page iv8.1.2 Airfoil Lift and Maximm Lift: Flaps Down 226 8.1.2.1 Airfoil lift increment due to flaps: Ac) 226 8.1.2.2 Airfoil lift curve slope due to flaps: (c, 5 238 a 8.1.2.3 Airfoil maximm lift increment due to flaps: Ac, 238 max 8.1.2.4 Construction of airfoil lift curve: flaps down 243 8.1.3 Wing Lift and Maximm Lift: Flaps Up 245 8.1.3.1 Wing zero-lift angle of attack: op 245 Ww 8,1,3,2 Wing lift curve slope: C, 248 w 8.1.3.3 Wing linear range of angle of + attack: a,* 248 8.1.3.4 Wing maximum lift coefficient: c, and wing angle of attack ‘max, w for maximin lift: (ey 256 ‘max 8.1.3.5 Construction of wing lift curve: flaps up 257 8.1.4 Wing Lift and Maximum Lift: Flaps Down 259 8.1.4.1 Wing lift increment due to flaps: AC, 259 w 8.1.4.2 Wing lift curve slope due to flaps: (Cy ), 259 a, w 8.1.4.3 Wing maximum lift increment due to flaps: AC, 262 max, 8.1.4.4 Construction of the wing lift curve: flaps down 264 8.1.5 Airplane Lift and Maximm Lift: Flaps Up 265 8.1.5.1 Airplane zero-lift angle of attack: a 268 L Part VI contents Page v8.1.5.2 Airplane zero-angle-of-attack lift coefficient: C, ‘0 8.1.5.3 Airplane lift curve slope: C, 272 a 8.1.5.4 Airplane linear range of angle of attack: a,* 275 A 8.1.5.5 Airplane maximum lift coefficient: ¢, and airplane angle of attack hax 268 for maxim lift: « 275 %, ‘max 8.1.5.6 Construction of aizplane lift curve: flaps up 215 8.1.6 Airplane Lift and Maximm Lift: Flaps Down 211 8.1.6.1 Airplane lift increment due to Flaps: AC, 277 8.1.6.2 Airplane lift curve due to flaps: (Cy), 278 a 8.1.6.3 Airplane maximm lift increment due to flaps: AC, 280 ‘max 8.1.6.4 Construction of airplane lift curve: flaps down 280 8.1.7 Airplane Lift in Ground Effect 281 8.1.7.1 High aspect ratio configurations: transports 281 8.1.7.2 Low aspect ratio configurations: fighters 283 8.1.8 Power Effects on Airplane Lift 286 8,2 PREDICTION OF PITCHING MOMENT COEFFICIENT VERSUS LIFT COEFFICIENT 289 8.2.1 Airfoil Pitching Moment: Flaps Up 289 8.2.1.1 Airfoil zero-lift pitching moment coefficient: cn 289 ‘0 8.2.1.2 Airfoil aerodynamic center: x, 291 and airfoil center of Pressure: Xo, 291 8.2.1.3 Airfoil pitching moment varia~ tion with lift coefficient: do,/dey 295 Part VI Contents Page viPart VI 8.2.1.4 Airfoil linear range for pitching moment: c,” 295 8.2.1.5 Construction of airfoil pitching moment curve: flaps up 295 8.2.2 Airfoil Pitching Moment: Flaps Down 297 8.2.2.1 Airfoil pitching moment increment due to flaps: 4c, 297 8.2.2.2 Construction of the flaps-down airfoil pitching moment curve 299 8.2.3 Wing Pitching Moment: Flaps-Up 302 8.2.3.1 Wing zero-lift pitching moment coefficient: ¢, 302 b my w 8.2.3.2 Slope of the wing pitching moment curve: (dc, /dc, ) 305 mn! yy 8.2.3.3 Prediction of stable or unstable pitch break 310 8.2.3.4 Construction of the wing pitching moment curve: flaps-up 310 8.2.4 Wing Pitching Moment: Flaps-Down 311 8.2.4.1 Wing pitching moment increment due to flaps:Ac,, 311 w 8.2.4.2 Slope of the wing pitching moment curve, flaps-down: (dC,/dC,),,, 317 8.2.4.3 Prediction of stable or unstable pitch break: flaps-down 317 8.2.4.4 Construction of the wing pitching moment curve: flaps-down 8.2.5 Airplane Pitching Moment: Flaps Up 317 318 8.2.5.1 Airplane zero-lift pitching moment coefficient: Cc Bo 8.2.5.2 Airplane pitching moment coef ficient variation with lift coefficient: dC,/ac, 8.2.5.3 Calculation of the aerodynamic center shift due to the fuselage: Ax, 320 324 325 ac. £ 8.2.5.4 Prediction of stable or unstable pitch break 326 Contents Page vii8.2.5.5 Construction of airplane pitching moment coefficient versus lift coefficient 328 8.2.6 Airplane Pitching Moment: Flaps Down 329 8.2.6.1 Airplane pitching moment coefficient increment due to flaps: acy, 329 8.2.6.2 Slope of the airplane piching moment curve flaps down: (aC, / AC.) 5 330 8.2.6.3 Prediction of stable or unstable pitch break: flaps down 330 8.2.6.4 Construction of the airplane flaps down pitching moment curve 330 8.2.7 Airplane Pitching Moment in Ground Effect 332 8.2.7.1 Ground effect on downwash and on upwash 333 8.2.8 Power Effects on Airplane Pitching Moment 337 8.2.8.1 Power effect on pitching moment at zero lift coefficient: aC 337 8.2.8.2 Power effect on longitudinal stability: A(dC,/dC,)., 340 8.3 PREDICTION OF TRIMMED LIFT AND TRIMMED MAXIMUM LIFT COEFFICIENT 344 8.3.1 Stable Airplane with Stable Pitch Break 347 8.3.2 Unstable Airplane with Stable Pitch Break 352 8.3.3 Stable Airplane with Unstable Pitch Break 353 8.3.4 Unstable Airplane with Unstable Pitch Break 353 9. AIRPLANE HIGH LIFT DATA 355 9.1 AIRFOIL HIGH LIFT DATA: FLAPS UP AND FLAPS DOWN 355 9.2 AIRPLANE HIGH LIFT DATA: FLAPS UP AND FLAPS DOWN 355 9.3 MACH NUMBER EFFECT ON HIGH LIFT 356 10, STABILITY, CONTROL AND HINGE MOMENT DERIVATIVES 371 10,1 STEADY STATE COEFFICIENTS 371 10,2 STABILITY DERIVATIVES 376 10.2.1 Speed Derivatives: C) . C, . C, 7 Cp and ¢, 376 u "ry Part VI Contents Page10,2.1.1 Aerodynamic Speed Derivatives: cy. ¢, and C. 376 By’ SD, M8 Sm, 10,2,1,2 Thrust versus speed derivatives: cn, and Cm 317 a a 10.2.2 Angle-of-Attack Derivatives: C, , and C, 319 Ty a Aerodynamic angle-of-attack derivatives: Cy . cy and Cy 379 a lg a 10,2.2,2 Thrust versus angle-of-attack derivative: C 381 a 10.2.3 Rate of Angle-of-Attack Derivatives: °p," Cus and Cn 381 10.2.4 Angle-of-Sideslip Derivatives: Cy c, and ¢, n n, 8 T, 10.2.4,1 Aerodynamic angle-of-sideslip derivatives: Cy» Cy B B 5 and Cn 83 10.2.4,.2 Thrust versus sideslip derivative: C, 398 B 10.2.5 Rate of Angle-of-Sideslip Derivatives: Cys. “, and ong 401 10.2.6 Roll Rate Derivatives: C, , C. and ¢, P 417 n, 10.2.7 Pitch Rate Derivatives: Cy , C, and C,, a “dq 424 q 10.2.8 Yaw Rate Derivatives: C, , C, and C, © 428 ed 10.3 CONTROL DERIVATIVES 435 Part VI Contents Page ix10.3.1 Stabilizer Control Derivatives: C) . Cc, and c, iy 435 Ly *h h 10.3.2 Elevator Control Derivatives: C, o, and om, 437 'e 'e 10.3.3 Canard Control Derivatives: cp + ¢, and C i 438 Ly my c © © 10.3.4 Canardvator Control Derivatives: Cy + Cy and C, 440 Ds hs mM c c c 10.3.5 Aileron Control Derivatives: C, c, and ¢, %e 442 1 n, ‘a 8 8 ‘a ‘a 10.3.6 Spoiler Control Derivatives: C , c; and ¢, Ys 449 ae ny 's 's 's 10,3.7 Differential Stabilizer Control Deriva- tives: C. oC and C 456 yi Ty ny h h h 10.3.8 Rudder Control Derivatives: C , Cy; and C, Ys, 461 8 8 r rc 10.4 HINGEMOMENT DERIVATIVES OF CONTROL SURFACES 463 10.4.1 Two-Dimensional Control Surface and Tab Hingemoment Derivatives about the Control Surface Hingeline 466 10,4,1,1 Two-D control surface hingemoment derivative due to angle of attack: o, 466 a 10,4.1,2 Two-D control surface hingemoment derivative due to control surface deflection: c, 414 6 10,4,1.3 Two-D control surface hingemoment derivative due to tab deflection: c, 478 6 t 10.4.2 Three-Dimensional Control Surface and Tab Hingemoment Derivatives 481 Part VI Contents Page x10,4,2.1 Three-D control surface hingemoment derivative due to angle of attack: C, 481 a 10.4.2.2 Three-D control surface hingemoment derivative due to control surface deflection: C, 484 8 10.4.2.3 Three-D control surface hingemoment derivative due to tab deflection: C, 485 8, t 10.4,3 Two-Dimensional Tab Hingemoment Deriva- tives about the Tab Hingeline 486 10.4.4 Three-Dimensional Tab Hingemoment Deri- vatives about the Tab Hingeline 487 11. STABILITY AND CONTROL DERIVATIVE DATA 491 12, USER'S GUIDE 505 12.1 USER'S GUIDE FOR DRAG POLAR ESTIMATION 505 12.2 USER'S GUIDE FOR DETERMINATION OF INSTALLED THRUST OR POWER 506 12.3 USER'S GUIDE FOR DETERMINATION OF LIFT VERSUS ANGLE OF ATTACK 507 12.4 USER'S GUIDE FOR THE DETERMINATION OF PIT- CHING MOMENT VERSUS ANGLE OF ATTACK AND THE TRIM DIAGRAM 508 12.5 USER'S GUIDE FOR THE DETERMINATION OF STA- BILITY, CONTROL AND HINGEMOMENT DERIVATIVES 508 13, REFERENCES 509 14, INDEX 513 APPENDIX A: STANDARD ATMOSPHERE, SPECIFIC WEIGHTS AND CONVERSION FACTORS 519 APPENDIX B: FORMULAS FOR COMPUTING CIRCUMFERENCES, AREAS AND VOLUMES 525 Part VI contents Page xiBBLLINWOD SNOLLWIINdaY SYALNA AVST i ae! VSYN Wd Page xii Part VITABLE OF SYMBOLS The Table of Symbols is organized as follows: Page 1. General symbols xiii 2, Stability, Control and Hingemoment Derivatives xxi 3. Greek Symbols xxv 4. Subscripts xxvii 5. Acronyms xxviii 1. GENERAL SYMBOLS Symbol Definition a speed of sound acc. aerodynamic center A= b/s Wing aspect ratio 2 A, = b,7/8, Canard aspect ratio . 2 Ay = by Sy Vert.tail aspect ratio Inlet capture area et? Inlet area et? Cowl cross section area ft? at de AR Nozzle (exit) area ft? Ag Internal area et? AR Cowl cross section area ft? at d mn AR Nozzle throat area ft? b wing span ft by canard span ft be inboard flap span, p.89 ft Part VI Symbols Page xiiiPart VI outboard flap span, p.89 ft tire width ft vertical tail span, see p. 387 ft Compressible sweep correction factor, see Eqn. (10.64) 9 ----- chord ft chord with flap extended £t mean geometric chord ft control surface overhang, see p.471 ft crossflow drag coeff = ----- elevator chord ft canardvator chord ft flap chord ft two-dim, hingemoment coeff. about control surf. h.l. ----- two-dim. hingemoment coeff. about tab h.1l. wooo airfoil lift coefficient at et ne airfoil pitching moment coefficient about a.c. ----- airfoil zero-lift pitching moment coeff. == ----~ wing chord at wing pivot ft also: engine sfs lbs/shp/hr tip chord ft cy in Ch.10 also stands for tab chord, see p.473 ft root chord ft mean geometric chord of exposed wing ft Airplane drag coeff. = ----- wave drag coefficients ----- see p.49 and 52 symbols Page xivPart VI interference drag coeff. ----- see p.52 base drag coefficient = ----~ Drag due to lift coeff —----- Viscous drag due to lift coefficient = 2 2 22 --=-— Drag coefficient at C, — ----- ‘min Wing minimm drag coeff. ----- Wing induced drag coeff. ----- Zero-lift drag coeff. —----- Profile drag coefficient ----- turbulent flat plate friction coefficient aaa turbulent flat plate friction coefficient of the wing ----- Three-dim. hingemoment coeff. about contr. surf. h.1. Three-dim. hingemoment coeff. about tab h.1. airfoil lift coefficient airfoil lift curve slope ----- section lift curve slope with the flaps down 1/deg, 1/rad derivative of airfoil lift coeff. with flap deflect. ----- aerodynamic rolling moment coefficient ~---- Airplane lift coefficient - Lift coefficient where drag rise due to separation begins Canard lift coefficient Hor. tail lift coeff. = ----- symbols Page xvPart VI Lift coefficient for zero angle of attack Lift coefficient at minimm viscous drag due to lift Wing lift coefficient Airplane lift curve slope i/deg, 1/rad Wing lift-curve slope 1/deg, 1/rad Aerodynamic pitching moment coefficient Airfoil pitching moment coefficient at zero lift coefficient - Aerodynamic yawing moment coefficient base pressure coeff., p.52 Ram recovery factor Aerodynamic side force coefficient equivalent base diameter cowl diameter at inlet area ft diam, of exhaust nozzle in exhaust stack diameter in equivalent fuselage diameter -- max. inlet diameter ft max. cowl diameter ft maximm nacelle (equivalent) diameter ft distance of thrustline to center of gravity, see Figure 8.126 ft Drag ibs Propeller diameter ft Max. tire diameter ft span efficiency factor Symbols Page xviKaw? Kye and L/D Part VI (Also called Oswald's eff. factor) equivalent parasite area ft Pactor in Eqn. (6.51) incremental eq. par. area ft? Aerodynamic side force lbs. incidence angle deg Rolling moment of inertia in 5 body axes slugft XZ Product of inertia in 2 body axes slugft Piching moment of inertia in body axes slugét Yawing moment of inertia in body axes slugft? ratio of airfoil 1ift-curve slope to 2x, also: equivalent sand roughness - correction factor for nonlinear effects - interference factors, see pages 277, 278 -- empirical constant, see p. 86 ~ factor in Egn. (3.6) factor in Ean. (3.6) factor in Eqn. (3.8) flap span factor for swept wings, p.313 flap span factor, p.313 constant in Eqn. (6.50) wing-fuselage interference factor: see Eqn. (8.44) reference length ft fuselage length ft distance in Fig.10.34 ft distance in Fig.10.27 ft Lift lbs Airfoil thickness location parameter Lift-to-drag ratio symbols Page xviiAerodynamic rolling mom, engine massflow bleed air massflow combustion massflow cooling air massflow Free stream Mach number Aerodynamic pitching moment Crossflow Mach number Critical Mach number Ibs slugs/sec slugs/sec slugs/sec slugs/sec Drag divergence Mach number --- airplane load factor no. of blades per prop. Aerodynamic yawing moment local static pressure also: planform shape parameter, p.40 total pressure Factor in Eqn. (6.51) Power available Extracted electr. power Extracted power Extr. fuel pump power Extr. hydr. pump power Extr. mechanical power Extr. other power Extr. pneumatic power Power required Symbols hp hp hp hp hp hp Page xviiiScan Part VI free stream dyn. pressure Reynold’s number Lifting surface correction factor Wing/fuselage interference factor Wing planform (ref) area Fuselage base area Max, fuselage cross section 2 Canard area Max. frontal area of canopy Flapped canard area Flapped hor.tail area Fuselage side area as defined in Fig.10.28 Flapped wing area Horiz.tail area Max. frontal area of nacelle Vertical tail area, see p. 387 Nozzle cross section area Total wetted area Wetted area of fuselage Wetted area with laminar flow Wetted area with turbulent flow Wetted area of wing symbols psf ee ft ft ft ft ft ft Page xixtle T reqd U, or U < *acy, acy! cp ref Part VI thickness ratio (at ¢) = ----~ Temperature of air deg F Thrust available lbs Remnant thrust lbs Thrust required lbs Steady state airspeed ft/sec induced drag factor due to twist Velocity at sta. A, fps Velocity at sta. A, fps Canard volume coefficient, see Eqn. (10.74) Hor. tail volume coefficient, see Eqn. (10.23) = Required electrical power hp Hydr. fluid flow rate gpm Average nozzle flow velocity fps zero-lift drag factor due to twist = max. fuselage width ft Airplane weight lbs position of a.c. on wing mgc, ft position of aerodynamic center on wing mgc, fr.c position of hor. tail a.c. on wing mgc ft position of hor. tail a.c. on wing mgc, fr.c - position of wing center of pressure on wing ngc ft position of reference point on wing mgc ft Symbols Page xxXee"%reg/& position of reference _ ref “ref point on wing gc, fr.¢ NOTE: see Figure 8.114 for illustration! x distance of wing quarter chord w mgc to c.g., see Fig.10.39 ---- y spanwise coordinate ft z vertical height of fuselage at wing root chord ft 2 distance in Fig.10.34 ft zy distance in Pig.10.27 ft 2, wing distance to fuselage cen- w terline, see Fig. (10.9) ft 2, STABILITY, CONTROL AND HINGEMOMENT DERIVATIVES NOTE: All derivatives are presented in the airplane stability axes system. See pages 371 and 372 for a definition of axes. STABILITY DERIVATIVES symbol Definition Dimension Sp, acpfa(u/dyy eee om acfa(al0y) eee Cn, ac /@(u/0y) eee cn, Cy (9 (u/0y) sate u ¢, acy /8(u/U,) te Ty my! 2 (08 acy /aa raa? acp/ae rad? ac,/aa rad? 2 ec /aa rad ™y acy/a(ac/2u,) rad? ac, /a(ac/2u,) rad? ac,/8(ae/20,) raa* Part VI symbols Page xxi¢, acy/ap Ys “a, 0C, / ap Cap acy! -1 ¢, ac, /ap rad "ty ™P : -1 2) %y, acy/a(bb/20,) rad a, ac, /a(bb/2u,) rad . 1 Sng ac,,/2(sb/20,) rad “1 ac, /2(pb/20,) ad °y, Cy 2 (pb/20, ra cy ac, /0(pb/20,) rag? P 7 ¢ ac_/a(pb/2u,) rad? ny n/ 2 (pb /20, %, acy/a(qe/2u,) rad - -1 “14 ac,/a(qe/2u,) rad = m1 ong ac,/8(qe/20,) rad 1 @ 2) Sy acy /a(rb/20,) rad cy ac, /2(rb/20,) raa? r c, ac,,/8(rb/20,) raa7? : ni CONTROL DERIVATIVES acy fai raa* p/*tn ac, / ai, aa? 1/?4n r ac, / a4, raa* n/?4y aCp/ 28, a7? Dee r symbols Page xxiiaC, /08, rad ac, /a8, aa"? Cyl 2be r acy /ai, aa7* p/ ete r acy, /2i aaé* p/h r “1 acylig rad ¢ rad? c rag? rad? Part VI Symbols Page xxiiiCy aC y/ Pip rad h a1 a a6 cy, C128, rad © -1 ey acy /28, rad r -1 on, ac, /25, rad © HINGEMOMENT DERIVATIVES a evati symbol Definition Dimension ¢ zero-angle-of-attack, zero-con- ‘0 urface-deflection, zero- le-deflection hingemoment coefficient - acy, /da rad 8c,/08 raa”? ae, 128 raa? hy t symbo. Definition Dimension cy zero-angle-of-attack, zero-con- ‘0 trol-surface-deflection» zero- tab-angle-def lection hingemoment coefficient - oy, acy /aa rad -1 oy, acy /as rad -1 Sh, AC) / 08, rad fa NOTE: Control surface hingemoment derivatives defined sofar, are taken about the control surface hingeline. Tab hingemoment derivatives taken about the tab hingeline are defined in a similar manner but carry the superscript ‘t’ as in ct, and ct, x x Part VI Symbols Page xxiv3,_GREEK SYMBOLS Symbol APhydr Part VI Definition )imension airfoil angle of attack deg, rad airplane angle of attack deg, rad with subscript w, h or c, the symbol indicates the angle of attack of that component linear range of o deg, rad airfoil zero-lift angle of attack deg, rad airplane zero-lift angle of attack deg, rad derivative of angle of attack w.r.t. surface deflection angle a- m2 )2/2 eee also: sideslip angle flight path angle dihedral angle pressure ratio, also: flap or control surface deflection flap defl. angle deg, deg, increment change in angle of attack due to ground effect difference in stall angle of attack between wing and canard, depends deg, rad see p.280 incremental coefficient incremental coefficient incremental deg, airfoil lift due to flaps -- airplane lift due to flaps canard lift rad coefficient to trim, based on wing area, S incremental tail lift coefficient to trim, based on wing area, S = incremental airfoil pitching moment coefficient due to flaps - incremental airplane piching moment coefficient due to flaps - change in tail downwash angle due to flaps deg» rad hydraulic pressure differential psi Symbols Page xxv“inl “inl/com “inl/ine "p “shock Aca Part VI shift in aerodynamic center due to the fuselage, fr.c leading edge shape parameter downwash angle at the horizontal tail upwash angle at the canard wing twist angle span fraction, or see p.46 ratio of canard to wing dynamic pressure pressure recovery through diffuser fuel pump efficiency gearbox efficiency generator efficiency ratio of hor.tail to wing dynamic pressure hydr- pump efficiency inlet pressure recovery inlet pressure recovery, compressible inlet pressure recovery, incompressible propeller efficiency pressure recovery through shock semi-chord sweep angle quarter chord sweep angle leading edge sweep angle taper ratio coefficient of viscosity for air area ratio AQ/A, 3.14 air density Symbols deg, rad deg, rad deg, rad deg, rad deg, rad deg, rad slug/tt? Page xxvibal bw can cg co cool cw eff emp flap fus gear int ke lam lef LE, le max misc np P plf prof rated ref reqd sf 8p Part VI sidewash angle deg, rad effective turning angle deg, rad trailing edge angle deg, rad steady state aileron available Airplane base balance basic wing canard canopy center of gravity cut-off cooling canopy/windshield elevator effective empennage friction, sometimes: flap flap fuselage ground effect landing gear horizontal tail interference krueger flap laminar leading edge flap landing leading edge maxim miscellaneous (at a given) Mach Number nacelle nacelle/pylon pylon planform profile rudder rated, usually SHP reference, usually the wing, or a point on the wing required slat (ted) split flap spoiler (speedbrake) symbols Page xxviistd store T TE, te TL Ts turb TO trim w wave wb wet we wing wmprop ws S._ACRONYMS AEO APU AWACS b.l. BPR CBR c.g. FRP hl or hel. ive. lee. gc or m.g.ce gr RAT SHP t.e. W.R.P. weret Part VI standard store(s) thrust or power effect trailing edge thrustline offset effect propeller slipstream effect turbulent take-off trim wing wave (drag) wing-body (same as wing-fuselage) wetted wing-fuselage (same as wing-body) wing windmilling propeller windshield All engines operating Auxiliary power unit Airborne warning and control system boundary layer Bypass ratio California Bearing Ratio center of gravity Fuselage Reference Plane hingeline id est (that is) leading edge mean geometric chord one engine inoperative Ram air turbine Shaft Horsepower trailing edge Wing Reference Plane with respect to Symbols Page xxviiiACKNOWLEDGEMENT Writing a book on airplane design is impossible without the supply of a large amount of data. The author is grateful to the following companies for supplying data on airplane drag and on airplane stability and control characteristics: Cessna Aircraft Company Beech Aircraft Corporation The Boeing Company McDonnell Douglas Corp. Lockheed Aircraft Corp. Gates Learjet Corporation Northrop Corporation SIAI Marchetti A significant amount of airplane design information has been accumulated by the author over many years from the following magazines: Interavia (Swiss, monthly) Flight International (British, weekly) Business and Commercial Aviation (USA, monthly) Aviation Week and Space Technology (USA, weekly) Journal of Aircraft (USA, AIAA, monthly) The author wishes to acknowledge the important role played by these magazines in his own development as an aeronautical engineer. Aeronautical engineering students and graduates should read these magazines regularly. This part of the Airplane Design series presents ra~ pid methods for estimating drag, lift, pitching moment, installed thrust and power data as well as stability, control and hingemoment derivatives. In preparing this part much use has been made of the USAF DATCOM, a most impressive and useful document which should be available in all aeronautical engineering design offices and libraries. Part VI Page xxixSSS wWaynos *ZS3iunNd> x» XX“ H3NHOS Page xxx Part VI1, INTRODUCTION The purpose of this series of books on Airplane Design is to familiarize aerospace engineering students with the design methodology and design decision making involved in the process of designing airplanes. The series of books is organized as follows: PART I: PRELIMINARY SIZING OF AIRPLANES PART II: PRELIMINARY CONFIGURATION DESIGN AND INTEGRATION OF THE PROPULSION SYSTEM PART III: LAYOUT DESIGN OF COCKPIT, FUSELAGE, WING AND EMPENNAGE: CUTAWAYS AND INBOARD PROFILES PART IV: LAYOUT DESIGN OF LANDING GEAR AND SYSTEMS PART V: COMPONENT WEIGHT ESTIMATION PART VI: PRELIMINARY CALCULATION OF AERODYNAMIC, THRUST AND POWER CHARACTERISTICS PART VII: DETERMINATION OF STABILITY, CONTROL AND PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS: FAR AND MILITARY REQUIREMENTS PART VIII: AIRPLANE COST ESTIMATION: DESIGN, DEVELOPMENT, MANUFACTURING AND OPERATING The purpose of PART VI is to present a systematic approach to the prediction of drag, installed power and thrust, lift, pitching moment and other important stability and control data needed in preliminary design. The methods presented in this volume are meant to be used in conjunction with Preliminary Design Sequence II as outlined in Chapter 2 of Part II of this series. For that reason these methods are sometimes referred to as Class II methods. The preceeding Class I methods are covered in Part I and Part II of this series and are meant to be used with Preliminary Design Sequence I as outlined also in Chapter 2 of Part II. In Chapter 2 some important definitions relating to flight regime and reference geometries are discussed. Chapter 3 presents different ways by which airplane drag polars can be represented by simple mathematical models. Several examples are given. Chapter 4 presents a method to predict the component drag breakdown and the total drag of airplanes. Example drag data are given in Chapter 5. Part VI Chapter 1 Page 1Methods for predicting installed thrust and power characteristics are presented in Chapter 6. Example thrust and power data are given in Chapter 7. Chapter 8 contains methods for predicting lift and pitching moment characteristics of airplanes with and without (mechanical) flaps. Example data are given in Chapter 9. Prediction methods for stability, control and hinge moment derivatives are presented in Chapter 10 with example data provided in Chapter 11. To make the use of this book easy on students, a USER's GUIDE is presented in Chapter 12. Aeronautical engineering students should use this guide to prevent wasting a lot of time chasing non-existing problems. Appendix A contains data on the atmosphere. Appendix B contains data needed in the estimation of areas and volumes. Part VI Chapter 1 Page 22, IMPORTANT DEFINITIONS In this text frequent use is made of: 2.1 Flow regimes defined in terms of Mach number 2.2 Reference geometries defined in terms of areas and lengths The purpose of this chapter is to define the physical and the mathematical meaning of these terms. 2,1 BLOW REGIME DEFINITIONS In this text the following flow regimes are used: 2.1.1 Subsonic Flow Regime 2.1.2 Transonic Flow Regime 2.1.3 Supersonic Plow Regime 2.1.1 Subsonic Plow Regime In terms of Mach number the subsonic flow regime is defined as: SUBSONIC: 0 < M < 0.60 It is assumed that in this flow regime all compressibility effects are negligible. The reader should keep in mind that whether or not compressibility effects are negligible depends not just on the free stream Mach number but also on thickness and on angle of attack. Where the subsonic flow regime ends depends on the values of critical and drag divergence Mach numbers: The critical Mach number is that free stream Mach number for which a condition of M=1 is first reached somewhere on the airplane. Figure 2.1 shows how the critical Mach number varies with airfoil shape and with airfoil lift coefficient (or angle of attack). The drag divergence Mach number is that free stream Mach number for which: Boeing definition: the drag coefficient first reaches a value of 0.0020 above that in the subsonic flow regime. Part VI Chapter 2 Page 3oF My ow eg ore =NZa 0 SLNNOD 02 os) LNVLSNO) = 7 ANWVISNOD = 00 TSQUMN YOeH SSUSHISATG BIT Uo t t T » ny neces, Pr ee a o_o “aoa o_o veg 7 79% ‘donwon } ro Wau NS eax |" ixsaLeno3, foro wou YN eco te ineved vue ah Ap 212 hg ~~~ aay _ Saguinny omH Ee eel A nN St 7 TSS vo i go-%9 1a | aL wend ‘T a To wo Page 4 Chapter 2 Part VIDouglas definition: the slope of the drag coefficient versus Mach number first reaches the value of 0.10. Figure 2.2 depicts these definitions graphically. Experience shows that there is no significant difference between these definitions. The following equations may be used to estimate the drag divergence Mach number for airfoils: For modern (aft-loaded) airfoils: Mpp = 0-95 - (t/edga, ~ ©4/10 (2.1) ‘DD x For NACA airfoils: Myp = 0.90 ~ (tle) a, - ¢,/10 (2.2) Figures 2.3 may be used to estimate the drag divergence Mach number of uncambered wings. For wings with camber, determine the lift coefficient for zero angle of attack, C, . Then use Figures 2.3 with: ‘0 =¢ +, (2.3) & “Factual Yo Reference 8 contains a wealth of information on the effect of the geometry of fuselages and wings on critical and on drag divergence Mach number. 2.1.2 Transonic Flow Regime In terms of Mach number the transonic flow regime is defined as: ¢, TRANSONIC: 0.60 ¢ M ¢ 1.2 Mathematically speaking, the transonic flow regime starts at the critical Mach number. Physically speaking, the transonic flow regime starts at the drag divergence Mach number. In the transonic flow regime compressibility effects cannot be neglected. The reader should keep in mind that compressibility effects in this flow regime are a strong function of thickness ratio (for lifting surfaces such as wings, pylons and tails) and of cross sectional area distributions. The sweep angle of lifting surfaces is also an important parameter. Part VI Chapter 2 Page 5FOR UNCAMBERED WINGS ONLY ! FOR CAMBERED WINGS SEE EQN. 0 10 Fs Part VI Chapter 2 Page 60; FOR UNCAMBERED WINGS ONLY | FoR CAMBERED WINGS SEE EQN.Z3 dMeg AMeg Part VI Chapter 2 Page 7To reduce drag in the transonic flow regime the concept of area ruling plays an important role. Reference 8 contains information on the variation of drag with Mach number in the transonic speed regime below =1. Reference 9 should be used for the estimation of drag in the transonic flow regime above M=1. For applications of the area rule concept, ref.10 should be consulted. 2.1.3 Supersonic Flow Regime In terms of Mach number the supersonic flow regime is defined as: SUPERSONIC: 1.2 FROM REFLIZ COURTESY : L. NICOLAL 0 02 04 06 08 10 12 © a ee ee o 4 8 i 1 20 24 Ls 344 =: Part VI Chapter 3 Page 17does not occur at C, = 0 and it becomes necessary to represent the drag polar as: 2 2 cS + RING, - C7 + KIC, G.6) DP nin Lo Tnin u Note that minimum drag in this case occurs at a lift coefficient of C, = (K'/(K''+K IC, a Tin The Lockheed C-141 Starlifter is a cambered airplane despite the fact that its wing uses symmetrical airfoil sections (average section is NACA 0011). Since the wing is installed at an incidence angle of 3.2 degrees the airplane acts like it is cambered. Figure 3.4 shows the €-141 low speed drag polar. Note that: C) " = 0.0140, ‘min which occurs at C, = 0.27. Unin Note, that for an uncambered airplane Eqn. (3.6) reduces to Eqn. (3.5) since in that case: C, = 0 and: ‘n in K'' + K' = 1/nAe (no camber only!) (3.7) For airplanes flying at relatively high angles of attack, the drag polars deviate significantly from the parabolic shape. This is caused by flow separation resulting in a steep rise in pressure drag. In that case the polar is modelled as: cy +k min + Kg (Cy - o, (c= 2 (3.8) Figure 3.5 illustrates a drag polar with this type of behavior. C, is the lift coefficient for which the steep drag B rise due to separation begins. The factor K, is called the break drag-due-to-lift factor and is defined as: K, = 0 for C, < ¢, o Lots (3.9) Ky > 0 for > cy Table 3.1 presents a summary of important lift-to- drag ratios based on the drag polar models of Eqns 3.5 and 3.6. These lift-to-drag ratios and the lift coefficients at which they occur are used in the performance calculations presented in Part VII. Part VI Chapter 3 Page 18OTP M M¢ 1.2 this drag coefficient Part VI Chapter 4 Page 48may be determined by extrapolation, using the ‘fairing lines’ shown in Figure 4.21. = the fuselage wave drag coefficient waves,, which follows from Figure 4.22. p Bigure 4.23 illustrates how the transonic fuselage zero-lift drag coefficient is built up in this manner. NOTE WELL: The wave drag component of zero lift drag can be much higher than predicted here if the cross sectional area distribution of the wing/fuselage combination is not ‘smooth’. Sub-section 4.3.4 defines what is meant by ‘smooth’ cross sectional area distributions. The transonic fuselage drag coefficient due to lift is found from: 2 ¢ -os, /s (4.39) >, Peus ‘fus with the angle of attack in radians. 4.3.3 Supersonic Fuselage Drag Coefficient The supersonic fuselage drag coefficient is given as: ¢, c + (4.40) D, D, eae °eus Zeus where: Cy = fuselage zero-lift drag coefficient, fug 8ee 4.3.3.1. = fuselage drag coefficient due to lift, see 4.3.3.2. ‘fus 4.3.3.1 Puselage zero-lift drag coefficient The supersonic fuselage zero-lift drag coefficient follows from: ce OS, Senet Cp +Cp + D, £ wet, ‘fus ‘D, ‘D, sus fus ‘fus Ny A MSeu,)/8 (4,41) ‘fus +o +c, anc) OF Part VI Chapter 4 Page 49Coy Gy COPIED FAom AEF. EXAMPLE? ASSUME Dede 5 o/s 5 THE PROPER FAIRING LINE TO 03 BE USED 15 _—____ 2 TT maci— + jwomneR aod Pot ul | COPIED FROM REE.@ 1.05 i wave 16 DRAG. hon ‘COEFFICIENT Yon _| 73 os ‘ 1 [ “t ot : . * 68 0 6 © w FUSELAGE FINENESS RATIO, Le/de 4422 Part VI Chapter 4 Page 50FAIRING DUE TO POSSIBLE MISMATCH BETWEEN TRANSONIC AND SUPERSONIC BASE DRAG ESTIMATES PRESSURE DRAG sore 2 WAVE DRAG Reproduced from Reference 9 SKIN FRICTION 10 12 MACH NUMBER, Note: 2 is the nose diameter of forebody or base diameter of afterbody dg is the maximurr diameter of forebody or afterbody | FOREBODY, Treverscoy : r bk + Part VI Chapter 4 Page 51where: Ce = turbulent flat plate skin-friction fus coefficient of the fuselage, determined as described under Egn. (4.30). Cy and C) are the wave drag coefficients of the A fuselage nose and afterbody respectively. These wave drag coefficients may be determined from Figures 4.24 and 4.25 respectively. If the fuselage does not have a circular cross section, the respective equivalent diameters should be used when using Figures 4.24 and 4.25. NOTE WELL: The wave drag components of zero lift drag can be much higher than predicted here if the cross sectional area distribution of the wing/fuselage combination is not ‘smooth’. Sub-section 4.3.4 defines what is meant by ‘smooth’ cross sectional area distributions. cy = interference drag coefficient acting on ‘ACNC) the aft-fuselage due to the center-fuselage. This coefficient may be found in Figures 4.26 or 4.27. = fuselage base drag coefficient. For fuselages with an approximate circular cross section this coefficient may be read from Figure 4.28, provided the fuselage has no appreciable base area. ‘fus Note: if the fuselage has an appreciable base area (and this almost always is the case in fighter airplanes), the value for the fuselage base drag coefficient may be obtained from: 2 “Dye Sp, (ap! de) (4,42) 5 where the base pressure coefficient, & fs follows from Figures 4.29. 4.3.3.2 Puselage drag coefficient due to lift The supersonic fuselage drag coefficient due to lift depends strongly on the fuselage cross section: 2 = F(Qa Ss, /5 + 65 (s 18) pP) (4.43) Deus 6. “pleas ce Chapter 4 Page 52Note: © athe now diameter of forebody or bee diameter of alerbody 4 Gtne masintim aameter of forcody o alerbody ‘ ay AK 22 oo ee «, A 4.25 Afterbodies COPIED FROM BEF.9 as + 20 1 y—op— hb cul!) Part VI Chapter 4 Page 53wouseHAN HON ‘ , © eww “aldo NJ a On Chapter 4 Page 54 Part VI5 TACT TESTUOY STRUT ROTAAY JO t 6t vy ——- p aay —- p~p v TWoys G3id05 Chapter 4 Page 55 Part VI643ad *Wous T3160) WWaGRAN HOV sTT pep Yap 'ano09 Kou 91948 Pain 2a pious 2) HwOrHoH pa MAL 21] remy oe P ‘nag Kath 1849 Pon 2a preys out RWotvon amved 2k 210 BON 521 © Chapter 4 Page 56 Part VIFor a fuselage with circular cross section: F = 1.0 For a fuselage with elliptical cross sectio: F = ((a/b)(cosw)? + (b/a) (sinw)?} (4.44) where: a is the major axis of the elliptical cross section. b is the minor axis of the elliptical cross section. » = 0 with the major axis horizontal. ® = 90 deg. with the minor axis horizontal. Values for cg are found in Figure 4.20. 4.3.4 The Area Rule Concept The methods for predicting wave drag in Sub-sections 4.3.2 and 4.3.3 are valid only if the wing/fuselage/en- pennage combination has a ‘smooth’ cross sectional area distribution. Figure 4.30 illustrates how a cross sectional area distribution of an airplane is obtained. Whitcomb showed in Reference 17 that the wave drag of an airplane in the transonic speed range is roughly equal to the wave drag of its ‘equivalent body of revolution. Figure 4.30 also shows the equivalent body of revolution for the same airplane. Note the irregularities in the equivalent body of revolution. Minimum wave drag can be achieved by designing the wing/fuselage/empennage cross sectional area distribution in such a way that its equivalent body of revolution ap- proximates the so-called Sears-Haack bodies. This design concept (due to Whitcomb) is referred to as area ruling. Three types of Sears-Haack bodies are depicted in Figure 4,31: Type I: used to minimize wave drag for a given length and volume. used to minimize wave drag for a given length Type I and diameter. Type III: used to minimize wave drag for a given diameter and volume. Part VI Chapter 4 Page 57CONSTRUCT 'EQUIVALENT! BODY OF REVOLUTION SO THAT S; = rr AIRPLANE EQ. 3 4 2 Zs ZZ COPIED FROM: REF.18. COURTESY: B-NELSON, NORTHROP TPE! C= $ #(L)? GEN enctH avor Tren Gy» (2)* — uenartaon rem cys see(<)* maven Part VI Chapter 4 Page 58The wave drag coefficients and volumes for the three Sears-Haack bodies are also given in Figure 4.31. Note: these wave drag coefficients apply to supersonic Mach numbers only! To a first order of approximation these supersonic wave drag coefficients are independent of Mach number. It is clear that to minimize wave drag it is essential to distribute any given volume over as much length as possible. However, in airplane layout design several constraints are encountered. Typical constraints are: a) the airplane may not exceed a given length: this constraint is nearly always encountered in carrier based airplanes. Supersonic transports may encounter length limitations for reasons of ground maneuvering, gate space restrictions and hangar size limits. b) the airplane must have a minimm total volume: this constraint comes about because of the need to carry fuel, payload,, fixed equipment, landing gear and engines. Even airplane structures need a minimum amount of volume. c) the airplane must have a minimm outside diameter: this constraint arises because of the need for cabin volume, engine size and/or payload size. Because of these constraints on length, volume and diameter it may be necessary to strike a compromise in the layout design of transonic and supersonic airplanes. From the previous discussion it is obvious that early knowledge of volume requirements inside the airplane is essential. The airplane layout design procedures of Chapters 4-9 in Part II must be augmented with the following step-by-step procedure: Step 1: Tabulate preliminary volume requirements as indicated in Table 4.1. Tables 4.2 give data for the volumetric requirements of the elements listed in Table 4.1. It is essential that the ‘critical’ (= minimm required) length for all elements is identified. The reader should use judgement in deciding where element critical lengths may overlap. Step 2: Prepare a preliminary airplane layout which includes all elements listed in Step 1. Do not forget to cross-check with the design layout procedures of Chapters 4-9 of Pt.II. Part VI Chapter 4 Page 59Table 4.1 Critical Volume and Length Requirements Airplane Elenent critical Critical Volume Length cet?) (et) Eorebody: radome, avionics, cockpit, nose gear Mid section: gun or weapons bay, main gear, avionics, control runs, body fuel, fixed equipment, wing sweep mechanism, inlets Aft body: engine bay(s), tailpipes, nozzles, afterburners, body fuel, empennage carry-through Wing: total wing volume outside the body. : if required, this normally resides in the forward part of the fuselage. Empennage: total empennage volume outside the body. Streamtube: that volume taken up by the inlet, engines, tailpipes, afterburners and nozzles. Inlet stream tube: that volume taken up by the inlet up to the engine compressor faces. Note: This table can be completed only after a preliminary layout of the airplane has been prepared. Chapters 4-9 in Part II provide step-by-step procedures for preparing such a layout. Tables 4.2a and 4.2b should be consulted for preliminary data on volumetric requirements of airplane elements. Part VI Chapter 4 Page 60Table 4.2a Critical Volume, Cross Section and Length Data Notes: 1. Data given are minimm data for fighters. For transports the volume needs follow from layout design results of Chapters 4-9 in Part II. 2, All data refer to ‘installed’ volumes, not to actual volumes. Data based on Reference 18. Element Volume Cross Section Length (et?) cee?) (et) . 4 2 Radome: 0.2214, 44 + 0.33) (14) ag) Cockpit: today 70.0 14,0 upright future 50.0 11.0 upright 7.0 semi-supine Nose gear: 15.0 3.0 (fighters only!) Weapons: see Part IV, Chapter 3 for dimensioned data on weapons and stores. Some statistical data ar conformal carriage: 1.5 £t°/1,000 ibs 3.0 internal bay: 7 tube launch: 20 £t3/1,000 lbs weapon ejector launch: 33 £t3/1,000 bs weapon Guns: Mk61 20 mm 14.0 gun +2 Oerlikon 30 mm 4.8 gun +2 Ammunition: 20 mm 0,013 £t3/round 30 mm 0.052 £t*/round Main Gear: (9 + 10°6(2,56CBR - 4, 86)Wyo(1.924cBR) °° 158 For CBR (California Bearing Ratio) definitions and its relation to airfield type, see Ref.19. For fighters: CBR = 3.0 - 5.0 | For transports: CBR = 12 Arresting gear: 4.0 Hydr./pneum. systems: 0.00046W,, Electrical systems: 4.0 (for fighters only) Armor: 1.0 Environmental system: 15.0 (for fighters only) Part VI Chapter 4 Page 61Table 4.2b Critical Volume, Cross Section and Length Data Element Volume Cross Section Length cet) (ee?) (ét) Oxyaen system: 6.0 per crew member for fighters Auxiliary gear: 0.00005HnG Control runs: 1.0 £t? between the cockpit and empennage Fuselage structure: 0.13(1,/d_)S, ££) Svete Wing: volume outside the body, computed from the wing layout drawing of Step 6.13 in Part IT. i 4 2 Wing sweep mechanism: 0.4(c,)7(t/c), We » C\= chord at ef pans ey pivot. Body fuel: use a volumetric efficiency of 85 percent for fuselage tanks. Refuelling system: 2 £t*, normally in the forebody Empennage: volume outside the body, computed from the empennage layout drawing of Step 8.7, Part II. Streamtube: that volume taken up by inlets, engines, tailpipes, afterburners and nozzles. Wasted volume: it is not possible to package a fuselage without wasted volume. Many system components require accessibility: this adds volume. The following equation is suggested for computing wasted volume: 1/2 v = 0,212{3 (Vol. gyg/lg) + 2.7(Volgygle) 7} waste where: Vol,,, = sum of all previous volume requirements. 1g is the overall fuselage length Total_volume: = Vole. + Vyaste’ Inlet stream tube: that volume taken up by the inlet up to the engine compressor faces. This volume is subtrac- ted from the total volume in arriving at the net cross- sectional area distribution. Part VI Chapter 4 Page 62Step 3: Translate the preliminary airplane layout into a cross sectional area plot as shown in Figure 4.32. Make certain that all volumetric and critical length requirements of Step 1 are satisfied. Step 4: Decide which of the Sears-Haack bodies of Figure 4.31 best fit the cross sectional area plot of Step 3. Overlay the selected Sears-Haack cross sectional area plots. Step 5: Adjust the fuselage geometry until the airplane cross sectional area plot MINUS its inlet capture area conforms to the selected Sears-Haack shapes. Figure 4.33 shows an example of a cross sectional area distribution of a fighter airplane. Figure 4.34 shows several critical cross sections. Note that the ‘bump’ in the area distribution due to the canopy are eliminated by indenting the local fuselage cross section. The Dassault Rafale is an example of a fighter airplane where this has also been done. Note that the ‘bump’ in the area distribution due to the wing has been eliminated also by indenting the local fuselage cross section. The result is a ‘coke-bottle’ shape. Further examples of this coke-bottling are shown in Figures 3.54 - 3,56 in Part II. Airplanes which fly at high subsonic Mach numbers may require so-called ‘local’ area ruling. Examples of ‘local’ area ruling are found in the Boeing 737-300 wing/ nacelle region, in the Northrop F-5 wing/tiptank region and in the DC-10 center-engine/vertical tail region. In using ‘local’ area ruling, only local cross sectional area distributions are constructed. When these local cross sectional area distributions are ‘smooth’, no major problems in dragrise at high subsonic Mach numbers should be expected. Part VI Chapter 4 Page 63£.63 STEPS VERT. TAILS LOWGMTUOMAL STATIN COPIED FROM BEF.18 COURTESY = B-NELSON Ni 2 (fswell* emetewl{ fee P.63 STEPH \ sii, BE | mn “ Soest [RST STAGE AIRPLANE CROSS SECTION DEFINITION (TAROET) 32 i a foaee a 4 Part VI Chapter 4 Page 64‘CROSS-SECTIONAL AREASO IN, 5 ‘DENSITY APPROK.§ LICUBIC FT CCARTURE AACA = 00 $0N. REMOVE 5 SEARS TED 3 wing w =) ‘SEARS TYPE 3 ana 78 A aso (og Soa 00 S00 800) S00 a5 FUSELAGE STATION-NCHES COPIED FROM: RERIS COURTESY: B.NELSON (NosTHROP) 1 70 4.33 COPIED FROM: REF IS COURTES' B.NELSON CNOBTHROP) £ Foe L Part VI Chapter 4 Page 654.4 EMPENNAGE DRAG COEFFICIENT PREDICTION 4.4.1 Subsonic Empennage Drag Coefficient The subsonic empennage drag coefficient is found from: ¢ = SUM, ((Cy + (C, ) (4.45) emp 0, L ‘emp ‘emp where: (C) ), = empennage zero-lift drag coefficient ee, of the number i empennage surface, ™® see 4.4.1.1. empennage drag coefficient due to lift of the number i empennage surface, see 4.4.1.2. 4.4.1.1 Empennage zero-lift drag coefficient The empennage zero-lift drag coefficient, (C) © onp may be computed with Equation (4.6) after replacing the appropriate wing parameters with those for the empennage. It is assumed here that any airplane may have the following empennage surfaces: * horizontal tail surface(s), * canard surface(s) and * vertical tail surface(s) How many of these surfaces an airplane has and where they are located depends strongly on the configuration of the airplane. Chapter 3 of Part II presents more than 180 airplane configurations with different approaches to empennage layout design. Chapter 8 of Part II as well as Chapter V of Part III contain methods and examples for the sizing of empennage surfaces. NOTE: For each of these empennage surfaces Eqn. (4.6) must be used with the following substitutions: s, = 8, ) wet, Wet emp i Rye = 160 Rpg = as determined from Figure 4.2, but using the individual empennage surface sweep angle. Part VI Chapter 4 Page 66Ce = C, which follows from Figure 4.3 at the ap- fy ft omp propriate empennage Reynolds number computed with as characteristic length, Cenp » the exposed mean geometric e chord for each empennage surface. L! = as determined from Figure 4.4, using the maximum thickness location associated with each empennage airfoil. (t/c) = maximum thickness ratio associated with each empennage airfoil, taken at its exposed mean geometric chord. The empennage wetted area, (8. y will normally emp be different for each empennage surface. 4.4.1.2 ici i The empennage drag coefficient due to lift, (c, ), may be computed with the following method: Most canard and horizontal tail surfaces develop lift in a steady state flight condition. This lift causes induced drag. In this text, the lift carried by empennage surfaces is split into two components: 1, Lift caused by the reference incidence setting of any empennage surface: the induced drag caused by this lift is accounted for in this paragraph. 2. Lift caused by the requirement to ‘trim’ the airplane at a particular center of gravity location: the induced drag caused by this lift is referred to as ‘trim’ drag: see Section 4.10. If the empennage employs the so-called butterfly arrangement, the projection method of page 206 in Part II may be used to arrive at the ‘equivalent horizontal’ and the ‘equivalent vertical’ tail surface. The amount of lift on a horizontal tail surface can Part VI Chapter 4 Page 67be computed from: = (a - (4.46) by, ‘Sh *h with: oy, a(1 - de/da) + in (4.47) The amount of lift on a canard surface can be computed from: C=C, (ay - ) (4.48) L L c °, © c be with: a, = a(1 + de./da) + i, (4,49) Methods for predicting downwash ¢, upwash e, and the zero lift angles of attack, a, anda, , are presented L in Chapter 10. ° In airplanes with a fixed horizontal tailplane, i, is usually zero. In airplanes with a fixed canard, i, is normally set to assure that the canard stalls before the wing. In preliminary design it is acceptable to set: in +3 (4,50) ipsa -a + stall, ~ “stall, * “w where the values for a and a are taken as the stall, stall, airfoil stall angles of attack at the m.g.c. of their respective surfaces and where the wing incidence angle, i, may be found from Tables 6.7 in Part II or from page 197 in Part III. Since horizontal tails and canards are normally not twisted, their drag-due-to-lift may be computed from Eqn. (4.8) with e,=0, to yield: cp = (Cy ‘emp This equation applies to an airplane equipped with one horizontal tail and with one canard. If more empennage surfaces are present, they must be accounted for in a manner analogous to Eqn. (4.51). 2 2 MimdyeyISy/S + (Cy I IAALe IS—/S (4.51) ‘h Part VI Chapter 4 Page 68and C, follow from Eqns (4.46) and ‘h ic (4,48) respectively. Values for C, values for A,, A,, S, and S, follow from airplane threeviews as developed in Chapter 13 of Part II. For the Oswald efficiencies e, and e, the following values are suggested e, > 0.5 for fuselage mounted tails 0.75 for T-tails 0.5 c Vertical Tail Surface(s) Vertical tails are normally installed symmetrically so that the vertical tail drag contribution due to lift is usually zero. If the airplane is sideslipping over an angle 8, this angle p should be considered as the angle of attack of the vertical tail. A modified version of Eqn. (4.51) may then be used to calculate the drag due to lift (in sideslip) of the vertical tail. 4.4.2 Transonic Empennage Drag Coefficient The transonic empennage drag coefficient may be found from: c : (4,52) emp L, where: (Cy 4 7 empennage zero-lift drag coefficient 6, of the number i empennage surface, aod see 4.4.2.1. ), = empennage drag coefficient due to lift ‘em of the number i empennage surface, os see 4.4.2.2. 4.4.2.1 Empennage zero-lift drag coefficient In the transonic speed range the empennage zero-lift drag coefficient is found froi Part VI Chapter 4 Page 69+ (Cy dts d,/S (4.53) mi em yave el at M=0.6 where: (Cy i 7 empennage drag coefficient due to © emp friction of the number i empennage surface at M-0.6. It is obtained from at M=0.6 Eqn. (4,6) with the same substitutions as noted in 4.4.1.1. (cy ), = empennage zero-lift wave drag coef- emp, ficient obtained with the procedure wave of 4.2.2.1 but with the appropriate substitution of empennage (emp) pa- parameters for wing (w) parameters. To achieve acceptable wave drag characteristics, the entire configuration, including its empennage surfaces must be ‘area-ruled’. A procedure for ‘area-ruling’ any configuration is given in Sub-section 4.3.4. 4.2.2 The transonic empennage drag coefficient due to lift, (C) , may be computed from Eqn. (4.18), as long Lemp as the following substitutions are used: jl 2 : To find (Cy /C,"Jeqp, from Figures 4.13, use the appropriate transonic similarity parameters for the number i empennage surface. For C, use either C, as in Equations c (4.46) or (4.48). 4.4.3 Supersonic Empennage Drag Coefficient The supersonic empennage drag coefficient is found from: Spy 7 SUM: at ©, 4.54) ‘mp ‘emp ‘emp where: (Cy j 7 Zero lift drag coefficient of the 0, number i empennage surface, emp see 4.4.3.1. Part VI Chapter 4 Page 70= drag coefficient due to lift of the number i empennage surface, see 4.4.3.2. 4.4.3.1 The supersonic empennage zero lift drag coefficient is found fro + (py , (4.55) (c, dj, =, D. i Demp. i i emp mee em wave where: (Cy), = (C 46S, is (4.56) 5 emp, femp f Wetemp i where: (Cp), may be found from emp Fig.4.3 at the appropriate empennage Reynolds number computed with as characteristic length, ¢ » the exposed emp, mean geometric chord of each empennage surface. (Cp )4 = wave drag coefficient of the number em aye i empennage surface. This wave drag coefficient may be determined with the method of 4.2.3.1 as long as the appropriate empennage parameters are substituted for their wing counterparts. 4.4.3.2 Empennage drag coefficient due to ft The supersonic empennage drag coefficient due to lift is found from: 2 2 (c, dy = py 1,792, CC, ) (4.57) ‘D, D, ‘L ‘emp, ~L, Lemp L ‘i emp 2 values for (Cy iC, empi TY be obtained from the method of 4.2.3.2, as long as the appropriate parameter substitutions are made. Values for (C, ‘emp follow from either Eqn. (4.46) or from Eqn. (4.48). Part VI Chapter 4 Page 714.5 NACELLE/PYLON DRAG COEFFICIENT PREDICTION Methods for predicting nacelle/pylon drag are presented as follows: 4.5.1 Isolated Nacelle/Pylon Drag Coefficient This method is applicable in all speed regimes considered in this text. 4.5.2 Installed Nacelle/Pylon Drag Coefficient Increment This method applies only in the subsonic speed regime and provides the ‘interference’ drag increment due to nacelle/pylon instal lations. It is assumed that this ‘interference’ drag increment is independent of Mach number as long as the appropriate area ruling is used in the transonic and supersonic speed ranges. See Sub-section 4.3.4 for details on area ruling. 4.5.3 Windmilling Drag and Propeller Drag Coef- ficients This method provides the drag increase caused by engine and/or propeller stoppage. These methods should be applied as follows: 1: Determine the subsonic installed drag increment due to the nacelle or the nacelle/pylon combination from Sub-section 4.5.2. Again: this drag increment represents the interference drag of the installation. Step 2: Determine the drag increments due to transonic and supersonic operations from Sub- section 4.5.1 which assumes the nacelle/pylon to be isolated. 3: Add the transonic and/or supersonic increments from Step 2 to the nacelle/pylon interference drag obtained in Step 1. 4: For windmilling and/or propeller drag increments use Sub-section 4.5.3. Add this drag increment to the drag obtained in Step 3. Part VI Chapter 4 Page 725.1 tol led The nacelle/pylon drag coefficient may be computed from: = (4,58) Pap where: C) = nacelle drag coefficient, see 4.5.1.1. n C) = pylon drag coefficient, see 4.5.1.2. P 4.5.1.1 Nacelle drag coefficient The nacelle drag coefficient is found from: Cy = SUM, (Cy ) (4.59) Dy Sopa The number i equals the number of nacelles on the airplane. Each nacelle drag coefficient, (C, ), is com ‘n puted with the method of Section 4.3. This assumes that a nacelle can be treated as if it is a (small) fuselage. Note: nacelles will generate lift when placed at an angle of attack. Local nacelle angle of attack should be expressed as: +a, t ey (4,60) wing angle of attack i, = nacelle incidence angle, see Pigure 4.35. nacelle upwash and downwash angle. This depends on where the nacelle is intalled on the airplane. Figure 4.36 illustrates two possibilities. €, > 0 for upwash and €,< 0 for downwash. The nacelle up- or downwash angle follows from: ®n =(de,/da)a (4,61) where: de,/da is computed with the methods described in Chapter 8, Part VI Chapter 4 Page 73WING CHOBD LINE a) NACELLE ON WING UPWASH! (6, >0) DOWNWASH (En <0) b) NACELLE — KS oN = Crs FUSELAGE 4.36 Part VI Chapter 4 Page 74Engine Inoperative: In addition to the drag given by Eqn. (4.59) there will be extra drag caused by engine or propeller windmilling. If a propeller is stopped, there will be extra drag due to that. Sub-section 4.5.3 deals with such cases. 4.5.1.2 Pylon drag coefficient The pylon drag coefficient may be found from: “py = SUM; (Cp 4 (4,62) It will be assumed here that the drag behavior of a pylon can be modelled as that of an empennage. For this reason, values for (C, ), may be obtained by using the method of Section 4.4. For vertically installed pylons (see Figure 4.37), the pylon should be treated as a vertical tail: the drag prediction method of Section 4.4 may be used. For horizontally installed pylons (see Figure 4.38) the pylon should be treated as a horizontal tail or as a canard: use the drag prediction method of Section 4.4. NOTA BENE 1: Nacelles installed in the proximity of wings (see Figure 4.37a) must be installed so that they are at zero local sideslip angle in the local flowfield. This results in the need for ‘toe-in’ for nacelles such as in the Boeing 747 series airplanes: see Figure 4.39. NOTA BENE 2: The methods of 4.5.1.1 and 4.5.1.2 apply to all speed regimes. However, in the transonic and supersonic speed regimes the method is valid only as long as the nacelle/pylon combination is included in the area- ruling process described in Sub-section 4.3.3. Note: the nacelle stream tube should not be included in this area ruling process. 4.5.2 Installed Nacelle/Pylon Drag Coefficient Increment Sub-section 4.5.1 provides a method for predicting the drag coefficient, C) due to isolated nacelle/pylon combinations. np In the following, a method for computing the interference drag increment caused by a nacelle/pylon Part VI Chapter 4 Page 75Part VI Chapter 4 Page 76installation is presented. The method is broken down into three parts: :5.2.1 Wing/nacelle interference drag coefficient 4.5.2.2 Puselage/nacelle interference drag coefficient 4.5.2.3 Cooling drag coefficient increment Which drag increment should be accounted for depends on the airplane configuration. 4.5.2.1 For turboprop and for piston-prop nacelle/wing installations the interference drag coefficient is found from: i (4,63) = 0,036 (cb /s)(Ac, + Ac. nn 1 1. Mint 1 2 where: c, and b, are defined in Figure 4,40, Ac, = 0.2 for a nacelle on top of the wing 1 = -0.3 for a nacelle below the wing Ac, = 0.056(i,) (4, is in degrees) 1, n 1 7 Racelle incidence angle defined in Figure 4.35. For jet-driven airplanes the wing/nacelle interference drag coefficient is found from: ¢, =F D. (4,64) int where: (AC) /C) ) follows from Figure 4.41 at the Mach non numbers indicated. C) = nacelle drag coefficient as determined nin 4.5.1.1. = 1.0 for M << 0.5 1.0 for M > 0.5 and no local area ruling of the nacelle/pylon/wing intersection. 0.5 for M > 0.5 and a locally area ruled nacelle/pylon/wing intersection. Part VI Chapter 4 Page 77Mon [cp = drag coefficient of free nacelle Dn Ap = drag coefficient including interference Gor i | sid Pb a2 % 04 NO [s. 18 | Xs | | eee 40 > Note: 1, For definition of geometric parameters, see b) 2, Valid for a st¥aight ving only os | | | | | 48 “0h a2 ° an oy es fe fairing , e080 Tee +06 04k x z Note: Valid for swept wings only COPIED FROM: err 4.41 Part VI Chapter 4 Page 784.5.2.2 Fuselage/nacelle interference draq coefficient The fuselage/nacelle interference drag coefficient may be found from: c = FA UC D, Mint 2 Pn where: (C, )' is found from Figure 4.42 n yt ~ 0,05}(S,/8) (4,65) Sy = maximum frontal area of the nacelle, excluding the pylon: see Figure 4.38. " . = 1,0 for fuselage/nacelle intersections 2 without local area ruling 0.5 for fuselage/nacelle intersections with local area ruling. 4.5.2.3 Cooling drag coefficient increment The cooling drag coefficient increment for radial air-cooled engine installations may be estimated from: Cy = (acy cool where: AC follows from Figure 4.43. cool )tn(a,)?/48) (4.66) cool = the maximum nacelle diameter as shown in Figure 4.38. 4.5.3 winamilli sed The following cases should be considered: n 1.) Windmilling drag coefficient due to jet engines: see 4,5,3,1. 2.) Windmilling drag coefficient due to propellers: see 4.5.3.2, 3.) Drag coefficient due to a stopped propeller: see 4.5.3.3. 5.3.1 Windmill ffici 4 . The incremental drag coefficient due to a windmilling jet engine may be estimated from: Part VI Chapter 4 Page 79ot, |__ en of te oactte Sladen Seertrence) nj 4 ee | AA Ns we “S G0 eto or A h ra FV Sos 8 § 5 z i : = ° 1 + | sSCtaeSStSSt*CtC COPIED FROM: Hoc: 1. 6, ia-bat gm sarin maces frontal ene = R21 2. drag coeffictent of the free nacelle 48 0.05 4.42 = ®@/|® o]® r © DAF Ty fe Pp, a t | ¢ 0 b Y WA vA x AS hana igr=n7e 178 762 1s 163 163 463 | 3,62 + t FZ =2.53] ass | 059 | 063 | 066 | 0,66 | 066 | a6 \aG=ar| go7s| 0/0 | a07 | 206) g08e| a2zrz | arse COPIED FROM BEF. ZI "scp BASED ON: zat 4.43 Part VI Chapter 4 Page 802 AC, = 0,0785(d, 17/8 + Diymj 2 + (2/2 + 0,26M7 93 (V9 /04) A ~ Vigg/Uy)Spog/S (4.67) where: dj,, = engine inlet diameter Snog * Rozzle cross section area Vno2/U: moz/U; = ratio of average flow velocity in the nozzle to the steady state flight speed The following values are suggested for this ratio: Vnoz/Us = 0+25 for turbojets and turboprops = 0.42 for low by-pass ratio jet engines = 0.12 for the primary airflow of high bypass jet engines = 0,92 for the fan airflow of high bypass jet engines 4.5.3.2 Windmilling drag coefficient due to propellers Reference 20 provides a method for estimating the windmilling drag due to a propeller. In absence of that reference it is suggested to use: acy = 33(1/qS)SEP. (4.68) ‘wMp Op where: SHP ratea/U1 = maximum rated shaft horsepower of the engine in the flight condition being considered. Note: use hp! rated 4, = Steady state flight speed, in fps. 4.5.3.3 The incremental drag coefficient due to a stopped propeller may be estimated from: 2 ac, = 0,00125n_ ¢ h 4.69 in, (D,)°/S ( ) Pprop where: n, = number of blades per propeller D, = diameter of the propeller Part VI Chapter 4 Page 814,6 FLAP DRAG PREDICTION The assumption is made that flaps will be deployed only in the subsonic speed regime. For the effect of flap drag at high speed the reader should consult reference 9. The drag coefficient due to flap deflection may be estimated from: Cp = ACh + Ac, + Cy (4,70) ‘flap Prof cap i evap interap where: Cy = the flap profile drag increment, Profe;,, see 4.6.1. = the induced drag increment due to the flap, see 4.6.2. = the interference drag increment due to the flap, see 4.6.3. The following method applies to wings with sweep angles up to 40 degrees. For higher sweep angles the reader should consult Reference 9. The flap profile drag increment may be found from: Pocot - (eg, (COAG 4) Sye/S (71) flap Rey 470 where: AC, = the two-dimensional profile drag P,_, no increment due to flaps. ‘c/4 AC, This increment depends on the type of flaps used: For plain flaps: use Figure 4.44. For split flaps, use Figure 4.45. For single slotted flaps, use Figure 4.46. For double slotted flaps: use Figure 4.47. For Fowler flaps: use Figure 4.48 Part VI Chapter 4 Page 82y 8 Db. ° 00 =! Yos GIWA S wo) Fo fe ° a Soe: ia " F T FT osrnh 7 Tateowes WY <= | e t% i a rb ve 1 « ! oo, 4 weedy ean : ° | wor? i ,* A 3 ! s & ° I & r + ° sense ots x, ' Poy ove wo9 2fy cbupuey || 00 ore 5 t 2 l2°s3a Wodd T3Id0D oro Z | | 3 “oro=($) vara Py ™SORTI PSIFOTS STqNOT % 20 = VY Bos AWA wT 702 by wos CWA ore = Yh Py Aah LZ A ° oev= HA 7 Pog wo loro = 1 12°43% WO¥s G31Z0d UL 8 = %, sdvrg poxiots o18ur5 oro Page 84 Chapter 4 Part VIi |) (7 lier [8 corleD FROM: ard i / REF. 21 mal 1 eas ao VALID FoR: 203 Agyz2 2.028 t 3 A xase Jease [rear / Jaase fra 20) ease xv ote : a ow 2 30 40 50 —-F Part VI Chapter 4 Page 85For Krueger flaps, use: aa. =p, (ege/e 4.72) Roya? i where: C) is obtained from Eqn. (4.6). ow Cy~/c = ratio of wing chord with Krueger flap extended to that of the wing with the Krue- ger flap retracted: see Figure 4.49. For slats, use: Acq = Cp, (eg/e? (4.73) Pacs4=? Md where: c,/c = ratio of wing chord with slats extended to that of the wing with the slats retracted: See Figure 4.49. Figure 4.50 illustrates these various flap types. Agj4 = wing quarter chord sweep angle. S¢ = the flapped wing area: see Figure 4.50. we 4.6.2 Induced Drag Increment due to Flaps The induced drag increment due to flaps may be estimated from: - 2 ac, = K? (AC, Pcoshe 4 (4.74) “eiap Telap where: AC, = the incremental lift coefficient due to ‘flap the flap. This quantity follows from comparing a flaps-up with a flaps-down C,-versus-a curve: see Figure 4.51. Chapter 8 presents a method for constructing Pig.4.51. an empirical constant which follows from Figures 4.52 and 4.53. 4.6.3 Interference Drag Increment due to Flaps The interference drag increment due to flaps may be estimated from: Part VI Chapter 4 Page 86TAAILING EDGE FLAPS Puam\ sr = a, pol rower, Part VI LEADING EDGE FLAPS. Oo Chapter 4 Kaiecn sust t A8ve i i 4 y eLAP 4.44 — 48 FLAPS UPACD = Rint tCp (4,75) int erap PEF tap where: AC) follows Sub-section 4.6.1. Profeiay Kint 7 7 0-15 for split flaps = 0 for plain flaps = + 0.40 for slotted flaps 0 + 0.25 for Fowler flaps 1 + 0,10 for slats and for Kruegers Spamviae Uninterrupted Pape eh pao Fifs* For definition of by see Figure 453! 1s cOrIED FROM: BEF ZI Eigure 4.52 Induced Drag Factor for Uninterrupted Flaps Part VI Chapter 4 Page 88as eS a3 0.2 of O46 03 4 0.3 4 6 Cm so 12 A —- 4.53 Part VI Chapter 4 + t— 1.0 FROM: Lit ji tp py KER 2I 4 6 8 10 12 | = 4/6 7 —t_| o,6 & 5 4, —t=04 b Pee + td oe T 40 — 4 é 8 10 a N bs /e Poet ee be 0.6 | | 10 byt ic iecarp Page 894.7 LANDING GEAR DRAG PREDICTION The assumption is made that landing gear deployment will occur only in the subsonic speed regime. The method presented here applies only at low speed. The landing gear drag coefficient for an airplane with i landing gears may be computed from: ¢ = SUM; LL(C, + PCy) (Sgeqp)g/S} (4. 76) Pgear i Pgeary 7 i ivL geari L where: Cp = the zero-lift drag coefficient of the geary landing gear based on its own reference area, Figures 4.54 Sgear' through 4.60 provide data from which the zero-lift drag coefficient of the landing gear may be determined. = reference area for the zero-lift gear drag coefficient. This reference area is defined in Figures 4.54-4.60. For most landing gear types: S,.,, = byxD,, where Sgear b, is the tire width and D, is the tire diameter. p = a factor which accounts for the variation of gear drag with lift. Figure 4.61 gives a method for determining this factor p. Airplanes can have a number of different types of landing gear. The summation over i landing gears in Eqn. (4.76) indicates this. Figures 4.54 - 4,60 should be used as follows: 1 Figures 4.54 and 4.55 apply to non-retractable (= fixed) landing gears attached to wing or fuselage. Note that these drag coefficients are based Ont Soar = DyxDy- Figure 4.56 applies to non-retractable (= fixed) landing gears attached to nacelles. These drag coefficients are based on: 8.4, = D,xD,- Important note: The data in Figures 4.54 - 4.56 apply to the entire main gear which is assumed to consist of two of the legs shown in these figures. Part VI Chapter 4 Page 90Note: 1. All C, values are referenced to bxD, and are valid for C,=0 2, All landing gears shown in this figure are assumed to have streamlined tires such as shown in Figure 4.57 y L, Zz 3 y Dy Effect of streamlining Effect of wheel fairings Non streamlined strute : Cy=2.56 #8 shown in Figure 4.57 Streamlined struts tCyel.11 Fatring type A: Cy=1.15 Struts also streamlined : C,=0.93 Fairing type B : C,=1.05 at intersections A and B Fairing type © : C,=0.71 Struts also streamlined : C,=0.85 at intersections A, B and C COPIED FROM REF. 2! Without wheel fairing : C,=0.565 With fairing type Bo: C,=0.54 With fairing type C : Cy0.49 98 Shown in Figure 4.57 4.54 : = i 1-2 Part VI Chapter 4 Page 91Without wheel fairing : Cy=0.62 With fairing type A: C)=0.46 as shown in Figure 4,57 46 ha Type 4, narrow strut, no fairing : Type 4a, Narrow strut, small : fairing Type 4b, strut and wheel faired : C completely COPIED FROM GEF.21 With wheel fairing type C, according to Figure 4.57: C= .68 Without wheel fairing 2 Cy=1.05 4.55 : =: i 3-5 Part VI Chapter 4 Page 92A11 C, values are referenced to kx of one wheel, but apply to the entire landing gear, including interference draj Not COPIED FROM BEF ZI ©, = 0,45 - 0,74 [; } 0,45 - 0,60 { 0,60 - 0,90 C, = 1,85 - 2,10 Valid for ¢,=0 only 4.56 : = Attached to Nacelles Part VI Chapter 4 Page 93: Figure 4.57 applies to wheels with and without streamline caps (fairings). Note that these drag coefficients are based on: §,,,, = byxD,. For nose gears: Figure 4.58 applies to nose gears with closed nosewheel doors. Note that the reference area is agai = byxD,- Sgear For retractable landing gears: Figure 4.59 provides the data. Nota bene: these data are based on the reference area: (axb) as defined in Figure 4.59. The drag coefficients again apply to the entire gear which is assumed to consist of two legs. Figure 4.61 shows a relationship between Af, and Wr gear for different types of landing gear. From these data: ¢, is (4,77) Pgear SE gear Many airplane configurations employ ‘landing-gear- bulge-fairings’. Many examples of this are depicted in Chapter 3 of Part II. The extra drag created by these bulge fairings should be accounted for in the the estimation of fuselage drag: see Section 4.3. Note that a bulge fairing will add to the cross sectional area of the fuselage and therefore will reduce the ‘effective’ fuselage slenderness ratio parameter l¢/dg. This causes an increase in fuselage drag as given by Eqn. (4.30). Part VI Chapter 4 Page 94be Streamlined |Low Pressure | Very Low High Pressur Tire Tire Pressure Tire|Tire 7 ” ” ” Dibe27x9'/4" | Dab 25x8} D.be19,5x9" | D-b=26x5' Cy = 018 [C,= 0,25 | c, = 0,18 Cy = 0,30 Dy Standard Tire D.b=20x4" et = 0,25 Drag Coefficients of Wheels COPIED FROM fer. 2! S46 B Wheel without ,¢ 2 0,24 0,24 0,24 fairing D Wheel with - . 0,22 0,19 |fetring Cy= 0,12 - 0,14 Drag Coefficients of Wheels With Fairings 4,57 Part VI Chapter 4 Page 95COPIED FROM: BEF.2! ra) NOTE: 6 GEAR CAVITY ae CLOSED! on ae Tiewae ° | | G ° 7 2 Ly) 4,58 ooo 24 tb (5 NOTE: S * ~ | Jt gf 4° GEAR CAVITY we LI . OFEN ! }— - 4, ge Lime fentat ane “ fa CorieD . She FROM: ‘ a Ber. Z1 a Lf a fa Id 96 2 |_| % ° | cy oa 48 “4 as a6 a Note: ALL Gp values are referenced to xb of one gear, but apply te she entire Landing gear, including interference de 4,59 Part VI Chapter 4 Page 9680, Of ah 60 COPIED (Cr) Tricycle ROM: be v AEF. 22 20| f Bicycle Tail wheel ° ! ° 50 100 150 200 250 300 TAKE-OFF WEIGHT~ Wy, /jo00 nt. c Pm cegligible Pm -0425 6, COPIED FROM REF 21 4.61 Part VI Chapter 4 Page 974,8 CANOPY/WINDSHIELD DRAG PREDICTION The following method applies in the subsonic speed range. In the transonic and supersonic speed ranges the wave drag generated by canopies and windshields can be significant. In these speed ranges it will be necessary to employ area-ruling to cut wave drag to a minimmn. Sub-section 4.3.4 presents a discussion on area-ruling. The drag coefficient due to a canopy and/or a windshield may be found from: G =¢ +¢ (4,78) Pow Pecan Ps where: C) = drag coefficient due to a canopy, can see 4.8.1. = drag coefficient due to a windshield, Pys see 4.8.2. 4.8.1 Canopy Drag Prediction The drag coefficient due to a canopy may be estimated from: ¢, Scan/S (4,79) = (ac Pecan Pcan can where: AC) = the incremental drag coefficient due to can the canopy. Figures 4.62 through 4.67 provide data from which this increment may be found. Note from Figure 4.67, that this increment varies with Mach number in the subsonic speed range! Scan the maximum frontal area of the canopy as shown in Figure 4.62. 4.8.2 Windshield Drag Prediction The drag coefficient due to a windshield may be determined from: Cy = (Cy Spy 6/8 (4, 80) Dis Dyg fus where: AC) = incremental drag coefficient due to a ws windshield: see Figure 4.68. Part VI Chapter 4 Page 980,500, T 44 can { 4400 cer 4200 r* Po L 1A S. 44 ea weber p00 | F f= 934 we Tela] mas COPIED JX Streantined canopy Yeap PON | FROM: 100 . a 3 ale ‘Ac, = canopy Drag Coettictent Referenced to Frontal Area of canopy, Scan can 4.62 on Canopy Drag awo be, LT] r [a nae 100 Megas wtf ; ae { - ae REF. 21 9200 t a0 ° ° 92 46 96 98 40 Rk Ac, = Canopy Drag Coefficient Referenced to Frontal area of Canopy, Seay Part VI Chapter 4 Page 99om 5 RS : "0 COPIED 006 ! me *]_: L 7 Conseal aft End | | “| goe Le J , 2 3 4 5 ° 7 2 —e ale Ac, = Canopy Drag Coefficient Reterenced to Frontal Area of Camopy, Scan an 4.64 yon Canopy Drag a0 A ocan Lob. ea { oo] | yt 2 453 3 —] sO 41 cored 9300 «1X 2 sO a1 oo! | Ld EE ei a ae L3.Q <0 Ler T r er GS AT 1 Ruse taste of arcack = Canopy Drag Coefficient Referenced to Frontal Ares of Canory, S OSH ‘can Figure 4.65 Effect of Cross Section on Canopy Drag Part VI Chapter 4 Page 100T |_"(ar je] an? 9080] | a1 Ry find C, from Figure 4.3 If R, « Ry, find C, from Figure 4.3 Neut-ort a at the ‘cut-off’ Reynolds number. Step 6: Substitute the appropriate value of C, for C_ in Eqn. (4.6) or for Ce in Eqn. (4.30) fus w and proceed with the determination of the desired zero-lift drag coefficients as indicated in Sections 4.2 and 4.3. 4.12.3 Drag Due to Other Causes Other causes for drag may be items such as: struts, antennas, surface gaps, extra drag caused by inlet air spillage and by exhaust nozzle integration. Strut and antenna drag may be estimated by assuming these to be like small wings. For surface gap drag the reader should consult Ref.8. For estimation of extra inlet drag the method of Sub-section 6.2.4 may be used. For estimation of drag due to exhaust nozzles, see Section 6.3. Part VI Chapter 4 Page 111ADMISSIBLE ROUGHNESS afk tl 4 i 9 mM na g & 2 E 3 3 is 4 Neo CUTOFF REYNOLDS NUMBER, R Page 112 Chapter 4 Part VI4,13 DRAG ADJUSTMENTS FOR LAMINAR PLOW During the 70's and the 80's it has become increa- singly evident that natural laminar boundary layer flow (instead of turbulent boundary layer flow) is practical in many instances. The resulting reduction in friction drag is very significant and should be accounted for in any realistic drag prediction procedure. The methods presented in Sections 4.3 through 4.12 assume that the boundary layer is turbulent. To adjust the airplane zero-lift drag coefficient downward due to the existence of laminar flow, the following procedure is recommended: If laminar flow is expected to occur naturally (natural laminar flow, also called NLF) start at Step 1. If laminar flow is being forced, by suction or by blowing, start at Step 2. Step 1: Determine which components of the airplane are likely to experience NLF. In preliminary design the following criteria for the existence of NLF may be used: M < 0.65 Ap < 15 degrees c, « 0.65 Ry < 107 design Note: by careful design it is possible to extend these criteria. Use of advanced airfoil design codes is recommended to verify that NLF is practical. Step 2: Divide the surface area of all airplane components which according to Step 1 will have a certain amount of NLF in two parts: s., and S, . wetiam wetturb Figure 4.78 shows how these wetted areas are defined for a wing and for a fuselage respectively. Step 3: For a wing or for an empennage surface, use Equation (4.6), but replace the term: (4, 86) (Cy 8. 18) by £,, wet, Part VI Chapter 4 Page 113CWwram 7 LAMINAR FLOW | UPPER SURFACE ——- 1 TRANSITION TURBULENT Flow t LOWER SURFACE TRANSITION TRANSITION WETTED ABEA OF THE WING IN THE LAMIVAB FLOW BESION Swetgy, = WETTED ABEA OF THE FUSELAGE tAM IN THE LAMINAR FLOW REGION 4,78 Lengths and Reference Areas Part VI Chapter 4 Page 114«uc, £, Whi Por a fusela: the te: uc, feu (c, -¢ £, £. £05) 35 fusiyy where: Ce with: Se with: te s, NOTES: 1, This p speed Part VI Ry, fUSj am + (Ce DS, £, Ww, us wet, am “eur “lam ‘cur © fuselage or for a body similar to a ge, use Equation (4.30), but replace rm: d 8 s 18) by: (4.87) wettus ds, Ws wet. £08) am +(e 8, Feus, Weteus tur is the turbulent wing skin friction coefficient as found on p.23 ‘tur of this text. 1/2 c. £, Wlam =1.328/R, Ny lam fw (4, 88) Ry (4,89) “lam = pUjc, am ¢ wy... 48 the wing reference length of lam the laminar part of the wing: see Figure 4.78. Syet, = the wing wetted area part “lam exposed to laminar flow, see Figure 4.78. is the turbulent fuselage skin fus friction coefficient as found turon p.44 of this text. =1.328/ (Ry ae 'fUS) am (4,90) £08) a5 (4,91) is the fuselage reference lam length of the laminar part of the fuselage: see Figure 4.78. wet, = the fuselage wetted area £USj an part exposed to laminar flow, see Figure 4.78, rocedure applies in the subsonic range only! Chapter 4 Page 1152. This procedure applies only as long as any surface irregularities (steps, waviness and roughness) are within the limits defined in Reference 23. By using laminar flow control (sucking and/or blowing) it is possible to achieve laminar flow under conditions where natural laminar flow cannot be maintained. References 24 - 26 provide some data on the types of systems needed to achieve controlled laminar flow and on a number of operational considerations. Once such systems are in place, the procedure given above for the adjustment of friction drag would apply except for the need to account for compressibility on the equations for skin friction coefficient. Reference 27 should be consulted for replacement of Eqns (4.88) and (4.90) by equations which account for compressibility effects in the transonic speed range below M=1.0 This text does not provide a method for accounting for laminar flow in the transonic speed range above M=1.0 nor for the supersonic flow regimes. This does not mean that laminar flow in these speed ranges is not feasible. Research in progress at NASA Langley indicates that in particular in the supersonic flow range extensive laminar flow may be possible. The conditions for which this can be achieved have not yet been firmly established. References 28-30 provide some data on the design of fuselage shapes which are conducive to NLF. Design details such as inspection covers, doors and windshields must receive very careful attention, if laminar flow capability is to be retained after the airplane has been in service for some time! Part VI Chapter 4 Page 1165. AIRPLANE DRAG DATA The purpose of this chapter is to present a range of actual airplane drag data. These data are given in the form of: 5.1 Drag polars 5.2 Equivalent parasite areas 5.3 Oswald's efficiency factors 5.4 Wetted area breakdown examples Finally, once drag data for a new airplane have been computed, they should always be ‘verified’ by comparison against known drag data for similar airplanes. A method for verifying drag polar predictions is given in: 5.5 Verification of realism of computed drag polars 5.1 DRAG POLARS Figures 5.1 through 5.19 present examples of actual airplane drag polars. The information is organized in the following manner: Figure 5.1 Cessna 177: includes flap drag Figure 5.2 Cessna 310: includes gear and flap drag Figure 5.3 Gulfstream I: includes gear drag, flap drag and drag due to a feathered engine Figure SAAB 340 5.4 Figure 5.5 Fokker F-27: includes gear and flap drag Figure 5.6 Lockheed C-130H: includes ground effect and compressibility data Figure 5.7 | SIAI-M S-211: includes gear and flap drag Figure 5.8 NAA T2C: includes compressibility data Figure 5.9 Convair F-106: includes supersonic drag 5.1 5.1 Figure 5.10 McDD AV8B: includes compressibility data 1 Learjet M25: includes compressibility data Figure 5.12 Boeing 727-100: includes compressibility data Figure 5.13 Boeing 707-320B: incl. compressibility data Figure 5.14 Boeing 747-200: includes compressibility data Figure 5.15 Boeing B-47B: includes compressibility data Figure 5,16 Boeing B-52A: includes compressibility data Figure 5.17 Lockheed C-141B: incl. compressibility data Figure 5.18 Lockheed C-5A: includes compressibility data Figure 5.19 Boeing SST Design: includes supersonic data The reader should note that the wing (or reference) area, S, upon which the drag and lift coefficient data are based, is indicated on all Figures 5.1 through 5.19. Part VI Chapter 5 Page 117LIET COEFFICIENTS C, “02 0406 RatC( tid LIFT COEFFICIENT ~ C, ° 02 04 06 ot le 14 DRAG COEFFICIENT~ Cy 5 I 310 Part VI Chapter 5 Page 118ct LIFT CORFEICIENT~ © = LET COEFFICIENT ~ Cy Part VI _GEAR DWN “LAPS 185" ou 08 ~—=CGSSC SSC DRAG COEFFICIENT ~ Cp 5.3 2 Sa W5OFTE. 2 Ludo . Aw tho i 7 02 104 06 08 lo 2 NG AAG COCFFICLENT~ Cy Figure 5,4 Drag Polar: SAAB 340 Chapter 5 Page 1193 a5 ~INaaaa03 SvEE 2 or go’ 90" ho” 2 | Soo W “ONT LYS 1 SANI9N 2 Vw nwa + bi aaa O00 tay) ) , S¥¥IOd Nu daan7ONt (SANWL) Wawalxa + | soley. 2h SAL eS INaaa3a07 13M W orm oo on a oe we ab aad sone t-saom 00 lo At” + Page 120 Chapter 5 Part VIL LIFT COEFFICIENT ~ C GEAR UP S136 FT* FLAP met =k Az 5.08 2 a Ses 265 Fr? Az 5.62 ob ° CLEAN €=0.816 4 M<0.6 2 0 1 1 ° 02 +04 -06 DRAG COEFFICIENT ~ Cp Rigure 5.8 Drag Polars: NAA Rockwell T2C Part VI Chapter 5 Page 121° vez 70%, "6 coo PAAG COEFFICIENT ~ Cp Part VI Chapter 5 Page 122oS S= 2732 Fr? J Az5.01 vi 2 | 8 2 wl re y CLEAN - z| 6 M~or 36 | -80 w 4 4 KH c a 2 o 4 ° 06 S.11 2 . MACH NUMBER <.70 7% 82 40 24 2 eaeemn 9} —T Im 88 By 30 > 3 go | 5 q A, 4 Ayo 20 a Vv J PEN 4 Nore : a 1 FLAPS UP ge GEAR UP J 2 S= 1560 FT® | iy= Se -0 q 3. Ay= alo Als 767 2016 018 020.022 02H 0G 028 TOTAL AIRPLANE DRAG COEFFICIENT ~ C, Bigure 5.12 Drag Polars: Boeing 727-100 Part VI Chapter 5 Page 123im LIET COEFFICIENT vO, T — ° 02 +04 06 DRAG COEFFICIENT~ Cy Rigure 5.13 Drag Polars: Boeing 707-320p “7 s.gscort? May? - 7 As 6.96 Spots +90 + CLEAN, 5 LIFT COEFFICIENT ~ C, » & Part VI Chapter 5 Page 124hy LIET COEFFICIENT~ C, ew NO EXTERNAL TANS INCLUDED LIFT COEFFICIENT ° 02 04) 06 CbEF! =fp 5,16 i i = 5.2) Part VI Chapter 5 Page 125Part VI LIFT COEFFICIENT~ C, LIET COEFFICIENT C, Foe Meek ob OT ag TT ga a2ee ert Az Taz. CLEAN Ea 5:54 x Ee = 6200 FTE As 115 — — Tyga 28? ° 02 04 06 DRAG COEFFICIENT ~ Cp Figure 5,18 Drag Polars: Lockheed ¢-sA Chapter 5tS KInsas807 SVEE to" 20° 90" nwaid+ ald 6105 85 Page 127 IS FINS I1ag500 Lari Chapter 5 Part VI5.2 EQUIVALENT PARASITE AREAS Figures 5.20 through 5.22 provide data on the relationship between total airplane equivalent parasite area, ‘£", the equivalent skin friction coefficient, Cy and the total airplane wetted area, S,.,. The zero-lift airplane drag coefficient C, is related to the equivalent para- ‘0 site area, ‘f' and to airplane wing area, S by: cp = £/s (5.1) ‘0 The airplanes for which data are included in Figures 5.20-5.22 are described in some detail in various issues of Reference 31. Wing areas, S, are also given in Reference 31, 5.3 OSWALD 'S EFFICIENCY FACTORS Table 5.1 provides data for Oswald's efficiency factor 'e’ in the simplified airplane drag polar equation: 2 Cyn Cp, + (Gy) /ane (5.2) Note that high values of 'e’ are rare, but they do occur. The reader may ‘reconstruct’ a value for ‘e’ from any drag polar by matching the polar to Equation 5.2. 5.4 EXAMPLES OF WETTED AREA BREAKDOWNS Tables 5.2 and 5.3 present example data for wetted area breakdowns of fighters, commuters, transports and a business jet. Table 5.3 also includes data on the breakdown of equivalent parasite area with the corresponding value of average skin friction coefficient. The reader should always verify any computed wetted area breakdown with known breakdowns for similar airplanes. Any significant differences should be explained! The reader is also reminded of the correlations between total airplane wetted area and airplane take-off weight, provided in Chapter 3 of Part I. These data should be regarded as a source of comparative information. Part VI Chapter 5 Page 128; sor 1 SSEEE 2 ‘| r = pH AA Ctge nae -HEIKED GEAR | : ; | _FIESELER STORCH — qa] CESSNA_T188C_ AG-HUSK'Y SPRAY BAR ON SPRAY BAR OFF- EQUIVALENT PARASITE ABEA ——Me103= _CESSNA L- __CESSNA 172 —— PIPER CUB. CESSNA 152 — TAYLORCRAY 5, THORPE T18, SIF | {: ESsSNA 210 | Lt Z | \ | [TYPICAL SAILPLANE © WETTED ABEA~S met Iie 1 poppet 4 t _ tT inl lo? | 10 | 10% Part VI Chapter 5 Page 129i] ‘AREA Tel 3 EQUIVALENT PARAS SS SIS 24 WETTED! 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The reader should recognize the fact that airplane drag polars depend upon the following factors: A) Flight condition: Mach Number, altitude, lift coefficient (or angle of attack) and Reynold’s number which also depends on a characteristic length. B) External configuration: The external airplane configuration may be influenced by: 1) flap deflection (take-off, climb, cruise, landing or maneuvering 2) landing gear position: up or down (gear well doors open or not?) 3) speed brake position: open or closed 4) external store disposition 5) loading door position: open or closed 6) weapons door position: open or closed 7) cooling flap position: open for take- off, open for climb, or closed 8) propeller control position: feathered, windmilling or normal 9) jet engine condition: windmilling or normal 10) inlet configuration: blow-down doors, ramps, spikes, bleed- and bypass doors 11) control surface deflection for trim (trim drag), with AEO or OEI Drag polars can differ significantly depending on how these factors are selected for any given airplane in any given flight condition. Part VI Chapter 5 Page 135Part VI 5: 6: Plot the Cy versus a data from the calculations performed with Chapter 4. Plot the C, versus a data for the airplane with the method of Chapter 10. Prom steps 2 and 3 crossplot the C, versus C, polar. Figure 5.23 shows an example of how Steps 2, 3 and 4 are carried out. A) From step 4, determine C, and compute: ‘0 f= cs (5.3) B) Determine the wetted area of your airplane. The data for doing this are already available from the drag polar calculations performed in Chapter 4. ‘verify’ the computed wetted area breakdown with the data of Tables 5.2 or 5.3. Also check the total wetted area against the trend data of Figures 3.22 in Part I. ©) Plot the ‘f' and S,,, data on one of the graphs in figures 5.20-5.22, whichever is applicable. Determine the Cy value for the airplane and judge whether or not the value of Cp is a reasonable one from an ‘aerodynamics technology’ viewpoint. This is done by comparison to other airplanes in the same figure. Plot (C,)? versus Cy, and determine acy/a(c,)? as indicated in Figure 5.23. Compute: e = (na(ac,/dc, )? (5.4) Compare this value of ‘e’ with that for similar airplanes in Table $.1. I£ there is a large difference, check the calculations or explain why the airplane might be different! Chapter 5 Page 136¢ t x a, Xr, a,}-~5 a STER3 ow STEP 2 c “| Lo HP Ke KC, x 0 , Cp ou C SEE P.136 FoR DES- : CRIPTION OF STEPS Cu STEP 3 Part VI Chapter 5 Page 137Kev vwnoaow I] 42144077 8-AV Chapter 5 Page 138 Part VI6, INSTALLED POWER AND THRUST PREDICTION METHODS The purpose of this chapter is to present rapid methods for the prediction of installed power and/or thrust in airplanes. The assumption will be made that the following characteristics of the engine are known: 1. For piston engines: manufacturers shaft horsepower data for a range of altitudes and throttle settings. 2. For gas generators: manufacturers shaft horsepower and thrust data for a range of altitudes, Mach numbers and throttle settings. 3. For jet engines: manufacturers thrust data for a range of altitudes, Mach numbers and throttle settings. These engine manufacturers data (also called uninstalled data) are based on ideal (teststand) conditions and do not normally include the following effects: A. Effect of the inlet (air induction system) on pressure recovery, on drag and therefore on engine performance. Note: A bellmouth inlet system, assuring very high inlet pressure recovery, is frequently used to determine engine manufacturers data. Fig. 6.1 shows a typical teststand arrangement. B. Effect of power extraction (needed to run essential airplane services) on engine performance. Note: Power extraction to run essential engine services ARE normally included in engine manufacturers data. Cc. Effect of the exhaust or nozzle configuration on drag and on engine performance. Note: The engine manufacturer uses a nozzle configuration which is usually different from that preferred by the airframer. See Figure 6.1. The methods presented in this chapter are organized as follows: Part VI Chapter 6 Page 1396.1 Power extraction requirements 6.2 Inlet sizing and integration 6.3 Exhaust or nozzle sizing and integration 6.4 Prediction of installed power and thrust For a detailed and concise methodology of inlet design and analysis the reader should consult Reference 32. For considerations of design and analysis of inlet and exhaust systems both, Reference 33 is recommended. i> NX if Inlet Belimouth SZ ~ Engine tafow Hy eatin | a~ om a= y\ Tana sians 1 Js F—Flewres —] Ye Turntable VIITATTTTT TIT TT? Part VI Chapter 6 Page 1406.1 POWER EXTRACTION REQUIREMENTS To operate an airplane in any phase of its mission a certain amount of electrical, mechanical and pneumatic power may be required. These power requirements are normally satisfied by the engines. For that reason they are referred to as power extraction requirements. In some cases power sources other than the propulsion system (for example an APU) are used. The magnitude of power extraction requirements dif- fers from cne airplane to another and from one mission phase to another. In this section a rapid method for estimating power extraction requirements is presented for: 6.1.1 Piston-propeller driven airplanes 6.1.2 Turbopropeller and jet driven airplanes S.1.1 Piston-propeller Driven Airplanes In this type of airplane the following power extraction requirements may be present: + Prech (6.1) where: P,) = the electrical power extraction in shp Pextr ~ Per = the mechanical power extraction in shp Electrical power extraction requirements, P,, follow from the essential electrical services which are required during any given mission phase. To determine electrical power requirements, an ‘electric power load profile’ must be prepared. Using p.320 of Part IV as an example, the reader should prepare an electric power load profile for his airplane. From this electric power load profile the electrical power extraction requirement, P,, is determined as: Pei 7 -00134(VA,15)/ge, in Shp (6.2) el where: VA,,, = the maximum required electrical power in Volt-amperes as obtained from the electric power load profile. rt VI Chapter 6 Page 141Tgen = 0-9 is the efficiency of the electric power generator(s) which are assumed to be driven off the engine accessory drive pad. Modern generators can achieve efficiencies of 0.90 to 0.95, Lacking a detailed electric power load profile, the Pe) Values suggested in Table 6.1 may be used. The rea~ der should also consult Chapter 7 in Part IV for more information on electrical system power capabilities. Mechanical power extraction requirements, Pi.., de~ pend on the systems which are required for the operation of the airplane in a given mission phase. Examples of such system may be: fuel pumps, hydraulic pumps, cooling fans, heating/ airconditioning system, pressurization system, spray system (in agricultural airplanes). The reader should prepare a list of those systems which require the generation of mechanical power. The total mechanical power required can be written as: P, P, (6.3) mech ~ Pep * Phydr *Pother where: Ps, = the mechanical power required to drive the fuel pumps. This may be found from: fp where: c, is the engine sfc in 1bs/shp/hr SHP is the engine shaft horsepower required in the flight condition being analyzed Pp, = 0.00014 / (6.4) (op) (SEP) /ngy Ngp 7 0-65 is the fuel pump efficiency. The assumption has been made here that the fuel pumps are operating on a pressure differential of 50 psi. Information on pumps may be found in Ref.34. Data on fuel systems is provided in Chapter 5 of Part IV. Note: power required to drive electric fuel pumps should be included in P.,. Phyar 7 the mechanical power required to drive Part VI Chapter 6 Page 142the hydraulic pumps. The magnitude of Pyyg, de~ pends on the hydraulic flow and pressure differential needs of the airplane hydraulic system. Section 6.2 of Part IV contains a discussion on the sizing of hydraulic systems. As indicated in Part IV, a hydraulic system load analysis must be performed to find the total hydraulic fluid flow which is required. Having also selected the hydraulic system operating pressure (Part IV, Ch.6), the hydraulic system shaft horsepower requirements are found from: P, = 0. 0006(ApL ar) “Vnyar? "hp (6.5) hyde where: Apivg = the pressure differential (psi), over which the hydraulic system operates. This is roughly equal to the system operating pressure which ranges from 1,500 to 5000 psi. See Chapter 6 in Part IV. Vayae = the hydraulic fluid flow rate in gallons/min (gpm). Page 308 in Part IV Provides some guidance for estimating hydraulic fluid flow rates. Upp ~ the hydraulic pump(s) operating efficiency. This may be taken to be 0.75 in modern systems. Note: the power required for electrically driven hydraulic pumps should be included in P.,- el Pother = the sum of all ‘other’ mechanical power extraction requirements. Determination of these ‘other’ mechanical power extraction needs is left to the reader. The best way to proceed is to make a complete list of all ‘other’ mechanical power requirements for on-board systems. By using appropriate efficiency values, the required value of ‘to be extracted’ engine shaft horsepower, Posner can then be estimated. Ref.34 is a good source for general mechanical system data. Part IV contains discussions of various ‘other’ types of Part VI Chapter 6 Page 143system which may be required in airplanes. Lacking a detailed listing of mechanical power extraction requirements, the values suggested for P,.., in Table 6.1 may be used. The effect of P, as determined from Eqn.6.1 on extr installed engine performance is discussed in Section 6.4. Table 6.1 Summary of Power Extraction Requirements Power Extraction Type: Electrical Mechanical -—Phevmatic Bleed shp, Pay shp, P, mech —«81UGS/sec Airplane Type: Biigic engines Tight atiplanes 1-2 ra ° Single engine, military trainers 2-4 a ° win engine, Light airplanes ws s10 ° multi-engine transports 20-40 30-50 ° ‘Tuxboprop and Jet Airplanes: Single engine, Light airplanes 2-4 1s ota, Single engine, military trainers 5-7 é-10 o.0ism, vin engine turboprops es can 0.018%, win engine turbojets or fans #10 oa .028a, avin jet military trainers nes es 0. 03a, Jee Fighters, airsuperiority 0-100 so-s00 03m, Jet Fighters, attack 100-200 100-200 0.04, Jet transports, civit 0.00070%gg 0, 00060%igg 0,038, Jet transports, military 0.001009 0: 00080Higg 0,04, Part VI Chapter 6 Page 144§.1.2 Turbopropeller and Jet Driven Airplanes For this class of airplanes the power extraction requirements may be determined from: Poxtr ~ Per * Pmech * Ppneum cee) where: P,, = the electrical power extraction in shp P = the mechanical power extraction in shp mech = the pneumatic (also called bleed air) power extraction in shp Electrical power extraction requirements, P,, may be determined with the method of Sub-section 6.1.1, via preparation of an electric power load profile as shown on p.320 of Part IV. Lacking such detailed information the Pg) values suggested in Table 6.1 may be used. Poneum Some airplanes may require extensive radar and electronic warfare equipment. Examples are the Boeing E-3A, the Boeing E-6, the Grumman E-2C and the Lockheed P3v. In those cases large electrical power requirements may exist: 600 kVA in the case of the Boeing E-6! Normally, these power requirements are satisfied by the installation of directly driven generators on the propulsion installation. If these power requirements cannot be satisfied by power extraction from the regular propulsion system separate power sources may have to be installed. Mechanical power extraction requirements, Piooy, may be determined with the method of Sub-section 6.1.1, via a listing of all required mechanical services. Lack- ing a detailed power extraction calculation, the values suggested in Table 6.1 may be used. Pneumatic power extraction requirements, Poneum are determined by those systems which are driven by bleed air form the main engines. Typical of such services are: de-icing and anti-icing systems, heating and airconditioning systems, engine starting systems (for ground start and for air restart), pressurization of fuel tanks, for flap deployment (For example, the B-747 leading edge devices) and for water system pressurization. Part VI Chapter 6 Page 145A list of airplane services which require bleed air as the source of power must be prepared. Next, the required bleed airflows. 1,93 (in slugs/sec) mist be estimated for each flight situation. From this the total engine bleed airflow can be computed. As a general rule, engine bleed airflow should not exceed 5 percent of the total engine massflow requirement in any given flight condition, m,, or major degradation of thrust will occur: Tieeg ¢ 9-05m, in slugs/sec (6.7) Lacking a detailed evaluation of bleedair requirements, the data of Table 6.1 may be used. As long as Eqn. (6.7) is satisfied, a first order estimate for Poieym is! Poneum 7 “My1eca/Ma)Prega fOr turboprops (6.8) and: Poneum ~ “"pieed/Ma) Treqala/550) for jets (6,9) where: P,.4q * power required in some flight condition Tr. = thrust required in some flight condition. reqd Methods for estimating the power required, P,44q or the thrust required, T,,.4 are discussed in Part VII. The effect of P,,,, as determined from Eqn. (6.6) on installed power or thrust is discussed in Section 6.4. Part VI Chapter 6 Page 146$,2 INLET SIZING AND INTEGRATION In preliminary design the process of inlet sizing consists of the determination of the inlet area and the shaping of the duct leading from the inlet area to the engine compressor face. The inlet must be sized in such a way that it is ‘matched’ to the airflow requirements of the engine. Figure 6.2 shows a generalized inlet flow situation. Note the following important areas: A,: streamtube cross section at infinity, also called the inlet capture area streamtube cross section at the inlet, also called inlet area or cowl capture area streamtube cross section at the engine station, also called internal area (note that this cross section is determined by the maximim cross section of the engine plus tolerances for cooling and for installation) A streamtube cross section at the exit or exhaust, also called the nozzle area ‘e Inlet operation is often characterized by the inlet flow ratio, A,/A,- During static ground operation, the inlet flow ratio is infinite. Inlet lip flow separation is a major problem in such a case. Figure 6.3a shows such a Situation. Frequently an auxiliary inlet is required to allow enough air into the inlet. This is done with a variable inlet geometry feature. Figure 6.3a shows several options. the inlet is normally matched so that the flow ratio is in the range of 0.5 to 0.8 The inlet operates at its peak performance (high pressure recovery). Figure 6.3b shows this situation. In some inlets, external surface area is present at points ahead of the inlet: see Figure 6.3c. If external surface area exists ahead of the inlet, the flow ratio is selected to be closer to 1.0 to prevent inlet separation. If no wetted surface area exists ahead of the inlet, the flow ratio is in the 0.5 - 0.8 range. In_a_climb, the inlet delivers more air than the engine requires, excess air will be spilled, resulting in Part VI Chapter 6 Page 147CAPTUSED EXTERWAL Flow 1 STBEAMTUBE COMPRESSOR CARBURETOR OR SUPERCHABGER INTEBNAL Flow HI6H PRESSURE GRADIENTS PROMOTE SEPABATION 0) GROUND OPERATION HIGH LOCAL M — ——ae Ve yeo-8 INCREASING STATIC PRESSU BI C) CRUISE HIGH LOCAL M WATCH DBAG ! ELow Reka SEPARATES EF ‘0 —— Ve SS Ve ue8 d) cuime 2)HIGH SPEED (DIVE Figure 6.3 Flow Conditions for Subsonic inlets Part VI Chapter 6 Page 148extra drag. The flow ratio is in excess of 1.0. Such a situation is shown in Figure 6.3d. If spillage drag becomes too high, bleedair doors may be required: Fig. 6.34 shows one such option. At_very hich speeds, such as occur in a high speed dive, the flow ratio is much smaller than 1.0. Such low flow ratios, particularly in the presence of large wetted areas in front of the inlet can lead to inlet flow separation resulting in compressor surge. Figure 6.3e shows such a situation. If an inlet is undersized (such that it does not deliver enough air to the engine), unsatisfactory engine operation may result, causing deficiencies in thrust and/ or power. The objective of an inlet is to deliver air to the engine such that: 1. The correct amount of airflow is delivered to the engine 2, Pressure losses are minimized: pressure losses reduce thrust 3, Inlet flow distortion is minimized (i.e. as much as possible uniform flow is realized) 4. Inlet flow swirl is minimized or matched to the compressor requirements Fundamentally, two types of inlets exist: 1. Straight through inlets: see Figure 6.4a This inlet type is used for engines with axial flow compressors, one-sided centrifugal flow compressors and supercharged piston engines. 2. Plenum chamber inlets: see Figure 6.4b This inlet type is used for engines with two- sided centrifugal flow compressors and with normally aspirated piston engines. The detailed design of inlets is a strong function of how the engine (s) is (are) being integrated into the airframe. The following subjects will be discussed: Part VI Chapter 6 Page 149Part VI Chapter 6 Page 1506.2.1 General inlet arrangements: presents a discussion of different types of inlet arrangement 6.2.2 Inlet sizing: presents a rapid method for estimating the required inlet area, A, 6.2.3 Inlet pressure loss estimation: presents a rapid method for estimating inlet pressure losses 6.2.4 Inlet drag estimation: presents a rapid method for estimating inlet drag Selection of the correct type of inlet and the associated inlet geometry has important consequences to the realism of any proposed airplane design. For that reason, inlet design should receive considerable attention in the early design phases of an airplane. Double Sided Engine Intakes Courtesy: PRATTS ‘WHITNEY CEANADA) Plenum chamber Part VI Chapter 6 Page 151§.2.1 General Inlet Arrangements The purpose of this sub-section is to present a number of example inlet arrangements as well as comments re- garding their applications. The information is organized as follows: 1 Piston engine inlets 2 Turbopropeller inlets 3 Jet engine inlets: subsonic 4 Jet engine inlets: supersonic 6.2.1.1 Piston engine inlets Figures 6.5a and 6.5b show several examples of piston engine inlet arrangements. Figures 6.5a show that inlets for normally aspirated piston engines are of the plenum type. Most plenum installations do not completely seal off all air: cooling air must be routed to those engine components which need cooling for proper operation. After taking care of the cooling function the air is dumped overboard, preferably such that drag is not increased. Engines with turbochargers tend to have straight through type inlets as shown in Figures 6. 5b. 2 Figure 6.6 shows several examples of turbopropeller engine (gas generator) inlets. Those shown are all of the straight through type. An example of a plenum type inlet for a turbopropeller installation was shown in Figure 6.4b. The pressure recovery of the so-called concentric inlet (Figure 6.6d) can be strongly influenced by the design of the propeller airfoils which are in front of the inlet. Icing of such inlets is a major problem and requires detailed attention in the development of inlet anti- and de-icing systems. See Part IV, Chapter 10 for a general discussion of the icing problem. 6.2.1.3 Jet engine inlets: subsonic Figures 6.7 show several example inlets for subsonic jet engine installations. Note the following types: Part VI Chapter 6 Page 152y t SSUTHUT UOTSTA POTeTTaSy Ny kay oo 297009 DIV I9Y0N) Kavloy T30Nv Kay SOITONVHOXE Ll ny - NOUVZIINSS Id bye a SSNUNOX? Lvoy s DIV Mave 20d 19H & > LRN BV FAO Nowsia WNOILNANNOD WNSS3D tAS3BLUNOD = Sin 2w12 win nev, ‘TaSs3id C3IINVATY 5 eaaven/urioee ad 8 e 8 3 ‘/ swi0vns vrsevvcundhs cee ssnvne9 aniome wosmanes- woe — — HG 219 wry wo.2nan: (a3)COURTESY: CESSNA COURTESY : NORTHROP: REDUCTION GEAR ‘onive suarr COUNTER-ROTATING PROPELLERS Blade root_J Nacelle Inlet G Spinner Eigure 6.6 Inlets for Turbopropeller Engines Part VI Chapter 6 Page 154Part VI Chapter 6 Page 155* ROLLS ROYCE * GENERAL ELECTRIC CF6-326 GAMP_AND INLET LIP Sy ESE ARE CRITICAL Part VI Chapter 6 Page 156Figure 6.7a: plenum inlet Figure 6.7b: bifurcated, straight through inlet Figure 6.7c: podded nacelle inlet Figure 6.74: pitot inlet Figure 6.7e: NACA submerged inlet Plenum inlets (Figure 6.7a) are used mainly in combination with double-sided centrifugal flow compressors. Bifurcated inlets (Figure 6.7b) are used primarily in single engine installations with side inlets. Flow characteristics of bifurcated inlets are complicated, especially at high sideslip angles: inlet buzz and reversed flow on one side are phenomena which need to be ‘designed out’ of such inlets. Ref.32 contains more information. Podded nacelle type inlets (Figure 6.7c) have become popular because of easy engine access. When using wing mounted engine pods there is an additional wing weight advantage due to inertial relief. Pitot type inlets (Figure 6.7d) have been applied to many fighter airplanes. They are not influenced by the flowfield of other airplane components. However, they require very long ducts which causes extra weight and loss in pressure recovery. The NACA submerged type inlet shown in Figure 6.7e is not very efficient for use with propulsion installations. However, when used for inlets of auxiliary systems (APU, heating and avionics bay cooling) they are quite acceptable and frequently used. Important Note: Except for pitot and podded nacelle type inlets, all jet engine inlets must be equipped with so-called boundary layer diverters (or b.1. splitters). Figure 6.8 shows two b.1. diverter installations in some detail. If such boundary layer diverters are not used, large pressure recovery losses (thus losses in thrust) will be incurred. A major consideration in jet fighter inlet design is the behavior of the inlet at very high angles of attack and sideslip. Compressor stall and engine surging are easily induced in such conditions. Ref.32 should be consulted for data on high angle of attack operation. In subsonic installations it is usually best to keep the inlet as short as possible: long ducts translate into weight and pressure recovery losses. In jet fighters and in jet trainers long ducts cannot always be avoided. Part VI Chapter 6 Page 157WING. B.L. SPLITTER SEE REF 32 FOR DETAILS ON BL. SPLITTERS (DIVERTERS) Part VI Chapter 6 Page 1586.2.1.4 Jet engine inlets: supersonic Figures 6.9 show various types of supersonic inlets. Note the boundary layer splitters! Figure 6.10 shows three fundamentally different types of supersonic inlet: Fig.6.10a Pitot inlet Fig.6.10b External compression inlet Fig.6.10c Mixed (or external/interal) compression inlet Pressure recovery in supersonic inlets is a strong function of the number and types of shock employed. The theoretical pressure recovery attainable with oblique and with conical shocks are shown in Figure 6.11. Proper inlet design is extremely critical to supersonic installations as illustrated in Figure 6.12, Note that the inlet is responsible for 75 percent of the total installed thrust! A long inlet duct in supersonic engine installations is often needed to assure smooth flow dece- leration (to around M=0.4 at the compressor face) and to assure full use of the favorable pressure distribution in the inlet duct. Figure 6.13 shows the effect of Mach number on thrust distribution. Note that at subsonic speeds, the engine itself (including a convergent nozzle) produces virtually all the thrust. Note also, that at supersonic Mach numbers the engine contribution itself can become negative! Supersonic inlets frequently require a considerable amount of variable geometry devices. Examples are shown in Figures 6.13. For more information on the operation of such inlets, see References 12 and 32. Part VI Chapter 6 Page 159" , I Viecen 4 EK &s age XB-70A SL RA-SO ~_ = eB t CONCORDE = TU. 22 de Tuna ™= =< NOT, egies suet =e AST.100 2m SSX-JeTIL Eigure 6.9 Supersonic Inlet Examples Part VI Chapter 6 Page 160COPIED FROM AEF. 12 COURTESY = L.NICOLAI COPIED FROM REF.12, COURTESY: L.NICOLAI Part VI Chapter 6 Page 161Total Inviscid Pressure Recovery, 1, sgcie o o ° Isentropic Spike Double Cone Mh = PRESSURE ShocK Single Cone RECOVERY THAQUGH ONE OR MORE SHOLKS io Normal Shock © Recovery, Ne oes @ a. Oblique Shocks b. Comcal Shocks COPIED FROM REF.1Z, COURTESY: L.NICOLAL 1 Shock (pital 6.11 for Conical Shocks Part VI Chapter 6 Page 162ELTON THRUST ~ DECANI 6000 t km I 1_NOBMAL + 000 + —_—}— a S c LoBugUE SHOCK ‘4000 A = INLET a encne* B = ENGINE DIVERGENT PART OF THE NO22LE pa MC Se —_- Ab * INCLUDES. Cd ie F v CONVERGENT ra aXe \ PART OF lL a —_——— \ THE NO22LE 3000 =1000 + COugTESY: HWITTENBERG ° 0s 0 15 20 25 30, 3S 13 f b Pp Part VI Chapter 6 Page 163Fuselage g¢ — Boundary Loyer Diverter PW-FIOO engine Top view Ac = 6.211%, Variable ramp Bypass Vent 2a" ; HEE Side View (Upside Down) Ly= 18" 79° Mach 2.3 Two-Dimensional External Compression Inlet BYPASS DOOR OPEN COPIED FROM AEF.12 THROAT DOOR OPEN COURTESY: L.NICOLAI VORTEX VALVES BLC BLEED EXIT \ 7 ..f— cid = SECONDARY AIR ENTRANCE Yee SCOOPS = t - TRANSLATING CENTERBODY . 1 ase 3 wea = rap Aiea : eae ES ees =i SL Aza aS Supersonic Mixed Compression Axisymmetric Inlet TAKEOFF DOOR THROAT DOOR CLOSED. OPEN 6.14 i i Engine Installations Part VI Chapter 6 Page 1646.2.2 Inlet Sizing The purpose of this sub-section is to present inlet sizing methods for: +1 Piston engine installations +2 Turbopropeller installations +3 Jet engine installations: subsonic +4 Jet engine installations: supersonic For each of these inlet installations, the general flow picture of Figure 6.2 will be used to identify the required inlet area, A.. 6,2,2,1 Piston engine installations Figure 6.5 shows typical inlet configurations for piston engine installations. To determine the required inlet area, A, it is first required that the engine air flow requirements be determined. Inlet air for piston engines is required fo: 1. Combustion 2. Cooling The mass flow rate required for a piston engine may be estimated as follows: m= Tomb t Boor (in slugs/sec) (6,10) where: m,,, = the mass flow rate required for combustion. It may be estimated froi Reomp 7 (0-000062) (SEP), ag (6.11) where: (SHP) sp (6,12) reqd ~ Preqa where: P,gqq is the horsepower required for the flight condition being analyzed. Part VII contains methods for determining P, gq for a variety of flight conditions. n,, is the propeller efficiency. P Section 6.4 and Ref.15 show how to obtain data for Part VI Chapter 6 Page 165propeller efficiency. In preliminary design, first ap- proximations are: a, = 0.85 for cruise 0.80 for climb 0,70 for take-off In Equation (6.11) it is assumed that: 1, that the engine efficiency in converting che- mical energy in the fuel to shafthorsepower (SHP) is 30 percent. 2. that the fuel/air ratio used is the stochiome- trically required value. ™eool Its magnitude depends on the type of engine: = the mass flow rate required for cooling. For aircooled airplane engines the mass flow rate required for engine cooling may be estimated from: Moo91 7 0-00056(SHP), 24g in slugs/sec (6.13) where: (SHP),.,q follows from Eqn. (6,12). In preliminary design, SHP,, may be used for (SEP), egg: Detailed methods for estimating m,,,) for aircooled engines are given in References 35 and 36. For liquid cooled airplane engines the required mass flow rate for the radiator depends strongly on the type of liquid cooling used. Chapter 9 in Reference 8 and Reference 37 should be consulted. For preliminary design purposes it is suggested to use Eqn. (6.10) for liquid cooled engines also. Considerable experience with liquid cooled engine installations was obtained in WWII. In many cases it proved possible to design the radiator system in such a way that negligible losses were incurred. However, this was achieved at a considerable increase in weight and complexity. Part VI Chapter 6 Page 166Knowing the total air mass flow rate, the size of the required inlet area may be estimated from: A, = m/e0, (6.14) where: m, follows from Eqn. (6.10), p is the air density in slugs/ft® and U, is the steady state airspeed in fps. Note: Eqn. (6.14) is valid for incompressible flow! The reader must determine which conditions for air density, p and airspeed, U,, yield the largest value for inlet area, A. Since zero airspeed represents an anomalie, lift-off speed or climbout speeds are normally used. Extra inlet doors (or cowl flaps) may be required for prolonged static and taxi operations. To minimize the drag caused by momentum loss in the cooling air, careful design of the ducting leading from the inlet to the overboard dumping point is required. References 8 and 38 should be consulted for more details. Reference 39 contains example calculations for inlet area sizing for piston engines. 6.2.2.2 Turbopropeller installations Figure 6.6 shows typical inlet configurations for turbopropeller engines. To determine the required inlet area, A, it is first necessary to determine the engine air flow requirements. Inlet air for turbopropeller engines (also called: gas generators) is required for: 1, combustion and mass flow 2. cooling The mass flow rate for turbopropeller engines may be estimated from: m= 1, gas * "cool (6.15) Part VI Chapter 6 Page 167where: m,,, = the air flow rate required by the engine for combustion and for mass flow. In a gas generator the mass flow rate is much larger than the air flow required for combustion. Manufacturers engine data normally include the maximum mass flow rate. Reference 31 also lists required mass flow rates for gas generators. Tables 6.6 and 6.7 in Part III list take-off mass flow rates in lbs/sec for a range of turbopropeller engines. In preliminary design, a good approximation is: Moag = (0-00028) (SHEP) (in slugs/sec) (6.16) regd (SHP) agg is given by Bgn. (6.12). cool For gasgenerators this may be taken as 5 percent = the mass flow rate needed for cooling. of mj, for most turboprop installations: . a . Mego] 7 9+ 5Mgag (6.17) The required inlet area may be estimated from: AG = m,/pUy (6,18) where: m, is found from Eqn. (6.15). Note: Eqn. (6.18) is valid for incompressible flow! The reader must determine which conditions for air density, p and airspeed, U, yield the largest value for inlet area Ay: Since zero airspeed represents an anomalie, lift-off speed or climbout speeds are normally used. Extra inlet doors (variable inlet geometry) may be needed for prolonged static and taxi operations. 6.2.2.3 Jet engine installations: subsonic Figure 6.7 shows examples of subsonic jet engine inlets. To determine the required inlet area, A, it is first Part VI Chapter 6 Page 168necessary to determine the engine airflow requirements. Inlet air for jet engines is required for: 1, combustion and mass flow 2. cooling The mass flow rate required for a subsonic jet engine installation may be found from: Ma ~ Mga gas * "cool (6.19) where: m,,, = the air flow rate required for the engine. In jet engines the flow rate required for combustion is mich less than that needed for mass flow Manufacturers engine data normally include the maximim mass flow Mya required by the engine. Reference 31 also lists those flow rates. Tables 6.8 - 6.11 in Part III list take-off mass flows for a range of jet engines. In preliminary design the following approximation may be used: "gas ~ Kgas"70 where: k,,, = 0.0003 for BPR values of 0 to 1.0 (6.20) 0.0007 for BPR values of 1.0 to 2.0 0.0009 for BPR values of 2.0 to 4.0 0.0011 for BPR values of 4.0 to 6.0 Moo] = the air flow rate needed for cooling. In preliminary design it may be assumed that: Meo91 = 9+ 06% gas (6.21) The required inlet area, A, may be estimated from: AQ = m,/eU, (6.22) where: m, is found from Eqn. (6.19) p and U, are determined by the flight condition. Note: Eqn. (6.22) is valid for compressible flow. Part VI Chapter 6 Page 169The inlet size for most subsonic airplanes is dictated by low speed requirements. For that reason, Eqn. (6.22) is applicable to preliminary inlet sizing for subsonic jets. 6.2.2.4 a Figures 6.9 and 6.10 show examples of supersonic jet engine inlet installations. Inlet air for jet engines in supersonic installations is required for: 1. combustion and mass flow 2. cooling 3. inlet boundary layer bleed The mass flow rate required for a jet engine in a supersonic installation may be estimated from: = Mas * ™coo1 * ™b1b where: m,, = the air flow rate required for the engine. In jet engines the air flow rate required for combustion is much less than that for mass flow. Manufacturers engine data normally include the maximm mass flow, mj,, required by the engine. Refgrence 31 also lists those flow rates. Tables 6.8"- 6,11" list mass flow rate values for a range of engines. Since most supersonic inlets must also operate at subsonic speeds, the take-off mass flow rates normally size the inlet area. For this (6.23) reason, Egn. (6.20) may be used for computing m,,.. Meo] 7 the air flow rate needed for cooling. In preliminary design it is acceptable to use: = 0.08 (6.24) Mas Mp) = the air flow rate needed for boundary cool layer bleed in the inlet. Because of the fact that supersonic installations require fairly long inlets, the resulting build-up of boundary layer air must be bled away before it reaches the compressor. Figure 6.14 shows such a boundary layer bleed system. The need for boundary layer bleed ¥ see Part I Part VI Chapter 6 Page 170translates into a need for extra inlet capture area as shown in Eqn. (6.25). The inlet area, A, for a supersonic inlet is as de~ fined in Figure 6.15. The required inlet area, A, for a supersonic jet engine installation may be estimated from: A, = (1.08mq /pU,) (1 + ky) (My ~ 0.87) (6.25) where: ma follows from Eqn. (6.19) p and U, are determined by the flight condition which in the case of a supersonic installation is taken to be the design supersonic cruise condition or the take~ off condition. If the latter results in a larger inlet area than the former, the possibility of using extra inlet doors for subsonic operation must be weighed against ‘oversizing’ the inlet for supersonic conditions. My = Uj/a (6.26) 1 where: a is the speed of sound in the design cruise flight condition k,1 is a constant which depends on the type of inlet used: kp) = 0 for pitot inlets and for M, < 0.8 kp) = 0-028 for external compression inlets kp 7 0-041 for mixed external/intemal compression inlets The inlet throat area, Ayp oat in Figure 6.15 must be carefully sized to assure that it can handle the required engine mass flow rate. References 12 and 32 contain methods for determining the throat size. Part VI Chapter 6 Page 171THAOAT Height = Hel] Atnroat= AREA -— HEIGHT = 6,16 2 2 z 2l0 5 = 09 8 DUCTED SPINNER u ~ w| 0.8 5 o a UNDUCTED SPINNER u ¥| oF b b 4 ZI oo 1 \ 2.0 40 3.0 A = Ae, Ane Mey Figure 6.17 Pressure Recovery for Turbopropeller Inlets Part VI Chapter 6 Page 17262,3 Inlet Pressure Loss Estimation The generalized flow situation shown in Figure 6.2 is repeated in Figure 6.16 with the addition of speed, U, Mach number, M and static pressure, p at each station. The total pressure at each station is defined as: 2 = Peot "P+ 0-507 =p +a (6.27) where: p is the local static pressure, p is the local air density and U is the local air velocity. The inlet pressure loss is defined as: “Pint ~ Pot, ~ Ptot, Ce Inlet pressure loss is frequently compared to free stream dynamic pressure or to free stream total pressure, in which cases it is referred to as the inlet efficiency or inlet pressure recovery, ny))! Mintsinc ~ Peote ~ Pe) /Ie (6.29) which can be written as: Nin/ine ~ 1 ~ 4Pini/e (6.30) Nini /com ~ Peot,/Peot, (6.31) which can be written as: “ini/com ~ 1 ~ 4Pin1/Peot, (6.32) The purpose of this sub-section is to present rapid methods for the calculation of inlet pressure losses in terms of either 4p,,) or nyq)° Inlet pressure losses in turn have a detrimental effect on installed engine power or thrust. Methods for determining the effect of inlet pressure losses on installed Power or thrust are presented in Section 6.4. Part VI Chapter 6 Page 173The information is organized as follows: 1 Piston engine inlets 2 Turbopropeller inlets 3 Jet engine inlets: subsonic 4 Jet engine inlets: supersonic Figure 6.5a shows plenum inlets for piston engines. In well designed piston engine plenum installations, the inlet losses may be held to less than 2 percent. For preliminary design purposes it is acceptable to use: Vini/ine 7 99% (6.33) Figure 6.5b shows ‘straight through’ inlets for piston engine applications. The method of 6.2.3.3 for subsonic jet inlets may be used to estimate pressure losses. 6.2.3.2 Turbopropeller inlets For plenum inlets: For turbopropellers with plenum inlet installations (See Figure 6.6), the pressure losses may be estimated with the plenum inlet method of 6.2.3.3. As shown in Figure 6.6, many turbopropeller installations utilize ‘straight through’ inlets. For such inlets the pressure recovery may be estimated from: Mintsine ~ £iny? cee : £(uj),) is established in Figure 6.17 for inlets with unducted spinners as well as ducted spinners. Mind 7 Ag/Bo (6.35) inl Note that uj, is the inverse of the inlet flow ratio as defined on page 147. Part VI Chapter 6 Page 1746.2.3.3 Jet engine inlets: subsonic For plenum inlets: Figure 6.7a shows a plenum inlet for a subsonic jet. Pressure losses may be estimated from: I 2 2 2 APing/Ge = (A (nya) V(A/Ag)” (A= Ag/Ag)” (6.36) where: A,, Aq and A, for a plenum installation are as defined in Figure 6.18. Ref. 32 should be consulted for more details on jet engine plenum inlets. For straight through inlets: Figures 6.7b-d show subsonic, ‘straight through’ jet inlet examples. The pressure loss in such inlets is a strong function of the absence or presence of boundary layer diverters. Figure 6.8 shows examples of boundary layer diverters. Without a boundary layer diverter, the pressure loss of a subsonic jet engine inlet may be estimated from: = 2 Peot/Ge = Tpg/ (iggy) + Beatin (6.37) where: I is the so-called duct integral» defined as: 3 2 ref (A/a) (per, /A) Al (6.38) te where: A is the duct area at station l, per, is the duct perimeter at station 1 1, is the duct station at the inlet area, Aj: see Figure 6.19 ¢ is the duct station at the engine compressor face: see Pigure 6.19. = fC. (6.39) Cra £ where: the factor £ is given in Figure 6.20 Ce is the equivalent flat plate friction coefficient based on the duct Reynold's Number with the characteristic length taken as (1, - 1,). Figure 4.3 may Part VI Chapter 6 Page 175LQLENT ERICTION COEFE £ = FACTOR ~ Zs s ° ENGINE INLET SCREENS Za DiF FUSER 4+ est -—¢ APPROACH Ae ae —————4 Lg + [ DATA FROM: REF. 32 Op _ 2lperAg - Pere A,) tan 2 = Geaytrer)\ he 2o) Fors£e, £¢, Ag Ac See FI6.6.19 Pew =LOcAL perimeter L 1 5 10 EQUIVALENT DUCT CONE ANOLE ° I, ~~ DES Part VI Chapter 6 Page 176be used to find Cy. Mini 8 defined in Eqn. (6.35) H is the corrected position ratio, defined as: H = (0.88, Ma (6.40) wet appr’ where: is the wetted area of the inlet Syet appr ‘approach’ as indicated by the cross-hat- ched area in Figure 6.21. Observe that for podded nacelle inlets and for pitot inlet: = oO! Syet appr Cy, is the overall approach friction coefficient. Fa It may be set equal to the flat plate friction coefficient corresponding to a Reynolds Number based on 1,,,, as the characteristic length. Figure 6.24 shows how 1,,), is defined. Note that 1,5), "9 for podded nacelle inlets and for pitot inlets! With a boundary layer diverter, the pressure loss of a subsonic jet engine inlet may be estimated from Eqn. (6.37) by setting H = 0. The reader should consult Reference 32 for further details. 4 2 Figures 6.9, 6.10 and 6.14 give examples of supersonic inlet configurations. Note that all are of the so- called ‘straight through’ type. The pressure recovery of a supersonic inlet system is defined as: “ini/com ~ “shock? “aige? a where: gioco, is the pressure recovery through the inlet shock system. It is found from Fig. 6.11 depending on the type of inlet. Ngige is the pressure recovery through the subsonic diffuser which follows the system of shocks in the inlet. It may be found from: Part VI Chapter 6 Page 17732, .28) 24 COPIED FROM: REE 12 20] CouRTESY: LNICOLAL a SEE FIG.6.1C FOR Ly AND Hy DIFFUSER LOSS COEFFICIENT, «5 = : 2 @ g 0 4 8 12 16 a rd DIFFUSER LENGTH TO HEIGHT RATIO, Loy He 6.22 i Coefficient (Shock Ahead of Entrance) Part VI Chapter 6 Page 178D DIFFUSER LOSS COEFFICIENT, €. . - 2,-3.5 1 aft - (1 + 0,2My) } (6,42) e,is the diffuser loss coefficient found from Pigure 6.22. It depends on the subsonic diffuser geometry! My, is the diffuser entry Mach number. This Mach number is equal to the Mach number of the flow through the last shock in the inlet shock system. It can range from 0.4 to 0.9 in practical applications. Usually a number of 0.6 to 0.7 is found in such inlets. In preliminary design it is suggested to ‘pick’ a suitable number in this range. M, must be computed from the system of shocks. A method for doing this may be found in Appendix D of Ref.12. Methods for determining the effect of inlet pressure losses on installed engine power or thrust are presented in Section 6.4, ° 4 8 2 16 20 DIFFUSER LENGTH TO HEIGHT RATIO, Lp /Ht 6.22) CoPieD FROM BEF. 12 COURTESY: L.NICOLAL See FIG. 615 Fog Ly AND Hy Part VI Chapter 6 Coefficient (Subsonic Entrance) Page 1796.2.4 Inlet Extra Drag Estimation The purpose of this sub-section is to present rapid methods for estimation of the so-called inlet extra drag, cy » which was considered a part of Cp in Sub- inlextra mise section 4.12.3, The inlet extra drag considered here is that contribution of inlet drag not accounted for in Ch.4 as a result of wetted areas or as a result of cross sec— tional area distribution. Inlet pressure recovery and any associated loss in inlet pressure have been discussed in Sub-section 6.2.3. The effect of these losses on installed power and thrust is discussed in Section 6.4. The extra inlet drag discussion is organized as in the following manner: +1 Piston engine inlets +2 Turbopropeller inlets +3 Jet engine inlets: subsonic +4 Jet engine inlets: supersonic 6.2.4.1 Piston engine inlet extra drag In well designed piston engine installations, the inlet extra drag should be negligible. If the inlet is undersized, spillage drag may result. Estimation of inlet spillage drag is discussed in 6.2.4.3. 6.2.4.2 Turbopropeller inlet extra drag In properly designed turbopropeller inlets the inlet extra drag should be negligible. If the inlet is undersized, spillage drag may result. Estimation of inlet spillage drag is discussed in 6.2.4.3. 6.2.4.3 Jet engine inlet extra drag: subsonic For properly designed subsonic jet inlets the inlet extra drag should be negligible. However, if the inlet is undersized for some flight condition, spillage drag may result. The inlet extra drag due to spillage may be estimated from: 3 1. 667A; ¢ = cpl + 0.330d, - A) /1 Fy ny] Bek 6.43) Dinlextra ‘£ m c me** inl ¢ with: Part VI Chapter 6 Page 1801 +1,750n; ind 7 2) Mijn, UAg/AQ) ~ 2012 (6.44) Fin ~ where: Ce is the equivalent flat plate friction coefficient at a Reynold's Number based on a characteristic length equal to 1,,: see Figure 6.23. in 48 the maximum cowl diameter for the inlet ic is the cowl diameter at the inlet area position > oo n 18 the cowl cross section area at d, A, is the cowl cross section area at d, Hinz 48 defined in Eqn. (6.35). Equation (6.43) applies up to the critical Mach number. To reduce inlet drag above M..4,, it is necessary to shape the inlet lips so that they in fact have properties similar to high speed airfoils. Reference 32 contains discussions on inlet lip design at high subsonic Mach numbers. $.2.4.4 Jet engine inlet extra drag: supersonic In the supersonic case there are three sources for extra inlet drag: 1. Spillage drag (called additive drag) 2. Bypass drag 3. Boundary layer diverter drag 4. Boundary layer bleed drag Figure 6.24 shows where these drag types are caused in a supersonic inlet. All three drag types depend on the state of the shock systems in the inlet. Detailed presentations of methods for estimating these drag con- tributions are beyond the scope of this text. Ref.12 contains methods for estimating these drag increments. Since Ref.12 uses A, as the inlet drag reference area, all results must be multiplied by A/S. Part VI Chapter 6 Page 181Cow! Bypass COPIED FROM FEF. 12 COURTESY: L.NICOLAL Additive Drag (Sfillage) Part VI Chapter 6 Page 1826.3 EXHAUST OR NOZZLE SIZING AND INTEGRATION In preliminary design the process of exhaust or nozzle sizing and integration consists of: 1, the determination of exhaust and/or nozzle areas the integration of the exhausts and/or nozzles into the airplane Figure 6.2 defines the nozzle exit area, A,. Note from Fig.6.77 in Part III that in turbofan engines the nozzle area consists of two concentric areas, located at different longitudinal stations. Integration of exhausts and/or nozzles into the airplane configuration must be done with care! Without such care, major increases in drag can be the result. The information in this section is presented as: 6.3.1 General exhaust/nozzle arrangements 6.3.2 Exhaust/nozzle sizing 6.3.3 Estimation of exhaust/nozzle extra drag The reader should also refer to Part III, Chapter 6 for examples of engine exhaust/nozzle installations. 6.3.1 General Exhaust/Nozzle Arrangements The purpose of this sub-section is to present examples of exhaust/nozzle configurations which are being used in a number of airplanes. The information is organized as follows: 3.1.1 Piston engine exhausts +2 Turbopropeller exhausts 1.3 Jet engine nozzles: subsonic 1.4 Jet engine nozzles: supersonic 6.3.1.1 Piston engine exhausts Figure 6.5 shows several examples of piston engine exhaust configurations. In many older installations the engine exhaust is ‘dumped’ overboard in the manner shown in the ‘upper’ Figure 6.5a: this is very inefficient and causes extra drag. A lower drag installation is the one Part VI Chapter 6 Page 183shown in the ‘lower’ Figure 6.5a. Figure 6.25 shows the difference between a ‘low drag’ and ‘high drag’ case. The reader must keep in mind that lowering drag is not always good. If the lower drag is obtained at the cost of increased weight and complexity, a ‘desian trade study must provide the information on basis of which the decision is made to proceed one way or the other. The installations of Figures 6.5b represent modern concepts which take maximum advantage of the momentum ex- change between inlet, combustion process, cooling requirements and exhaust. 6.3.1.2 Turbopropeller nozzles Figure 6.6 shows several examples of turbopropeller engine (gas generator) exhaust installations. Note the trend toward exhausting ‘parallel’ to the local stream. In many contemporary installations the exhaust pipes are arranged as shown in Figure 6.26. This creates much extra drag. The ‘design trade study’ comments made under 6.3.1.1 also apply here! 6.3.1.3 Jet engine nozzles: subsonic Figure 6.7 shows several example of nozzle installations for subsonic jet engines. Note that all nozzles are of the convergent type. In subsonic flow, convergent nozzles are the only efficient nozzle configuration. 6.3.14 : Figure 6.27 shows a typical supersonic exhaust configuration. Depending on the flight Mach number of the airplane the nozzle should have a different geometry. Figure 6.28 illustrates the effect of flight condition on desired nozzle configuration. Note the convergent/divergent shape of nozzles at supersonic speeds. The integration of nozzles into the after body of a supersonic airplane is particularly critical to drag. Pigure 6.29 shows a number of nozzle/airframe integration concepts with commentary about the effect on drag. Here also, the consequence of weight, cost and complexity must be weighed against aerodynamic efficiency. 6.3.2 Exhaust/Nozzle Sizing The purpose of this sub-section is to present rapid Part VI Chapter 6 Page 184\ get ( SUUPSTeEAM ; i” SLUPETREAM 1 i PooR COPIED FROM REF. 38 COURTESY: T.BINGELIS 6.2 t Part VI Chapter 6 Page 185NALVES FOR SECONDARY ALB TAKE -OFF S — SUPERSONIC CBUISE er SHOCKS) STOPPED ENGINE REVERSED THADST COPIED FROM REF.12 COURTESY: L.NICOLAL oe L SEE FIG.630 MILITARY ANO MAK REHEAT] FOR Ae AND At Fran S| pe SB) DEFINITION Part VI Chapter 6 Page 186FAIRING TYPES IRIS NOZZLES ‘BASE UPSTREAM — OF NOZZLE a exit base ar 2 nozzteext | sce Aso 8% FIG. 6.33 LONG — FAIRING EXTRA LONG FAIRING COPIED FROM BEF. 12 COURTESY: L.NICOLAL LINCREASING WEIGHT 6.29 SUBSONIC SUPERSONIC —_—_— as AE he CONVERGING/DIVERGING NO@2LE Part VI Chapter 6 Page 187methods for the ‘sizing’ of exhausts and/or nozzle exit areas. Figure 6.30 shows the definition of important nozzle exit and throat areas. The material in this sub-section is presented as: +2.1 Piston engine exhausts +2.2 Turbopropeller nozzles :2.3 Jet engine nozzles: subsonic 12.4 Jet engine nozzles: supersonic 6.3.2.1 Piston engine exhausts The exit size of piston engine exhausts is normally defined by the engine manufacturer. The exit area of the exhaust(s) are dependent on the cross sectional areas of the engine exhaust valve ports. Reference 37 contains detailed descriptions of this aspect of engine design. The airframer may wish to use the exhaust manifold for purposes of heat extraction (by routing cabin air through a heat exchanger which is wrapped around the exhaust manifold). The airframer may also add noise sup- pressors and/or ejectors to the exhaust stack(s). Refs 38 and 40 as well as Section 6.9 in Part III should be consulted for more details on piston engine exhaust configurations. As a first approximation to the sizing of the total exit area, it is suggested to use an exhaust stack diameter given by: 4a, (0.0038)SHP,,,. in inches (6.45) exhst ~ If this diameter becomes too large, it is best to split the exhaust manifold into two or more small stacks. 6.3.2.2 Turbopropeller nozzles Because turbopropellers are used only in subsonic flight conditions, the nozzles are always of the convergent type as seen in Figure 6.28. As a first approximation to the sizing of the nozzle exit area, it is suggested to use: a = (0,016)SHP». in inches (6.46) ‘exhnoz In many turboprop engines the nozzle area is divided over two exhausts. Engine manufacturers specify the ex- Part VI Chapter 6 Page 188haust area on the basis of their performance guarantees. 6.3.2.3 In subsonic applications the exhaust nozzle is nearly always of the convergent type as shown in Figure 6.28. The exhaust nozzle size and its configuration depend strongly on the following factors: 1. maximum take-off thrust 2. by-pass ratio 3. need for afterburning 4. design Mach number The reader should use engine manufacturers data for exhaust nozzle areas. References 12, 33 and 41 provide more details on the subject of nozzle design. 6.3.2.4 Jet engine nozzles: supersonic The exhaust nozzle size and its configuration depend strongly on the following factors: 1, maximum take-off thrust | 2. by-pass ratio 3. need for afterburning 4. design Mach number The usual nozzle configuration employs variable geometry: convergent for subsonic flight and convergent /divergent for supersonic flight: see Pig. 6.28. Engine manufacturers data should be used to find the size of the subsonic nozzle exit area. Figure 6.28 can be used to estimate the required exit area of the divergent part of the nozzle in its supersonic position. Sizing of the length of the convergent part of the nozzle is not critical as long as it is not too short: a length of twice the entry diameter should be sufficient. Sizing of the length of the diverging part of the nozzle is critical if separation is to be prevented. In preliminary design, a length of at least three times the nozzle throat diameter should be adequate. References 12, 33 and 41 provide more details on the subject of nozzle design. Part vI Chapter 6 Page 1896.3.3 Estimation of Exhaust/Nozzle Extra Drag In this sub-section rapid methods for estimating the extra drag caused by exhaust and/or nozzle installations. The material is organized as follows: 3.3.1 Piston engines 3.3.2 Turbopropeller engines 3.3.3 Jet engines: subsonic 3.3.4 Jet engines: supersonic 6.3.3.1 Pist Figure 6.31 illustrates the drag increments associated with two piston engine exhaust configurations. In preliminary design it is suggested to use drag increments on the basis of similarity of the proposed installation with those of Figure 6.31. 3.3.2 If the exhaust configuration of a turbopropeller is similar to the one shown in Figure 6.26, the drag increments of 6.3.3.1 may be used as a guide. If the exhaust configuration is similar to those of Figure 6.6, the additional drag penalty caused by the exhaust may be negligible. 6.3.3.3 ines: sub: For engines mounted in nacelle pods, no additional drag increment is incurred: the nacelle drag is accounted for separately. For engines mounted in a fuselage and exhausting in the rear, extra drag may be incurred. Figure 6.32 shows several nozzle concepts used for subsonic applications. Each concept has a drag penalty associated with it. The drag penalty may be found with the help of Table 6.2. The airplane drag increment due to the nozzle may be found from: acy = (AC noz noztype )Seys/S (6.47) Note: Eqn. (6.47) assumes that only ONE nozzle is at the rear of the fuselage. If more are present, the drag increases accordingly. = fuselage maximim frontal area as defined in Figure 4.17. Part VI Chapter 6 Page 190 Stus‘SHORT CONVERGENT iris ISENTROPIC RAMP DRY = NO AFTER BURNING A/B = AFTER BURNING COPIED FROM REF.1Z , COURTESY: L.NICOLAI 6.32 Table 6.2 Drag Penalties for Nozzles Mounted in the Rear of a Fuselage, for Subsonic Plight Nozzle Type Drag Increment Cy noztype Short convergent 0.036 - 0,042 Blow-in-door ejector 0,025 - 0.035 Plug 0.015 - 0.020 Fully variable ejector 0.010 - 0.020 Iris 0,010 - 0.020 Ramp 0.010 Notes: 1, these data apply in the M + these data apply to nozzle 2.5 to 3.0 Part VI Chapter 6 = 0.8 - 0.95 range pressure ratios of Page 191If more than one engine exhausts at the rear of the fuselage, a difficult ‘aerodynamic fairing’ problem between the engines can arise. Figure 6.33 shows a number of possibilities. The drag increments due to such 'faired’ nozzle arrangements may be estimated from Fig. 6.33 Note that longer fairings reduce the drag of the installation. However: a longer fairing also implies a weight increase: as usual, a trade study must be performed to arrive at the correct decision. 6.3.3.4 Jet engines: supersonic The supersonic drag increment of nozzles is strongly dependent on the method used to ‘fair’ the rear end of the airplane, especially in the area of the variable geometry nozzle. No simple method can be given for the estimation of nozzle drag increment. References 9, 12, 33 and 41 should be consulted for details. FAIRING TYPES IRIS NOZZLES BASE UPSTREAM — OF NOZZLE —— = ‘EXIT BASE Be 208, yt. BASE AT — NOZZLE EXIT tage LONG FAIRING EXTRA LONG : FAIRING COPIED FROM: REF. 12 0.04 1.04 0.03) 003) aCy aC 0.02] 0.02 0.01 O01 ° ° Part VI Chapter 6 Page 192$.4 PREDICTION OF INSTALLED POWER AND THRUST The purpose of this section is to present rapid methods for estimating the installed performance of engines in airplanes. The material is presented as follows: 6.4.1 Propeller Driven Airplanes 6.4.2 Jet Driven Airplanes 6.4.1 Propeller Driven Airplanes Propeller driven airplanes can use different methods for driving the propeller. In this text the following possibilities will be presented: +4.1,1 Piston propeller driven airplanes :4,1.2 Turbopropeller driven airplanes 1,1 Pist The installed performance of piston engines is normally stated in terms of available, installed power, P,,. In some applications, the static thrust obtainable from a propeller may be important. Methods for finding static propeller thrust for a given amount of available shaft-horse-power are given in Reference 15. The following step-by-step procedure is suggested for finding available, installed power, Pay Step 1: Determine the flight conditions for which the installed power available calculation is to be made. This consists of the selection of altitude, temperature and airspeed. Step 2: From engine manufacturers data determine the available shaft horse power, SHP,, for each flight condition. Figure 6.34 shows a typical example of such data. Step 3: Find the installed, available power, P. from: av Pay . {ini /incS!Pay ~ Pextr tp} "gear ed where: SHP,, follows from Step 2, Part VI Chapter 6 Page 193‘To find the actual horsepower from Al- titude, pe, manifold pressure and air anlet temperature: ‘A, Locate A on full throttle altitude curve for, given rpm and manifold pres 2, Locate Bon sea level curve for xa ad manifold pressure and transfer to C By Connect A and ¢ by a straight Line and Fead horsepower at given altitude: D 4 Modify horsepower at D for variation of aly inlet temperature T from standard altitude temperature T, by the formula: me woo ee 5 i BS acca np = np at Dx Vat ‘ABS MAMPOLD PRESSURE WMG PRESSURE ALTTUDE-FT where T and , are absolute temperatures RMALLS { NORMALLY ASPIRATED eETeae ro eneeete SUPERCHARGED COURTESY + E.TOREN BEEK [ALTITUDE PERFORMANCE FULL THROTTLE [SEA Level Penronmance PART THROTTLE wax. TAKEOFE z & = nM 1950, 1888 i380 i850 iso t rT 00 ] | 2 me MO o 2 4 6 8 0 B w w% Ww 2 2226 ABSOLUTE MANIFOLD PRESSURE ~ INCH HG PRESSURE ALTITUDE ~ 1000 FT 6.34 Perk Data r Engi Part VI Chapter 6 Page 194Pextr follows from sub-section 6.1.1. Np the propeller efficiency, may be found from propeller data. Methods to compute propeller efficiency for conventional propellers are provided in References 15, 42, 43, 44 and 45. NOTE: a rapid method for the determination of the diameter of propellers was given in Chapter 5 of Part II. External noise considerations were not a part of that method. To assure that a propeller meets FAR 36 noise requirements, the method of References 46, 47 and 48 may be used. For preliminary design purposes, as long as the propeller tip speed is kept below a Mach number of 0.85, noise certification should not be a problem. Ngear is the gearbox efficiency. For direct drive installations use: "gear ~ 1-° For geared installations with a well designed gearbox, use: Ngear 7 9-98 Step 4: Plot P,, versus speed and altitude. Refer to Figure 7.1 in Chapter 7 for an example. $.4.1.2 Turbopropeller driven airplanes Installed turbopropeller performance is presented in terms of installed, available power P... Most turboprops also deliver a remnant thrust, T, which varies with the flight condition. For performance calculations this remnant thrust is usually converted to power. This will be done in this text also. For some applications it is necessary to know the static thrust available from a turboprop installation. For such cases the static remnant thrust is added to the static propeller thrust. Methods for determining static propeller thrust are given in Reference 15. The following step-by-step procedure is suggested to find Part VI Chapter 6 Page 195installed, available power, P_o: Step 1: 2: 3: “in sincS Ba ‘Note 1: av Determine the flight conditions for which the calculation of available installed power and thrust is to be made. This consists of the selection of altitude, temperature and airspeed. From engine manufacturers data determine the available shaft horsepower, SHP,, as well as the available remnant thrust, T, for each flight condition. An example of such data is shown in Figure 6.35, Find the available, installed power. P,,, from: Pay * wv ~ Pextr"p "gear* “Mini /inc? 741/550 (6.49) where: "inisinc follows from 6.2.3.2 SHP,, and T, follow from Step 2 P, follows from sub-section 6.1.2 extr nu,» the propeller efficiency follows P from Step 3 in 6.4.1.1. Eqn. (6.49) assumes that T, is not affected by power extraction. Actually, this is not correct. Be- cause the contribution of T, to total available power is usually very negligible. Note 2: 3: ae Part VI small, the error made by this assumption is Eqn. (6.49) is not valid for U, = 0 Most turbopropeller engines already have a gearbox installed. The engine manufacturers data include the gearbox losses. Plot P,, versus speed and altitude. Refer to Figure 7.2 in Chapter 7 for an example. Chapter 6 Page 196SUTHUG AOIaOGINL C IOF SLT SOULUTOJISS SUTHUT PSTTEISUTUN STSINISEIMUCH JO STAUEXT FES SIMBTA ~~ Sine 'n ~ aaaasyiv ooe ~~ goz 001 c — SS XY —— a37Dv t o000€ o00'sz 00 02 00'S "WO XWH N\ was Sh On o0001 Ft 0005 WOK BaaHASOWLY “CIS @aaig ON AaSINYD “xv¥W vas ———— j Sasso) LaNt ON OL “OHS 00) 00€ 005 009 et HS ool. 03-1 009 Page 197 Chapter 6 Part VI$.4,2 Jet Driven Airplanes For jet driven airplanes, engine performance is given in terms of available, installed thrust, T,,. Step-by-step procedures for determining T,, are presented as follows: 6.4.2.1 Subsonic operations 6.4.2.2 Supersonic operations 6.4.2.1 2 1: Determine the flight condition for which the installed thrust must be determined. This consists of the selection of altitude, temperature and airspeed. 2: From engine manufacturers data, determine the available uninstalled thrust, Ty.4/ay- Figure 6.36 shows an example of such data. Step 3: Find the available installed thrust from: Ty 7 (6.50) UM seyay) ~ 06 35K eM, - ngnrying))? ~ 550(Poxep/0q)) where: To¢/ay follows from Step 2 M, is the flight Mach number Yini/ine MAY be found from 6.2.3.3 P, follows from Sub-section 6.1.2 extr K, is determined from Figure 6.37 Step 4: Plot T,, versus speed and altitude. Refer to Figure 7.3 in Chapter 7 for an example. 6.4,2,2 Supersonic operations: Step 1: Determine the flight conditions for which the available thrust, T,, must be found. This consists of the selection of altitude, temperature and airspeed. Part VI Chapter 6 Page 198UVOUINY STWOSANS eIOF FET SOULUTOI ISA 9E°9 W ~ YBSWNN HOW g 2 9 Ss he e 2 r ° r T T — T ° 000'1 iw 000 —§ ooobe —_——_.w_Tm 1000'2 oo0%2 ae 000% x 00001 “LNOD KYA vas { "LNOD “xv 00% “O-L WHYON 00'S 0009 (sat My Ww AWS) Chapter 6 Page 199 Part VI~ LBS UNINSTALLED DRY THRUST ~Th gt jay DATA: BEF 32 K, [ s€€ €QN.650 [FoR Ky Ss Ye '- 0.075 (My- 1)" iN ) COPIED FROM REF.IZ COURTESY = L.NICOLAT ° . 1.0 MACH NUMBER Figure 6.37 Effect of Mach Number on K, 6.37 7 a ALTITUDE (1000 feet) ° L lo . 5 x AX 10 elo 4 }-18 3 v9 | —20 a 12 a MIL-E-S008B: 3 w = i « 8 w u « 35 0.5 101382025 |—~ Me 6 49 | 45 4 DEBIVED FROM 50 BEF. 12 ab aH TN os S i 60 —T ~~ a_1|__1 12. 16 20 24 MACH NUMBER 6.38 Performance Data for a Supersonic Turbofan Part VI Chapter 6 Page 200Step 2: From engine manufacturers data find the uninstalled, available thrust, Ty.4/ay- Figure 6.38 gives an example of such data. Note: These data are normally given for an assumed pressure recovery schedule with free stream Mach numbe "ref /inl* Figure 6,38 shows a typical pressure recovery schedule used by engine manufacturers for military engines. Step 3: Compute the installed, available thrust, T,. from: ) ~ SSOP, /Uy (6.51) Tay Testyav't ~ Pe ~ PE where: F, accounts for actual inlet pressure recoveries and is found from: Fe = Cregyinl ~ Yini/com? (6-5?) with: Cp is the ram recovery correction factor found from Figure 6.39. Ninl/com 28 the actual inlet pressure recovery which may be determined from Eqn. (6.41). Nref/ini iS found either from Fig. 6.38 or from engine manufacturers data Pe = 2M e0q/Ma (6.53) with: My ¢¢q found from Eqn. (6.7) m, determined from engine manufacturers data P, follows from Sub-section 6.1.2 extr NOTE: The installed, available thrust, T,, is the Part VI Chapter 6 Page 201total thrust available from the entire installation. In other words, the effect of the thrust distribution over the various installation components as shown in Fig. 6.12 has already been accounted for in the uninstalled engine manufacturers data albeit based on a reference pressure recovery and a reference nozzle. Step 4: Plot T,, versus speed and altitude. Refer to Figure 7.5 in Chapter 7 for an example. 4S,000 FT MAX. DRY THRUST USE FOR ALL ALTITUDES IN PRELIMINARY DESIGN a Ou-79 9328} TuRBoveTs OGE-I OTe) } LOWBPR TURBOFANS RAM CORRECTION FACTOR ~CR 8 10 #12 14 #16 18 20 22 FLIGHT MACH NUMBER ~ Mg COMED FROM: BEF.12, COURTESY: L.NICOLAL Rigure 6.39 Effect of Mach Number on the Ram Recovery Factor of Several Jet Engines Part VI Chapter 6 Page 2027. INSTALLED POWER AND THRUST DATA The purpose of this chapter is to present example data for installed power and thrust. The information is presented as follows: 7.1 Propeller driven airplanes 7.2 Jet driven airplanes 1.1 PROPELLER DRIVEN AIRPLANES In this section, two examples will be given for the determination of installed power data for propeller driven airplanes: 7.1.1 Piston propeller driven airplanes 7.1.2 Turbopropeller driven airplanes 1.1.1 Piston Propeller Driven Airplanes The step-by-step procedure of 6.4.1.1 will be used. Step 1: It will be assumed that installed, available power data must be provided for the following flight conditions: altitude: 0 - 20,000 ft in increments of 5,000 ft speed: from 0 - 200 kts temperature: standard atmosphere Note: the flight condition range must be compatible with the stated mission objectives of the airplane. Such mission objectives are normally defined in the airplane mission specification. Examples of airplane mission specifications are discussed in Part I. The airplane used in this example is assumed to be a single engine airplane. It has an engine with the uninstalled characteristics of Figure 6.34. Step 2: Figure 6.34 provides typical engine manufacturers data for a small piston engine. Notice that the data are given in terms of SHP,, for various altitudes, engine rpm (throttle) and inlet manifold pressure. Step 3: The following input information is required before Eqn. (6.48) can be used: Part VI Chapter 7 Page 203P, and n extr’ “inl/inc’ "gear > This input information must be determined for each individual installation. In preliminary design the methods suggested in 6.4.1.1 may be used. For the current example the following data will be assumed: P, = 4 hp = 0.98 extr "inl/inc Ngear ~ 1-0 (direct drive) a, = 0.88 Warning: propeller efficiency for a fixed pitch propeller can be this high for only one flight condition. In this example a variable pitch propeller has been used. Step 4: The determination of P,, now proceeds as follows: For a given altitude and engine rpm, Figure 6.34 is used to find the SHP,,. Using Equation (6.48) it is then possible to compute P,, for each flight condition. Figure 7.1 shows the results of these calculations for the required range of altitudes and flight speeds. Note: for the effect of atmospheric temperature on engine performance, engine manufacturers data should be consulted. In the absence of such data, the following approximation may be used: 1/2 SEP. = SEP (Teeq/T? (creD) Wat Wat std T 14.1.2 Turbopropeller Driven Airplanes The step-by-step procedure of 6.4.1.2 will be used. Step 1: It will be assumed that installed, available power data must be provided for the following flight conditions: altitude: | 0 - 40,000 ft in increments of 10,000 £t speed: 0 = 400 kts temperature: standard sealevel Note: the flight condition range must be compatible Part VI Chapter 7 Page 204The data in this Figure were arrived at with the assumptions listed in Sub-section 7.1.1. Eqn. (6.48): Pay 7 “ini /incSHPay ~ Pextr)"p"gear = (SHPLy (0.98) - 4) (0.88) (1,0) 3,400 RPM, Sea 5K 10K 15K 20K max. allow. SHP,y 285 248 = 206 172 140 Nind/incSHPay 279 243-202 169 137 ~ Poser 215 239 198 165 133 Pay 242 21000 «174 145 117 Note that P| is not a function of speed in these calculations. The reason is: propeller efficiency was assumed to be constant. This is not always the case! Q 7 ——— _ 3400 RPM CMAX) gop «=---—- 2800 RPM (CRUISE) 2 Act. (FT) d SEA, 0 3 $000 a} 29 2.00 10.000 7 Kisc00 Z $220,000 100 _ Pa S 3 5 ° 29 100 200 greeD ~ Uy ~ KTS A FAN ial £ Part VI Chapter 7 Page 205with the stated mission objectives of the airplane. such mission objectives are normally defined in the airplane mission specification. Examples of airplane mission specifications are discussed in Part I. The airplane used in this example is assumed to be a twin engine turbopropeller driven airplane. The engines have the uninstalled characteristics of Figure 6.35. Step 2: Figure 6.35 defines the engine manufacturers data for this example calculation. Note that these data are given in terms of SHP,, and T,. Step 3: The following input information is required before Equation (6.49) can be used: Pextr’ “inl/inc’ U1 and ap This input information must be determined for each individual installation. In preliminary design the methods suggested in 6.4.1.2 may be used. For the current example the following data will be assumed: Poxtr 7 10 shp Plenum inlet with bypass duct: = 0.89 “inl/ine 0.92 PB U, is selected in increments of kts airspeed Warning: propeller efficiency varies considerably with Mach number. The assumption has been made here that the propeller blades have supercritical airfoil sections and that a propeller pitch angle schedule is used which allows the propeller efficiency to be optimized at all speeds. Step 4: The determination of installed, available power, P,, proceeds as follows: For any given altitude, Figure 6.35 is used to find SHP,, and T,. Using Equation (6.49) it is now possible to compute P,, for each flight condition. Figure 7.2 shows the installed engine performance for the airplane with both engines operating. Part VI Chapter 7 Page 206POWER AVAILABLE ~ Ry ~ HP Note: for the effect of atmospheric temperature on engine performance, engine manufacturers data should be consulted. In the absence of such data, the following approximation may be used for sealevel performance: SEP = SEP. - 2.337 - TL44) (12) Vato Vat stat ed where: T is the actual atmospheric temperature in degrees F. Tytq is the atmospheric temperature in the standard atmosphere in degrees F. Observe that Eqn. (7.2) implies that for each degree of temperature increase above standard, 2.33 hp will be lost! z000- The data in this Figure were arrived at with assumptions listed in Sub-section 7.1.2. SEA T.0. CRUISE 1000 8 8 29000 } CRUISE 3Q000 Part VI Chapter 7 Page 2071.2 JET DRIVEN AIRPLANES In this section, two examples will be given for the determination of installed thrust for jet driven airplanes: 7.2.1 Subsonic operations 7.2.2 Supersonic operations 1.2.1 Subsonic Operations The step-by-step procedure of 6.4.2.1 will be used. Step 1: It will be assumed that installed, available thrust data must be provided for the following flight conditions: altitude: 0 - $0,000 ft in increments of 10,000 ft speed: 0 = 500 kts temperature: standard atmosphere Note: the flight condition range must be compatible with the stated mission objectives of the airplane. Such mission objectives are normally defined in the airplane mission specification. Examples of airplane mission specifications are discussed in Part I. The airplane used in this example is assumed to be a twin engine airplane. It has engines with the uninstalled characteristics of Figure 6.36. The airplane will be assumed to have a straight~ through inlet. Step 2: Figure 6.36 defines the engine manufacturers data for this example calculation. Note that these data are in terms of T,../,, for a range of flight conditions. Step 3: The following input information is required before Eqn. (6.50) can be used: Kee Myon and U, ini/inc’ Pextr This input information must be determined for each individual installation. In preliminary design the methods suggested in 6.4.2.1 may be used. For the current example, the following data will be assumed: Part VI Chapter 7 Page 208K, from Figure 6.37 at each value of M, M, follows from the speed and altitude for which the calculations are made. Nini/inc fellows from Eqns (6.30) and (6.37). Note: the inlet geometry must be available before the inlet pressure recovery can be computed! In this e- xample it will be assumed that 1j1);ing = 0-95 Pextr follows from Sub-section 6.1.2. In this example it will be assumed that P = 60 hp. extr U, is selected in increments of kts airspeed. Step 4: The determination of T,, now proceeds as follows: For each speed and altitude combination, Eqn. (6.50) is now used to determine T,,. This information is then plotted as in Figure 7.3. Note: for the effect of atmospheric temperature on engine performance, engine manufacturers data should be consulted. 1.2.2 Supersonic Operations The step-by-step procedure of 6.4.2.2 will be used. Step 1: It will be assumed that installed, available thrust must be provided for the following range of flight conditions: altitude: 0 - 60,000 ft in increments of 10,000 £t speed: M= 0 to 2.5 temperature: standard atmosphere Note: the flight condition range must be compatible with the stated mission objectives of the airplane. Such mission objectives are normally defined in the airplane mission specification. Examples of airplane mission specifications are discussed in Part I. The airplane used in this example is assumed to be a Part VI Chapter 7 Page 209The data in this Figure were arrived at with assumptions listed in Sub-section 7.1.3. 15,000 - wy Q| J 2 z ‘i 2,000 MAX. TO. 4 { SEA 3 MAX. CONTINUOUS x I F MAX. CONT. 4 10,000 a < oe 25,000 + 20,000 $ o —___ CQO] ST P00 Oo A ht ° 600 0 400 2 CopceD~ U, ~ KTS r fas uu table 7 ts , Twin Engine Jet Transport Part VI Chapter 7 Page 210twin engined, supersonic business jet. The inlets are assumed to be of the mixed compression type (Fig. 6.10c) with four shocks. The uninstalled engine performance characteristics are assumed to be those of Figure 6.38. Step 2: Figure 6.38 defines the engine manufacturers data for this installation in terms of T,.4,,,- Note the reference pressure recovery schedule. Step 3: The following input information is required before Eqn. (6.51) can be used: FL: which depends on Ces Ainj/com 294 yeg/ini’ Py: which depends on mj,¢q and m t P and Uy extr For the current example it will be assumed that F, has been determined to vary with Mach number as shown in Figure 7.4, that P, = 0,07 and that P.,,, = 20 hp Step 4: The determination of T,, now proceeds as follows: For any given speed and altitude, Eqn. (6.51) is used to compute T,,. The result is plotted in Figure 7.5. Note: for the effect of atmospheric temperature on engine performance, engine manufacturers data should be consulted. +20) Fee Cr ("gerne ~ ntcon) @s2) 1.0 2.0 MACH NUMBER + M Part VI Chapter 7 Page 211ANAILABLE THRUST ~ Thy ~ LBS The data in this Figure were arrived at with assumptions listed in Sub-section 7.1.4 and the F, data of Fig.7.4. 30 HAX CONT. oan ALT, ~ ET ~~ 10,000 29,000 20 F 30,000 oF 40,000 $0,000 60,000 oe 14 1 . ° 10 2.0 MACH NUMBER VY M 15 i L nic_Twin Engine Business Jet Part VI Chapter 7 Page 2128. LIFT AND PITCHING MOMENT PREDICTION METHODS The purpose of this chapter is to present rapid methods for the prediction of lift and pitching moment characteristics of airplanes. These characteristics are expressed in terms of the following relationships: *Lift coefficient versus angle of attack *Pitching moment coefficient versus lift coefficient The reason for combining these relationships is the fact that unless an airplane can be trimmed (i.e. flown at zero pitching moment coefficient), it is not useful. Figure 8.1 shows the fundamental C,-a and C.-C, relationships which must be determined for any new design. Note the following maximum lift coefficients: Clean airplane (flaps up): Cy ‘ma: x Trimmed with: Flaps down: take-off: Cy - maX no *og ~ *ret landing: C, max, Methods for determining the magnitude of these maximum lift coefficients required to satisfy performance objectives are discussed in Part I as part of the overall Sizing process of airplanes. Class I methods for determining whether or not any given airplane design can achieve certain required maximum lift coefficients are given in Chapter 7 of Part IT. The reader must take note of the fact that the effect of trim requirements was accounted for in Ch.7 of Pt.II by subtracting a ‘token’ increment from the untrimmed maximum lift coefficients. In this chapter Class II methods for estimating trimmed lift coefficients and trimmed maximum lift coefficients are presented. The material is organized as follows: 8.1 Prediction of lift coefficient versus angle of attack 8.2 Prediction of pitching moment versus lift coefficient 8.3 Prediction of trimmed lift and trimmed maximm lift coefficient Part VI Chapter & Page 213The methods are presented for the subsonic flow range. The reader is referred to specific sections of Ref.9 for those transonic and supersonic effects which are considered beyond the scope of this text. 8.1 PREDICTION OF LIFT COEFFICIENT VERSUS ANGLE OF ATTACK In this section methods for predicting the variation of lift coefficient with angle of attack will be presented as follows: 8.1.1 Airfoil lift and maximm lift: flaps up 8.1.2 Airfoil lift and maximum lift: flaps down 8.1.3 Wing lift and maximum lift: flaps up 8.1.4 Wing lift and maximum lift: flaps down 8.1.5 Airplane lift and maximm lift: flaps up 811.6 Airplane lift and maximum lift: flaps down 8.1.7 Airplane lift in ground effect Power effects on airplane lift Q Ce Co make +> ELAPS UP 2 =z 4 ae ca FLAPS DOWN F “vet tu Conary CLmaxro Co max < / 4 Zs ° = © o Ge Xyee 8,1 Characteristics Part VI Chapter 8 Page 214aaa A A itt: Figure 8.2 shows the relationship between airfoil lift coefficient and airfoil angle of attack which mst be be determined with the methods to be presented in this Section. Key quantities needed in the construction of the airfoil c, versus a curve are listed, with an indication of where methods for their estimation may be found. 8.1.1.1 Airfoil zero-lift angle of attack: %0, Table 8.1 provides a summary of basic airfoil data from which @) may be determined. Whenever possible, 1 actual airfoil data should be used. The airfoil zero-lift angle of attack may be estimated from Ref.9 (4.1.1.1) for arbitrary airfoils. Experience shows that the airfoil zero-lift angle of attack is NOT a function of Reynold’s number or Mach number in the subsonic speed range. 8.1.1.2 Airfoil lift curve slope: c. te Table 8.1 provides a summary of basic airfoil data from which c, may be determined. Whenever possible, ac~ tual airfoil data should be used. The airfoil 1ift curve slope may be estimated from Ref.9 (4.1.1.2) for arbitrary airfoils. Experience shows that the airfoil lift curve slope is dependent on Mach number in accordance with the Prandt-Glauert transformation: For subsonic speeds: - = 22/2 et fey yaw) (a1) at Mat M=0 ey = 4fa? ~ 192? (8.2) at M Bor transonic speeds: use tunnel data. Part VI Chapter 8 Page 215Artest 3, « ae 7 ¢ “% o “laax Maax ea) Ges _[ecenths «| (aes (see 0006 ° ° 208 250 | 9.0 92 9.0 0008 ° ° 1209 1250 | 13.4 ua ae 1408 0.8 =.023 | 108 230 | 14.0 1.35 10.0 1410 -1:0 S020 | 108 i207 | 14:3 1150 a0 142 at Zo2s | 108 i252 | asia 158 22:0 242 -2.0 =.007 | 205 207 | 16.8 1.68 9.5 25 22:0 S009 | 106 246 | 6.4 163 10:0 2a 223 S050 | 103 va | a0 107 10:0 2421 =i Zoo} 103 i201 | 16:0 1a 8.0 2426 =8 =:040 | 098 van | 6:0 123 84 ane 238 -.093 | 205 207 | 14.0 1.67 25 ars 743 x03, | Shos “245 | 15.0, Nee 3:0 wane 238 Toss | Sios 202 | acco 133 72 aan a) Toss | S103 i238 | 16.0 10 6:0 426 o3.8 =i082 | St00 239 | asco 138 we 23012 ae =. | 207 2407 | 38.0 Ly 12.0 23025 =1.0 S007 | Sao? 1203 | 8:0 in 10:0, 23018 21:2 Zoos | Stoe i203 | 16.0 1.60 8 23021 21:2 ° 103 i238 | 15.0 1.50 10.3 23024 0:8 ° +097 z2_| 15.0 1:40 9:7 Part VI Chapter 8 Page 216anoeeecnge a Snooth Leading Bdge and for Ry = 9x10 ‘rfosl, 3 = mee 3 © * 2 ty “Lax fnax (dea) (eg) |(eenths c) | (eg) (een) [7 63-006 0 ~iiz -258 10.0 87 TT 63-009, ° ma 1258 ano ais 10:7 63-206 “1.9 sz +254 10.5 1.06 6.0 63-209 a4 cao 1262 arto 140 10.8 63-210 12 mas 2261 14s 156 9.6 63-012 ° s6 +265 16.0 Las: 12.8 63}-212 -2.0 errs 1263 46:5 163 ine 63}-422 2.8 7 in. 15.0 uu 916 64-006 ° -209 +256 9.0 8 7.2 64-009 ° co 1262 no uy 10.0 64-206 -1.0 s110 2253 12.0 1.03 8.0 64-209, ous 07, 1262 330 140 89 64-210 16 co 1258 ao alas 10:8 64,012 ° ° an 262 16.5 1.45 12.0 64-212 13 -.027 fas 1262 15.0 155 ano 64}-412 216 1065 m2 1267 15.0 167 8:0 Table 8.1c Experimental Low Speed Data for 6- Digit NACA Airfoils with ‘a Smooth Leadin ‘Mrfoil 8, ac € * 2 na ° (eee) (tenths ©) (aes) 65-006 ° 258 92 7.6 65-009, ° 2264 308 v8 65-206 1.6 257 | 12.0 1.03 6.0 65-209, mula 1259 | 12.0 1530 10:0 65-210 a6 1262 | 13.0 Alao 9:6 65,-012 ° 261 | 16.0 1.36 10.0 65)-212 n1.0 t2er | alo ilar 904 o5}-412 =310 i265 | sis 1:66 10.5 63a010 254 | 13.0 2.20 10.0 634210 os i257 | 14.0 a3 10.0 644010 ° 253 | 12.0 1.23 10.0 644210 o15 1251 | 13.0 aaa 10.0 64x60 =310 1254 | 15.0 ae1 10.0 64,4212 -2.0 252 | aso 2.54 1.0 64 A215 -2.0 095, 252 | 15.0 1.50 32.0 Part VI Chapter & Page 217. 8,1,1,3 Airfo: inear range angle of attack: a Table 8.1 provides a summary of basic airfoil data from which a” may be determined. Whenever possible, actual airfoil data should be used. The airfoil linear range angle of attack may also be estimated from Ref.9 (4.1.1.3) for existing airfoils. 8.1.1.4 Airfoil angle of attack for maximm lift: a, max Table 8.1 provides a summary of basic airfoil data from which a, may be determined. Whenever possible, 1, max actual airfoil data should be used. The airfoil angle of attack for maximm lift may be estimated from Ref.9 (4.1.1.4) for existing airfoils. 8.1.1.5 Ai i i icient: c, ‘max It has been found that airfoil maximm lift coefficient, c, depends upon the following parameters: ‘max 1. Leading edge shape as quantified by the so-called 4y parameter. 2. Maximum thickness and position of maximm thickness. 3. Maximum camber and position of maximm camber. 4. Reynold’s number: pcU,/u 5. Mach number. Figure 8.3 defines these parameters for an arbitrary airfoil. The method is valid for a ‘base Reynold’s number’ of 9x10® and for Mach numbers below 0.2. ‘The effect of variations in Reynold's number and Mach number relative to this ‘base’ is accounted for in the method. Part VI Chapter 8 Page 218Parabola (4-digit series) Parabola (4-digit series) Cubic (S-digit series) ‘Straight Line or Inverted (Cubic (S-digit series) zero slope MEAN LINE nan -SHORD LINE — POS. OF MAX. THICKNESS 0S. OF MAX. CAMBER 8.3 “ =aane ye | Ry= 9x10! | oS aa i 45 ~49~ 35 LZ 4 _}- Lt POSITION OF MAX. . | THICKNESS (%C) (Cy vase L , [ corieD FROM: mnax 7 = u 4 REF.D 08 : + He | L PREDOMINANT. PREDOMINANT - LEADING EDGE STALL TRAILING EDGE I T T TT STALL nq LONG BUBBLE) SHORT, BuBBle “oO 1 4 s z 3 hy (%OQ —= Part VI Chapter & Page 219The maximum lift coefficient of an airfoil may be estimated from: ©. = (c. ) + Aye. + Ase + Age + a Tmax base * “11a * “291 nay * “3lnay Age + Age. + Age. (8.3) 3lnax 4 max Slax tc. is the basic airfoil maximm lift ) Inax >88¢ coefficient, found from Figure 8.4 as a function of airfoil geometry. The parameter Ay in Figure 8.4 is defined in Figure 8.3. Table 8.2 lists example data for Ay. is the airfoil maximm lift increment due max to camber and due to position of maximum camber. See Figure 8.5. is the airfoil maximm lift increment due max position of maximum thickness. This increment is obtained from Figure 8.6. NOTE: when the position of maximum thickness is at 30 percent chord, this increment is ZERO. 4,c, is the airfoil maximum lift increment due max to Reynold’s number: see Figure 8.7. 44c, is the airfoil maximum lift increment due max to airfoil roughness. The basic roughness used is the so-called standard NACA roughness of 0.011 inch grit applied over the first 8 percent chord. Actual airplane roughness is much less severe. For airplanes with ‘smooth’ and ‘clean’ leading edges this increment is ZERO. Figure 8.8 provides data for finding this increment. 4 is the section maximm lift increment due max to Mach number (compressibility) Fig. 8.9 gives data for finding this increment so1 Whenever possible, actual data should be used. Re- ferences 49, 50 and 51 should be consulted for specific data on airfoil maxim lift coefficients. Table 8.1 contains c, data for a range of air- max foils at the base Reynold’s number of 9x10%, Part VI Chapter & Page 220Table 82 Example Data for the Leading Edge Ay Parameter Airfoil Position of Camber Position of Ay max t/c max camber erc. of c perc. of c NACA 0009 30 not appl. 2.35 1410 30 40 2.60 2415 30 40 3.80 4412 30 40 3108 4315 30 30 3.30 4321 30 30 5.24 23012 30 1.8 13 3,03 23021 30 1.8 15 5.24 43012 30 3.7 15 5.08 63012 30 5.5 15 3.08 63-009 35 40 0.55 50 1.70 40 0.55 50 2,52 40 0 not appl. 3.75 50 3.75 not appl. 1.65 50 1.65 45 not appl. 3.30 50 3.30 Part VI Chapter 8 Page 221a Lanae i} TT] —L MAX. CAMBER AT 15% C If cameer (% c) pprrres ie Aes} | Ry = 9x10! 4 im F | ° 4 s 6 ' @ ° by~ %C CAMBER (%C) CIR - MAX. CAMBER AT 30%C AY T a : 7 TIT CAMBER (%C) J COrleD FRO! REFD Part VI Page 222MAX. CAMBER AT 50%C posirion oF | | Ae, MAX, THICKNESS mane I ON CHORD ~ 9% D y= 9x10" = (do = ° 1 2 3 4 se CoPieD FROM REF.9 By iaaeoe Maximum Lift 4 COPIED FROM AEF : z, 2 izs x 10° 4 \ 43 %man 7 9x10%3 el a — 5x10 ” P+ 3x 108 4 [| l ° 1 z 3 4 s by ~ %>C 8.7 - Part VI Chapter 8 Page 223COPIED FAOM REFS T TitTtTiritTqt. ° i 73 CT 4-DI6IT_AND 6- SERIES “ou AIRFOILS Dye max =A 5-DIGIT AIRFOILS 7 | -8 piittiritririd oO I 2 3 4 Ss 4Y~ FC 8.8 (— 4 TT SMOOTH L.E- Ly 42-74% Ry = 9x 1o® | ltd | [FO NACA 64,- 215 Le 7 - | Ds mae r——-F 4 ce TSE] Sa NACA 64-210 Kit 8 ANS tle NACA 64-009 E oF NACA 63-006 ° a 2 3 4 Ss 16 M~ MACH NUMBER Part VI Chapter & Page 2248.1.1.6 Construction of airfoil lift curve: flaps up All ingredients needed to construct the flaps-up airfoil c) versus a curve are now available. The flaps- up curve in Figure 8.2 can therefore be constructed. Figure 8.10 shows how this is done in a step-by-step manner. The fairing between a” and a, is done with the Tax help of a french curve. The behavior of the lift curve just before and just after stall depends on Reynold's number. Reference 49 and Ref.9 (4.1.1.3) contain more information. STEPS: Cp Bis i STEP! 8,10 Part VI Chapter & Page 2258.1.2 Ai i i ift: Figure 811 shows the comparison between flaps-up and flaps-down airfoil lift characteristics. Key quantities which are required to determine the flaps-down airfoil lift characteristics are listed with an indication of where methods for their estimation may be found. 8.1.2.1 Airfoil lift increment due to flaps: Ac) The airfoil incremental lift coefficient increment due to flaps, Ac, depends on the type of flaps used. Methods are presented for the following flap types: A) Trailing Edae Flaps a) Plain flaps b) Single-slotted flaps ) Fowler flaps 4) Double slotted flaps e) Split flaps B)_Leading Edae Flaps a) Nose flaps b) Krueger flaps ¢) Leading edge slats 4) Spoilers Note: If a wing is equipped with any combination of flaps as defined under A) or B) it is acceptable in preliminary design to add the increments due to each individual flap type. The reader should be aware that this can result in over-prediction of high lift capability! A) Trailing Edge Flaps a)_Plain flaps Figure 8.12 defines the geometry of a plain flap. The airfoil incremental lift coefficient due to a plain flap deflection with a sealed gap is given by: Ac kt (8.4) 1 (Be) fey 1 (Cy eneory? “1, theory! where: k' is a correction factor which accounts for nonlinearities at high flap deflections: see Figure 813. lc is found from Figure &14. It accounts > 1, theory go, flap size and for thickness ratio. Part VI Chapter 8 Page 226f FLAPS DOWN 8.1.2.2 Gods, A > Part VI Chapter 8 Page 227I COPIED FROM REFS 0 20 40 60 FLAP DEFLECTION, 5g (dee) of Plain Flaps 80 u 1 AA coPieD FROM KEE ; Lie (8) see (werne) ud Part VI Chapter 8 Page 228(61,7) Yeneory #8 found from Figure 8.15. 8, is the flap deflection in rad. Note: for plain flaps with open gaps (not sealed) Reference 49 should be consuited. b) Single-slotted flaps Pigure 8.16 defines the geometry of a single-slotted flap. The airfoil incremental lift coefficient due to a single-slotted flap deflection is given by: acy = ey 1 ag) ed (8.5) where: c) is the airfoil lift-curve-slope with the a flaps up. It is found from 8.1.1.2. a, is the airfoil lift effectiveness parameter found from Figure 8.17. ¢) Powler flaps Figure 8.18 defines the geometry of a Fowler flap. The airfoil incremental lift coefficient due to a Fowler flap deflection is given by: Ac) = fey diag) (or/e) (85) (8.6) where: (c'/c) is defined in Figure 818, All other quantities in Egn.(8.6) are those listed under b) Single-slotted flaps. d) Double slotted flaps Figure 819 defines the geometry of double slotted flaps: Types I and II. Type I: The airfoil incremental lift coefficient due to a Type I double slotted flap deflection is given by: dele + y/o) + Ac, = nj (c. 1B. 1 1°°1, fy f, + ale 2 te, 2 where: 1, and n, are found from Figure 8.20 using c,/c Y(B_ Me'/e) (8.7) Part VI Chapter & Page 229COPIED EROM REFO FoR Cp, SEE: Bie £08 Ce) reory (40) theory SECTION 7 Th2 On vee 27 3 eth 4 Ss FLAP DEFLECTION, 5¢ (deg) Part VI Chapter 8 Page 230Part VI Chapter & Page 231‘ EMPIRICAL LIFT EFFICIENCY FACTOR A ry 2 SoPieD From: REED +4 ° 10 20 30 “ 0 o 0 EFFECTIVE TURNING ANGLE, © (deg) Pigure 8.20 Lift Effectiveness for Slotted Flaps 410. 6. LIFTING EFFECTIVENESS if ° a 2 3 4 5 FLAP.CHORD RATIO, ¢j/e 8,21 Part VI Chapter 8 Page 232and c,/c respectively. The ef fecti- ve turning angle, § is defined as: for vane: G-5, + (8, 8) fy TE oper for flap segment: = 6, +6, + §, (8.9) fy £4 TE per with: bop = arctan((10) (yg - Yygq)/c} (8.10) where: Yo. and Yyo9 are also defined in Figure 8.19. are found from Figure 8.21 for /c and c,/c respectively. The incremental lift coefficient due to a Type IT double-slotted flap is given by: dey = mle, Gg Vege) + Vp VL + (ere V/e) (8,11) 2 fy where: n, is found from Figure 8.22. ce’ and c,' are defined in Figure 8.19. all other quantities are defined under Type I. ©) Split flaps Figure 8.23 defines the geometry for a split flap. The incremental lift coefficient due to a split flap is given by: Bc, = (cy Dla, )(8,) (8,12) 1 1 3.) Pe where: c, is found from 8.1.1.2, a, _ is found from Figure 8.24. sf Part VI Chapter 8 Page 233Factor TO ACCOUNT FOR REDUCED EFFECTIVENESS a — | i % |e FROM: 20° BEr.® a 0 2 “0 & 0 100 AFT FLAP DEFLECTION, 64, 8,22 55 coPlED I ° 10 EA 30 o 30 o 70 to FLAP DEFLECTION, 8¢ (deg) Bigure 8,24 Lift Effectiveness of a Split Flap Part VI Chapter & Page 234B) Leading Edge Flaps a)_Nose flaps Figure 8.25 defines the geometry for a nose flap. The airfoil incremental lift coéfficient due to a nose flap deflection is given by: Ac (8,13) 17 41,8 where: c; is the leading edge flap effectiveness parame- ods ter for a nose flap: see Figure 8.26. Use c,/e as the flap-chord to wing-chord ratio. 6, is the nose flap deflection in degrees as defined in Figure 8.25. b) Krueger Flaps Figure 8.27 defines the geometry for a Krueger flap. The airfoil incremental lift coefficient due to a Krueger flap is given by: Ac) . o1,82'0"/0) (8,14) where: c, is the leading edge flap effectiveness parame- 8 ter for a Krueger flap: see Figure 8.26. Use ce/e’ as the flap-chord to wing-chord ratio. 8, is the Krueger flap deflection in degrees as defined in Figure 8.27. e'/e is as defined in Figure 8.27. ¢) Leading Edge Slats Figure 8.28 defines the geometry of a leading edge slat. The airfoil incremental lift coefficient due to a leading edge slat is given by: bey = cy Sp(er/o (8.15) where: c, is the leading edge flap effectiveness parame- 6 ter for a leading edge slat as found from Fi- gure 8.26 by using c_/c’ as the leading-edge- slat-chord to wing-chord ratio. 8, is the slat deflection in deg.: see Fig. 8.28 c'/c is as defined in Figure 8.28, Part VI Chapter & Page 235a WA 012. LIFTING EFFECTIVENESS Cos (1/Aeg) 008 CoPlED FROM: | KEES .004- ott ° a 2 3 4 3 LEADING-EDGE CHORD RATIO, ¢/c or ¢¢/e! 5 ec 2 — —_—_ £ G cs Lp) "€ by ‘geo Dag ow PLANE Eigure 8.27 Krueger Flap Geometry Part VI Chapter 8 Page 236CAMBER LINE ! corleD FROM: Aol, corleD FROM: REF.O (rad) 320 Part VI Chapter 8 Page 237d@) Spoilers Figure 8.29 defines the geometry of a spoiler. Ob- serve that the spoiler is defined by chord position and by vertical position of the spoiler trailing edge. The location of the spoiler hinge line is not important. The airfoil incremental lift coefficient due to a spoiler deflection is given by: acy = ~ey Aa," (8,16) where: c, is the unflapped airfoil lift curve slope as @ found from 8.1.1.2 4a,‘ is the spoiler lift effectiveness parameter as found from Figure 8.30. 8.1.2.2 Airfoil lift curve slope due to flaps: (c, ) 1,78 As long as the chord length of a flapped airfoil does not change, its lift curve slope does not change either. However, as seen from Figures 8.12, 8,16, 8.19, 8,23, 8.27, 8.28 and 8.29 the flapped airfoil chord is normally larger than the unflapped airfoil chord. For that reason, the flapped airfoil lift curve slope is given by: (1s where: c is the chord of the unflapped airfoil - tersede, | (8.17) c' is the chord of the flapped airfoil as defined in Pigs 8.12, 8.16, 8.23, 8,27, 8.28 or 8,30, c, is the unflapped airfoil lift curve slope a as found from 8.1.1.2. Note: spoiler deflections will be assumed not to alter the lift curve slope of an airfoil. 8,1,2,3 Airfoil maximum lift increment due to flaps ‘Ac. Tnax The magnitude of the maximum lift increment due to flaps depends on the type of flaps used. Methods are presented for trailing edge flaps as well as for leading edge flaps. Part VI Chapter & Page 238A. Trailing Edge Plaps The airfoil incremental, maximm lift coefficient due to trailing edge flaps is given by: Ac = kykjk, (Ac) ) (8.18) Tinax 1°2"3 Tnx base where: (Ac) ),a,¢ is the airfoil incremental, maximm max lift coefficient due to flaps as determined from Figure 8.31. Note that the data in Figure 8.31 are based on a 25 percent reference flap-chord to airfoil chord ratio AND on a reference flap deflection angle defined in Figure 8.33. is a factor which accounts for flap-chord to oe airfoil chord ratios different from 25 percent. wot «1° % It can be found from Figure 8.32. sats fae is a factor which accounts for flap angles different from the reference flap angle. It can be found from Figure 8.33. is a factor which accounts for flap motion as a function of flap deflection. It can be found from Figure 8.34, B) Leading Edge Flaps The airfoil incremental, maximm lift coefficient due to leading edge flaps is given by: Be (c'/e) (8,19) Ac. = (c Dn, 1 a ‘max’ max Snax where: c, is the theoretical maximm lifting effecti- Snax Veness as found from Figure 8.35, max 18 an empirical factor which accounts for the ratio of airfoil leading edge radius to airfoil thickness of the unflapped airfoil. It is obtained from Figure 8.36. a, is an empirical factor which accounts for the difference between the actual leading edge flap deflection and the reference deflection. It is found from Figure 8.37. is the leading edge flap deflection angle in Part VI Chapter & Page 23920 CURVE FLAPTYPE AIRFOIL | | ne A best 2Stot | NACA. p LJAVERAGE 2SLOT_NACA FOWLER ~ ANY 16 ff NACA 2SLOT —naca Gsentes roa NACA FSLOT__|_ ANY | Aman oe ‘ D[ SPLIT&PLAIN | ANY [4A i ATH / Las s [po —F I I Lo. = eH To B ott Prete o 2 4 6 8 W 2 14 I 18 Ye ~ AIRFOIL THICKNESS (% wing chord) COPIED FROM BEFD 31 aa jae fl COPIED k FBOM: Z oe Reed se | [ | | — pi oO 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 ¢, \g ~ FLAP-CHORD (%e wing chord) 8.32 Part VI Chapter 8 Page 240107 T 8 ot ky 4 “REFERENCE FLAP ANGLE 2 0. o 10) 20 30 Sw &,~FLAP ANGLE (dep) 8.33 10 8 6 corleD FROM ky _| REF. S 4 S SA Je TT wate che ne For split or rey plain fap, 7 use k ° Lt o 2 4 6 & 19 emma |. 6 REFERENCE FLAPANGLE ~ St€ FIG.8.33 8,34 Part VI Chapter 8 Page 24116 6a 12. COPIED FROM: THEORETICAL stan ‘MAXIMUM | BEF.D LIFTING ERFECTIVENESS| * (per rad) ‘| 1 ! + 3 $ 4 3 LEADING EDGE FLAP-CHORD BATIO~ £/c Edge Flaps 20 1s COPIED FROM: RE! 12 ot — ° 7 re a a6 20 exowNoapce napismucanass nano, 8.36 Ratio on Maximm Lift of Leading Edge Flaps Part VI Chapter 8 Page 242radians as shown in Figure 8.25, 8.27 or 8.28 c'/c is the ratio of the airfoil chord with lead- ding edge flaps extended to the basic airfoil chord. 1.2.4 All ingredients needed to construct the flaps-down airfoil c, versus a curve are now available. The flaps- down curve in Figure 8.2 can therefore be constructed. Figure 8.38 shows how this is done in a step-by-step manner. Since no empirical method for the determination of a* has been presented, the fairing between the linear range and the maximum lift point must be done by guestimation. The following groundrules aré usefu. ili : the angle of attack for maximm lift with trailing edge flaps down is normally below that for the basic airfoil. i : the angle of attack for maximm lift with leading edge flaps down is normally above that for the basic airfoil. : the flap deflection angle beyond which the flap lift increment 4c, ceases to be linear depends on detailed attention paid to flap contour and flap gap design. Table 8.3 provides some guidelines for flap deflection ranges for which linear behavior is expected. Table 8.3 Linear Flap Effectiveness Range at Low Angles of Attack for Trailing Bdge Flaps a a | Flap Type Ia) Poor ian (Good Det Pain wo 0020 ‘Single Stores and Fawr 01020 0020 Doobie Sioned oso reso soli vw s0er45 Part VI Chapter & Page 243© REFERENCE ANGLE| 7 AN | 10 0 50 20 30 DEFLECTION ANGLE, 6 (deg) a if ACg _ sTEPA: mee 81.2.3 STEP 1: FLAPS UP FROM 8.1.1.6 Part VI Chapter 8 Page 244Figure 8.39 shows the relationship between wing lift coefficient and wing angle of attack which must be determined with the methods to be presented in this section. Key quantities needed in the construction of the wing C, Ww versus a, curve are listed, with an indication of where methods for their estimation may be found. 8.1.3.1 Wi Li Lay Ly The wing angle of attack, a, is defined, as follows: ati, \ (8,20) is the airplane angle of attack and \ i, is the wing incidence angle \ Figure 8.40 shows how these quantities relate to each other on an airplane. Criteria for the selection of the wing incidence angle, i, are discussed in Part III, p.195, For subsonic speeds: For wings with constant airfoil sections and linear twist distributions the wing zero-lift angle of attack may be estimated from: + (hag eye) as Dae a (Aas /e o/®,) is the change in wing zero-lift angle of attack per degree of linear wing twist: See Figure 8.41. is the wing twist angle: see Figure 8.41. Cri- teria for the selection of wing twist angle are presented in Part III, p.193. ®t 3) is found from Pig. 8.42. Part VI Chapter & Page 245WING ROOT CHORD LINE AT AIRPLANE CENTERLINE WING TIP et (twist) ew WING BOOT CHORD Part VI Chapter 8 Page 2466-334 WOY¥4S 231600 op) |) i yao [?Pv-arony arans avonowaiavnd o © v e s Y e 7 08 % o of oe oF Page 247 u ; TY i PSS | To Chapter 8 K OTTO TaRY| = SS | os | 7 ee ap) "VION aaIMs GYORDtZLUVNO Ce ee See a Worse eT 7 Coot (29) *Py ston asans avoHOaLNVND HS o os or of ot or 0. ° T t sc Part VI rr or ™ et r a EC Ee f we mY = 5 atta RH” 32 EI Mi jouer) Ft] 4 [PEA Ds orev oer; 4 ; ds: In the transonic and supersonic speed ranges experimental data should be used. 8,1,3.2 Wing lift curve slope: C a . aa: w For conventional, straight tapered wings, with 'mo- derate’ sweep angles, the lift curve slope may be estimated from Figures 8.43 or from: = (8.22) ama/(2 + ((a?p7/k?) (1 + tan?Agyg/B7) + 497/71 where: A = b’/s is the wing aspect ratio (8,23) wing aspect ratio may have to be computed for the so-called ‘equivalent’ wing planform: See Figure 8.44, B= ca - w?ytl? (8,24) k= (ey Dat w/ (20/8) (8,25) where (6) Dag yy follows from Eqn. (8.1). Acre is the semi-chord sweep angle. Relations between semi-chord, quarter-chord and leading edge sweep angles are defined in Figures 8.45 and 8.46, Bor transonic speeds: see Reference 9. For_supersonic speeds: See Figures 8.47. Note: these figures apply only for low angles of attack. _Methods for estimating wing lift curve slopes for arbitrary wing planforms are presented in Reference 9. 8.1.3.3 Wino linear range of angle of attack: a, * In preliminary design it is acceptable to use: a,* = a* as found from 8.1.1.3. Part VI Chapter 8 Page 248BIOGUNN YOeW AOT JE SATS SAIN IITT BUTN fy °F SINBTA V~ Oluve L0adS¥ 4 ” 2 Wm ONY 4234s¥ 2 Page 249 Chapter & Part VIACTUAL WING PLANFORM ——— EQUIVALENT WING PLANFORM C Aep(0F6) Part VI Chapter & Page 250Ave ey Ne (pee) Aen (ES) Part VI Chapter & Page 25130 60 Aeg~ (DEG) Part VI Chapter 8 Page 252Pe OMG) rd w~ 60 Ayer (DEC) Part VI Chapter & Page 2531 7 6 6 Ss 5 4 4 3 3 6 (n,) inary 8(Cny) is (per rad) 4 1 0 0 2 4 6 8 10 8 6 4 #2 0 B(c; TAN Are (ia) theory ( Nal eos (per rad) COPIED FROM: REF.9 per rad) - ~ . 7 © | | n= 1/2] 5 4 b if TT TAN A. 7 | : (Cra teary 3 | 7 =n 2 SONIC TE 1 0 Part VI Chapter 8 Page 254Hints cor using Fieures 8.470, b, AND c: Note: for low angles of attack: GC =¢, Ba Ng Note: on, = (Cy theory !(Cn.)/ Cn theory)? where: (C, ) follows from Figures 8.47a or 8.47b N, theory (Cy 91 Cy theory? follows from Figure 8.47¢ 10 10 8 (deg) 4. 2 9 127] | 38 8 2071 Ong 30° oF 50” oT ( Na theory 7 ro 4 7 6 “Ay, = 5.85 tan 8, 6 + “For Wedge Leading Edge Only | | a + yt o 2 4 6 8 10 8 6 4 2 0 TAN ALE copied 6 FROM: REFS Part VI Chapter & Page 255143 In this section, the assumption is made that the reader has available a computer program for the calculation of the spanwise lift coefficient distribution for a given wing angle of attack, a, as defined by Eqn. (8.20). Methods for finding spanwise distributions of lift coefficient with angle of attack can be found in: Reference 49: Chapter 1: this method applies to unswept wings at subsonic Mach numbers. However, by using the cosine rule, this method will work for sweep angles up to 35 degrees. Reference $2: this method applies to arbitrary wing planforms at subsonic speeds. To estimate the maximum wing (flaps-up) lift coefficient, the following step-by-step procedure is suggested: 1: Determine the spanwise distribution of section maximum lift coefficient. Plot this as shown in Figure 8.48 Note: the section maximum lift coefficient at each spanwise station is found from Section 81.1.5 or from airfoil data. NOTE: at each spanwise station the Reynold’s number will be different! Step 2: With the help of either Ref.49, Ref.52 or with the help of a spanwise-lift computer program, plot the spanwise variation in local section lift coefficient for increasing values of wing angle of attack. Note that at some value of a, the spanwise plot of of c, is tangent to the spanwise plot of ¢; as obtained from Step 1. That value max of wing angle of attack is: (a, Pig. 8.48 also shows the resulting plot(s). Part VI Chapter & Page 256Step 3: Calculate the wing maximm lift coefficient from: 1.0 ¢, = (1/s)fbele dan (8.26) Tmax, oly, w ‘stall where c) is the spanwise value of the “stall local section lift coefficient at: a, = (a ) w c, w Tax Important pote: the magnitude of C, is always max,, below that of the magnitude of c, of any wing airfoil. max $:1.3.5 Construction of wing lift curve: flaps up All ingredients for constructing the wing lift curve are now available. Figure 8.49 shows how this can be done in a stepwise manner. STEP 1: SECTION Cy NoTE: $(Ry) ! ee WING STALL Starts new! Cy (iq) AT CONSTANT Oy IN THIS Example: Re Part VI Chapter 8 Page 257STEP 4: 8.1.3.4 ee ee STEPS: XK 8.1.33 fay, STEP 2: 8.1.3.2 | STEP 1: Xo B34 wo HCL naw STEPH: BBG Ly 8.49 i Angle of Attack Curve q tw FLAPS DOWN —_______4 Si mex, NTF rT FLAPS ve: 813 eli /|- Part VI Chapter & Page 2588.1.4 Wing Lift and Maximum Lift: Flaps Down Figure 8.50 shows the relationship between flaps up and flaps down wing lift characteristics. Key quantities needed in the construction of the flaps down wing C, w versus @, curve are listed, with an indication of where methods for their estimation may be found. 8.1.4.1 Wing lift increment due to flaps: AC, ty The wing lift increment due to trailing edge and/or leading edge flaps may be estimated from: ac, = Rp (40) (Cy fq) Tag de, 1/4526 1 (8.27) w where: K, is the flap-span factor as obtained from the procedure suggested in Figure 8.51 but with the data from Figure 8.52. Ac) is the airfoil lift increment due to flaps as obtained from 8.1.2.1. C, is the wing lift curve slope as obtained from a, 8.1.3.2. Ww ¢, is the wing airfoil lift curve slope as obtai- @ ned from 8.1.1.2. (a6 is the ratio of the three-dimensional L flap-effectiveness parameter to the two- — dimensional flap-effectiveness parameter (a5), as found in Figure 8.53. 1 Note: If a mechanical high lift system consists of a combination of leading and trailing edge high lift devices, the method should be applied to each type of device separately. The resulting increments in lift coefficients can then be added. 8.1.4.2 Wing lift curve slope due to flaps: (C, ), w : ; 7 n £1 : For wings with NON-TRANSLATING flap systems (such as split flaps, plain flaps and nose flaps), the wing lift curve slope flaps-down is considered to be the same as Part VI Chapter 8 Page 259o 4 ih | 2 + j ° i ° 2 6 3 10 a 8,52 ‘b Part VI Chapter 8 Page 26020 COPIED FROM: REF9 ae ( 6s 25 t V at 2. 0. = 0 2 7 | = —— | T = 2 4 6 10 A Part VI 54 Chapter & Page 261that for the flaps-up: the method of 8.1.4.1 may be used. Wings with TRANSLATING flap systems: For wings with translating flaps (such as Fowler flaps, most slotted flaps, slats and Krueger flaps), the flaps-down lift curve slope may be estimated from: (1 + (et/e - 1008, /8)) (8.28) a. We w where: C, is found from 8.1.4.1 ow c'/e is the ratio of extended wing chord to the chord of the flaps-up wing. Figures 8.18, 8.19 and 8.27 show definitions for these chords depending on the type of flap used. (cy s,_/S is the ratio of the ‘flapped’ wing area to ff that of the area of the flaps-up wing. Figure 8.54 shows how this is defined. $:1.4.3 Wing maximum lift increment due to flaps: AC) max, ii The maximum wing incremental lift coefficient due to trailing edge flaps is found from: AC, iS, /S)Ky (8,29) = (Ac. Tmax, thax ME 0 where: (Ac, _) is the airfoil incremental lift coef fi- max cient due to trailing edge flaps as found from 8.1.2.3. 8, /S is defined in Figure 8.54 Fs ; K, is a planform correction factor found from Figure 8.55. B)_Leadina Edge Flaps The maximum wing incremental lift coefficient due to leading edge flaps (slats and/or Kruegers) is found from: 2oont ac, = T.1leg Ic) (by o¢/b,) Cos Aa), (8,30) Tax, w Part VI Chapter 8 Page 26290 80 .08 cos? Acyq) cos g 50 0 70 20 30 40 30 60 ga (8) copied apr: 8,55 — Ce Cong - Part VI Chapter & Page 263where: c),,/c is defined in Figure 8.56. byeg/be is defined in Figure 8.57. 8.1.4.4 Construction of the wing lift curve: flaps down All ingredients necessary to construct the flaps down wing lift curve are now available. Figure 8.58 shows the step-by-step manner in which this can be done. Cw ELAPS DOWN DCL many LSTEPS STEP Ls FLAPS UP: B13 | STEP Z: B12 (Cys STEP4: USE €. 5 S 8.1.3.4 BUT FoR L mw? FLAPS DOUN I! 58 i Angle of Attack Curve Part VI Chapter 8 + Page 2648.1.5 Airplane Lift and Maximm Lift: Flaps Up Figure 8.59 shows the relationship between airplane lift coefficient and airplane angle of attack which mst be determined with the methods to be presented in this section. Key quantities needed in the construction of airplane C, versus a curve are listed, with an indication of where methods for their estimation may be found. The assumption will be made, that an airplane can be considered to consist of three components: a) wing + fuselage b) horizontal tail c) canard Figure 8.60 shows the relative arrangement of these three major components. If an airplane is equipped with pylon mounted nacelles (such as the B-727 and the DC-9), the pylon + nacelle combination should be ‘counted’ as an additional horizontal tail. Figure 8.61 indicates the ‘equivalent’ geometries which should then be used. Figure 8,62 shows a number of important geometric parameters which are used in the calculation of overall airplane lift characteristics. IMPORTANT CONSIDERATIONS: . In this chapter the following incidence angles are accounted for: i Horizontal Tail: i Wing: i, c These incidence angle are defined in Figure 8.60. In this sub-section, these incidence angles are assumed to be CONSTANT. The effect of trim requirements is considered in Section 8.3. Canard A horizontal tail and a canard may be equipped with a trailing edge control surface: Horizontal tail with elevator, deflection: 6, Canard with canardvator, deflection: 8, In this sub-section, the assumption will be made that all control surface deflection angles are ZERO. The effect of trim requirements which would cause these control surface deflections to be non-zero is considered in Section 8.3. Part VI Chapter & Page 265C BiSS = Cogs | B52 = fe, ig 21-53 “| Xe, + BSS 7 ok max 8 BAS — Mo, LR B.S. HOR.TAIL 8,61 Part VI Chapter 8 Page 266Part VI Chapter & Page 2671.5.1 Ai Li La The airplane zero-lift angle of attack may be estimated from: %o (e, Gy, (8.31) where: C, is the zero-angle-of-attack lift coefficient ‘0 which is found from 8.1.5.2. C, is the airplane lift curve slope which may ‘a be found from 8.1.5.3. 8.1.5.2 Ai = -of =: i i The airplane zero-angle-of-attack lift coefficient may be estimated from +¢, Oy ng (8/8) (8,32) c where: C, is the zero-angle-of-attack lift coefficient Ove of the wing-fuselage combination. Unless the fuselage is severely cambered: 1 = ti, - fo, oom (8.33) we wo WE where: a, is the wing zero-lift angle of ‘w attack found from 8.1.3.1. is the wing-fuselage lift curve ‘a, Slope as found from 8.1.5.3. Note: the subscripts wf (wing-fuselage) and wb (wing-body) are interchangeable. is the horizontal tail lift curve slope as found from 8.1.3.2 with appropriate substitution of tail parameters for wing parameters. is the canard lift curve slope as found from 8.1.3.2 with appropriate substitution of canard parameters for wing parameters. Part VI Chapter 8 Page 268NOTE: Figure 8.62 defines the necessary geometric parameters needed to compute horizontal tail and canard lift curve slopes. My = H/a (8.34) a q,/4 (8,35) The dynamic pressures Gp and ae seen by a horizontal tail and a canard differ from the free stream dynamic pressure q for the following reasons: a) as the air passes over a wing-fuselage combination it gradually looses some of its kinetic energy. This energy loss is proportional to the friction drag of the wing-fuselage. b) when a horizontal tail or a canard surface are placed in the slipstream of a propeller, the local dynamic pressure depends on the power absorbed by the propeller and on the distance of the surface from the propeller. In preliminary design it is acceptable to use: For jet airplanes: ag = 160 (8,36) at (8,37) u- Coos? (way /22,)) (2. 42(Cp 7297 C/E + 0.3071 ” where: 2 = asin(y, + ®o1 - a) (8.38) = acos(y, + 4) - 4,) with a» 1p» &) and a, shown in Fig. 8.63, fo 7 16 62C, nA (8,39) w - I Sc 1/2 zy 9.686(C, (x,/e + 0615)) (8,40) w Cy is the wing zero-lift drag coefficient 0, as found from 4.2.1.1. Part VI Chapter & Page 269Horizontal Tail Aerodynanic Center Centerline of Wake and Vortex Sheet Parallel to the Body Axis Free Stream 8.63 Part VI - Chapter 8 Page 270For propeller driven airplanes: The dynamic pressure ratios depend on where the canara and/or the horizontal tail are located relative to the propeller. The following approximation is suggested: hoor c “2 * (Sy or stip! “Sh or o))* I 2 x£(2200P,,)/(qU,x(D,)°3) (8,41) where: is the area of the tail or ‘Sy or c)slip canard which is submerged in the propeller slipstream: see Figure 8.64, U, is the steady state speed of the airplane 1 P,, is the available horsepower, see Section 6.4. D, is the propeller diameter in ft S, is the horizontal tail area: see Figure 8.62. S, is the canard area: see Figure 8.62. = e,, is the horizontal tail downwash angle for zero h airplane angle of attack e, is the canard upwash angle for zero airplane c angle of attack NOTE: the magnitudes of tail downwash angle and canard upwash angle at zero airplane angle of attack are dependent on the wing lift distribution at zero airplane angle of attack. For most airplanes (flaps up) it is acceptable to us: In Section 8.1.6 it is seen that with the flaps down this approximation is not valid. In that case, an incremental downwash angle, Aes must be accounted for. a is the horizontal tail zero-lift angle of Ly attack as found from 8.1.3.1 with appropriate substitution of tail parameters for wing parameters. ®, is the canard zero-lift angle of attack as Lg found from 8.1.3.1 with appropriate substitution of canard parameters for wing parameters. Part VI- Chapter 8 Page 2718.1.5.3 Airplane lift curve slope: oe The airplane lift curve slope may be estimated from: Gc th my (S;,/8) (1 - de/da) + . “we ‘h +c, ng (S,/5) + de,/da) (8,42) Se where: C, is the wing-fuselage (wing-body) lift curve a.,¢ slope, given by: ~ Rye (8.43) “we Ww where: K,, is the wing-fuselage interference factor given by: 2 Kye 7 1 + 0.025(de/b) - 0.25(dg/b)” (8.44) o w is found from 8.1.3.2. de/da = downwash gradient at the horizontal tail = 1/2,1.19 4.440 08K, Ky (coshy 4) 1/794 ax XC, Dae UC Jae mao)? (8.45) a a where: Ky = (1/A) - 1/G + at*7) (8,46) as shown in Figure 8. 65a. = (10 ~34)/7 (8.47) as shown in Figure 8, 65b. 51/3 = 1 = Thy, /bD / (21 4,/ (8,48) as shown in Figure 8 65c with the parameters hj, 1, defined in Fig. 8.66. de./da is the upwash gradient at the canard. It may be found from Figure 867 for wings of quarter chord sweep angles up to 35 deg. All other quantities in Eqn. (842) are defined in 8.1.5.2. Part VI Chapter 8 Page 272Teal Reproduced fron Reference 9 2 i | PW tT tt | 3 2 7, 6 5 Keprodvcad fron Reterence S ; : | ve De aa ott + 4 Reproduced from Reference 9 ° a “ * ‘ ‘e 13, Ea n K | 12 | ; 9) 4 1a 1 Eigure 8.65 Factors for Computing Downwash Part VI Chapter & Page 273WING ROOT CHORD PLANE | fo COPIED FROM: BEF.9 ee —, DISTANCE FORWARD OF ROOT QUARTER-CHORD POINT IN ROOT CHORDS 20 res s 4 H8 8,67 Part VI Chapter 8 Page 2748,1,5.4 Airplane linear range of angle of attack: a,* In preliminary design it is acceptable to use: (8,49) at = ay* — ty where: a,* is found from 81.3.3. 81 2 plane angle of attack for maximm lift: a, Tmax The airplane maximm lift coefficient is found from: ¢ =¢, - (Cha, + (8,50) L, L, L wie ‘max ‘max, ee + (Cz, US, /8) (a, YQ - de/da)- ©, + ip) + L, h 0 h *h Tmax iS +, B/S) aA + degidad + ey + ig} c ‘max where: Cy is found from 8.1.3.4. ‘max, w ¢, is found from Eqn. (8.43) “we 4a,/, is the difference between the airplane angles of attack for canard stall and for wing stall. In a canard airplane, the canard must always stall before the wing! In preliminary design it is suggested to use: Aeyyo 7 3 deg. = ay ~ ay nm bays (8.51) L max, a is found from 8.1.3.4, ‘max, w All other quantities are defined in 8.1.5.2. 8.1.5.6 Construction of airplane lift curve: flaps-up All ingredients necessary to construct the airplane C,, versus a curve are now available. Figure 8.68 shows how this can be done in a step-by-step manner. Part VI Chapter 8 Page 275cy es step 5: 815.5 C, may Ci, _ STEP 1: 815.2 eee eles Ooleoeen ' C., Ser 2: 8.15.3 ye ngEP O: BSS STEP 3:8.1.5.1 Hoe oh ster a: 815.4 x 8,68 q FLAPS DOWN $1.63 8.16.1 ACL FLAPS UP i B15 8,69 with the Flaps Down Part VI Chapter 8 Page 276$.1,6 Airplane Lift and Maximm Lift: Flaps Down Figure 8.69 shows the relationship between airplane lift coefficient in the flaps down configuration and airplane angle of attack which must be determined with the methods to be presented in this section. Key quantities needed in the construction of the flaps down airplane C, versus a curve are listed, with an indication of where methods for their estimation may be found. 8,1,6.1 Ai 2 AC, The airplane lift increment due to flaps may be estimated from: AC, kyc(SQ/SIAC, + (8,52) = ky AC, + L” Few®*1, + Kp (S_/8) AC, ny (Sp, /8)4. h : where: AC, is found from 8.1.4.1 a, koy is a canard-on-wing interference factor. If the canard is small relative to the wing and if the canard is far enough forward of the wing, ko, = 1-0 may be used in early design. Whenever one or both of these conditions are not met, a finite element aerodynamic analysis of the canard-on-wing effect is needed. Such methods are beyond the scope of this text. k,¢ is the wing-on-canard interference factor. It is similar to (albeit not the same as) k,,,. In early design it is acceptable to use: ko = 1-0. we 8, is the canard area: see Figure 8. 62. 4c, is found from 8.1.4.1 with appropriate sub- ‘¢ stitution of canard parameters for wing parameters. If a canardvator deflection is present, it should be treated as a plain flap and its lift increment must be added. Note: In airplanes such as the Piaggio P 180 Avanti, the canard is equipped with a Fowler Part VI Chapter 8 Page 277flap which is geared to the wing flap. The effect of such a flap must be accounted for! A detailed treatment of such a system is beyond the scope of this text. is the wing-on-horizontal-tail interference factor. It is similar to (albeit not the same as) k,,- In early design it is acceptable Kon to use: ky, = 1.0. S, is the horizontal tail area: see Figure 8.62. Ac, is found from 8.1.4.1 with appropriate sub- th stitution of horizontal tail parameters for wing parameters. If an elevator is present, its deflection can be accounted for by consi- dering the elevator to be a plain flap. is the horizontal tail lift-curve-slope which may be found from Eqn. (8.22) with appropriate substitution of horizontal tail parameters for wing parameters. eg is the increase in tail downwash angle due to wing flap deflection. It may be estimated from Figure 8.70. 4.1.6.2 Aimplane lift curve slope due to flaps: (Cy, The airplane lift curve slope with the flaps down may be estimated from: (ye 7 Kve(n es * Cy ms a Ww h 1. Ng (SQ/S) (1 - (de,/de) g) (8.53) ‘a c where: (C, ), is the wing lift-curve-slope with the ‘a, ° flaps down. It is found from Egn. (8.28). ny (S_/S) (1 - (de/da),) + +¢, where: (de/da), is the flaps-down downwash gradient at the horizontal tail. (de,/da), is the flaps-down upwash gradient at the canard. Note: in preliminary design it is acceptable to set these flaps-down downwash and upwash gradients equal to those with the flaps up. The latter may be determined Part VI Chapter & Page 278(deg) ‘32- 2 € ! 20- dee A_be/b \ NGI “ [b-| i Lorre | z att < K— be * COPIED FROM: | Bera 4 _ | FOR hy, SEE Ly FIG. 8.66 | ; | | aay TEP3: FO 7 AC 81.6.3 Vt max sTEPA: B16) Figure 8.71 Construction of Airplane Lift Versus o Curve with the Flaps Down Part VI Chapter 8 Page 279from 8.1.5.3, All other quantities were defined in 8.1.5.2 and 8.1.5.3, 1.6.3 ‘AC Tnax The airplane maximum lift increment due to flaps may be estimated from: Ac = ky ACh - Tax oa ‘max, ‘a, a ae w c + (Sp/SIC, (- deg? (8,54) 7 h where: k.,, is the canard-on-wing interference factor. If the canard is small relative to the wing and if the canard is far enough forward of the wing, ko, = 1-0 may be used in early design. Whenever one or both of these conditions are not met, a finite element aerodynamic analysis of the canard-on-wing effect is needed. Such methods are beyond the scope of this text. , 4a. is the difference between the airplane angles of attack for canard stall and for wing stall. In a canard airplane, the canard must always stall before the wing! In In preliminary design, use: tayo 7 3 deg. Ae, is the increase in tail downwash angle due to flaps. It may be found from Figure 8.70. All other quantities in Eqn.(8,51) are defined in 8.1.6.1 and 8.1.6.2, 8.1.6.4 Construction of airplane lift curve: flaps down All ingredients necessary to construct the flaps down airplane lift curve are now available. Figure 8.71 shows the step-by-step manner in which this can be done. Part VI Chapter 8 Page 2808.1.7 Airplane Lift in Ground Effect When an airplane operates close to the ground, the downwash and the upwash patterns around its lifting surfaces change. References 9 and 14 contain physical ex- planations for these effects. In this section, the position is taken that the effect of the ground on the Cy, versus a behavior of an airplane is a change in angle of attack at constant lift coefficient ( or, vice versa, a change in lift coefficient at constant angle of attack). Figure 8.72 shows this in terms of the ground induced change in angle of attack at constant lift coefficient: Aa,. Note the difference in ground effect on high and on low aspect ratio configurations. This difference is accounted for as follows: -1.7.1 High aspect ratio configurations: transports -1.7.2 Low aspect ratio configurations: fighters NOTE: it will be assumed that the effect of the ground on tail downwash and canard upwash can be neglected as far as overall airplane lift is concerned) The effect of the ground on tail downwash does alter tail lift and because of that the airplane pitching moment is affected: this is accounted for in Section 8.2. 8.1.7.1 High aspect ratio confisurations: transports Figure 8.72a shows the ground induced change in angle of attack at constant lift coefficient: 4a,. For high aspect ratio configurations the change in angle of attack at constant lift coefficient in ground effect may be found from: da, = “Fey ((9.42/A) + 7.16(c,/bIV(C, OD + (8,55) ‘we - arae, D0 (ce, /b) (L/bg) ~ HG, Degt we 2 ~ ((8¢/50) ee DIACAC,) ¢ we where: FL, is a factor which accounts for the effect on lift due to the image trailing vortex. It is found from Figure 8.73. A is the wing aspect ratio Part VI Chapter 8 Page 281b) Low ASPECT RATIO ¢, Q) HIGH ASPECT RATIO q N a A— bola EQN. (859) POS. AS SHOWN FREE AIR Axy EQn.B.56) = N GRouND NEG. AS SHOWN EFFECT x ox ; A ; “ COPIED FROM REF.9 Yalbrmp thre) we \ N oh Merete \ \\ \ \ \ Part VI Chapter & Page 282c,/b is the ratio of wing root chord to wing span C, _ is the wing-fuselage lift coefficient out of ‘wf ground effect. This is found from Section 8.1.5 or from Section 81.6 (depending on the flap deflection) by setting 5, = S, = 0. is the wing-fuselage lift-curve-slope as ag determined from Eqn. (8.43), in 1/deg. (L/L, - 1) accounts for the effect on lift due to the image bound vortex. It is found from Figure 874, rg is a factor which accounts for the effect of 3 finite span. It may be found from Figure 8.75. 8, is the flap deflection in degrees A(AC,)¢ is a factor which accounts for the effect of flaps in ground effect. It is found from Figure 8.76. Equation (8.55) is used to estimate 4a, for two values of c after which the airplane cy versus @ curve we is modified as indicated in Figure 8.72a, This procedure neglects the effect of the horizontal tail and the canard on airplane lift in ground effect. In Section 8.2.7 it will be seen that the effect of the horizontal tail and the canard on airplane pitching moment in ground effect is NOT neglected. 8.1.7.2 Figure 8.72b shows the ground induced change in angle of attack at constant lift coefficient: Aa,. For low aspect ratio configurations, this quantity follows from: Aa. = (8,56) “9 2 »7157.3(C, ) 1B, L, wet ~ “Pg -18,24(C, 1 we a weval® + rgTy(C; where: C, is the wing-fuselage lift coefficient in ‘wf free air. This follows from Section 8.1.5 or from Section 8.1.6 (depending on the flap state) by setting S, = S, = 0. Part VI Chapter 8 Page 283WeAS SITUTT OF SMT TOIT SF SITY, 7 o mom om oe ye oy gg 4 ~ CY W404) . re oe ” tn r 7 be t 1. = Leer Cee ea eS SSS te wR SRS ° PY | Wy e | op eo4 Er tT + -F AZ Z} 633% Wova C3ldODd LOG Page 284 Chapter 8 Part VI“ o ox n a 5 wy . . lL. ti c : we eH : . - he 5 'o oy : cL. @4a¥ Woud 340d HLiO" Chapter & Page 285 Part VIis found from Figure 8.77, A is the wing aspect ratio. rq is found from Figure 8.75. T, is found from Figure 8.78. (Cy dye is found from Eqn. (8.43), in 1/deg. B, is found from Figure 8.79. Equation (8.56) neglects the effect of wing thickness which is small except for very thick wings close to the ground. Equation (8.56) is used to estimate 4a, for two values of C, after which the airplane C, versus « curve we is modified as indicated in Figure 8.72b, This procedure neglects the effect of the horizontal tail and the canard on airplane lift in ground effect. In Section 82.7 it will be seen that the effect of the horizontal tail and the canard on airplane pitching moment in ground effect is NOT neglected. $1.8 Power Effects on Airplane Lift The only power effect on lift which will be considered here is that due to propeller slipstream acting on a wing. Figure 8.80 shows the basic propeller-on-wing geometry. The effect of the propeller is to increase the dynamic pressure over the wing behind the propeller. In turn, this causes an increase in wing lift (and thus in airplane lift) which may be estimated from: ac, = (8.57) ty isn = Sunt (s, 18)(Cy ) 12 200P,, (G0, H(D, a 1 where: S is the wing area affected by the slipstream, Pi see Figure 8. 80. C, is the lift coefficient at which the wing is w operating. It follows from Sub-sections 8.1.3 or 8.1.4, Part VI Chapter 8 Page 286l= * e @434 Wows T3Id0d HOG Page 287 Chapter 8 Part VIPay. is the available horsepower, see Section 6.4. i U, is the steady state speed of the airplane D,_ is the propeller diameter in ft. i A more detailed treatment of power effects on lift is considered beyond the scope of this text. Reference 9 addresses this topic. Part VI Chapter 8 Page 288$2, PREDICTION OF PITCHING MOMENT COEFFICIENT VERSUS LIFT COEFFICIENT In this section methods for predicting the variation of pitching moment coefficient with lift coefficient will be presented as follows: Airfoil pitching moment: flaps up Airfoil pitching moment: flaps down Wing pitching moment: flaps up Wing pitching moment: flaps down Airplane pitching moment: flaps up Airplane pitching moment: flaps down Airplane pitching moment in ground effect Power effects on airplane pitching moment 8.2.1 Airfoil Pitching Moment: Flaps Up Figure 8.81 shows the relationship between airfoil pitching moment coefficient and airfoil lift coefficient which must be determined with the methods presented in this Section. Key quantities needed in the construction of the airfoil c, versus c, curve are listed, with an in- 9 92 20 90 20 g» 20 90 PRREKERK eaauawon dication of where methods for their estimation are found, Note that c,, has meaning only when taken about a known reference point. The location of this reference point is defined in 8.2.1.3. 8.2.1.1 Airfo: zero-lift pitching moment coefficient: Cc. \ 0 IMBORTANT NOTES: 1, In Chapter 4 the subscript 'o’ indicates a drag coefficient at zero lift coefficient. 2, In Section 8.1 the subscript 'o' indicates a lift coefficient at zero angle of attack. 3. In this section (8.2) the subscript ‘0’ indicates a pitching moment coefficient at zero lift coefficient. Reference 49 contains a large data base for finding c, for many airfoils. This data base applies to the ‘0 so-called NACA airfoils. Table 8,1 (p.216-217) provides a summary of airfoil Part VI Chapter 8 Page 289Cy 8.2.1.4 GQ — dw cy 8.21.3 @) O Cong op 8:21.1 Cm. © * Xref NOTE: ~ % .26C Part VI Chapter 8 Page 290data from which c, may be determined. Where possible, 0 actual airfoil data should be used. Such data may be obtained either from windtunnel data or from theoretical predictions obtained with a modern airfoil code. Note from Table 8.1 that these cy values are zero ‘0 for symmetrical sections and negative (i.e. nose-down!) for positively cambered airfoils. This will have important consequences to airplane trim! 8.2.1.2 Xj, andairfoil center of pressure: x, Definition: The aerodynamic center is that point a- bout which the variation of pitching moment coefficient with angle of attack is zero. Figure 8.82 shows how the aerodynamic center for an airfoil is located. Note that this concept implies also that the varia~ tion of pitching moment coefficient with lift coefficient is zero, when: a ¢ at (8, 58) Definition: The center of pressure is that point where the resultant force caused by the pressure distribution acts. Figure 8.83 shows how the center of pressure arises from the airfoil pressure distribution and how the center of pressure is located. Evidently, there are two methods to represent forces and moments acting on an airfoil. Figure 8.84 shows both methods. The following relationship exists between the two methods: Xop 7 Xac ~ (qe! (8,59) This can also be written as: c = -c, (x - x, le (8, 60) Tag 1% cp 7 Xac Note from this that: (8, 61) Chapter 8 Page 291Cmaea——_ fr AS SHOWN =<” sonal Xen b. Forces at the Aerodynamic Center 8, 8. and_Moments {G f Ome 4 Fe s NACA 2412 COPIED FAOM: NACA mz) ied oN eee TR B24 ; $.85 Typical Airfoil Lif A Behavior at Subsonic Speeds Part VI Chapter 8 Page 292Subsonic: Figure 8.85 shows typical variations of airfoil pitching moment coefficient with airfoil lift coefficient and with airfoil angle of attack in the subsonic flow range. Such data may be obtained from Reference 49. Modern airfoil theory is capable of estimating airfoil lift, drag and pitching moment data very accurately. In the absence of experimental data, such theoretically obtained airfoil data may be used. Table 8.1 (p.216-217) lists values for x,, for seve~ ral airfoils. Fig.8.86 shows how airfoil a.c. location changes with the thickness ratio, t/c and with the trailing edge angle, $,.- Transonic: Airfoil pitching moment behavior changes markedly a- bove the so-called critical Mach number. Experimental data or data obtained from modern airfoil codes should be used to predict the airfoil pitching moment behavior above Merge The critical Mach number of an airfoil at any lift coefficient may be estimated from: For NACA airfoils: Merit = 0-86 - 0.10) - tle (8, 62) Merit 7 0-91 - Ode, - tle (8, 63) Theoretically, for very thin airfoils at low lift coefficients, the center of pressure moves toward the 50 percent chord point. Figure 887 indicates how the centers of pressure vary with thickness ratio, t/c and with angle of attack for symmetrical airfoils. For symmetrical airfoils it is noted that: x,, = x! Note: this aft shift of the center of pressure in the supersonic speed range has very significant implica- tions to airplane trim and drag in this speed range! Part VI Chapter & Page 293FESS (SO ~ NAS COnIED FROM: REED ° ‘ ow a Ore TRAILING-EDGE ANGLE (4e0) \Ep ‘ T | T J SHOCK DETACHMENT i 1 a 3 ‘ a 2 3 MACH NUMBER MACH NUMBER O oe eet | Xep = ny Dy, b) £7 = . aS ~ i x CoPiED FROM: . b + swore ouvemepes REF. i : : t +o) MACH NUMBER awe . ; ch_of 73 7 Supersonic Speeds Part VI Chapter 8 Page 2942.1.3 ieee coefficient: de,/de, To determine the variation of airfoil pitching m- ment coefficient with lift coefficient it is necessary to first select a so-called reference center: Figure 8.88 shows such a reference center. The pitching moment coefficient is defined relative to this reference center: mn” ny ref ~ %ac)/¢ (8. 64) The variation of pitching moment coefficient with lift coefficient follows by differentiation: ¢, + oy (x, dc,/4cy = (peg ~ Xag)/C = Kreg ~ Xa (8, 65) 8.2.1.4 Airfoil linear range for pitching moment: c)* The range of lift coefficients for which the varia~ tion of airfoil pitching moment coefficient with lift coefficient is linear follows from: cyt = eq Dae - %0,) (8, 66) where all quantities are defined in 81.1. flaps up All ingredients necessary to construct the airfoil pitching moment curve about a reference center x,.¢ are now available. Figure 8.89 shows how this may be done in a step-by-step manner. Whether or not the pitching moment coefficient breaks in a stable or in an unstable manner depends on the separation behavior of the airfoil. Reference 49 contains experimental data which defines the pitching moment ‘break’ behavior of airfoils. Many (in fact, most) airfoils have stable pitching moment breaks. Part VI Chapter & Page 295Xref ® on, Cm, © STEPI: 8.21.17 vet 8, 89. Part VI Chapter 8 Page 2968.2.2 Airfoil Pitching Moment: Flaps Down Figure 8.90 shows the comparison between flaps-up and flaps-down pitching moment characteristics for an airfoil. Key quantities which are required in the estimation of flap-down behavior are listed with an indication of where methods for their estimation may be found. Note that the assumption is made that the de,/dc, slope of the airfoil with the flaps down is the same as that for the airfoil with the flaps up. This is reasonable because in the linear angle of attack range, a change in airfoil camber (read flap deflection) has no effect on the c,-c, slope. 8.2.2.1 Airfoil pitchi ‘i Ac, The airfoil incremental pitching moment coefficient due to flaps, Ac, depends on the type of flaps used. Methods are presented for trailing edge and for leading edge flaps. jing Ba For Split, Slotted and Fowler Flaps: The following method applies to all types of trailing edge flaps» except for plain flaps: Ac, = Ac, (x (xeple" (et /e)) (8,67) ree/¢ ~ where: Ac, is the lift increment due to flaps as found from 8.1.2. Xyeg iS defined in Figures 8.88 and 8.91. Xgp/c' is found from Figure 8.91. c’ is defined in Figures 8.18 and 8.19. For a split flap and for a plain flap: c’ = c. Note: since Ac, due to flaps as used in Egn. (8.64) depends on the flap type and on the flap deflection, the latter is inherently accounted for in this method. Part VI Chapter & Page 297ELAPS DOWN FLAPS UP: 8.2.1 @) # fh Pi it 50: 7 FOWLER FLAPS SLOTTED FLAPS Location“ =< OF CENTER OF PRESSURE OF INCREMENTAL “ LOAD DUE TO FLAP epi 35 30. COPIED FROM: AEF.D 25. o 2 4 ‘6 8 10 FLAP-CHORD RATIO, ¢,/¢ 8,91 i = mental Flap Load Part VI Chapter 8 Page 298Ac, is found from Figure 8.92. Observe that this is a pure moment coefficient: its lift dependence is expressed through the plain flap deflection. B._Leading Edge Flaps: 2 Ac, = (ec, )*let/ey?b, + Me le fle + (x gle) +(e" - ed /cdac + ref. lie + eql(et/e)? ~ 1) + 0,75c)(c'/c) Ket/e) - 1) (8,68) where: (c, )' is found from Figure 8.93. ‘ble c'/c is defined in Figures 8.27, 8.28 and 8.93, 8ey_ is defined in Figures 8.25, 8,27 and 8.28, where it is called 8, (in deg). Ac) is the lift coefficient increment due to le leading edge flaps as found from 81.2. c, is the airfoil pitching moment coefficient with the flaps-up, taken about x,,, and as found from 8.2.1, c, is the airfoil lift coefficient with the flaps- up as determined from the flight condition. $.2,2,2 Construction of the flaps-down airfoil pitching moment curve Figure 8.94 shows how the flaps-down pitching moment curve is obtained from the corresponding flaps-up curve- 266T21N cit -—rrtew—4 (838m) Part VI Chapter 8 Page 299FLAP DEFLECTION, & (deg) 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 PLAIN FLAP \ ; COPIED FROM: BEF.9 8,92 003. ‘THEORETICAL PITCHING- MOMENT EFFECTIVENESS “a, 002. (tiees) 001 COPIED FROM: REED ° 411 ° a 2 LEADING-EDGE-CHORD RATIO, ¢g/¢ 8,93 Edge Flaps Part VI Chapter & Page 3008.2.3 Wing Pitching Moment: Flaps-Up Figure 8.95 shows the flaps-up pitching moment behavior which needs to be predicted with the methods of this section, Key quantities which are required in the estimation of flaps-up behavior are listed with an indication of where methods for their estimation may be found. A key parameter in estimating wing pitching moment behavior is the mean geometric chord of the wing (mgc), and its location on the planform. Figure 8.96 defines these quantities for two types of straight tapered wing as well as for a more general wing. Since pitching moments are defined relative to a reference point, it is mandatory to locate such a reference point (also called moment reference center) on the wing planform. Figures 8.97 shows two methods used do this. Observe that: Mee 7 Xreg * 2, (8, 69) The method labelled as 2 is the preferred method. 8.2.3.1 Wing zero-lift pitching moment coefficient: C, Subsonic: 2 Cy, = ((REOSTAG/ 4) MIR + 208A 74)) (Cy + Sy 12 + Ww cr t + Cy Hegde (8,70) where: c, andc, are the zero-lift pitching moment , coefficients of the root and tip airfoils respectively. These follow from 8.2.1.1, AC, /e, is found from Figure 8.98, t Note: This method applies to conventional straight tapered wings with sweep angles below 45 degrees and aspect ratios above 2.5. For other wing types, Reference 9 should be consulted. Up to the critical Mach number, use: Part VI Chapter & Page 302b) METHOD 2 Part VI Chapter 8 Page 303(@) A=0 016 Cm, Ey 7.008 (per deg) ° + ° % 30 o 30 oo [ORS 032 on ASPECT RATIO! Cm, a er 7 (per deg) ral [| r 008 4 COPIED FROM: al REED ° + ° 10 20 30 0 30 0 (© A=10 ”) ~ 1 aor j_aspecr nanic |<] 19-4 Cm, j ees a (per deg) — : i — py [+4 , | 4 r=] L V T r r 1 ° 10 20 30 0 30 Ey Part VI Chapter 8 Page 304¢, =¢ OC, yl (Cy) (8.71) lo mM! Sm, fat M WatM=0 wnere: (Cy Iy/ (Cp yao} 18 given in Figure 8.99 ¢, is found from Eqn. (8.70). Mat M=0 Supersonic: For supersonic Mach numbers it is suggested to use experimental data. Since supersonic wings frequently have little camber, their C, values tend to be small. ‘0, w 8.2.3.2 Slope of the wing pitching moment curve: (aC,,/8Cy),, The method which follows applies only to straight, tapered planforms. For very highly swept wings and for cranked wings the method of Reference 9 should be used. Subsonic: The subsonic slope of the wing pitching moment curve may be found from: (dC, /AC,),, = (ny ge - Nag) /e,}(e,/e) (8.72) Nieg is the location of the moment reference center relative to the wing apex: see Fig. 8.97a. na is the location of the wing aerodynamic center relative to the wing apex: see Figure 8.97a. For wings of aspect ratios above 5 and sweep angles below 35 degrees it is usually acceptable to use: Rac 7 Mage * 9-25¢ (8,73) For other wings, Figure 8.100 should be used. Transonic: For transonic Mach numbers, see Reference 9. Part VI Chapter 8 Page 3057 6 MACH NUMBER COPIED FROM: REF.9 i; , 1 Pitching Moment Coefficient COPIED FROM: REFO 4 <= ¥ Sy SUBSONIC e= SUPERSONIC u 6 a 6 1 TANAL. 9 TAN Ave TANA,, 8 Figure 8,100 Effect of Aspect Ratio, Sweep Angle and 7 Renee hina: Part VI Chapter 8 Page 3061.4 l(b) =0.25 1.2 ATANA, 1.0445 -—= UNSWEPT T.E. SUBSONIC UNSWEPTT.E.~ i Lt SUBSORIC 0 TAN A! es ° e TANA COPIED FROM: REFD SUPERSONIC 1 L SUPERSONIC |_| gp | TANAy TANAGS 8 TAN AL, 0 0 Figure 8.100 (Cont'd) Effect of Aspect ratio, Sweep Angle Rati 5 7 Page 307 Part VI Chapter &COPIED FROM BEF.9 16 TT @)_d =0.5 ATAN Ace! [~~ |6_| |_}—— 5. a 4 4 — 1.0 ‘s 3 Wee, 4. —t: TOOT UeGsS ACT TeTIIET SOT se SIMETT yee Pe ge we we Ukfyvasinas ON JO NOLLVUS | o « ° y r ° — Wee . _ + e rT 43u WOUs T3140) rr a8 / Zr - ‘waa Wows Taidd) | | o Qu / “ov we . z saaaas 21Nosans ‘saagas SINOSaNS: Page 314 Chapter 8 1 Part VIww 30 i oz XO) @aau Woss C3id07 SaaS DINOSUNS Page 315 Chapter 8 Part VISUBSONIC SPEEDS &e VV [> fa COPIED FROM iF 10 cOPlED FROM REF. fu SN ® 2 4 & 2 a FRACTION OF WING SEMISPAN, 9 8,107 7 ASSUMED REFERENCE-AXIS ORIGIN STEP 4: 8.1.43 STEPS: ACinan,| STEPS: STABLE OR STEPI UNSTABLE 2.243 FLAPS UP: 8.2.3 ster 3: £.24.2 Alm / CL, @ STEPZ: 8.24.) a AC Eigure 8,109 Construction of the Flaps Down Wing Pitching Moment Versus Lift Curve Part VI Chapter 8 Page 316c is the wing chord at ¢c', see Figure 8.108. Treg and ny, are defined in Figure 8.108, bieg is defined in Figure 8.108, S,_~ is the flapped wing area: see Figure 8,108. C,, is the wing pitching moment coefficient with ™y the flaps retracted as obtained from 8.2.3. C, is the wing lift coefficient with flaps-up. w 2,42 itchi = down: (dC, /dC, 5 ? It may be assumed, that the slope of the wing pitching moment curve with the flaps-down is identical to that with the flaps-up: see 82.3.2. 8.2.4.3 Prediction of stable or unstable pitch break: flaps-down It will be assumed that the pitch break behavior of the wing with the flaps down is similar to that with the flaps up: see 8.2.3.3, 8.2.4.4 flaps-down All ingredients necessary to construct the flaps-down wing pitching moment curve are now available. Figure 8.109 shows how this may be done in a step-by-step manner. wer raze oro 100074 nt | Part VI Chapter & Page 3178.2.5 Airplane Pitching Moment: Flaps Up Figure 8.110 shows the relationship between airplane pitching moment coefficient and airplane lift coefficient which is to be determined with the methods presented in this section. Key quantities needed in the construction of airplane C, versus C, curve are listed, with an indication of where methods for their estimation are found. The assumption will be made, that an airplane can be considered to consist of three components: a) wing + fuselage b) horizontal tail c) canard Figure 8.60 shows the relative arrangement of these three major components. If an airplane is equipped with pylon mounted nacelles (such as the B-727 and the DC-9), the pylon + nacelle combination should be ‘counted’ as an additional horizontal tail. Figure 861 indicates the ‘equivalent’ geometries which should then be used. Figure 8.62 shows a number of important geometric parameters which are used in the calculation of overall airplane pitching moment characteristics. IMPORTANT CONSIDERATIONS: In this chapter the following incidence angles are accounted for: Canard: i, i, Horizontal Tail: © These incidence angle are defined in Figure 8.60. In this sub-section, these incidence angles are assumed to be CONSTANT. The effect of trim requirements is considered in Section 8.3. A horizontal tail and a canard may be equipped with a trailing edge control surface: Horizontal tail with elevator, deflection: 6, Canard with canardvator, deflection: 8, In this sub-section, the assumption will be made that all control surface deflection angles are ZERO. The effect of trim requirements which would cause these control surface deflections to be non-zero is considered in Section 8.3. Part VI Chapter 8 Page 318NSS CL px. — STABLE OF x ) UNSTABLE rm f& PITCH BREAK: EBOM oe BIS 8.25.4 dc 2.5.2 mac, 825.2 + ® ¢e 8.2.5.1 c el : "x vee 8.110 i 10. et COPIED FROM BEFO Gh) 4 6s - 0 4 & 12 16 20 FUSELAGE FINENESS BATION 4h, 8,111 Part VI Chapter 8 Page 319The airplane zero-lift pitching moment coefficient may be estimated from: Ca, = om, oy, + Cy (8.76) we ic h where: C, is the zero-lift pitching moment coefficient we Of the wing-fuselage combination. It may be computed from: = CC + MC DPC MyM (CL Mya) (8.77) ut 7, Mo. ‘mM’ Sm,’ M=0 where: C, is found from Eqn. (8,70) Ww c, = (8.78) ‘0. ~. i=13 Uk, - Br isec seed Lami) +a, + Ser ani) Ww (k, - k,) is found from Figure 8.111, wher: ¢, is the average width of a fuselage seg- iment as shown in Figure 8.112. 4x, is the length of a fuselage segment as shown in Figure 8.112. i, is the wing incidence angle as defined in Figure 8.60. is found from Eqn. (8.21) igy_ is the incidence angle of the fuselage camber f£ line RELATIVE to the fuselage reference plane (FRP) at the center of each fuselage increment. The sign convention for this angle is illustrated in Figure 8.112, Note that this angle is NEGATIVE for down-camber at the fuselage nose as well as for up-camber at the fuselage tailcone. Part VI Chapter 8 Page 320(epg MEASURED AT INCREMENT CENTER (NEGATIVE FOR INCREMENT 2 AND 11 AS SHOWN) . Lr BODY CAMBER LINE’ FRP = FUSELAGE REFERENCE, COPIED FROM REFS 8.112 (cox) [s\ . =e SEVERAL FUSELAGE CROSS.SECTIONS SHOWING CAMBER LINE VERTICAL LOCATION CorieD FROM FEF.D 113 Part VI Chapter 8 Page 321The fuselage camber line is determined in the fuselage sideview by the so-called maximum width locus which in turn arises from the fuselage cross section distribution. It is shown in Figure 8.113 how the maximm fuselage width is defined for three types of fuselage cross sections. C, and C, are the zero-lift pitching moment ‘0, ‘0, h coefficient due to the canard and due to the horizontal tail respectively. Their sum may be computed from: cy + Cy = (8.79) c Gace * Xree, - Fag. > acy ref Ly acy, ‘c Xo and x are defined in Figure 8.114, ‘ac, acy POSITIVE as shown in that Figure! Note that this is an inconsistent sign convention!! is the reference (or c.g.) location about which the airplane pitching moment is to be determined: see Figures 8.114 and 8.97b. NOTE: this quantity is POSITIVE when behind the leading edge of the wing mg.c. and NEGATIVE when forward of the leading edge of the wing m.g.c.! *ref xt Observe that: (x, pg) /e (8, 80a) ref ~ = (xy, VE acy ‘acy = ¢ Pal x vie acy, NOTE: for the entire airplane, x,o¢ is nor- x, ‘ac h mally selected to be a c.g. location in between the most forward and the mst aft center of gravity location as found from Chapter 10 in Part II. Cc, and, are the lift coefficients at oh Part VI Chapter & Page 322airplane zero angle of attack of the canard and of the horizontal tail respectively. These quantities are the third and second term respectively in Eqn (8.32). For Mach numbers between 0.6 and 0.9 the subsonic method may be used. Above M=0.9 experimental data should be employed. Supersonic: Experimental methods should be used. For slender configurations such as fighter aircraft, Ref.9 presents a reasonable procedure for estimating C, . ‘0 MOMENT GEF. CENTER se +AS SHOUN + AS SHOWN | Xrep ©) AS SHOWN !!! Xac, Ct AS SHOWN) 8.11 Parameters and Moment Reference Center Part VI Chapter & Page 323coefficient: dc, /d The variation of airplane pitching moment coefficient with lift coefficient may be estimated from: ac aC, = X oe - Fac, (8, 81) where: Xreg is the location of the moment reference center in fractions of the m.g.c. It is defined in Figures 8.97b and 8.114, NOTE: for the entire airplane, x, ¢ is normally selected to be a c.g. location in between the most forward and the most aft center of gravity location as determined from Chapter 10 in Part II. Xgc, i8 the location of the airplane aerodynamic ‘A center in fractions of the mg.c. Fig. 8.114 defines its location on the mg.c. The following equation may be used to compute it: Kao. = (8, 82) ‘acy (GA. JC, + (nC, (1 - de/as(s,/sdx,, + ac, L ‘h~L, a ‘hi! ‘ac, we Made a, h - noc, (1 + de /da) (S,/8)x,, 1 1/¢, c La c ce acy Le 'c where: x, =X,, + &Xao° (8, 83) ‘ace ~ *ac, ace both being given as fractions of the mg.c. Note that in terms of their actual lengths: Xac, "Pac ~ "ngc’ (8, 84) both of which are defined in Figure 8.97a. may be determined from Figure 8.100 or from n, ac Eqn. (8.73), depending on the wing type used. Part VI Chapter 8 Page 3244x,,_ is the shift in aerodynamic center caused by £ adding the fuselage to the wing: it is determined with the method of 8.2.5.3. Mp, and n may be found from 8.1.5.2. ¢, is found from Eqn. (8.43) and C, h de/da and de./da are found from 81.5.3. are found from Eqn. (8.22) with appro- ‘a, priate substitution of parameters. ©, is the total airplane liftcurve slope which ‘a follows from Eqn. (8.42). Transonic: In the transonic speed range, the airplane undergoes an aft shift in aerodynamic center location. In preliminary design it may be assumed that this aft shift is the same as that due to the wing alone. The latter may be determined from Figure 8.100, Note that this figure applies only to straight tapered wings. For other wings, use Ref.9. Supersonic: In the supersonic speed range, the airplane undergoes an aft shift in aerodynamic center location. In preliminary design it may be assumed that this aft shift is the same as that due to the wing alone. The latter can be found from Figure 8.100. Note that this figure applies only to straight tapered wings. For other wings. use Ref.9. 2.5.3 to the fuselage: Ax, ace The following method may be used up to a Mach number of 0.9. Beyond this Mach number, the fuselage induced shift in a.c. location is assumed constant throughout the transonic and supersonic speed range. The method presented here is due to Munk, as repor- ted in Reference 54: Part VI Chapter 8 Page 325~(aM/ da) / (qsec,, ) (8, 85) ~ Ww is found from Eqn. (8.22) in 1/deg. (dM/da) (8, 86) = i=13 ye (136. 5c, 0,08) {sunt (wg (de/da) ;axi33 Ww where: we and Ax, are defined in 8.2.5.1. 48 found from Eqn. (8.22) in 1/deg. w (de da), takes on values which depend on the fuselage segment under consideration: for i=1,2,3,4, use curve 1 in Figure 8.115 for i=S use curve 2 in Figure 8.115. for i=6,7,8,9,10,11,12,13, use: (de/da), = (x, /x,) (1 - de/da) (8, 87) wher: i; and x, are defined in Fig. 8.116, and de/da is found from Eqn. (8.45), but with: hy = 0, IMPORTANT NOTE: if the airplane has wing mounted nacelles forward of the wing or wing mounted stores forward of the wing, this method should be used to compute the additional a.c. shift. In such cases only segments 1-5 need to be accounted for. 8.2.5.4 Prediction of stable or unstable pitch break Whether or not an entire airplane has an unstable or a stable pitch break depends on the overall configuration as well as on the sequence with which separated wakes arrive from the wing at aft mounted pylon/nacelle combinations and/or at horizontal tails. The reader should con- Part VI Chapter 8 Page 32640 T <, 30 4, @) FOR. zo ork | {| | | ht @ For *%,| lo + ° A 8 te le: 20 BASED ON NACA Xi on ks TM = 1036 c t wf X20 X, (Forwara oF aan rs wing) ALWAYS BE COUNTED POSITIVE, Xeke Part VI Chapter 8 Page 327sult the discussion of pitch break behavior found in Sub- section 5.1.4 of Part III, pages 263-272. As a result of applying this material to a given design, a determination of stable or unstable pitch break behavior can be made. 55 jon of aizpl itchi _ ficient versus lift coefficient All ingredients needed to construct the overall airplane C,, versus C, curve are now available. A step- by-step procedure for doing this is given in Fig.8.117, CL STEPS: STABLE OF UNSTABLE mak \ ” —STEP4: FROM pq i BUS. OR FRom CANARD STALL: p. 275 Almac, a —_— m STEPI Cm, 8.2.5.1 Xref D 1 Part VI Chapter 8 Page 3282.6 : Pigure 8.118 shows the relationship between airplane pitching moment coefficient and airplane lift coefficient in the flaps down configuration. This relationship will be determined with the methods presented in this section. Key quantities needed in the construction of the airplane C,, versus C, curve are listed, with an indication of where methods for their estimation are found. 8.2.6.1 Airplane pitching moment coefficient increment due to flaps: AC, The airplane pitching moment increment due to flaps may be-estimated from: + Aly ng (Soep/82) + AC, Cae + Kreg? * ™ c Ac, = AC, ™ w (8, 88) +C, ny(S,/9) a6 - b, th Sh ‘acy h where: AC, accounts for the pitching moment change due to wing flaps (leading edge and/or trailing edge) and is found from 82.4.1 ret) 4*¢ 4C,, accounts for the pitching moment change due c to canard flaps (usually trailing edge only) and is found from 8.2.4.1 with appropriate substitution of canard parameters for wing parameters. If the canard has no flaps, this quantity is equal to zero. AC, is found from 8.1.4.1 with appropriate sub- ‘c stitution of canard parameters for wing parameters. The comments made on p.277 apply! L, *ret’ *ac, and Fac, are defined in Figure 8.114, NOTE: the reader should carefully observe the inconsistent sign convention used for these quantities! C, is found from 8.1.3.2 with appropriate sub- ‘a, stitution of horizontal tail parameters for wing parameters. , and n, are found from 8.1.5.2. Ae, is found from Figure 8.70, Part VI Chapter 8 Page 329flaps down: (dC,,/dC,), It may be assumed that the slope of the flaps down pitching moment curve is the same as that of the flaps up pitching moment curve: (dC,/dC,), = aC, /4C,, (8, 89) 8.2.6.3 Prediction of stable or unstable pitch break: flaps down It will be assumed that the pitch break behavior of the airplane with the flaps down is similar to that with the flaps up. The reader is referred to 8.2.5.4. c ; £ A £ 4 ftchi. moment curve All items needed in the construction of the total airplane pitching moment curve with the flaps down are now available. Figure 8119 shows a step-by-step procedure to accomplish this. Cy Cu max ——$- — — Lars" DOWN CiUmaxt+ — >> Fars up-f 8.2.5 see EQN.(B89) @ Part VI Chapter & Page 330a eer: Co way—t ELAPS DOWN Br.6 wo ——__—— BC : STEP? ret 8.2.6.1 Eigure 8.119 Construction of the Flaps Down Airplane Pitching Moment Versus Lift Curve C OW ASPECT BATIO a HIGH ASPECT BATIO a x ax A QuT ——_ IN GROUND EFFECT 120 Part VI Chapter 8 Page 3318.2.7 Airplane Pitching Moment in Ground Effect Figure 8.120 shows a re-interpretation of the airplane lift versus angle of attack curve in and out of ground attack. Figure 8120 is a different way of loo- king at Figure 8.72. In Figure 8.72 the assumption was made that the tail lift (and/or the canard lift) do not contribute significantly to airplane lift change due to ground effect. Although this is usually true to a first order of approximation, that does not mean that the pitching moments due to ground induced lift changes on these surfaces are also negligible. It will be assumed that the aerodynamic center of the airplane does not change due to ground effect. In that case, the pitching moment increment due to ground effect on the entire airplane may be estimated from: (Oey g = (8.90) (ac, og + (AC, 2g + (AC, ) ™we 9 Me 9 ™ 9 here: (A( = Xroe 7 X, AC 8.91 where: (AC, Dg = Gree ~ Fac.) MCL Og (8.91) with: x o¢ and x,, defined in Section 8.2.5: ob- 8°, serve the inconsistent sign convention! (acy, 2g 7 (ay )g a8 shown in Figure 8.120. (ac,), in turn is found at two values of an- 3 gle of attack, a, from Section 8.1.7 and plotted as shown in Figure 8.120. Note from Section 8.1.7 the difference between high and low aspect ratio configurations! (OC, Ig = (AC, Dongs + Xe) (8,92) ng L,’a"c\%ac, * *ree with: x,, and x,o¢ defined in Section 8.2.5: ob- c serve the inconsistent sign convention! ng is found from 8.1.5.2 and: OG, Dg 7 “Sy (8/8) tg) g (8,93) c Part VI Chapter 8 Page 332where: C, is found from 8.1.3.2 with appropriate substitution of canard parameters for wing parameters. (Ae,)g, the ground induced change in 3° upwash angle at the canard is found from 8.2.7.1. (AC gg = ~ (Cy, Dg Fac, ~ Xeeg) (8,94) with: x,, and x, 9, defined in Section 82.5: ob- h serve the inconsistent sign convention! wm, is found from 8.1.5.2 and: cg = (S)/8) (ae). (8,95) where: C, is found from 8.1.3.2 with ap- ‘a, propriate substitution of horizontal tail parameters for wing parameters. (Ae), the ground induced change in tail downwash angle is found from 8.2.7.1. Equation (8,90) is used to find AC, for two angles of attack. The C.-C, curve of the airplane in ground effect can now be replotted as shown in Figure 8121, Note that this in effect causes a slight change in airplane stability due to ground effect despite the assumption of constant a.c. location which was made in Eqn. (8.91). 8,2 1 Ground Effect on Downwash The decrease in tail downwash due to ground effect may be computed from: (eg - (8.96) 2 2 2 2 el lbgee” + ACH, - HY)7)/ (ogee? + ACH, + H,I707 where: e = a(de/da) + &% (8,97) h Part VI Chapter 8 Page 333a Cu ax t+-— —_\ STEP ZS: DRAW Cm-CL IN GROUND EFFECT STEPI: OUT OF GBOUND EFFECT 82.5 on 82.6 Ciera, -— — 121 GROUND 8,122 i Part VI Chapter 8 Page 334with de/da found from Eqn. (8.45). ®5 is the horizontal tail downwash angle for zero airplane angle of attack. H, is the height of the horizontal tail c,/4 above the ground: see Figure 8.122. H, is the height of the wing c/4 above the ground: see Figure 8,122. dere = (8,9 8a) # ACL ITEC, fbYy) + (AC) 1% ¢) «, Ty f £ where: C, is the wing-fuselage lift coeffi- wf cient flaps up, out of ground effect as found from 81.5. AC, is the lift increment due to flaps out of ground effect as found from 8.1.6, bt, = b(b',/b) (8.98) with: (b',/b) given in Figure 8.123. bg = bib'¢/b',) (b",/b) (8,98) with: (b'p/b',) given in Figure 8.124. Ground Effect on Upwash The decrease in canard upwash due to ground effect may be computed from: 2 2 (Beg = eg (Hy — By), + BY) (8.99) where: ¢, = @ (de,/da) + fo, (8.100) with: @ being the airplane angle of attack and £4 being the canard upwash angle for © zero airplane angle of attack, while de./de is found from Figure 8,67 H, is the height of the canard ¢./4 above the ground: see Figure 8.122. Part VI Chapter 8 Page 335i 3 5 THES ‘ 8.123 7 Ce ¢ ConleD FROM: POWER OFF @ Qe, ree 8.1 Part VI Chapter 8 Page 3368.2.8 Power Effects on Airplane Pitching Moment For a detailed treatment of power effects on pitching moment the reader should consult Reference 9. Figure 8.125 shows that two types of power effect on the airplane Cyc curve must be accounted for: 1. A shift in pitching moment at zero lift coefficient: Ac, J ™p 4 This type of power effect is caused by thrustline offset and/or by the effect of propeller slipstream. 2. A change in slope: AGC, /dC; )_ The change in slope mst be interpreted as a change in apparent static longitudinal stability. This type of power effect is caused by thrustline offset and/or by propeller/inlet normal forces. These effects are accounted for as follows: 8.2.8.1 Power effect on pitching moment at zero lift coefficient 8.2.8.2 Power effect on longitudinal stability 8.2.8.1 lift coefficient: Ac Mp The effect of power on the pitching moment coefficient at zero lift coefficient may be estimated from: aC, = aC, + Ac (8.101) ™ "rh ™s where: AC, is the pitching moment increment due to ™DL thrustline offset 4c, is the pitching moment increment due to ™ps propeller slipstream Effect of Thrustline Offset: AC, ™rL Figure 8.126 illustrates the geometry of thrustline offset as it affects the pitching moment of an airplane. Since multi-engine airplanes can have the engines Part VI Chapter 8 Page 337— AS SHOWN 4;, T Idy, + AS SHOWN 8,126 Xref + AS SHOWN _ OVERALL © UE __ _ > —___ we © CysOE WING — SECTION AFFEC- TED BY PRoP. SUPSTREAM 8,127 Part VI Chapter 8 Page 338installed in relationsship to the moment reference point, X,o¢ in a variety of ways, a summation of the effect of individual engines will be required. The incremental pitching moment due to thrustline offset is found from: isn - ac, = Sum(T,, dy /qSc) (8,102) List i where: T,, is the available installed thrust from a pro- i peller or froma jet engine \ dy is the thrustline offset relative to x,o¢ i Note from Figure 8.126, that d, is counted as \ i positive if the thrust line is located beneath the reference point. There are two types of slipstream effect which can alter the pitching moment of an airplane: 1, Effect of slipstream on a canard or ona horizontal tail 2, Effect of slipstream on a wing i, Effect of slipstream on a canard or on a horizontal tail The effect of (propeller) slipstream on the local dynamic pressure at the canard or at the horizontal tail has already been accounted for through the dynamic pressure ratios, a, and n, as found from 8.1.5.2. In all previous calculations for pitching moment, the effect of power can be left out by using 1, 4, , ~ 0 2. Effect of slipstream on a wing The effect of propeller slipstream on a wing may be accounted for from: “Caos . cng - *ree ACL (8,103) where: x,¢, | and Xye¢ are defined in Figure 8.127. 4c, is found from Eqn. (8.57) w Part VI Chapter 8 Page 3398.2.8.2 Power effect on longitudinal stability: A(GC/ACy, ey The following method to account for power effect on stability is adapted from Reference 54: MAC /AC Ey = (AC Q/ACL py, + (AC / AC, ) (8,104) where: C,/ AC) ) py, is the effect of thrustline offset on longitudinal stability (ac,,/aC,)y is the effect of propeller or inlet normal force on longitudinal stability Methods for estimating these stability effects are now given for: 1. Propeller driven airplanes 2, Jet driven airplanes i.Propeller driven airplanes: The effect of thrustline offset on longitudinal stability for propeller driven airplanes is: isn - (aC q/ACy Iz, * SuME(AT,, /4C,,) 20, 1s) (8,105) ist where: D, is the diameter of propeller i. i dy is the thrustline offset for propeller i, i see Figure 8,126. 1/2 at, acy, = (372K Ap (Cp) (8,106) with: np is the efficiency of propeller i, and: i Kp = (550(8HP,) )(p)2/7y/((2w/s)?/2 (Dy?) (8,107) i ava Py Note: The effect of thrustline offset on longitudinal stability can be used by the designer to obtain minor changes in static margin by tilting the thrustline relative to the c.g. or relative to x,o¢. Figure 8.128 shows an example of thrustline tilt angle used in a light air- Part VI Chapter & Page 340COURTESY : CESSNA 8,129 Part VI Chapter 8 Page 341plane to achieve such an effect. The effect of propeller normal force on longitudinal stability may be found from: (AC y/AC, yy = (8.108) isn - a Sum ((dCy/da), (de, /dad (1, 9¢ 2/4) (D, 73 /8eCq, 1 Get Py Pi where: is the moment arm of the propeller normal ey force to the reference point: see Fig. 8.129. 1 ep /da-is found from Figure 8.115. (dCy/da),, is the change in propeller normal force i coefficient with angle of attack. It may be computed from: (acy/da),, = (8,109) UU(Cy 0, JR ago, 7) + Ue cad - 231 with: (Cy ) 7 found from Figure 8.130, =80. and with: + (8,110) + 262(w_ IR Py PL Pi i Py + 135 (mp IR, 'p, 0. 6R dolor where: w, is the propeller blade width at the radius Pi station indicated in the subscript Re is the propeller blade radius (0.5D,, ) i i 2, Jet driven airplanes: The effect of thrustline offset on the longitudinal stability of most jet driven airplanes is negligible. The reason is the relatively small change in thrust with small changes in speed. The effect of inlet normal force on longitudinal stability of a jet airplane may be estimated from: Part VI Chapter 8 Page 342isn (0,035(m, ) (de/da) (1, 0) (dc, /dC,), = Sum [ = 1 (8,111) moUEN “G-1 (sep, (C,, Ww is the mass flow rate through engine i This mass flow rate follows from Chapter 6. (de/da), is obtained from Figure 8115 for inlet i 1,, is the moment arm of the inlet lip as illus- ‘i trated in Figure 8.129. 6 (Cre) p) x, 2 ny =Propeller normal force i Pd kya derivative at TE=0 Iky— 80.7 COrIED 577 FROM: REF.D A I ‘ |COUNTER rai SINGLE cieadel ROTATION \ ROMAHON Na) p] Kyy= 803] newest INO. OF : |BLADES, | 4 at 2 4 1 [| V+ 7 | + 7 3 7 o+ — ° 10 20 30 o 50 o NOMINAL BLADE ANGLE AT .75 RADIUS, 8 (deg) Figure 8.130 Propeller Normal Force Parameter Part VI Chapter & Page 3438,3 PREDICTION OF TRIMMED LIFT AND TRIMMED MAXIMUM ULET COEFFICIENT In Sections 8.1 and 8.2 methods are presented for the construction of airplane lift and pitching moment curves. The position was taken that all longitudinal control surface deflections were set at zero. In any equilibrium flight condition the airplane must also be in moment equilibrium. The effect of pitching moment equilibrium (also known as longitudinal moment trim, or simply: trim) on airplane lift at different renter of gravity locations will be accounted for in this rection. The following condition mst be satisfied in a trimmed flight condition: c, = 0 (8,112) The pitching moment coefficient C, takes on values which depend on: 1, the lift coefficient at which the airplane is flying, 2, the location of the center of gravity and 3. the power setting. Methods for computing C,, are given in Section 8.2. The trim condition as expressed by Eqn. (8,112) is a- chieved by deflection of one or more control surfaces. In this Section, the following control surfaces will be accounted for: 1. Stabilizer incidence, i, 2, Elevator deflection, 6, 3. Canard incidence, i, 4. Canardvator deflection, & Figure 8.131 shows typical examples of these control surfaces and their typical arrangement on an airplane. Different types of longitudinal controls may be required on certain airplanes. Examples are: elevons on delta wings (as on the F-106) or symmetrically deflected ailerons (as on the Starship). In this section only types 1-4 will be considered. Part VI Chapter & Page 344HOPIZ.TAIL + fhe = —\ — WA Z ELEVATOR CANARDVATOR. 131 q CANABD Ce HORIZ. TAIL S, iy on Se x 4 Figure 8.132 Effect of Control surface Deflection on Airplane Lift a CANABD a Homi2TAIL Part VI Chapter 8 Page 345Deflection of a control surface (which effectively can be thought of as a plain flap) causes changes in airplane lift and in airplane pitching moment in the following ways: Effect of control surface deflection on lift 2, Effect of control surface deflection on pitching moment 1, Effect of Control Surface Deflection on Lift: (8,113) lift derivatives. They are computed with the methods given in Chapter 10. Figure 8.132 shows how a control surface deflection affects the airplane lift versus angle of attack curve. Note the control surface sign conventions in Fig. 8.131! ac, = (8.114) 8, + (C, and C, i © derivatives. They may be computed with the methods given in Chapter 10. Figure 8,133 shows how a control surface deflection affects the airplane pitching moment versus lift curve. Note the control surface sign conventions in Fig. 8.131! Next, methods are presented for determining the trimmability of airplanes. This is accomplished using so-called trim diagrams. Part VI Chapter 8 Page 346A method for determining trimmed lift and trimmed maximum lift capability of an airplane is presented for the following cases: 8.3.1 Stable airplane with stable pitchbreak 8.3.2 Unstable airplane with stable pitchbreak 8.3.3 Stable airplane with unstable pitchbreak 8.3.4 Unstable airplane with unstable pitchbreak In the case of military airplanes with external stores and/or with deployed speedbrakes, significant additional pitching moments may be introduced due to these devices. Such ‘drag-induced’ pitching moments can be accounted for through a shift of the origin of the C.-C, plot. This shift is computed from: ac, = (acy Daye (8,115) 'store/speedbrake 'store/speedbrake Cy is the drag increment due to store/speedbrake the store or speedbrake. This increment follows from Section 4.9 or from 4.12. wher: a, is the moment arm, positive if the drag increment acts ABOVE the c.g. $.3.1 Stable Airplane with Stable Pitch Break Figures 8.134a,b present trim diagrams for a stable airplane with a stable pitch break: Pig.8.134a is for a conventional (tail-aft) airplane Fig. 8.134b is for a canard airplane. The C,-a and C,-C,, curves for ZERO control surface deflections are obtained with the methods of Sections 81 and 8.2 respectively. The effect of control surface deflections on these curves is determined with the method indicated in Figures 8.132 and 8.133. Note that the C, axis is labelled: Cc, . The lo- Xref cation of the moment reference center, x,o¢ is normally selected somewhere between the most forward and the most aft locations of the airplane center of gravity. Methods for determining the center of gravity location of any airplane are discussed in Part II, Chapter 10. Part VI Chapter & Page 347Cm=o Cm V.-% q Sr a Xeg=Xegewo] —'| | Reg> %y | g Mngtai (an. 8.116) a Xeg= Xegewo| ty | Xeq= Gan.B.nb) ACmeguvet to ACL trim 2 m. Xret 8.134) Part VI Chapter & Page 348Observe in Figures 8.134a,b that C,=0 lines at different centers of gravity have slopes different from that of the C,0 line with x.4"X,,¢- These different slopes may be determined with the help of Procedure 1. PROCEDURE 1: Determination of Slopes of C,-0 Lines 1. Determine the most forward and the most aft c.g. locations of the airplane. This is done with the method of Chapter 10 in Part II. 2. Compute Xo - Kreg 3. At Cy 1.0 determin: ac, = 1.0100 - Xe) (8,116) TM og-ref cg ~ “ref 4. Plot Ac, as shown in Figures 8.134a,b and ‘cg-ref connect that point with the origin. The line so obtained is the C_ = 0 locus for the new /c.g. location. m Note: the proof for this procedure is found in Chapter 5 of Reference 16. The determination of trimmed lift and maximum lift now proceeds according to Procedure 2. med_Maxiximm Lift 1. Construct the trim diagram as shown in Figures 8.134a or 8.134b. This includes a number of « = constant lines up to a,4.1) 2, Construct the C,=0 lines for the most aft and for the most forward c.g. locations, with the help of Procedure 1. 3. Identify the trimtriangle: OAB. 4, Draw in the tail or canard stall locus with the Part VI Chapter & Page 349Part VI following considerations. For a stalled tail: . (8,117) a Meeala @ + ty to, ~e(ae/ae) where: ¢ follows from 8.1.5.2 oh de/da follows from 8.1.5.3 A value for the tail stall angle, « is Metall found from 8.1.3.4 by substitution of appropriate tail parameters for wing parameters. For any value of airplane angle of attack, a, Eqn. (8,117) can be used to solve for the corresponding value of i, which will cause the tail to stall. By repeating this for a range of angles of attack, a tail stall locus can be drawn into Figure 8.134a. Note: for a canard airplane, the canard stall locus is found in a similar manner by using the following equation: awe « (8,118) stall ativ+e Ho a, (de./da) follows from 8.1.5.2 de,/da follows from 81.5.3 IMPORTANT OBSERVATION: the tail stall and/or the canard stall loci MUST be outside the so-called trim triangle identified in Step 3. If this condition is not satisfied, severe restrictions on the performance of the airplane may result. Compute C, = W/gS for significant points in the airplane flight envelope. Figure 8.135 shows examples of significant trim points in the flight envelope of low and high speed airplanes. These points depend on the mission requirements Chapter & Page 3507 Part VI Chapter & Page 351placed on the airplane. 6. Determine the c.g. location(s) at which the trim needs to be investigated. Combinations of weight and c.g. locations follow from the weight-c.g. excursion diagram discussed in detail in Ch.10 of Part II. 7. Plot the C, points on the appropriate C,=0 line (corresponding to its c.g. location) in Figures 8,134a,b and determine the amount of control surface deflection required to trim. From these control deflections required for trim it is pos~ ble to compute the tail or canard lift increments to trim, needed in the trim drag calculations on p.104: Ac = (C, Lh or ¢ UL, or @ thor e (8,119) or: Ac, 8 (8,120) eore Mh or ¢ See 8. Points A and B in Figures 8.134a,b represent the trimmed maximum lift coefficients at the corres~ ponding c.g. locations of the airplane. SPECIAL CASE: Three-surface Airplane Trim In the case of a three surface configuration the designer can choose how to deflect control surfaces on the canard, the wing and the tail in conjunction with each other. Several possible optimization schemes are now possible: 1, Minimize trimmed drag 2. Maximize trimmed maximum lift 3. Maximize maneuvering capability The construction of a trim diagram for a three surface airplane is left to the reader. The Grumman X-29 and the Piaggio Avanti are examples of three surface airplanes. 8.3.2 Unstable Airplane with Stable Pitch Break Figures 8,136a,b present example trim diagrams for an unstable airplane with a stable pitch break. The pro- Part VI Chapter & Page 352cedures outlined in 8.3.1 for determining trimmed lift and trimmed maximum lift also apply in this case. 8.3.3 Stable Airplane with Unstable Pitch Break Figures 8.137a,b present example trim diagrams for a stable airplane with an unstable pitch break. The method of 8.3.1 for determining trimmed lift can be used without modification. However, to determine the allowable trimmed maximum lift coefficient now is not very straightforward. Depen- ding on the number of pitch curve ‘wiggles’ and depending on the change in control power at high angle of attack, the trimmed maximum lift coefficient may be limited for reasons other than aerodynamic stall. If handling quali- ty problems or severity of pitch divergence so dictate, the airplane may have to be equipped with stick-shakers and/or with stick-pushers. In such cases the maximum trimmable lift coefficient which can be used in the normal performance envelope of the airplane is predicated on the lift coefficient corresponding to stick-pusher o- Peration. Figures 8.157a,b indicate such an artificial limit. In the case of airplanes equipped with digital flight control systems a control-limiting scheme may be added to the flight control laws. Such a control limiting scheme may limit the angle of attack which actually can be reached by the airplane. The limiting value of trimmed maximum lift coefficient must then be the one which corresponds to the limit set by the flight control law and not by any inherent aerodynamic limit. 8.3.4 Unstable Airplane with Unstable Pitch Break Figures 8.138a,b show examples of trim diagrams for an unstable airplane with an unstable pitch break. The comments made under 8.3.2 apply to this case. Part VI Chapter 8 Page 3538,13 Part VI Chapter & Page 3549, AIRPLANE HIGH LIFT DATA The purpose of this chapter is to present a range of high lift (and some pitching moment) data. These data are presented in the following form: 9.1, Airfoil high lift data: flaps up and down 9.2. Airplane high lift data: flaps up and down / 9.3. Mach number effects on high lift 9.1 AIRFOIL HIGH LIFT DATA: FLAPS UP AND FLAPS DOWN A summary of NACA airfoil high lift and pitching m- ment data is provided in Table 9.1 for flaps up. Tables 9.2, 9.3 and 9.4 provide data on airfoil high lift and pitching moment for flaps down. The reader should carefully note the effect of Rey- nold's Number on the maximum lift coefficient. This effect must pot be neglected in preliminary design. A summary of the effect of Reynold’s Number on airfoil maximum lift is provided in Figures 9.1 and 9.2. References 49 and 51 provide mich additional data on airfoil maximum lift and pitching moment as well as on the effect of Reynold's Number. 2.2 AIRPLANE HIGH LIFT DATA: FLAPS UP AND FLAPS DOWN In this section some examples of actual airplane high lift data are presented. Tables 9.5 present a summary of airplane trimmed maximum lift coefficient data, flaps up anf flaps down. Actual airplane high lift versus angle of attack data are presented as follows: Figure 9.3 N.A.Rockwell T2C Figure 9.4 N.A.Rockwell S-60 Sabreliner Figure 9.5 Raisbeck Modification, $-65 Sabreliner Figure 9.6 Canadair Challenger Figure 9.7 Learjet M55 Figure 9.8 Boeing 767-300 Figure 9.9 Boeing 737-300 Part VI Chapter 9 Page 3559.3 MACH NUMBER EFFECTS ON HIGH LIFT At high subsonic Mach numbers the magnitude of maximum lift coefficient tends to decrease as a result of shock induced separations. This decrease in maximum lift manifests itself as buffet (below maximum lift) and as a reduction in maneuvering capability of the airplane. This effect is strongly influenced by: 1, wing sweep angle 2. airfoil thickness 3. airfoil camber Figure 9.10 shows some early data indicating the effect of planform and Mach number on the maximum lift of wings with a 6 percent thick airfoil. With modern airfoil design it is possible to achieve significant improvements in high lift at all Mach numbers and do so at much higher airfoil thickness ratios. (This also results in lower structural weights!) Figure 9.11 illustrates this on the Rockwell T2C: the basic airfoil has t/c = 0.12, the modified airfoil has t/c = 0.17. A penalty which accompanies almost any increase in high lift is an increase in pitching moment. Since this needs to be trimmed out, the net gain in lift is not as high as untrimmed data would indicate. Figure 9.12 shows the effect of airfoil change on the T2C on its pitching moment behavior: note the rather large negative increase in pitching moment. An example of the buffet boundary (C,, «<, ) ‘buf fet ‘max for a modern business jet airplane with an advanced airfoil is given in Figure 9.13. Most high lift data are obtained for steady state conditions. In flight test such conditions are simulated by accepting high lift data only when the rate of reduction of airspeed is not greater than 1 kt/sec. In addition to the effect of speed changes on high lift, there are strong effects of rate of change of angle of attack on high lift. The data in Figs 9.14 and 9.15 indicate this! In determining the performance of fighter aircraft these unsteady effects are very important. 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(SS [aS] - eee ee aay BION cas} rel ae: may) ml ed Yad sromeere [once] SP] SE] wBE[ moe] EMER] ecrarneee arr 6uyyoyta uo ‘43TT YStH uo addy deta Jo 30073a ¥*6 aTAeL Chapter 9 Page 360 Part VITable 9.5a Experimental Trimmed Maximm Lift Coefficients for Several Airplanes COPIED FROM: REF. 56 .* ae . rest move, a] cn] | mo rere tyre | ctran] attatol nerenence ‘Grumman ACh 0 as [eoe | vowlr Pipe y [is 2.00 | rugs Manat +E Flaps ate Nor Am, ABA wo] ar8 | res] Pain rape Le Pf tos 1s | ug mama Fuape Pate orth Am. RASC eo] ans |. | rae rape» Bows r 1a | AIAA Paper Ost, LE Fane ors Dowgiae AD zal as [st [ope rape oe ' oo) tas | rig Manat ‘toate pe ‘MeDonsell Fe 2.74] 45 | 68 | Pai Blown Fle « rt 1a Ind, LE Faps» Out ‘bi, Blown LE Pape Pa oot as] at | ose | sige sous ry [v6 ny Flape epic FiosD saute] a3 [705] single souet Pape ye fu 1.34 | Pur ane, py Daa Leckeed FONG ais] ane | 05 | Pit Pipe, Drow F 8 iz | Ps naa Northrop Fs at] 25 [55 [stage stses rape yr [re na | Pr anata. MawhorBueley sat] 24 | 1.00 | sown an Fave r oo 22 | Aviation Wook Deveaneer Blown LE ‘awe 1961 Frigat it (Gen, Dyamicn P-L 13 | 606] Blown Mat Fipe Fee 2.48 | NASA 196 ST + Blown Center & Conierence Outer LE Pape Nerd Am. F100 A ain] «sw | town Pia rape Fae 1.5 | nasAtw ca 1 Blown LE Flape Desai ‘ovine F5D-1 ut] a | 0 | am lovone« eve | 1.0 |aasaaw (Callece, NASA OGRE Para LE Sats been Wing Mei.) octet XV-4A eo] 0 | te | Pit rine ‘rattseate | a.a8 1s Bowing 727 zal | as ¥ 28 ‘Booting 707-3200 we | 38 | 0s) trip somes 1 Spe Filet ape LE Pape Bosing 707-120 v0 | 36 | ves] poate stones Fr fia 18 | aoura, of Auer, Fowler Fape + wn Mar-Apr. 1965 Solu Fut Page NACA RM LE Fp asane oatng 707-120 exp | 0| 38 | 068] town Main Pape r at | nasa tw +E Flaps Doe Y= Fgh: Woe Wand Tuoal; HUD = High Li€t Device(s) Down Part VI Chapter 9 % TRIMMED, GEAR-UP Page 361Table 9.5b Experimental Trimmed Maximm Lift Coefficients for Several Airplanes COPIED FROM: REF SE a move 4 [Aer | ew Lb THRE Tre CLEAN] ALL WED] REPENENCE meso e feal « fe [ease [foe | tte = == cae ae [ep pee fim cece feats P| a [at arte | E [is | ecole =e = satay [> | [Ee ve [> [isa Frcs me ca do 7a [as meee wy Pa] ners =e vay “a lupe » Droop | womanmm fe] | fama pe Pe ve re mom [aalae ene P= mame Peale ral mon ee fe Pre er oe CC oc ‘eraee De-t7 vale | on [onesies rime |r [aa | ae | tatinrie i re ret ——, == =e Se ee TT eee TO =a Sa 7 aaa a porn a = teres |p mae ap Pe eee pe FeFUGHT WT= WIWDTURWEL HLD = Hi6H LIFT DEVICES DOWN x TRIMMED, GEAR UP = -X* PROPELLER(S) OFF Part VI Chapter 9 Page 362Byxio™® 20 2 4 45-DieiT ms 6 iG ~6 ane Ryxld ‘6 =9 6 3 12 lo 14 8 22 —+te 9.1 i i ' 7 . Te feet ; is e we . t + es 20 9 mau ——y + 1922 as ~ ET 4 [ne tL et wT " 2 34S Fu 9 : = Part VI Chapter 9 Page 3636 © Rys tonto D Ry= 20x10" COURTESY : NASA a hy tH 17 Ze SUPERCRITICAL AIRFOIL Tchosaise | SUPERCRITICAL Aine 120 Sul Sui —e | 35 ZC 825 850 | i [yt COURTESY : ROCKWELL Part VI Chapter 9 Page 364EFFECT OF FLAPS & GEAR OM HIGH LIFT MAX TATL-OW G, 20° 30° 40° Sr Sr COURTESY: RAISBECK ines roan APT END OF WING UPPER SURFACE TRAILING EDGE OF WING AND pe EDGE OF STOWED FLAP WING FEF. PLANE Part VI Chapter 9 Page 3652s Cu 2.0 COURTESY: CANADAIB Ls 1.0 ° 10 20 30 ae SO FLAP DEFLECTION d¢ _DEG “ a © Coma ES a a 1 ® cobaTe BY: GATES LeARZET laser conrercunr ~|€, [wore = ape meno Part VI Chapter 9 Page 366COURTESY: BOEING oe ‘Angle of Atco 9.8 7-300 courtesy: ‘0 +1) BOEING a CL matexp. — A= 25 dp, ob AR = 92 Tie aa aa angi ct tack” Drag Cou Cp Coy Ph ment Col Ca 9.9 00 Courtesy : SS gm isico3 ° 5 u 20 25 ™ Part VI Chapter 9 Page 367us| 14] os CoumTesy: N&SA 0 Oa 9.11 a COUBTESY: NASA ou tN oo Ce Part VI Chapter 9 Page 368nes FOR CONSTANT at COURTESY: NASA AND tee CESSNA MACH NUMBER a LIMIT Gy COURTESY: “SREB RM LS1E03 12 16 & ™ Part VI Chapter 9 Page 369Part VI Maximum Witt coefficient , Gz mex 2 14 ala] p+ #4 ad M32 rt ; 10 Is Ms jo M=.29 FROM: NACA TN 2525 rk 14 I | 4+-7 M25 = 12 16 | te Fr L+T ol labs high wing Figure 10,9 Definition of Wina-Fuselase Parameters: z,, Part VI and a, Chapter 10 Page 384+ UY %Sx/ox S& oo x Xx Xo 4K i —¢§ Figure 10,10 Determination of S, orsy x oe. Rr he 6 Reproduced fron Reference * a TT Reproduced fron Reference $ i: wa, PYZ25 (Por definition of 2ry see Figure 10.17) Figure 10,12 Empirical Factor for Estimating Side-force Part VI Chapter 10 Page 385Part VI distances x, and x, are correlated in 1 Figure 10,11, The fuselage contribution is virtually independent of Mach number. ical 1 ibution is given by: 1, Por Single Vertica. ‘ails: Sy, 7 Ry + de/ap)n, (Sy/S) (10,28) Vv ‘y with: k, given by Figure 10.12. C, found from 8.1.3.2 with appropriate ‘a, substitution of vertical tail parame— ters for wing parameters. The vertical tail aspect ratio, A, _ must be sub- eff tituted for A in the method of 8.1.3.2. The effective aspect ratio of the vertical tail may be estimated from: A = (10,29) Vett (yey /By Ay * KynCAy cng) /Aycey)? ~ UP : 2 with: A, = (by)°/s, (10, 30) where: by and S, depend on the vertical tail configuration as shown in Figure 10.13 for a range of vertical tail configurations. (ayc¢)/Ay) is the ratio of the vertical tail aspect ratio in the presence of the fuselage to that of an isolated vertical tail. This ratio can be determined from Figure 10.14. yng) /Ay(zy 18 the ratio of the vertical tail aspect ratio in the presence of the horizontal tail and the fuselage to that in the presence of the fuselage alone. This ratio can be de~ termined from Figure 10.15. Chapter 10 Page 38616 | T T Reproduced from Reference 9 4 Aveo i Ay . CENTERLINE ‘ wy = VERTICAL TAIL TAPER RATIO BASED ON SURFACE MERGUitdb PHO FUSELAGE CENTERLINE A.W(Q = RATIO OF THE ASPECT RATIO OF THE VERTICAL ‘Re PANEL IN THE PRESENCE OF THE BODY TO THAT OF TH ISOLATED PANEL 0 ! 0 2 3 T bver é 7 |ATIO OF THE VERTICAL PANEL ASPECT RATIO IN THE PRESENCE OF | THE HORIZONTAL TAIL AND BODY TO THAT OF THE PANEL IN THE PRESENCE OF THE BODY ALONE a/er = PARAMETER ACCOUNTING FOR RELATIVE POSITIONS OF THE FUSELAGE CENTERLINE HORIZONTAL AND VERTICAL TAILS oR, BOTTOM OF EFFECTIVE VERT. TAIL AS SHOWN IN F16, 10.13. Part VI Chapter 10 Page 388K,, is a factor which accounts for the relative size of the horizontal and the vertical tail. It may be determined from Figure 10.16. (1 + do/aB)ny = (10,31) 0.724 + 3.06((S,/S)/(1 + cosAa)4)} + 0.4z,/2— + 0.009R S, is the effective vertical tail area as defined in Figure 10.13 for several example configurations. ‘Agy4 is the wing quarter chord sweep angle A is the wing aspect ratio 2, is the distance from wing root quarter chord point to the fuselage centerline, positive below fuselage centerline. Zs is the maximum fuselage depth 2. For Twin Vertical Tails: Oe c, 232 “yp 2{C. 7 ‘ on by J Ye, dS,/8) (10.32) view eff eff with: {cy IC, } determined from 8. Figure 10.17. 'v (wh) mee ¢, determined from Figure 10.18 with Yp, __ the corresponding value of A, eff eff found from Figure 10,19, S, is the area of a single vertical tail panel as defined in Figure 10.13. 2.) cy, The rolling-moment-due-to-sideslip derivative, C, (also called dihedral effect) may be found from: B C=C. +C, +C. (10.33) 1 1, 1 1 8 Bue Bh By where: the wing-fuselage contribution is given by: Part VI Chapter 10 Page 389az, a Reproduced from Reference 9 1 i i T ‘ACTOR ACCOUNTING FOR RELATIVE Noi SeeTOF MORWONTAL AND VERTICAL rf TAILS Sk HORIZONTAL TAIL AREA Sy = VERTICAL TAIL AREA, MEASURED FROM FUSELAGE CENTERLINE Kvn, += YEENVCAL Fa SAN, MEASURED 12 1 20 Srfy, | one - A A Yv(weh) ‘hes veces & (See Figure 10.18 for 4 definition of by) 2h = FUSELAGE DEPTH AT QUARTER GHORO-POINT OF VERTICAL PANELS 2 Jp ruse.sce ener ; 70 0 2 2 oon /by Part VI Chapter 10 Page 390Reproduced from Reference 9 For definition of b! see Figure 1018 10,1: Ratio Used with Figure 10.18 Part VI Chapter 10 Page 391Bye Part VI = 57.31C, + Plc, /PEy + (acy 1) + (acy (ey ey (Ry Ke) + (Cy /C,)Q) + we c/2 A B B + Ceptand, 4) ((AC) )/e,tanA,,4)] (10.34) B , with: C, is the lift coefficient of the wing- wf fuselage combination. For any given value of airplane lift coefficient, this may be computed by subtracting the tail and/or the canard lift coefficients (but based on wing areal). For preliminary design purposes it seens acceptable to set: C, = C, we 1 (Cy /C,), | is the wing sweep contribution 6 c/2 which may be found from Figure 10.20. Ky, is the compressibility correction to ‘A sweep. It is found from Figure 10.21, K, is a fuselage correction factor obtained from Figure 10.22. ‘Agj2 is the wing semi-chord sweep angle Agy4 is the wing quarter-chord sweep angle (cy is the aspect ratio contribution ICL) y obtained from Figure 10.23, B [is the geometric dihedral angle of the wing as defined in Figure 10.7. (C, /M is the wing dihedral effect found B from Figure 10.24, Ky is the compressibility correction to di- f hedral as obtained from Figure 10.25. (AC, /P) is the fuselage induced effect on ® the wing height and is found from: (ac, /P) = = 0,0005A(dg —/b)” (10,35) 8 ave where: A is the wing aspect ratio Chapter 10 Page 392“ 20 60 80 002% + * + ont 1 c 9 T Tt () 002 | , | CL Mera = La (per deg) -.004 -.006 -.008 -.01 ok ~ 80 002 oat oO @) é ere “007 ~.004 4. (per deg) -.006: 7 -.008 4 (c) A=O0 -cned + + t Reproduced from Reference 9 -.010' Figure 10,20 Wing Sweep Contribution to Rolling Moment due to Sideslip Part VI Chapter 10 Page 393= ae eee Part VI Chapter 10 Page 394-.0003 Aen 0 c 42409 Ig 0002 a +609 (per deg?) -.0001 Reproduced from Refer: (per deg?) +0001 0 -.0003 Cc), 0002 —'s Tr (per deg?) -.0001) 0. 0 2 4 6 8 10 ASPECT RATIO, A 10,2 i i i i Hing 2 gente Part VI Chapter 10 Page 3951 aproduced from Reference § 16 12. 10 3 MOS ace 10,25 0000s Reproduced Frou Reference 9 xe Xp ey Eman i qos || A (once) | | A= TT - iT ROOTSECTION 0002. T ZEROLIFT LINE ~] 00001 msecrion —_| TERO-LIFT LINE LI i ob sf a oe ASPECT RATIO, A i 10,26 due to Sideslip VERTICAL TAIL 7 AERODYNAMIC. CENTER Body x-axis %, 0 AS SHOWN stapiuity Xe J Lo £ —___| XAXIS AIRPLANE ce, 10, Part VI Chapter 10 Page 396b is the wing span a (10.36) ave 1/2 {(ave. fusel. cross-section area) /0.7854) (ce, ), = (10,37) 1p 2y 1/2 0.042(A)"/*(z /b) (de /b) v fave where: z, is defined in Figure 10.9 a is given by Eqn. (10.36) fave {(AC) )/e,tand,,4) is a wing twist correction factor which is obtained from Pig.10.26. the horizontal tail contribution is given by: 1, = “1, ) (S),b,/Sb) (10,38) n he with: C. the horizontal tail dihedral effect as computed from Equation (10.34) with appropriate substitution of tail-fuselage for wing-fuselage parameters. 8, is the horizontal tail area b, is the horizontal tail span C, = (Cy) ) (zycosa - lysine) /b) (10, 39) with: Cy given by Bgn. (10.28) By z, and 1, defined in Figure (10.27) 39Cy The yawing-moment-due-to-sideslip derivative, C, B (also called static directional stability) may be computed from: (10, 40) Part VI Chapter 10 Page 397where: the wing contribution is important only at high angles of attack. Ref.9 contains a method for estimating this contribution in such cases. For preliminary design purposes: =0 (10.41) Cy = ~ 57-3KyKy (Sg 1¢/Sb) (10,42) Be 1 ®s with: Ky an empirical factor determined from Figure 10.28 Kg a factor dependent on Reynold’s Number ‘1 and obtained from Figure 10.29 Sg and lp are defined in Figure 10.28, 's Sng = “ey, )(Lycosa +z,sina) /b (10, 43) Vv Vv where: C) is found from Eqn. (10.28) By 1, and z, are given in Figure 10.27, 10.2.4.2 Thrust versus sideslip derivative: C,, ™ As suggested in Table 10.1, the only contribution which is of some significance is the yawing-moment-due- to-thrust-in-sideslip derivative, C, . T 8 (10.44) isn 2 ~Suml ((dc,/da)_, ) (0.799 (D, 971, 9} /sb] ist ne Py Py PA where: all terms are as defined on page 342. Part VI Chapter 10 Page 398= Body side area = Maximum body width 0. | : h 001 i Me 5 oon SS Ky “| F 004: N : 005. Reproduced from Reference 9 006 i 7 ee = 7 eran ot Part VI Chapter 10 Page 399For Jet Driven Airplanes: isn C, = Sum[(0,035(m, (1, ‘n, T, isl i Th where: all terms are as defined on page 343. ))/SbpU,1 (10,45) I T = a ae eee {Reproduced from Reference 9 ane [- = Part VI Chapter 10 Page 40010,2,5, Rate of Angle-of-Sideslip Derivatives: . cy, c, and C,, B Table 10.1 identifies the required rate-of-angle-of- sideslip derivatives. According to Reference 9, only the vertical tail contributes significantly to these rate derivatives. NOTE: All methods presented for the rate-of-sideslip derivatives are valid only for the subsonic speed regime. For other speed ranges the reader should consult Ref.9. 1. Cys The sideforce-due-to-rate-of-sideslip derivative, C,, may be estimated from: “ ¢ (10.46) - 10.4 %B 2(C, ) (de/aB) (S/S) (cosas +z,sina,) /b y where: C, is found with the method indicated y Under Equation (10.28) do/dp = (10.47) (op De + EEE) 5 (5, det (op t where: «, is the sidewash contribution due to angle of a attack. It is found from Figures 10.30. a, is the angle of attack of the fuselage o, is the sidewash contribution due to wing dihe~ [dral. It is found from Figures 10.31. [is the wing dihedral angle as defined in Pigure 10.7, is the sidewash contribution due to wing e, twist as obtained from Figures 10.32. B e, is the wing twist angle as shown in Figure 10.26, o, _ is the sidewash effect due the fuselage as But Part VI Chapter 10 Page 401~ ~~ Ty] a ~ Sa, xc") ~~ ws oot » ~~ i LK al LIL a awe oa =o a . *——t a a a6 ~ | 4S | eT —ait- sere er 6 nae ee) os Pa, I ee") | a % Ph ~CRCCCeeeeod ~~ 7 \ a *- copien ero (My . a ou a cr Figure 10,303 Sidewash Contribution due to Angle of Attack Part VI Chapter 10 Page 402Maa ny = tp cosag - lp sinag where: tp and lp are defined ord at i” tn riguce 10.36 = She Wee @xc) Ne 23e -w|_l\ Litt} at ne: Oe ae CorieD FROM Bel Part VI Chapter 10 Page 4037 a Wee nea 0 -at we lea lereecmie ecm 6, Se, 2 where: tp and lp are co) @ee") ae COPIED FROM REFS Saal | ‘ a aa ou a nos S a oie Gc") 4 = oe la on ~* Lo Saad 4 a Fe Figure 10,30c Sidewash Contribution due to Angle of Attack Part VI Chapter 10 Page 40430 Part VI Chapter 10 Page 4054 Maz Sad ea s us eee bp %, Gee") ee), aa HE COPIED FROM REFS uw. wi waft] 8 a Sa Tt 2 Tt TT} if 1 + Saad TC s sg Sp fh, -4 e ne o TI wt I “0 - 4 ‘ Co +h \ ENE a Part VI Chapter 10 Page 406+ Fhe t ea LC 7 ‘ “4 \ & 8 ae & x CESS Sa gio it % 2, “oT -ont | li wl | | £ 2 au = 4 ¥ & « ™ a. Bey (vec) x6) ga, i COPIED FROM REFS \ “1 =t 4 \ + to Ot 4. Part VI Chapter 10 Page 407gan via » Bie exe HT » eR Page 408m0 ~*~ { Sa Sp, -0 for ee, (ec) ue xc) ws ro Sa 1} ape ap Soe ag Ip in a \ Fwnere: ap and lp are se “=. defined in Figure 0 tte. om 1 ot none Ni y ~ NS > St N ~ Set SSS = 7 = SS Tie Te t tut Tt iy me COPIED FROM ERS on. + ee. +f \I | i ooo [TV | owt |_| a ue +4 g, : Pe, -0M. fare Spm fers ec") ee | on x oe _ \ nos Ma a oN L | a te wa ES ‘ ay a 10,32 Part VI Chapter 10 Page 409Part VI wes “re oo @xe-) [1h a ool [C COPIED FROM BEF Chapter 10mega w H react ws cov rt at A ae teas! fe Saye LAWL ws = ep cote - hp ain ae Put T where: tp and 1p are * \ deine sn Figure 1 i \y a as} \\ a z z a oe 2 yt s =, Mm "TT I t MH i 4 is_\\\ “Th i i Wh a, HY Ste CON oN rm \ \ | ComeD FRom ERS [TINY al * [ tS SP ty 9 ry 7 2 ty fo % & 33. Part VI Chapter 10 Page 411a CA Peedi \ Aut Bae AY sinag WW pe N “COM x SS SSS 7 “ye — PI 7 2 ar a oT aan , N \ \ 7 \ a tt mi JEON 7 NY vn A | | - RM j : on : roe £ ays tt of Aya ow 10,33) i s Part VI Chapter 10 Page 412&, G2 COPIED FROM fEFS oS i a | | Vit al. Loos : Sas a 4n boa we we a ry me Mi 10, 33 i Part VI Chapter 10 Page 413a Sue TM HL N 4 N =U \ Ss =| tT Tae Ts He \ Vans ACT eee i ee & y hur \ 1 Ni a \ \ x a z “NS Re i KO SS 04 a 4 x s a ny a + = $ + a 10,33 i Part VI Chapter 10 Page 414" ae ee te t+ + AN I sme « ae] Se 0 One sy Ga om tN fue TALL wet | Cran COPIED FROM REFS \ . Co : we 4 as ‘ w Wi NE WW S % a Aw Ss a PI : 2 AMS “ we & 10,3 Part VI Chapter 10 Page 415obtained from Figures 10.33. Note that the data are presented for a low wing as shown in Figure 10.9a. For a high wing (Fig.10. 9b) this term becomes negative because z, changes sign. z) and 1, are defined in Figure 10.34. 2.9 C), The rolling-moment-due-to-rate-of-sideslip derivative, C,, may be estimated from: B or = Cy, (2pcoeae ~1psinag) /b (10, 48) where: Cy, is found from Eqn. (10.46) B 3.) ong The yawing-moment-due-to-rate-of-sideslip derivative, C,, may be estimated from: Cag * Cy, Upeoneg + zpsines) /b (10,49) where: Cy, is found from Eqn. (10.46) 6 YWyev XY } Yay Cw A % \ | \ I 4 © ee Fosekes pd Figure 10,34 Definition of dn_Egn. (10,46) z, and 1, 10,46 Part VI Chapter 10 Page 41610.2.6 Roll Rate Derivatives: Table 10.1 identifies the required roll rate derivatives. NOTE: All methods presented for estimation of the roll rate derivatives apply only in the subsonic speed range. For other speed ranges Ref.9. should be used. 1.) Cy, The side-force-due-to-roll-rate derivative, Cy, is primarily influenced by the vertical tail and may be determined from: Cy, = Wyp (zy cosa - ly sina ~ 2, )/b +3sinT[1-(4z/b)sinT 1 (Cig) peo (49-59) cy=0, where: Cys, is found from Eqns (10.28) or (10.32). zy and 1, are defined in Figure 10.27. z is the vertical distance between the airplane center of gravity and the wing root quarter chord point. (Ci) reo = (6 / BEBE) / lop a0 (10.50a) cyco 2.) C1, The rolling-moment-due-to-roll-rate derivative, C,, (also called the roll damping derivative) may be found from: Gy, = Sp, +O + Cp, (10.51) where: the wing contribution is given by: Ci, = (BCL, 7 doy =o ( K/B)* (10.52) Cag, ez, / (Chay lez =0h * (Cr, Ir / (Cay Iraod + (ACL, dazag where: (BC, / x )c, =9 is the roll damping parameter at zero lift which is obtained from Figure 10.35 Note: the parameter B in Eqn. (10.52) is NOT sideslip! In this case: B= (1-M?)1/?Pi FaN.(0.53) a + 025 Ki EQN.(10.54) waso a io Reproduced fron Reference § Reproduced from Reference § oe ° 20 * o a Ay (ee) = can® (candy! (r= 050 Ineproduced fron Reference $ Reproduced from Reference 9 3 2 * o % Si $ % % o Ay Gee) = cas"? Coat gf? hy et) = can"? (cand /®) Eigure 10,35 Roll Damping Parameter Part VI Chapter 10 Page 418k= (ey Dy /2 (10,54) (Cy Ig 29 i8 the wing 1ift-curve slope at zero u"° ligt as obtained from Equation (8.22). (C, Ig is the wing 1ift-curve slope at any lift a CL coefficient. It is obtained as the local slope of the wing C, versus @ curve as obtained from 81.3.5 or from 81.4.4, UC, ) (Cy peg) 48, the dihedral effect paraneter P P which may be obtained from: Cy ) p/(C, ag) = 1 1,) peo pa.) pe (1 ~ (dz, /b)sinf + 12(2,/b)?(sin fy?) (10.55) with: [ defined in Figure 10.7 z, defined in Figure 10.9 The wing drag contribution to roll damping is given by: (10. 56) (Cy arag ~ 2 2 UC, Ig MC, 172¢C, 9? - 0.1258¢ 1,’¢ L, D p>, Mw Ww 0, W(C,)7), the drag-due-to-lift roll damping parameter as found with: oe from Figure 10.36 ¢, ea C, is the wing lift coefficient as obtained from: -c -¢ (10.57) Ly Le In preliminary design it is acceptable to set: =¢ (10, 58) 1 ly C, is the wing zero-lift drag coefficient as ob- ‘o,, tained from Chapter 4. s Sh, Part VI Chapter 10 Page 419™. TT ew N\A, Lev ae \ COPIED FROM FERRO (Ge, i a oer) 2 4 a9 = x BN pW] i of 0 2 4A 8 ‘ 10 0.36 000 NOTE ¢,, perdi cot | Teproted fon aterece 010s tata) Kk Rigure 10,37 Effect of Wing Twist on C Chapter 10 n. P page 420The fuselage contribution to C, tends to be negli- P gible for airplanes for which dp/b<0.3. Most airplane configurations satisfy this criterion. eee : - 2 = Or SKC (Sy /5? (Pp /D? (10,59) Ph where: (C, ), is the roll-damping derivative of ‘Pp the horizontal tail based on its own reference geometry. It is obtained from Eqn. (10.52) with appropriate substitution of horizontal tail parameters for wing parameters. Fallevcosa-1,sina)[zycose-2ysina-2y]|e yy, (10, 60) py where: zy and ly are defined in Figure 10.27 Cyp, te found from Bgn. (10.28) or from Eqn. (10.32) The yawing-moment-due-to-roll-rate derivative, C, may be determined fro P + Cy (10, 61) where: the wing contribution is given by: Cy My Me wo ICL, (10, 62) Py poe + eed +f Mes.) &e Mes 08 (10,63) Part VI Chapter 10 Page 421where: B= (1 - M?(cogh,,4)7)1/? (10. 64) and with: (10, 65) /e, ig the wing twist contribution as given by Pp Pigures 10.37. *, is the wing twist angle defined in Fig.10.37. (Ac, /a, 5¢) is the contribution due to symme~ p °¢* trical flap deflection as found from Figures 10.38. a, = dey /tey 8) (10, 66) 3 with: Ac, determined from 8.1.2.1 for the type of flap used c, is the airfoil (flaps-up) lift-curve- 1q slope as found from 8.1.1.2 8, is the flap deflection employed the vertical tail contribution is given by: - (10,67) v 2 (2/b") (1ycosa + z sina) (z cosa - 1 sina -2,)C y; By where: z, and 1, are defined in Figure 10.27 C, is found from Eqns (10.28) or (10,32) y; By Part VI Chapter 10 Page 422T T NOTE: » b ‘AC, per radian 0° 7 4, in degrees ro 001 6 ) Loe Lo : i Ly 4 | tad-deg, 0. T I 001. | a (0 2 LAs .6— 4 LT [0 Ga) , Reproduced from Reference 9 ~.002; 001. » db, 10 © S =08 2 1.4 6 = Le 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 ASPECT RATIO, A Eigure 10,38 Effect of Symmetrical Flap Deflection on C, ™ Part VI Chapter 10 Page 42310.2.7 Pitch Rate Derivatives: C,, C, and C, Pq *q ™q Table 10.1 identifies the required pitch rate derivatives. NOTE: All methods presented for the pitch rate derivatives are valid only for the subsonic speed regime. For other speed ranges the reader should consult Ref.9. 1.) ¢, D. q The drag-due-to-pitch-rate derivative, C) is negligible for almost all airplanes: 4 er) (10, 68) D. q 2.) ¢ Yq The lift-due-to-pitch-rate derivative, C, may be estimated from: u Gc =c¢ (10, 69) L L i Nw where: the wing contribution is aiven by: qc = (10,70) L. Gy (A + 2c08Ag)4) AB + 2coSA, /4))(C,, where: B is given by Eqn. (10.64) (0.5 + Bxy/EVC, | (10.71) Ww with: x, defined in Pigure 10.39 C, is the wing lift curve slope as °yfound from Section 8.1.3.2. Part VI Chapter 10 Page 424the_horizontal tail contribution is given by: C= 2c, (10.72) L, th where: C, is found from En. (8.22) with appro- ‘a, priate substitution of horizontal tail Parameters for wing parameters. ny, is found from 8.1.5.2 ip 18 found from Egn. (10.23) the canard contribution is found from: C= H2(C, nG¥, (10,73) L Ie Se ve where: C, is found from Eqn. (8.22) with appro- ¢ Tiate substitution of canard parameters for wing parameters. 1, is found from 8.1.5.2 Vy = Fae, + Xoq)8,/8 (10,74) where: x,, and x,, are shown in Pig.10,39. ‘acy 9 Note that x,. is positive, while © Xog is negative as shown!!! aC ™q The pitching-moment-due-to-pitch-rate derivative, ¢,, (also called pitch damping derivative) may be estima- q ted from: (10.75) (10, 76) Part VI Chapter 10 Page 425M2(x /8)* + 0.50% /2)) w w = KC, Meal TAs Zeaah ow where: K, is found from Figure 10.40, x, from Fig. 10.39, or) C, = -2UC, mV, ag - Keg) (10,78) ™y, a, tn ac, ~ *og where: x,, is defined in Figure 10,39 h All other quantities were defined before! Cn = WC, AEVg (Kae + og) (10,79) qe Se © where: all quantities have been defined before! NOTE: many airplanes have pylon mounted nacelles. These pylons contribute to the pitch rate derivatives in the same manner as any empennage surface. | ee: Zoos snow >0o AS SHOWN 10,39 Part VI Chapter 10 Page 4261 ft 108 in. 161 Vv 541m Static Ground Line 2333 in +] Part VI Chapter 10 Page 42710.2.8 Yaw Rate Derivatives: C , Sy o and C, ic Table 10,1 identifies the required yaw rate derivatives. NOTE: All methods presented for the yaw rate derivatives are valid only for the subsonic speed regime. For other speed ranges the reader should consult Ref.9. 1.) %y The side-force-due-to-yaw-rate derivative, C, is r primarily influenced by the vertical tail and may be determined from: cy wey, )(lycosa + z sina) /b (10, 80) Vv where: C, is found from Eqns (10.28) or (10,32). B, Vv 1, and 2, are defined in Figure 10.27. 2c. 1, The rolling-noment-due-to-yaw-rate derivative, C, may be estimated from: r cq sc. +¢. (10, 81) : 1 w v where: the wing contribution is found from: CC, = (CL UC, Ee ug * (AC, I + 1, 1,/c.=0 1, v M 1 + (acy fede + (acy fo 8.) (a, (10, 82) 8, 85 £ 7 6. Pe zo’ the slope of the rolling moment where: (C) )¢ r “L°" due to roll rate at zero lift is x found from: pee aaitconheyg thy | (10, 83) . Tertcosh 4 8 Sarai mt i) Ho Part VI Chapter 10 Page 428with B determined by Eqn. (10.64) c.=o is the slope of the low- L™° speed rolling moment due M=0 to yaw rate at zero lift found from Figure 10.41. and (Cy Rot C, is the wing lift coefficient as in ‘w Eqn. (10.57) or (10.58) (acy 1) = 0.083 (nABinA,/4)/(A + 4c08A,;4) (10.84) fis defined in Figure 10.7 AC, /e, is the increment in C, due to r t twist and may be determined from Figure 10.42 *, is the wing twist angle defined in Figure 10.42 5 5¢ is the effect of symmetric £ f flap deflection on the rolling moment due to roll rate and is found from Figure 10.43. ac, /a, a, is found from Eqn. (10.66) £ 8, is the flap deflection used the vertical tail contribution is found from: = (10, 85) -(21b*) (Lycosa + zysina) (z cose - aysinadcy v where: z, and 1, are defined in Figure 10.27 C, is found from Eqn. (10.28) or (10.32) 8, v Part VI Chapter 10 Page 429Agg (ea) TAPER RATIO os 30 4s oo x AA V 10 cS Sr 5 AEE i Tilo a ( 4 ° [+1] ! t I 7 \7 2 i : 8 10 ASPECT RATIO. A pip | 23 . 3 é Reproduced from Reference 9 10. NOTE: TT_T_T_T 2G, perradian Reproduced from Reference 4 706) gin degrees a L | + 2G, ee val \ ROOT-SECTION ZERO-LIFT LINE . I ~.004: = 4 ee ZERO-LIFT LINE ASPECT RATIO, A i 10, Part VI Chapter 10 Page 430a \. Ty UO-UOTISST ION GETT OYTISMUAS JO-TOSIIT FF OT SIMETY proof 35 promise fd 5. soapy 4g 79 Gx) 49 (3x) 29 Sp) 4 ye aN. talon weperzed ly ‘ow ‘ow tov HALON 9 (% 19 - 19 °870° 2 wvasiwas LNawad NI SdvTd meaty on) ri 7 YVOSLNO GNV GYVOSNI JO NOLLVOOT tow or e o y K 2 t f 0 ao reo" * 0 oes . Y/V wadv | 0 oe 9 6 @€ ¢ J 6 Poueraz0y wo13 paonpoaday V‘OLLVY Loadsv Chapter 10 Page 431 Part VI5) ey The yawing-moment-due-to-yaw-rate derivative. C, (also called yaw-damping derivative) follows from: "r (10, 86) Cc, (10. 87) 2 (C, 1,7) (Cc, aL SL, + (C, /c, IC, ny Do ‘D, 7 where: (C, /C,7) follows from Figure 10.44 rc is given by Eqn. (10.57) or (10.58) Ww (C, /Cp ) is found from Pigure 10.45 my Do ¢ is the zero-lift drag coefficient of 'o,, the wing as found from Chapter 4. the vertical tail contribution is found from: 2 ine)? in 7 (2/b") ycosa + zysina) “cy (10, 88) ty By where: 1, and 2, are defined in Figure 10.27 Cis found from Eqnn. (10,20) or (10,32) nasi ‘Static Ground Line Part VI Chapter 10 Page 432— Ayes (Ge8) 6 +60 350| = — | TAPER} - RATIO| _ | x VW | of 4 No E92 = ot (Gee) z CCL? +60| (per rad) = +50 #40) = { o| —t TAPER aa + RATIO) /// | | Reproduced from Reference 9 | ! 1 byt 1 1.0// NOTE} ¥ is distar ce from the cg. to the a.c.. positive for the ac. aft of the eg. 9 & is the mean aerodynamic chord. > T 1 OOF Reta | C, (Cy? (deg) | (per rad) | £60) \ ee: t 250) ; +40) t | | +t TAPER] t t=2 — RATIO 7 { 1.0) t t—t ) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 -~1 0 4 [ASPECT RATIO, A | C,,/C,? (per rady ¥ Eigure 10,44 Wing Yaw Damping Derivative: Lifting Effect Part VI Chapter 10 Page 433ASPECT RATIO, A 4 6 8 10 $ 16 cre 4 —=(deg) lO T 40 1 1 i { (per rad) Reproduced from Reference § - 60 -1.2: L ASPECT RATIO, A 4 6 8 0 T T I ln, [| Bul | (deg) 1 ° 60 -1.2 ‘J NOTE: ¥ is the distance from the c.g. to the a.c., positive for the a.c. aft of the cg. € is the wing mean aerodynamic chord. 45 Part VI Chapter 10 Page 43410,3 CONTROL DERIVATIVES In Table 10.1 the following control derivatives are identified: elevator, aileron and rudder. Because in most airplanes the horizontal stabilizer itself is used as a control device, its derivatives mst also be considered. In addition, many recent fighter airplanes and several small commercial airplanes sprout canards, with or without a separate control surface. Many airplanes use spoilers and differential stabilizers as well as ailerons for lateral control. For these reasons, the following control (power) derivatives are considered in this Section: 10.3.1 Stabilizer Control Derivatives 10.3.2 Elevator Control Derivatives 10.3.3 Canard Control Derivatives 10.3.4 Canardvator Control Derivatives 10.3.5 Aileron Control Derivatives 10.3.6 Spoiler Control Derivatives 10,3,7 Differential Stabilizer Control Derivatives 10.3.8 Rudder Control Derivatives The methods presented in this section apply only to the subsonic speed regime. For other speed regimes Ref.9 should be consulted. 10.3.1 Stabilizer Control Derivatives: C, and C,, h For a discussion of preliminary sizing of the horizontal stabilizer the reader is referred to Chapters 8 and 11 of Part II. The methods to be presented apply to cases where the ratio of stabilizer span to local fuselage width is larger than 4.0. 1.) %D, h The drag-due-to-stabilizer-incidence derivative, may be estimated from: Cy = 2U(C, ime V(Cy ny (5, /8) (10, 89) i, a h bh where: C, is the airplane lift coefficient follows from Part VI Chapter 10 Page 435Eqn. (10.90): Cy = (mW) /( a8) (10.90) where: n is the load factor W is the airplane weight @ is the free stream dynamic pressure as described in Section 4.1. S is the wing area A is the wing aspect ratio e is the Oswald’ s efficiency factor as found from Section 5.3 C,, is found from Eqn. (8.22) with appropriate substitution of horizontal tail parameters for wing parameters L, apy is found from p.269 or p.272. 2.) Su h The 1ift-due-to-stabilizer-incidence derivative may be estimated from: (8,/5)C,, | (10,91) 'h where: all quantities have been defined before. Cy ‘L, ‘h tn 3.) ay The pitching-moment-due-to-stabilizer-incidence derivative, C, (also called stabilizer control power) may h be found from: (10,92) Cy 7 TIC, a bth *h *h where: Va is defined by Eqn. (10.23) all other quantities were defined before. Part VI Chapter 10 Page 43610, 3,2 Elevator Control Derivatives: Cy . and C, ry 'e For a discussion of preliminary sizing of the elevator the reader is referred to Chapter 8 of Part II. Although many airplanes carry approximately full span elevators on the horizontal stabilizer, exceptions do occur. For that reason the elevator should be thought of as a partial span, plain flap. 1.) ¢ D, 5 The drag-due-to-elevator derivative. C, may be es~ timated fro 7 oy (10, 93) 'e where: C, follows from Eqn. (10, 89) i, (a, ) = (10,94) Se Ryley (Cy theory? ‘1, theory® tke, ) Ee a, where: K, is the elevator (= plain flap) span factor as obtained from page 259 / (ag) W 8c) ) 8°C, } is found from Figure 8.15 fey 1 (Cy theory te. is found from Figure 814 3 theory k’ is a correction factor which accounts for nonlinearities at high elevator deflection angles. It is found from Figure 8.13 [lag 1/ (lag), 1) is found from ocr S'c)"" Pigure 8.53. Part VI Chapter 10 Page 437Note: in Figs 8.13, 814, 815 and 8.53 use c,/c, for c_/c 1 is the airfoil lift curve slope of the @, horizontal stabilizer as obtained from 8.1.1.2. 2.) ¢ Ly 'e The lift-due-to-elevator derivative, C, may be found from: (10,95) (also called elevator control power) may be found from: de, (10, 96) (a, ) is found from Egn. (10.94) e cis found from Eqn. (10.92) For a discussion of preliminary canard sizing the reader is referred to Chapter 11 of Part IT. The methods to be presented apply to cases where the ratio of canard span to local fuselage width is larger than 3.0, Part VI Chapter 10 Page 438The drag-due-to-canard-incidence derivative, C, may be estimated from: = 2U(C, Vina e V(Cy Ing (S./8) (10.97) © c where: C, is the airplane lift coefficient follows from Eqn. (10.98): Cy = (nw) /( aS) (10.98) where:n is the load factor W is the airplane weight @ is the free stream dynamic pressure as described in Section 4.1. S is the wing area is the wing aspect ratio is the Oswald’ s efficiency factor as found from Section 5.3 o>» is found from Egn. (8.22) with appropriate substitution of canard parameters for wing parameters 1, is found from p.269 or p.273. The lift-due-to-canard-incidence derivative may be estimated from: Cy = Ag (S,/S)C, (20,99) ce ee where: all quantities have been defined before. 3.) Cy c The pitching-moment-due-to-canard-incidence derivative, C, (also called canard control power) may be i, © found from: = (Cy ag (10.100) Part VI Chapter 10 Page 439where: Vv is defined by Eqn. (10.74) all other quantities were defined before. Because of a lack of statistical data on canard e- quipped airplanes, no simple, preliminary design methods are available for the sizing of a canardvator. If the canard is used for trim and control purposes, the trim considerations of Section 8.3 should be used. Although several canard equipped airplanes carry full span canardvators on the canard, exceptions do occur. For that reason the canardvator should be thought of as a partial span, plain flap. 1.) cp c The drag-due-to-canardvator derivative, C) may be estimated from: c cp = (a, (10,101) ce where: C) follows from Eqn. (10.97) i (a, d= (10.102) ) K > q . b1,! (1, theory? ‘1, theory *(k'/o) Ef lagdg 1/ (lag), 01 1 8c, Bc. a L 1 where: K, is the canardvator (= plain flap) span factor as obtained from page 259 fc) (cy Meneory! #8 found from Figure 8.15 te. is found from Figure 8.14 ‘1, theory Part VI Chapter 10 Page 440k’ is a correction factor which accounts for nonlinearities at high canardvator deflection angles. It is found from Pigure 8.13 [agg / (ag), 3) is found ec, Se)" from Figure 8.53 Note: in Figs 813, 8.14, 8415 and 853 use cy /c, for cg/e oe £ is the airfoil lift curve slope of the a, canard as obtained from 8.1.1.2. 2.) Cy, c The lift-due-to-canardvator derivative, C, may be found from: _ (10,103) where: (a, ) is found from Eqn. (10.102) c cis found from Eqn. (10.99) 3.) ¢ ™ c The pitching-moment-due-to-canardvator derivative, (also called canardvator control power) may be found (10,104) (a, ) is found from Eqn. (10,102) ‘ce C,, is found from Eqn. (10,100) Part VI Chapter 10 Page 4411c 10,3,5 Aileron Control Derivatives: C, Y, 5, 8 ‘a For a discussion of preliminary aileron sizing the reader is referred to Chapter 6 of Part II. wdc y, Sa The side-force-due-to-aileron derivative, Cis 8 ‘a negligible for most conventional aileron arrangements: C, = 0 (10,105) Ys ‘a If ailerons are located in close proximity to a vertical tail (F-106!) a significant side-force due to aileron deflection may arise. Windtunnel data are recommended to determine such aileron induced side forecs. 2.) ©. 15 a The rolling-moment-due-to-aileron derivative, C, ‘a (also called roll control power) can be estimated with the following procedur Step 1: Determine the inboard span location n, and the outboard span location 1, for the aileron(s) as fractions of the semi-span of the wing. These data follow from the Class I threeview obtained from Chapter 13, Part II. For full chord ailerons (c,/c = 1.0), anti- symmetrically deflected, and running from: n=0 to nj and to n, respectively, determine the rolling moment effectiveness parameter: BC’, /k from Figures 10.46, wit! B found from Eqn. (10.53) k found from Eqn. (10.54), where (c: Part VI Chapter 10 Page 442| | t 1 Reproduced from Reference 9 2 g 1.0 =n y 82 AILERON LATERAL COORDINATE, Page 443 Chapter 10 Part VIT T Mg = y lb) A = 0.5 7 4 H40/ Reproduced from Reference $ / 6 5 is x (per rad) 4. ro 32 il 10 0 AILERON LATERAL COORDINATE. 55 =n 10,46b Ai i Part VI Chapter 10 Page 444T 8 “o . (c) A= 1.0] M7, 7 / 4-40) 6 Reproduced from Reference 9 65 Ky « (per rad) 54 43 4.3 2 : 3.24 BA Lg x 210 BAL gy | K | | 10 4 \ | | i | BA o T 7 S-ye | x. L_| 0 0 2 4 6 8 1.0 AILERON LATERAL COORDINATE, %& = 9 b/2 Rigure 10, 46c Aileron Rolling moment Parameter Part VI Chapter 10 Page 445Part VI determined for the airfoil at the m.g.c of the part of the wing covered by the aileron(s) A is the wing aspect ratio Ag = arctan (tanA. ;4 Figures 10.46 give the control effectiveness parameter for control spans measured from the plane of symmetry (n=0)to aileron outboard. For partial span controls running from n, to 7B) (10,106) ay the actual effectiveness parameter is obtained as the difference between the two full span controls. This is illustrated in Figure 10.47. Determine the rolling effectiveness of two full-chord controls anti-symmetrically deflected by: Cy = (kp) (BC) Vk) (10,107) 13 ts Determine the rolling effectiveness of the partial-chord controls (c,/c < 1.0), anti- symmetrically deflected from: Cy) = (as dcr (10, 108) a meee a where: a, =, sec (10,109) 8. ts Ta with: = k’ (10,110) fey 1c theory where: {c, /(c, ) } is found from 1,/ 1,’ theory” Figure 8.15 k’ is found from Pigure 8,13. (cy theory is found from Figure 8.14 Chapter 10 Page 446Note: in Figures 8.14 and 8.15, use c,/c for Ce/c and where: (c) ), is the average airfoil lift-curve-slope of that part of the wing covered by the ailerons. The airfoil at the wing span station corresponding to that of the aileron m.g.c. may be used to compute this. Step 5: The effect of differential aileron control deflection (for an example, see Part IV, pgs 217 and 220) is taken into account by consi- dering C, of each control as ONE-HALF the 8 anti-symmetric value determined with the aid of Eqn(10,108), The total rolling moment coefficient for differential aileron control deflection is found from: (10,111) 5! rete asec +14! right as igne A positive aileron deflection results in a positive rolling moment. Thus, the deflection is positive for the left aileron with trailing edge down and for right aileron with trailing edge up. THE aileron deflection, & of the airplane is defined as: b= 0.5(8 + 6 ) (10,112) a Aleft — Aright Step 6: The aileron roll control power derivative now follows from: = 78, (10,113) The yawing-moment-due-to-aileron derivative: C, a (also called adverse aileron yaw) may be computed from: Part VI Chapter 10 Page 447= KC, Cy (10,114) w 78, where: K, i found from Figure 1 8. Note that it is the @ difference between the inboard and outboard values C, is found from Eqns (10.57) or (10.58) w C, is given by Eqn. (10.113) ‘a oct partiakspan filehord % control 7 To. Reproduced from Reference 9 10,4 Reproduced from Reference & Part VI Chapter 10 Page 44810.3.6 Spoiler Control Derivatives: C, . C; and ¢, 55 ’5 s For a discussion of preliminary spoiler sizing the reader is referred to Chapter 6 of Part II. In this sub-section the following two types of spoilers will be considered: A) Plug or Flap-Type Spoilers B) Spoiler-Slot-Deflector Arrangements Figures 10.49A and B show typical layouts for these spoiler types. Dimensions needed in the determination of spoiler derivatives are also given. Definition: a positive spoiler deflection is one which results in a positive rolling moment i.e. a roll to the right. i rey. 's The side-force-due-to-spoiler derivative, C, is &5 negligible for most conventional spoiler arrangements, regardless of spoiler type: Gc =0 (10,115) If spoilers are located in close proximity to a vertical surface a significant side-force due to spoiler deflection may arise. Windtunnel data are recommended to determine such spoiler induced side forces. 2.) ¢ 15 's The rolling-moment-due-to-spoiler derivative C, (also called spoiler roll control power) depends on the type of spoiler used. Part VI Chapter 10 Page 449S§, = 60° max SPOILER. SS € ‘SPOILER 8 ~ es ey aS ht ha DEFLECTOR A) Pure on Fine. Tyee B) Srowen- Suor- Deriector ao aS == . Act, GAD) a. 6 — COPIED FROM AEF. OD ry I of an eB Az hs/. al (20 s sus chs Kesd —Se fereeea as 1 COPIED FROM BEF.9 op —_t—_t__f_—_}_}_}_} _} ° i 2 3 + SFoucnpernecnon , heh, 10,51 Part VI Chapter 10 Page 450A) Plug or Flap-Type Spoilers The rolling-moment-due-to-spoiler derivative, C, Ss for a plug or flap-type spoiler can be estimated with the following procedure: Step 1: Determine the inboard span location n; and the outboard span location 1, for the spoiler panels as fractions of the semi-span and as fractions of the chord of the wing. These data follow from the Class I three~ view obtained from Chapter 13, Part II. Step 2: Assuming a maximm spoiler plate deflection of 60 degrees, translate the spoiler geometry of Step 1 into one consistent with the spoiler geometry of Figure 10.49A: in other words, determine values for h,/c and x,/c. These quantities may be averaged over the span of the spoiler. Step 3: From Figure 10,50 find the corresponding value of Aa’. Step 4: Find the spoiler roll control derivative from: Cy) = (1/1200(C", Aa" cosA.4 (1/deg) (10,116) 8 where: C’; is the rolling-moment effective- 8 ness parameter for full chord, anti- symmetrically deflected controls as obtained from Eqn. (10,107), The inboard and outboard ends of these controls are taken to be the same as the inboard and outboard ends of the hinge line of the spoiler. is the wing quarter chord sweep Aca angle. NOTE: this method is valid only for sweep angles up to 40 degrees. For higher sweep angles, see the method of Ref.9. Part VI Chapter 10 Page 451B) Spoiler-Slot Deflector Arrangements For a spoiler-slot-deflector arrangement the roll control power derivative may be determined from: Kesa°1, (1/deg) ssd s where: Resa follows from Figure 10.51 for a given ratio c (10,117) 15 of spoiler angle to deflector angle, 5/8, C, is determined from Eqn. (10.116). 3.) The yawing-moment-due-to-spoiler derivative, C, 5s (also called proverse yawing moment due to spoiler) also depends on the type of spoiler used. A) _Plug_and Flap Type Spoilers ¢, = (1/60), (1/deg) (10,118) S 5 where: Cy is found from Figures 10.52 and 10.53 for 's straight and for swept wings respectively. B)_Spoiler-Slot-Deflector Arrangements Roca, 7 (1/deg) (10,119) 'ssd 's where: K,,4 is found from Figure 10.54 C, follows from Eqn. (10.118), Part VI Chapter 10 Page 452wRlass avs 5 = —_— i——_ Sy Fx x, a4 {a \\) io" SAadNawaSaD 6389 Wows T3403 be mor=70 Wivd wos Gaag 355 Page 453 Chapter 10 Part VIwat0as ava ? IS TORN v4 ~S ' 4 = 4 | ols, o ! [ Tye + ls , ile] t -— J] 7 WY tet e339 7 a Wo¥s AalIsdod \ Ps |__ ovo= Ysx \ |__| Eaonaaaasa 209 mE No Vi¥a wos ay] | |@aas 53s | Page 454 Chapter 10 Part VIro Oe COPIED FAOM REFa _| | | “dha hiaveage alge wid gin fForuawal ad ional aie et: NASA TARO) 7 ? denh, Hl 55 vail Ege p for Fusel Mounted Horizontal Stabilizers Part VI Chapter 10 Page 455Many fighter airplanes require so mich lateral control power to meet combat roll requirements that diffe- rentially controlled horizontal stabilizers are used in addition to wing mounted lateral control devices. The sizing of the horizontal tail (stabilizer) is normally based on requirements for longitudinal stability and control. The reader should refer to Chapter 8 of Part II for preliminary horizontal tail sizing methods. In this sub-section it will be assumed that the geometry of the horizontal tail surfaces is known. Definition: a positive differential stabilizer deflection is one resulting in a positive rolling moment l.e. left stabilizer up AND l.e. right stabilizer down). The side-force-due-to-differential stabilizer derivative, C, is negligible for many airplanes: =0 (10,120) *h If the stabilizers are located in close proximity to to a vertical surface a significant side-force due to differential stabilizer deflection may arise. Windtun- nel data must be used to determine these side forces. 2c 1 th The rolling-moment-due-to-differential stabilizer derivative C) (also called differential stabili- *h zer roll control power) may be found from: Cy = 0,5{2 - (nA/57,3) (de/da)) (nya /a)* h *{(y, S, )/sb)}(C, (10,121) nSh, Han? where: de/da is found from Eqn. (8.45) Part VI Chapter 10 Page 456(ayG,/@) is found from Figure 10.55) Y, is the distance from the exposed stabilizer 'e center of pressure to the airplane centerline, and may be determined from: Yn = (gpd, /2) + (10, 122) he ph, fh where: n,, is found from Figure 10.56. In P Figure 10.16, A, is the aspect e ratio of the exposed horizontal tail b, is the semispan of the exposed 'e horizontal stabilizer is the radius or one half of the equivalent fuselage width at the point of stabilizer attachment fh is the exposed stabilizer area is the lift-curve slope of the exposed horizontal tail. It is obtained by using the exposed horizontal tail aspect ratio, A, in Eqn. (822) and substituting other e appropriate horizontal tail parameters for wing parameters. NOTE: This method is valid only for angles of attack below roughly six degrees. At higher angles of attack body shed vortices will interfere with the flow over the horizontal tail A method to account for these vortices is given in Ref.9. 3.) ¢, n tn No reliable preliminary design methods are available for the estimation of this derivative. The qualitative discussion which follows has been adapted from Ref.9. Figure 10.57 shows typical relations between aileron and differential tail induced yawing moments. The magnitude of the differential tail induced yawing moment is a strong function of tail height (relative to the vertical tail and relative to the wing): Figure 10.58 illustrates Part VI Chapter 10 Page 457Syn i t (0) Mag=? -— | 4 [ee ,—~ | | ee 4 ep Ss tO > atti CorleD FROM CAG, BEF. Part VI Chapter 10 Page 4586 Ibs 7 ps fs hry COPIED FROM BEF.O —— horwontat tan: Sein = AILERONS :-3= 53 Mz 10 ° Ee ) 1020 a (deg) a (deg) a (deg) a (deg) a te PostTion wien Gi, oe 7 INTERMEDIATE Zeb Low oY JS h INTERMEDIATE MN -1- ‘HIGH wi = CoPIED o 0 x0 NO FROM a (deg) AEF. 9 i 10,58 i ati h ot Part VI Chapter 10 Page 459typical trends. In addition, the dihedral angle of the horizontal tail can be significant as shown in Fig.10.59. Finally, the deflection of wing flaps can have significant influence as well. This is shown in Fig.10.60. For purposes of preliminary design the reader may wish to ‘guestimate’ a value of C, /C, from Figs 10.57 at nh th through 10.60, Where possible windtunnel data should be used. ‘ =-1s* oi q a2 [=~ _ ° » a9 20 | ac(dey 1 e(deg) CorieD FROM FEF. FLAP RETRACTED ~ FLAP EXTENDED Part VI Chapter 10 Page 46010.3.8 Rudder Control Derivatives: Cy, , Cis and Crs. For a discussion of vertical tail sizing and rudder sizing the reader is referred to Chapters 8 and 11 in Part II. Definition: a positive rudder deflection is one resulting in a negative yawing moment (i.e. rudder to the left) 2.) Cyg The side-force-due-to-rudder derivative, Cy, may be computed from: For single vertical tail: Cys, = (Cag, / Cag, CK Rp) (As), / (a5); } * (8, /8) (10.123a) # (C5 / dpnsoey ) Stheory where: Cy, is found from p. 386 e1,, is found from Section 8.1.1.2 k' is found from Figure 8.13 K, is found from page 259 {(@5)c, /(0g)e,} is found from Figure 8.53 (C15 / Cte nggey) 48 found from Figure 8.15 “WSeneory is found from Figure 8.14 S, is the effective vertical tail area as defined in Figure 10.13 For twin vertical tail: Cy5. = 20 Cp vey “ives (Stay “Cay * (20.1236) * CRE) (As), Meso} * (Crs / Cp. cce) Sdeneory (Sv / 8) where: (Cys 2. /Cyg,._) is found from Figure 10.17 vw eft 2.) Cag The rolling-moment-due-to-rudder derivative, C,; is found from: Gis. = ((zy cosa - 1, sina)/b} Cy, (10.124)where: z, and 1, are defined in Figure 10.27 C, is found from Eqn. (10.123) The yawing-moment-due-to-rudder derivative, C, 8 ic (also called rudder control power) may be estimated from: ¢, 3” vg (cose + zysina) /b (10,125) r where: 1, and z, are defined in Pigure 10.27 Cy is given by Bgn. (10.123), 6 r Wing Fence ‘Two Position Leading Edge Slats Part VI Chapter 10 Page 46210,4 HINGEMOMENT DERIVATIVES OF CONTROL SURFACES The purpose of this section is to present rapid methods for the estimation of hingemoment derivatives of control surfaces and tabs in the subsonic speed range. For methods which apply in the transonic and supersonic speed ranges the reader should consult Reference 9. The methods to be presented apply only in the linear range of control surface deflections (< 20 degrees at best) and in the linear range of angles of attack (roughly 12 degrees). For nonlinear effects the reader should consult Ref.9 and use windtunnel data wherever possible. Hingemoment derivatives are used for two purposes: 1. Computing stick, wheel and pedal cockpit control forces so they can be checked against airworthiness requirements. Part VII contains methods for computing the cockpit control forces as well as methods for check- ing with airworthiness standards. 2. Computing actuator force levels so that hydraulic or electro-mechanical actuators can be properly sized. Chapter 4 in Part IV contains a discussion of actuator sizing criteria. Figure 10,61 shows a basic control surface and tab arrangement with the necessary geometric parameters identified. Note the use of the following nomenclature: main surface, control surface and tab, shown in Figure 10,61, This nomenclature applies to the following combinations: 1, horizontal tail + elevator + elevator tab 2. canard + canardvator + canardvator tab 3. wing + aileron + aileron tab 4. vertical tail + rudder + rudder tab For a detailed discussion of the purpose of various combinations of tabs and control surfaces, the reader should consult Chapter 4 of Part IV. In most cases, hingemoments are taken about the control surface hingeline: corresponding hingemoment coeffi- Part VI Chapter 10 Page 463cients and derivatives are denoted: and c, respectively. h h, In some cases, hingemoments need to be considered about the tab hinge line: for example in servo-tab systems. ‘The corresponding hingemoment coefficients and derivatives in that case are denoted: cf, and cn, respectively. The material in this sub-section is organized as follows: 10.4.1 Two-Dimensional Control Surface and Tab Hin- gemoment Derivatives about the Control surface Hingeline 10,4,2 Three-Dimensional Control Surface and Tab Hingemoment Derivatives about the Control Surface Hingeline 10.4.3 Two-Dimensional Tab Hingemoment Derivatives about the Tab Hingeline 10.4.4 Three-Dimensional Tab Hingemoment Derivatives about the Tab Hingeline The methods apply as long as the airflow over the control surface is attached. NOTES: 1.) All Two-D hingemoment derivatives are based on Cy”, where cs is the plain flap chord defined in Figure 10.61. The plain flap is either the control surface or the tab, depending on the point about which the hingemoments are taken. 2.) All Three-D hingemoment derivatives are based on (S, ye ), where the surface?” ““surface area and chord depend on the type of control surface considered: rudder, aileron, elevator, tab, etc. Part VI Chapter 10 Page 464MAIN SUBFACE CONTROL SURFACE 10,61 CHORD LINE —— 10,62 i Part VI Chapter 10 Page 46510.4.1 Two-Di i = neon ment Derivatives about the Control Surface The two-dimensional (airfoil) hingemoment coefficient for a control surface is estimated from: =o te, ata Sto, 6, (10,126) og hs Be where: c, is the zero-angle-of-attack, zero-control-sur- '0 face-deflection, zero-tab-angle-deflection hingemoment coefficient. For main surfaces with symmetrical airfoils: co, =o (10,127) 0. For main surfaces with cambered airfoils, experimental data should be used. is the control surface hingemoment derivative a due to angle of attack. It is estimated from 10.4.1.1, where it is called: o, “bal is the control surface hingemoment derivative 6 due to control surface deflection. It is obtained from 10.4.1.2 is the control surface hingemoment derivative due to a tab deflection. It is estimated from 10.4,1.3. NOTE: The reader should recognize, that depending on the application, the following substitutions mst be made in Equation (10,126): for a wing: @ = a, and § = 8 or S14, :@ =a, and & = 5, for a horizontal tai for a canard: a = a, and 8 = for a vertical tail: @ = 6 and 8 = 8, 10.4.1,1 Two-D control surface hingemoment derivative due foandle of aitack: cy, The Two-D control surface hingemoment due to angle of attack derivative, c, is determined with the following procedure: ‘a Part VI Chapter 10 Page 466Step 1: Check whether or not the following trailing tan(O", ./2) where: Step 2: Determine ¢’ where: Part VI edge angle condition is satisfied: = tan(G’', /2) = tan(@,./2) = t/e (10,128) $',, is the trailing-edge angle defined as the angle between straight lines passing through points at 90 and 99 percent of the chord on the upper and lower airfoil surfaces 4"... is the trailing-edge angle defined as the angle between straight lines passing through points at 95 and 99 percent of the chord on the upper and lower airfoil surfaces S.6 is the trailing-edge angle defined as the angle between tangents to the upper and lower airfoil surfaces at the trailing-edge Figure 10,62 illustrates these angles. Condition (10.128) is satisfied whenever the upper and lower surface lines of the control surface are straight. from: = (10,129) theory fe", Men) Me, n,! “Ch, theory) (n, ) } is found from Fig.10.63a theory’ vhich applies only to radius nose, sealed gap, plain flap type control surfaces fot, Me, a Mg is found from Figure 10.63b. The ) Parameter {c1 /(2) eneory) in (ey theory Fig.10.63a is itself found from Fig.10.64a with the assumption shown in Eqn. (10.128) Chapter 10 Page 4671.0 10-—, ¢ 8 = = (a) heory a sr he t (a)neory I | 7 1 0. - 1 T 4 a 2 oe 3 4 3 c T Ti SYMMETRICAL AIRFOIL Xo (ha) eneory (per rad) 4 {ey COPIED FROM: REF.9 Devivative a terof A Part VI Chapter 10 Page 468COPIED FROM REF O le, x, 1 99 Yo 2 4 2 Gj ~ . Wean ine /-—2.09——+ ua a {T_T Yoo. Yoo) tan} ¢'TE = a Ray] is in percent chord) T—~| nN) a P08 ‘ Lio Ry is Slay i i BASED & L eve eneory mM mm i a } Interpolate by plotting te plotting 108 fe), v8 logjo R, 7 Fey theory. ae Mm 20 TAN 5 ¢'re 4 5 1.2 10 (2, Claas (ern 66 a 64 62 i+ ° “04 “08 16 “20 12 MAIN. SUR FACETHICKNESS RATIO, tle i 10.64 irfoi Edge Angle on Lift Curve Slope Part VI Chapter 10 Page 469Step 3: If condition (10.128) is not satisfied, compute c'', fro a ch = (ct + (10,130) + 2 )eheory! ~ fy Mey eneory)! *(tan(@'', 4/2) - (t/c)) ) is obtained from Egn. (10,129) a where: (c’ is obtained from Figure 10,64b at the appropriate thickness ratio, tie (ey theory is obtained from Figure fe, /(cy )eheory! 10.64a with the assumption . * shown in Eqn. (10.128) G'',, is defined under step 1. Note that if condition (10.128) is satisfied, and only in that case: =e (10,131) Step 4: Since the value for c’, orc’, as found a a from either Step 2 or Step 3 applies only to round-nose control surfaces, corrections must be made which account for different nose shapes and for aerodynamic balance. The corrected value for c, is found from: ‘a (ey ba = (10,132) (ory Uy Dpar/e''n } where: c'')|, is obtained from Step 3. (cy D4a3/¢''n } is found from Figure 10.65a a for various nose shapes and Part VI Chapter 10 Page 470Soite 16 CALLED THE OVERHANG te © NACA 0009 r @ NACA 0015S ROUND NOSE © NACA 66009 een ELLIPTIC NOSE . = NACA 001s & NACA 0009 SHARP NOSE SUBSONIC SPEEDS te CorIED FROM: (ra) tance eee ey due to Angle of Attack HINGE HINGE HINGE LINE LINE LINE ROUND NOSE ELLIPTIC NOSE SHARE NOSE COPIED FROM BEF.O 10,6 35 Part VI Chapter 10 Page 471at the proper balance ratio. Nose shapes and balance ratio are illustrated and defined in Figure 10.65b. Step 5: Correct the hingemoment derivative for the effect of Mach Number: - ~ y2y2/2 (yu 7 (nba! tM (10,133) Step 6: Hingemoments also depend on whether or not the control surface and/or tab gaps are closed (i.e sealed). Figure 10,66 illustrates the difference between open and closed gaps. Figure 10.67 may be used to introduce corrections for open gaps, depending on gap- size for the control surface. Figure 10,684 may be used to correct for the effect of gap-size in the case of an unsealed tab. NOTE: the Step 6 corrections are applied to (cy Jy by using ratios obtained from Figures 10.67 or 10.68a as appropriate. 4 oven Cunseaten) N\A ctoseD (SEALED) GAPS yENT PIANO HINGES » SEALED GAP INTERVAL SEAL Sealed) Control Surface and Tab Gaps Part VI Chapter 10 Page 472Overhang Cb/eg i 10.67 i -Di- COPIED FROM fERS Che “- ao @ec-') 1] ~] Chg a0 +— I | @ee-'D = at wwe coer a Part VI Chapter 10 Page 47310,4,1,2 Two-} fo control surface deflection: ey, The Two-D control surface hingemoment due to control surface deflection derivative, c, is determined with the following procedure: 6 Step 1: This is a repeat of Step 1 in 10.4,1.1, Step 2: Determine c’, from: 8 Ca (10,134) fet, sc, ) Hop) h,’ “Ch, theory’ “°h, theory where: {c', /(c, ) } is found from Fig.10. 69a hy “hg theory’ which applies only to radius nose, sealed gap, plain flap type control surfaces is found from Figure 10.69b. The (co, h,’ theory parameter (C1 /(C Veneory? 12 Pig.10.69a is itself found from Figure 10. 64a. Step 3: If condition (10,128) is not satisfied, compute c’") from: 8 1, theory” (10,135) *l1 - fy (1 theory!) fam (G' "4 9/2) = (t/e)) where: (c', ) is obtained from Eqn. (10.134) 8 (ce, ) is obtained from Figure 814 at 1, theory the appropriate thickness ratio, tie {ey Mey) } is obtained from 13 theory” pigure 8.15 Part VI Chapter 10 Page 474~y a) COPIED FROM AERO ZZ ¢ » “ = “Lo SYMMETRIC ATRFON, 9 “8 (8) reory 08 (per rad) “19} 1 iy 5 “6 “+ o a 2 aq 8 a 3 = 10,69 oe 5 Part VI Chapter 10 Page 475a "te 18 defined under Step 1 in 10.4,1.1, NOTE: If the control surface trailing edge is beveled as in Fig.10.70, the value of Oe should be set equal to the angle of the bevel! Note that if condition (10.128) is satisfied, and only in that case: (10,136) op hy Step 4: Since the value for c, obtained under 6 either Step 2 or Step 3 applies only to round-nose control surfaces, corrections must be made which account for different nose shapes and for aerodynamic balance- The corrected value for c, is found from: 8 (bar ~ (10,137) (ot le, Mpa len? hy’ "Sh, “bal where: c'', is obtained from Step 3. (ley Yyar/e’'n,) 38 found £rom Figure 10.74 for various nose shapes and at the proper balance ratio. Nose shapes and balance ratio are illustrated and defined in Figure 10. 65b. Correct the hingemoment derivative for the effect of Mach Number: - ~ y2yt/2 (ym (ey par! mM”) (10,138) Hingemoments also depend on whether or not the control surface gaps are closed (i.e. i.e sealed). Figure 10,66 illustrates the the difference between open and closed gaps. Part VI Chapter 10 Page 476Figures 10.67 and 10.68 may be used to introduce corrections for open gaps, depending on gap size for the control surface and for the tab. a $. NoT BEVELED / BEVELED © NACA 0009 & @NACA.0015 } ROUNDNOSE eel © NACA 66009| 2 ‘© NACA 0009) cNacaoois{ ELLIPTIC NOSE Ese «—| ANACA 0009 SHARPNOSE HINGE SUBSONIC SPEEDS ee 10 SH, 8 oR is Nose 6 : (08) tance ts ca 4 CE OOLET SP LOLIS D WN Ra OS, f aS i) AE) 0: Ny 0 7 2 3 a = COPIED FROM: REF.O c a BALANCE RATIO, 10,71 Part VI Chapter 10 Page 477The Two-D control surface hingemoment derivative due to tab deflection, c, . measured at constant angle of 8, t attack and at constant control surface deflection is found from: (10,139) Ca, } ) 28 8, cy where: (c, ), , is the change in control surface hingemoment coefficient due to tab deflection at constant lift and at constant control surface deflection. It is obtained from Figure 10.72. (co, g /, is the change in control surface hinge- ey t’” moment due to lift at constant tab deflection and at constant control surface deflection. It is obtained from Figure 10.73. 5 is the airfoil lift curve slope of the t’® main surface to which the control surface is attached. It is found in 8.1.1.2. (ce) ta is the change in angle of attack due to a change in tab deflection. It is found from Figure 10.74. The derivatives in Equation (10.139) do not account for the effects of tab nose shape and tab gaps: they apply to round nose tabs with sealed gaps only! To account for the effect of differing tab nose shapes and for unsealed tab gaps, the reader should correct c, by using 6, t appropriate ratios obtained from Figs 10.75 and 10.76, Part VI Chapter 10 Page 478016 7 ca G? Ce 012 fe 4 = — | 1 P| 008: ey COPIED FROM BEF. h 5,Cg,5 “1 (ee) ~00 EXPERIMENTAL (NACA 0009 AIRFOIL—ROUND NOSE, SEALED GAPS) =. 1 COPIED FROM ReEF.a 10,73 Part VI Chapter 10 Page 4792 (5Qe0,5 corte FROM: -« BEF. inTab Deflection ; gilt 3 G CoPiED FRom: . aera am TrTrt Ty} 008 AB TRANSITION STRIPS G, AT te 4 at le 012 or ec") et ~aol —— sur —--- Round —— - Hupricat —-- sHaRP COPIED FROM; REFS Part VI Chapter 10 Page 48010.4.2 Three-Dimensional Control Surface and Tab The three-dimensional hingemoment coefficient for a control surface is estimated from: c, = ¢, (10.140) a ‘o + at e+e, 5 h, hy hy he *t t where: C, is the zero-angle-of-attack, zero-control-sur~ ‘0 face-deflection and zero-tab-deflection hingemoment coefficient. For main surfaces with symmetrical airfoils: C, = 0 (symmetrical airfoils only) (10.141) ‘0 For main surfaces with cambered airfoils, experimental data should be used to determine this quantity. ©, is the Three-D control surface hingemoment de- a rivative due to angle of attack. It is found from 10.4,2.1 C, is the Three-D control surface hingemoment de- 8 rivative due to control surface deflection. It is estimated from 10.4,2.2 C, is the Three-D control surface hingemoment 8, derivative due to a tab deflection. It is estimated from 10.4.2.3. +10,4,2.1 Three control surface hingemoment derivative due to angle of attack: C, a The Three-D control surface hingemoment due to angle of attack derivative, C, is determined from: ‘a c= (10, 142) ‘a {(Acosh, 4) /(A + Boose sg) (Cy Im + acy where: (c, )y is obtained from Eqn. (10,133) ‘a ac, = (10,143) by faq, 7 (ey BaK CONG 4 ye (ey BaKqcoShe 4 ) Part VI Chapter 10 Page 481)) a factor obtained with: (AG, /(c, ByK,cosh, bg tae from Figure 10.77a ol4 c, is the airfoil lift-curve-slope of the surface to which the control surface is attached. The main surface airfoil at the m.g.c. of the control surface may be used. The method of 81.1.2 can be employed to estimate this quantity. accounts for control surface and balance chord ratios. It may be determined from Figure 10.77c. The primed values of control surface and balance chord ratios in Figure 10.77c refer to measurements normal to the quarter chord line of the main surface. K, accounts for the effect of control surface span. It is found from: Ko = (10,144) (Kg) > ng) - (RQ), = add ag = ay) lo where: n, is the inboard span station of the control surface as a fraction of the main surface semi-span (k,),, is found from Figure 10.77b i 1 is the outboard span station of the control surface as a fraction of the main surface semi-span lo (K,),, is found from Figure 10.77 lo NOTE: Control surface hingemoments are also affected by items such as horns, internal balance plates and various types of tab configurations. A discussion of these items is found in Chapter 3 of Part IV and in Chapter 5 of Reference 16, A detailed treatment of methods for estimating hingemoment derivatives due to these effects is beyond the scope of this text. Part VI Chapter 10 Page 482a) “TT. Cn GB RacosKe, rh] ° — o 2 4 6 A e wo » , | Ka > 2 ez a) tA by dis an HL. 6 tz 4 } | 2 | HL. ° o 402 3 4 S$ 6 . Cefn COPIED FROM BEES 10. Di i i ghar for fo Angle of Attack Part VI Chapter 10 Page 483‘ 4 , due to control surface deflection: C, The Three-D control surface hingemoment due to control surface deflection derivative, C, is found from: 8 Ch, ~ (08g 4) (CO8ARy)* (10,145) wy Oy 2 95 (Cy Py (2CO8Ay 4) / (A + 2cosA, 41+ ACh, where: (c, )y is found from Equation (10.133) a (cy dy is found from Equation (10.138) 8 a, is obtained from Figure 8.17 ac, = (10,146) (AC y 1 (6 BaKsCOSA, 4COSAn]))* (ey BaRgeOSAg /4°OApy) with: (AC, /(c, B)Kgcosh,,4c08A,,)} a factor ob- ng! 1 gP2K eC /400 An) oer on Fig. 10, 78a ¢, is found from Figure 8.14 8 B, is found from Figure 10.77c, where the primed values of the control-surface and the balance-chord ratios refer to measurements normal to the quarter chord line K, = (10,147) (kg ays (Ke, ~ aging = ny) where: n, is defined in 10.4,2.1 (Kg), is found from Figure 10.78 "My is defined in 10.4.2.1 Part VI Chapter 10 Page 484‘54 18 found from Figure 10.78b 0 The note at the end of 10,4.2.1 applies here also! 10.4,2.3 due_to tab deflection: C, h, Se {K, The Three-D control surface hingemoment due to tab deflection derivative, C, is estimated by employing 8 t Equation (10.145) and its sequel with appropriate substitution of tab parameters for control surface parameters. o ——Abns ___— C582 Ks wshy, cos hy) a COPIED FROM REF. 9 Part VI Chapter 10 Page 48510.4.3 Two-Dimensional Tab Hingemoment Derivatives about the Tab Hingeline The two-dimensional tab hingemoment coefficient a- bout the tab hingeline can be written as: t t +o, at (oy) hy h’a.8 B+oh, 8 (10.148) t 6. t where: c, is the zero-angle-of-attack, zero-control— 0 surface-deflection and zero-tab-deflection hingemoment coefficient of the tab about its own hingeline. This quantity is zero for symmetrical airfoils. For cambered airfoils experimental data should be used. is found from 10.4,1.1 by substitution of tab parameters for control surface parameters is found from 10.4.1.2 by substitution of tab parameters for control surface parameters e h Be (10,149) being the change in tab hingemoment coefficient due to control surface deflection at constant lift and at constant tab deflection. It is found from Figure 10.79a. being the change in tab hingemoment coefficient due to lift at constant control surface deflection and at constant tab deflection. It is found from Figure 10.79b. is the airfoil lift curve slope 't of the main surface to which the tab (via the control surface) is attached. .It is found in 8.1.1.2, (oy 5,8, Part VI Chapter 10 Page 486(a5)¢ is the change in angle of attack 1°%t due to a change in control surface deflection. It is obtained from Figure 10.80 by using the tab- chord to main surface chord ratio. The derivatives in Equation (10.148) do not account for the effects of tab nose shape and tab gaps: they apply to round nose tabs with sealed gaps only! To account for the effect of differing tab nose shapes and for unsealed tab gaps, the reader should correct cfhy by using appropriate ratios obtained from Figs 10.81a,b,c and d. 10.4.4 7 P The three-dimensional tab hingemoment coefficient about the tab hingeline can be determined from: t t cy ec +¢ h hy + (10,150) where all coefficients may be determined from their two- dimensional counterparts by using the methods of 10.4.2.1 and 10.4.2.2. COPIED FROM REFS ee oO 04 18 2 16 a nn T t c Coes ~.001 Se CF 10 1 — 3} | 4 | ~.002 Part VI Chapter 10 Page 4873 4 ‘ A 10 SCOT * Conds oy COPIED FRom ReF.a | 008 N naa BS nas 0,79) A Cee na KC Ode 5 COPIED FROM HEF. ~ 10. 10, 80 Part VI Chapter 10 Page 488TAB NOSE SHAPE BLUNT —— ROUND —-— ELLIPTICAL COPIED FROM: —-- SHARP Be zl ey = 25e¢ ‘TRANSITION STRIPS Cue COPIED FROM AT Ole RERQ OFF a= OFF Part VI Chapter 10 Page 489TRANSITION STRIPS AT Ole AT Ole OFF OFF covieD Enon: REF. o ey 10, 81. TAB TRANSITION GAP STRIPS ——— 0 AT Ole ——— SEALED AT Ole —— - 004 OFF —— -- SEALED OFF ec be _ COPIED FROM REF. _| —012 : Rigure 10, 81d Effect of Tab Gap and Tab Size on the Tab Deflection Chapter 10 Page 49011, STABILITY AND CONTROL DERIVATIVE DATA The purpose of this chapter is to provide example data of stability and control derivatives for the following airplane: Tables 11.1 Airplane A (representative of a Cessna Model 172 type of airplane) Tables 11.2 Airplane B (representative of a Beech Model 99 type of airplane) Tables 11.3 Airplane C (representative of a SIAI- Marchetti S-211 type of airplane) Tables 11.4 Airplane D (representative of a Gates Learjet Model 24 type of airplane) Tables 11.5 Airplane E (representative of a McDon- nell Douglas F4C type of airplane) Tables 11.6 Airplane F (representative of a Boeing 747-100 type of airplane) Except for airplane A, no data were available for hingemoment derivatives. All data are dimensionless. Part VI Chapter 11 Page 491WHR ATT W ouetdiyy 303 eaea aataeatieg pue Aijauoea er IT eTqed Page 492 Chapter 11 Part VITable 11.1b Geometr, id Derivative Data for Airplane A Part VI Longitudinal Derivatives Lateral Directional Derivatives a 0 Cc, -.089 0 8 G a -.89 ce, -.47 “5.2 Cc +096 712.4 +178 o +0167 o +065 oO --03 4.6 099 1.7 ~-053 3.9 ~.0657 13 -31 oO -.037 093 221 143 oO +06 .187 1.28 -.050 Che -. 010 ‘a. ~.590 Cus, -. n Cc he +. Chapter 11 Page 493Table 11.2a Geometry and Derivative Data for Airplane B Part VI Thigh Gondttion 7 2 3 vorer | eraine | _crvioe spproeens | Coos” | dorms) avcteade (8) sesiewer | 5,000 | 20,000 ‘Air Density (sluge/fe?) 002378 00205 001268, Speed (fos) 170 uo 40 canter of Gravity Gy) a6 18 a6 Intetal Accieude (oy tn 28) ° a a Geometry ad Toerttas Wing Area (ft?) 280 280 280 ing Sean (£8) 4 6 “ Wing tan Gnometric chord (£2) | 6.5 os. os esane (286) 11,000 2,000 | 13,000 Ty, (eta #22) 15,189 10,085 | 15,109 Tyy (ole ey | 20,250 15,168 20,250 a, (etug £02) ana roe | x20 gg Gotug 24) aan 1,600 4am Senay stave Coettictenta Las an 0 ae worse | .0as8 1a .02se case ° ° ° ° ° ° Chapter 11 Page 494Table 11,2b Geometry and Derivative Data for Airplane B Longitudinal Derivatives 1 2 3 ° ° ° ton | tas | 1.09 wa wa oa wo | 4.0 | 24.0 ° ° ° 027 020 020 6.26 saa 5.48 2? 2s 2s a ea aa 90 an an wae | -.0506 | 0596 8 6 6 9 2.0 2.0 ateral-Directional Derivatives 1 2 3 a3 ary 3) 30 -.50 50 06 ae 14 136 136 136 0087 soos | 0106 2120 080 80 ~-005 0s 09 -.206 east | -asr -.0012 0012 | -.0012 0763 =o | -.0758 39 59 59 -a a9 nas 2° 38 a9 ° ° ° ery ase ae Part VI Chapter 11 Page 4951 worsrpweg Tt D eueTdity Tox eyed eaTzeATIeG pue Ar3EW0aD eE-TT ETAeL Page 496 Chapter 11 Part VITable 11.3b Geometry and Derivative Data for Airplane C Part VI Longitudinal Derivatives 1 2 2 ° ° ° “6 =. 7.0 9.6 asa a7 ° ° ° ° o o con | oa | ase 5.0 ss | ss 20 a2 | 42 s.0 | 10.0 | 1.0 ° ° ° ° ° ° 2” 8 23 ° ° ° 90 | -.a8 | -.02 Laceral-Directional Derivatives 1 2 3 caw] aio | -ai0 -.350 | -.290 | -.290 no 100 | 100 030 oso | 050 030 | +.090 | +.080 so | -.260 | -.260 -.030 | -.003 | -.005 no | -.120 | -.220 0 | =a | az 90 | a0 | 620 ° ° o 160 | wat | 20 Chapter 11 Page 497suo | secon 9st 6120) seco" 9 oov't | oot ovo'se | o0oter ooe'et | ooeter 00's | o0o'ee 00's | ovorer “ t * * * ow ot oz on d eueTdi ty oz e3eq aaTzeATIEG pue ArqeWoeD ey'TT eTqeL Page 498 Chapter 11 Part VITable 11,4b Geometry and Derivative Data for Airplane D Longicadiaal Derivatives 16 “9 ass “a7 “6. -as.s a ne aa 04 46 140 M0 2140 Part VI Chapter 11 Page 499o o o * o| 6 ° ay wor | eo: & ty sor | co r Ty 4, aw fe or b corte | one's cost cos'set | oversee | oox'eer coeseet | ooe'eer | oostert ooorse | coarse | cox'ee ooowse | ocorse | ozree ost fost ost vo | ewe ve as | os acs ce | oH oo a o ow Px) fayang 50 sag wa | ow ect pants sexmear | eccooor | exceo fovea av awores | ooo'se | reetees 8) emmy ayeonivéng | Syroeeng | “imag” worarpiey 1aTTa @ eueTdity 20z eqed at: dQ pue Arq0W0e9 es "Tr eTqeL Page 500 Chapter 11 Part VITable 11.5b Geometry and Derivative Data for Airplane E ongicodinal Derivatives z 2 2 4 ° ay | o.03e ~ a 40 e a3 ee ° ° ° a 4” ° tof nae q! aa as |e « ° ° ° % 14, o ° ° s 8 > 4 s ° Tr « ° ° ° «* Py 40 13 ot a0 at os y (Woce: longitudinal control through stabilizer osly) Lateral-Directional Derivatives o 2 3 = a56 208 070 040 0008 0060 0000 19 15 090 013 036 ° 320 270 oy +0061 0010 o* 2.655 68 %e s, ° ° ° 5 ~.0355 -.016 -.010 o* am 095 030 an Part VI Chapter 11 Page 501° 0 ° ° ° ° sor | 0 or sor | 510 oe on Ea er oe Ta, grees: | gor xc | gore ce gum grece| ore ce | orxrey Gp tain gree] greece | gor x sor Ge ton gtecer| ocean | gore cer (are oe sxs'ses | seatace no's (oan) 2100 —— ca | ca C12] 29) pr0%o opzneecey omen tern set oor set (25) os 2014 oss | oosts cos's (20 won tern So) 2 ve ve Gn) oman were we oo we Pp fwea 30 1009 we ue ue (83) pans ‘ev sser00" | enso00 sacz00" (3/9818) faye av cad o00'0r | —_oootoy | resotees @0 saw com [Gam | weresaay eucess Sims | SEB om “er c z T soraiveeo rE ad euetdity 703 ezeq eaTzeatIeq pue Ar3aU0a ey“TT aTaeL Page 502 Chapter 11 Part VITable 11.6b Geometry and Derivative Data for Airplane F Longitudinal Derivatives ch 5.65 re 66 o aaa 0 10 -< : ale fs es te es 5 oi Perel hal |Pesas ele eee po Part VI Chapter 11 Page 503Buvs = ASaluno) OnE-AS AWS Page 504 Chapter 11 Part VI12. USER'S GUIDE The purpose of this chapter is to present a User's Guide to the prediction methods presented in this part of the eight part series on Airplane Design. It is assumed that the Preliminary Design Sequence I (see p.11, Part II) has been completed and that the results of the accompanying Class I work have been properly documented. The stage is now set for a more ‘in depth’ (Class -II) analysis of the capabilities of the design. To accomplish this, the following characteristics need to be determined: Drag polars Installed thrust or power data Lift versus angle of attack Pitching moment versus angle of attack Stability, control and hingemoment derivatives wees The data which are the result of determining items 1.) through 5.) are themselves input data to the calculation and the evaluation of performance, stability, control, handling qualities and airworthiness capabilities of the airplane as outlined in Part VII. NOTE: The reader should not attempt to perform any of the calculations represented by 1.) through 5.) without a complete geometric definition of the airplane: a dimensioned, Class I threeview MUST be available. This threeview should be of a size large enough so that dimensions needed in predicting items i.) through 5.) can be ‘scaled’ directly from this threeview drawing. If a CAD (Computer Aided Design) data base is available for the airplane, so much the better. 12,1 USER'S GUIDE FOR DRAG POLAR DETERMINATION Step 1: The reader should determine for which conditions drag polars are needed: Airplane Configuration: *Clean *Flap position (up, take-off or landing) *Landing Gear (up or down) *External stores ‘Engine and inlet status Part VI Chapter 12 Page 505Flight Condition: *Mach Number *Altitude *Reynold’s Number *Weight *Center of Gravity Location The conditions selected depend on the type of performance calculations which need to be performed with the drag polars. Example of performance capabilities which typically mist be determined are: A) Mission oriented performance such as: * take-off * climb * cruise * loiter * descent * landing * maneuvering * high speed dash * accelerate B) Airworthiness oriented performance such as: * climb rate or gradient with failed engine(s) * balanced fieldlength * performance following major damage (for example combat damage) Step 2: Proceed to Chapter 4 to compute the required drag data. Refer to Equation 4.4 and identify which drag components must be determined. Prepare a list of input data needed for the calculation of each drag component. Plot the results in the form of C, versus a. Proceed to Section 12.3 and use the resulting C, versus @ plot together with the C) versus a plot obtained from Step 2 to construct a C, versus Cp plot (=drag polar). 4: Verify the drag polars with the procedure of Section 5.5, p.135. Also compare the drag polar data with data on similar airplanes: see Section 5.1, p.117. 12.2 USER'S GUIDE FOR DETERMINATION OF INSTALLED THRUST OR POWER It will be assumed that the Class I powerplant integration has been carried out as indicated in Chapter 5 of Part II. The powerplant installation has therefore been temporarily ‘frozen’ which means that the following information should be available: Part VI Chapter 12 Page 506* engine type * number of engines * inlet inlet type and * exhaust type and size nozzle size Manufacturers uninstalled thrust or power data mst also be available at this point. Finally, it will be assumed that a list of systems required by the airplane including a preliminary determination of the power requirements of these systems, is avalable. Step 1: Obtain engine manufacturers uninstalled thrust or power data. These data should define uninstalled thrust (or power) as a function of altitude, temperature, airspeed and fuel flow. If such detailed data are not available, the data in Chapter 6 of Part III may be used to "guestimate’ a set of uninstalled data. Refer to pages 139 and 140 (Chapter 6) and proceed with the preparation of the input data necessary in the calculation of installed thrust or power data. Using the methods of Sections 6.1 through 6.4 estimate the installed power or thrust capabilities of the airplane. Example data are given in Chapter 7. 12,3 USER’S GUIDE FOR DETERMINATION OF LIFT VERSUS ANGLE OF ATTACK Part VI The reader should determine for which flight conditions the lift versus angle of attack data need to be prepared. Refer to Step 1 in Section 12.1 for some guidelines. Proceed to Section 8.1 for the calculation of the required lift versus angle of attack characteristics. Plot the results in the form of C, versus a. Check the results of Step 2 by comparing with example data on similar airplanes such as given in Chapter 9. Chapter 12 Page 50712.4 USER'S GUIDE POR THE DETERMINATION OF PITCHING MO- MENT VERSUS ANGLE OF ATTACK AND THE TRIM DIAGRAM Step i: Step 3: 5: The reader should determine for which flight conditions the pitching moment versus angle of attack data need to be prepared. Refer to Step 1 of Section 12.1 for guidelines. Refer to the weight versus center of gravity diagram (See Chapter 10, Part II) and determine the most forward and aft c.g. location which applies to each flight condition selected in Step 1. Select a suitable c.g. location for use as the reference point in the pitching moment calculations. Proceed to Section 8.2 and determine the pitching moment versus angle of attack characteristics. Plot the results in the form of C, versus a for the reference point selected in Step 2. Proceed to Section 8.3 and determine the airplane trim diagram in the form of a plot of C, versus C, for the reference point selected in step 2. Verify the results of Step 4 by comparing with data on similar airplanes. Some data are given in Chapter 9. 12,5 USER'S GUIDE POR THE DETERMINATION OF STABILITY, CONTROL AND HINGENOMENT DERIVATIVES 1: Step 2: 3: Part VI Determine the flight conditions for which the derivatives need to be determined. Use Step 1 in Section 12.1 for guidelines. Proceed to Chapter 10 and compute the required derivatives. Verify the results of Step 2 by comparing with data on similar airplanes. Example derivative data are given in Chapter 11. Chapter 12 Page 50813. REFERENCES on Note: 8 10. 11. 12, 13, 14, 15. Part Roskam, J., Airplane Design: Part I, Preliminary Sizing of Airplanes. Roskam, J., Airplane Design: Part II, Preliminary Configuration Design and Integration of the Propulsion system. Roskam, J., Airplane Design: Part III, Layout Design of Cockpit, Fuselage, Wing and Empennage: Cutaways and Inboard Profiles. Roskam, J., Airplane Design: Part IV, Layout Design of Landing Gear and Systems. Roskam, J., Airplane Design: Part V, Component Weight Estimation. Roskam, J., Airplane Design: Part VII, Determination of Stability, Control and Performance Characteris- tics: FAR and Military Requirements. Roskam, J., Airplane Desig) Part VIII, Airplane Cost Estimation and Optimization: Design, Development Manufacturing and Operating. These books are all published by: Design, Analysis and Research Corporation, 1440 Wakarusa Drive, Suite 500, Lawrence, KS, 66049, Tel. (785) 832-0434 Hoerner, S.F., Fluid Dynamic Drag, Hoerner Fluid Dynamics, P.O. Box 342, Brick Town, N.J., 08723, '65. Hoak, D.E., et al, USAF Stability and Control Datcom, Plight Control Division, Air Force Flight Dynamics Laboratory, WPAFB, Ohio, 45433-0000, 1978, revised. Nelson and Welsh, Some Examples of the Application of the Transonic and Supersonic Area Rules to the Pre~ diction of Wave Drag, NASA TN D-446, 1960, Kuchemann, D., The Aerodynamic Design of Aircraft, Pergamon Press, England, 1978, Nicolai, L.M., Fundamentals of Aircraft Design, METS Inc., 6520 Kingsland Court, San Jose, CA, 95120. Torenbeek, E., Synthesis of Subsonic Airplane Design, Kluwer Boston inc., Hingham, Maine, 1982, McCormick, B.W., Aerodynamics, Aeronautics and Flight Mechanics, John Wiley and Sons, 1979, N.¥., N.Y. Lan, C.E. and Roskam, J., Airplane Aerodynamics and Performance, Roskam Aviation and Engineering Corp., Route 4, Box 274, Ottawa, Kansas, 66067, 1980. vI References Page 50916, an 18, 19, 20. 21, 22, 23, 24, 25. 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31. Roskam, J., Airplane Flight Dynamics and Automatic Flight Control Systems, Roskam Aviation and Enginee- ring Corp., Route 4, Box 274, Ottawa, Kansas, 1981. Whitcomb, R.T., A Study of the Zero-lift Drag Rise Characteristics of Wing-Body Combinations Near the Speed of Sound, NACA Report 1273, 1956. Nelson, B.D., Design Scope for Student Supersonic Projects, AIAA Paper 86-2638, Presented at the AIAA/ AHS/ASEE Aircraft Systems, Design and Technology Meeting, Dayton, Ohio, 1986. Curry, N.S., Landing Gear Design Handbook, Lockheed Georgia Company, Georgia, 30063, 1982. Royal Aeronautical Society Data Sheets, 1963, London. Anonymous, Aircraft Design, Part III (in Dutch), Dept. of Aeronautical Engineering, Technological University of Delft, Delft, Holland, 1970. Corning, G., Supersonic and Subsonic Airplane Design, Box No.14, College Park, Maryland. Holmes, B.J. et al, Manufacturing Tolerances for Natural Laminar Flow Airframe Surfaces, SAE Paper 850863, 1985, Maddalon, D.V. and McMillin, M.L., Effect of Surface Waviness on a Supercritical Laminar-Flow-Control Airfoil, NASA TM 85705, 1983. Braslow, A.L. and Fischer, M.C., Design Considerati- ons for Application of Laminar Flow Control systems to Transport Aircraft, Paper presented at the AGARD/ FDP VKI Special Course on ‘Aircraft Drag Prediction and Reduction’, NASA Langley, VA, 1985, Maddalon, D.v. and Wagner, R.D., Operational Conside- rations for Laminar Flow Aircraft, Paper presented at the NASA/SAE/AIAA/FAA Laminar Flow Aircraft Certifi- cation Workshop, Wichita, Kansas, 1985. Schlichting, H., Boundary Layer Theory, Mc Graw-Hill, N.¥., 1955. Vijgen, P.M.H.W., et al, Effects of Compressibility on Design of Subsonic Natural Laminar Flow Fuselages, AIAA Paper 86-1825 CP, 1986. Dodbele, S.S., et al, Shaping of Airplane Fuselages for Minimum Drag, AIAA Paper 86-0316, 1986. Dodbele, S.S. et al, Design of Fuselage Shapes for Natural Laminar Flow, NASA CR-3970, 1986. Taylor, J.W.R., Jane's All The World Aircraft, Published annually by: Jane's Publishing Company’ 238 City Road, London EC1V 2PU, England. Part VI References Page 51032, Seddon, J. and Goldsmith, E.L., Intake Aerodynamics, AIAA Education Series, American Institute of Aeronau- tics and Astronautics, N.Y., N.Y. 33. Covert, E.E. et al, Thrust and Drag: Its Prediction and Verification, AIAA Education Series, American In- stitute of Aeronaytics and Astronautics, N.¥., N.Y. 34, Marks, L.S. et al, Mechanical Engineer's Handbook, McGraw Hill Book Company, N.Y¥., N.Y. 35. Monts, F., The Development of Reciprocating Engine Installation Data for General Aviation Aircraft, SAE Paper 730325, Business Aircraft Meeting, Wichita, Kansas, April, 1973. 36. Corsiglia, V.R. and Ratz, J., Full-Scale Study of the Cooling System Aerodynamics of an Operating Piston Engine Installed in a Light Aircraft Wing Panel, SAE Paper 810623, Business Aircraft Meeting, Wichita, Kansas, April, 1981. 37, Taylor, C.F., The Internal Combustion Engine in Theo- ry and Practice, Volumes I and II, MIT Press, 1966. 38. Bingelis, T., Firewall Forward, Engine Installation Methods, Tony Bingelis, 8509 Greenflint Lane, Austin, Texas, 78759, 1974. 39. Thurston, D.B., Design for Flying, McGraw Hill Book Co., Ne¥., N.¥., 1978, 40, Bingelis, T., Sportplane Builder, Tony Bingelis, 8509 Greenflint Lane, Austin, Texas, 78759, 1985. 41. Kerrebrock, J.L., Aircraft Engines and Gas Turbines, MIT Press, 1977. 42. Borst, H.V., Propeller Performance and Design as In- fluenced by the Installation, SAE Paper 810602, Busi- ness Aircraft Meeting, Wichita, Kansas, April, 1981. 43. Borst, H.V. et al, Summary of Propeller Design Proce- dures and Data, Volumes I, II and III, USAAMRL Tech- nical Report 73-34, H.V.Borst Associates, Wayne, Pa, November 1973, 44, McCormick, B.W. et al, The Analysis of Propellers In- cluding Interaction Effects, SAE Paper 790576, Busi- ness Aircraft Meeting, Wichita, Kansas, April, 1979. 45. Weick, F.E., Aircraft Propeller Design, McGraw Hill Book Co., N.¥., N.Y., 1930. 46, Smith, M.H., A Prediction Procedure for Propeller Aircraft Flyover Noise Based on Empirical Data, SAE Paper 810604, 1981. 47. Anon., Prediction Procedure for Near-Field and Far Field Propeller Noise, AIR 1407, SAE Aerospace Infor- mation Report, May, 1977. Part VI References Page 51148. 49. 50. 51. 52. 53. 54, 55. 56. 57. 58, Klatte, R.J., General Aviation Propeller Noise Reduc- tion- Penalties and Potential, SAE Paper 810585, 1981 Abbott, I.H. and Von Doenhoff, E., Theory of Wing Sections, Dover Publications, N.¥., 1959. Mueller, T.J. et al, Proceedings of the Conference on Low Reynolds Number Airfoil Aerodynamics, Sponsored by NASA, USNavy and University of Notre Dame, UNDAS CP-77B123, June 1985. Hoerner, S.F. and Borst, H.V., Fluid-Dynamice Lift, Hoerner Fluid Dynamics, Box 342, Brick Town, N.J., 08723, 1975. DeYoung, J., Theoretical Symmetric Span Loading Due To Flap Deflection For Wings Of Arbitrary Planform At Subsonic Speeds, NACA TR 1071, 1952. Shortal, J.A. and Maggin, B., Effect of Sweepback and Aspect Ratio on Longitudinal Stability Characteris- tics of Wings at Low Speeds, NACA TN 1093, 1946, Perkins, C.D. and Hage, R.E., Airplane Performance, Stability and Control, J.Wiley and Sons, N.Y., 1957. Wittenberg, H., Calculation of Lift and Drag at Low Speeds, Part I: Wing (in Dutch), Technological Uni- versity Delft, Delft, The Netherlands, 1970. Sanders, K.L., High Lift Devices, A Weight and Per- formance Trade-off Methodology, T.P.761, Society of Aeronautical Weights Engineers, 1969, Anon., Aeronautical Vestpocket Handbook, United Tech- nologies, Pratt and Whitney Aircraft, PWA Part No. 79500, August 1981. Torenbeek, E., The Computation of Characteristic Are- as and Volumes of Major Aircraft Components in Pro- ject Design, Memorandum M-189, Delft University of Technology, Dept. of Aerospace Engineering, Delft, The Netherlands, 1973. Part VI References Page 51214, INDEX Aerodynamic center 324,305,291 Aileron control derivatives 442,435 Aircooled engines 166 Air density 21 Airfoil aerodynamic center ° 291 Airfoil center of pressure 291 Airfoil lift prediction, flaps up 215 Airfoil pitching moment prediction 295,289 Airspeed 21 Angle of attack derivatives 379 Angle of attack for zero lift 268,245,215 Antenna drag 111 Area rule 10,57,8 Aspect ratio 27 Average skin friction coefficient 128 Balance ratio 472 Base area 46 Bellmouth inlet 139 Bifurcated inlet 157 Bleed air 145 Boundary layer 14,13 Boundary layer splitter, diverter 175,157 Buffet 356 Camber 218,16 Canard 66,27 Canard control derivatives 438,435 Canard effect on lift 265 Canardvator control derivatives 440,435 Canopy/windshield drag coefficient 98,22 Component drag 16 Convergent nozzle 184 Convergent/divergent nozzle 189,184 Control derivative data 491 Control (power) derivatives 435,371 Control surface hingemoment derivatives 463 Cooling drag coefficient 19,22 Critical Mach number 3 Cross flow drag coefficient 47 Cut-off Reynold's Number 111 Differential stabilizer control derivatives 456,435 Diffuser 179,177 Dihedral effect 389 Double slotted flap 229,226, 82 Downwash (280,278,272,271,73 Part VI Index Page 513Drag breakdown Drag causes Drag data Drag due to lift Drag force (coefficient) Drag divergence Mach number Boeing definition Douglas definition Drag modelling Drag polar data prediction verification Dynamic pressure Dynamic pressure ratio Electrical power extraction Electrical power load profile Elevator control derivatives Empennage drag coefficient subsonic transonic supersonic Empennage lift Empennage planform geometries Engine massflow Equivalent parasite area Equivalent wing hor. tail vert. tail Exhaust Exhaust drag Exhaust sizing External compression inlet Flap drag coefficient Flaps, effect on lift Flaps, effect on pitching moment Flow regime subsonic supersonic transonic Form drag Fowler flap Puselage drag coefficient subsonic transonic supersonic Fuselage effect on aerodynamic center Fuselage effect on pitching moment Gap drag Part VI Index 21,16 13 117 14,13 8 5,3 3 5 16 117 21 135 21 269 145,141 141 437,435 66,22 66 69 10 68 10 167,166,165,146 128,117 10 67 67 139 190 188 159 82,22 280,277,259,243,226 329 3 13,3 13,8,3 13,5,3 14 297,229,226, 82 44,21 44 48 49 325 320 aii Page 514Gap (sealed and unsealed) effect on hingemoment 472 Gear drag coefficient 90,22 Ground effect on downwash 333 Ground effect on lift 281 Ground effect on pitching moment 332 Ground effect on upwash 335 High lift data 355 Hingemoment derivatives 463,371 Horizontal tail 66,27 Horizontal tail effect on lift 265 Incidence angle 73 Induced drag 14 Inlet area 170,169,168,167,165 Inlet arrangements: piston/propeller 174,165,152 turbopropeller 174,167,152 jet engine: subsonic 175,168,152 jet engine: supersonic 177,170,159 Inlet drag 181,180,111,22 Inlet integration 147 Inlet pressure recovery 139 Inlet sizing 165,147 Installed power and thrust 203,201,198,195,193,139 Interference drag coefficient 107, 6,77, 72,22 Interference factor 44,23 Krueger flap 235,226, 86 Laminar flow 22 Laminar flow drag 113 Landing gear (see gear) Leading edge flap 313,299, 262,239,235,226 Leading edge shape parameter 218 Leading edge suction parameter 28 Lift prediction 275,265,264,257,245,243,225,215,214,213 Lift curve slope 280,278,272,259, 248,238,215, 27 Lift force (coefficient) 8 Lifting surface correction factor 23 Liquid cooled engines 166 Mach number 218,21,3 Maximum lift data 355 Maximum lift prediction 277,275 ,265,256,239,238, 218 Mean geometric chord (see ref.geomet ty) 23 Mechanical power extraction 145,142,141 Miscellaneous drag coefficient 107,22 Mixed compression inlet 159 Nacelle/pylon drag coefficient 12,22 Nacelle toe-in 15 Part VI Index Page 515Nose flap Nose shape effect on hingemoment Nozzle Nozzle drag Nozzle integration Nozzle sizing 235,226 472 139 192,190 183 189,188,184 Oswald's efficiency factor 128,117 see also span efficiency factor 27 Pitching moment (coefficient) 289,8 Pitching moment prediction Pitching moment slope 318,302,297,295,289,213 324,317,305 Pitch damping derivative 424 Pitch rate derivatives 424 Pitot inlet 157 Plain flap 299,226, 82 Plenum inlet ‘174,157,149 Pneumatic power extraction 145 Podded nacelle inlet 157 Power effect on lift 286 Power effect on pitching moment 337 Power extraction 141,139 Power required 146 Pressure drag 13 Pressure ratio 21 Pressure losses 175,173 Pressure recovery 177,174,173,159 Profile drag 82,14 Propeller drag coefficient 81,79,72 Propeller efficiency 166,165 Rate of angle-of-attack derivatives 381 Rate of angle-of-sideslip derivatives 401 Reference center 295 Reference geomet ry 10 Reynolds number 218,44,23,13 Rolling moment (coefficient) 10 Roll damping derivative 417 Roll rate derivatives 417 Roughness drag 110,107 Rough surface aa Rudder control derivatives 461,435 Sears-Haack 37 Side force (coefficient) 10 Sideslip derivatives 383 Single slotted flap 229,226, 82 skin friction drag 13 Slat 235,226, 86 Slotted flap 297 Part VI Page 516Smooth surface Span efficiency factor Speed derivatives Speed of sound split flap Spoiler control derivatives Spoiler drag Spoiler lift Stability derivative data Stability derivatives Stabilizer control derivatives Stable pitching moment break Static directional stability Static longitudinal stability Steady state coefficients Store drag coefficient Straight-through inlet Strut drag Submerged inlet Subsonic leading edge Supercritical airfoil Supersonic leading edge Sweep angle Symmetrical airfoil Tab hingemoment derivatives Taper ratio Thickness ratio Throat area Thrust required Trailing edge angle(s) Trailing edge flap Trailing edge vortex drag Trim diagram Trim drag coefficient Trimmed lift Trim(med) state Turbulent flat plate friction coeff. Turbulent flow (boundary layer) Twist angle Unstable pitching moment break Upwash User's guide Vertical tail Viscosity (of air) Viscous drag due to lift Wave drag Wetted area Part VI Index 22 27 376 21 297,233,226, 82 449,435 107 238 491 371 435 347,330,326,317,310,295 397 381 371 103,22 174,149 aii 157 36,8 293 36,8 10 293 487,486 10 5 171 146 467 311,262,239,226,218 14 347 104,22 344 344,16 44,23 22 28 347,330,326,317,310,295 272,271,173 505 66 23 14 57,49,44,28,13 27 Page 517Wetted area breakdown Whitcomb Windmilling drag coefficient Wing aerodynamic center Wing drag coefficient subsonic transonic supersonic Wing lift coefficient Wing pitching moment coefficient Wing planform geometry reference area Yaw damping derivative Yawing moment (coefficient) Yaw rate derivatives Zero-lift drag Part VI Index 128 57 81,79,72 305 23,21 23 28 36 259,245 gil 8 24a 432 10 428 13 Page 518APPENDIX CONVERSION FACTORS This appendix presents tabulated data for: Al. U.S. A3. Conversion Factors STANDARD ATMOSPHERE, Standard Atmosphere, A2. Specific weights of liquids and gases SPECIFIC WEIGHTS AND Page 1962 519 521 322 The data have been copied from Reference 57. AL U.S. Stanparp AtmospHere, 1962 Definition of Standard Atmosphere A standard atmosphere is a hypothetical vertical distribution of atmospheric temperature, pressure and denuity which bylinirnational or national agreement is taken tobe epre: sentative of the atmosphere for the purpose of altimeter Gelibrations, alreraft design, performance calcula The internationally accepted standard atmosphere is called the International Civil Aeronautleal Organization (ICAO) Standard Atmosphere or the International Standard Atmos- Dhere (USA). The U.S, Standard Atmosphere, 1962 18 10 Egreement with the ICAO Standard Atmosphere up to 68,000 feet altitude. Ic is ideal air devoid of moisture, water rete, vapor, and dust, and obeys the perfect gas lave. Tv is based Upon accepted siandard Values of sea level at density, tem= perature and pressure, Other standard atmosphere models, Such as MIL-STD-210A, which represents. hot amd cold “Ambient temperature extremes, have also been established, ICAO and U.S. Standard Atmospheres Standard Values at Sea Level British Units Metric Unite Pressure, Pe 2 Ib /f\2_1.013250X108 N/m? 92 inc Hig 760 mam He. ‘Temperature, T» 28.19 150°C ‘Acceleration due to ‘gravity, Specific weight, gape 32.1741 ft/sec? 9.80665 m/sec? (0.076474 1b/f1® 1.2250 ke /m? Density, so 0.0023769 0.12492 Tesective "Kg sect/mt Kinematic viscosity,» 1.5723 x 10-* 1.4607 10-* a/see ‘mi /see Absolute viscosity, we 1.2024 X 10-# 1.7894 X 10% Tofttsec “kg/m see Standard Values at Altitude Inothermal altitude, 2; 36089 ft 11000 m Tsothermal tempera- ure, 565°C Temperature la Wate (ecalevelto | <357°F/ -65°C/em ‘othermal) 1000 fe Part VI Appendix A Temperature Conversion Formulas 100) = TOK) ~ 273.5 100) = (TCR) ~ 491.67/1.8 £00) = WOR) — 32/8 TCR) = 1.8 TCK) 1CR) = 13(7CK) ~ 273.18) +32 ICR) = TCR) = 489.67 BCR) = 181°C) +32 Page 519U.S. Standard Atmosphere, 1962 (Geopotential Altitude) British Unite ‘Aitade Tempgratare feet, ie Wa fone Veogty me _itysce 1592, 1336: 148, 1429. abr 1328, 129. 1233. 1187, nas. Hoo, 41059: 1018. 979.8 1073.4 9421 1069.4 905: 106514 70.2 1oot's 836.0 1087:3 902.9 1083.2 =2000 Part VI Appendix A Page 520U.S. Standard Atmosphere, 1962 (Geopotential Altitude) British Units Algitude Temperature OR, Sonic Vesey feet Re 3 «oye “Tiree “te * osoir 3900-865 “0540307186 80.04 968.1. 573.6 ‘T0000 Sere 852 ‘04380 ono 3753 73000 jes 336 ‘o3ase one $173 80000 Soro “sat (0226 oi8 3793 85000 feos =30'6 2188 9ei2 $6133 "90000 405.6 49.1 “01707 984.5 585.3 95000 foot 73 ‘o13se Dero 588:3 rt joss 400 ‘iors 98 9912 $873 “104987 fs a3 ‘o08s67 ‘010800 12.69 954° $89.2, 130000 407 ei 2001288 001390 1.908 10748 636.8 yisai99 412-28 “001095 001165 1.622 1082.0 att “170608 ar Ds [0005823 ‘0005199 "8626 1082.0 64) 200000 09-04 ‘D001807 0002080 "2677 1045.5 G19: 200131 Ses “205 ‘0001797 {0002080 _!2662 1045:4 6194 “Boundary between atmosphere layers of constant thermal gradient. Note: The ICAO atmosphere is identical to the U.S, Stand ard Atmosphere for altitudes below 65,617 ft. AZ. Specific Weights oF Liauips anp Gases Weights of Liquids Weights of Gases Specie, Specife We oe Spake We eae Liquid Gravity at °C TB/USS. gal tbyeu fe = a a “aT6s1 Ga S90°F) eagles a9 38498 teaeT A ‘toon Te mide (AcBro Eervon dioxide fist Aono (neths ogi 0 7s gos embonedlnide, A284 Bence eae 0 Se sey Seaton faa Cirvon tetrachloride 398 20 taz oye Ht : Ethylene glycol ane 938 Nanoee brat Gavotine on fe Oyelt ‘basa Siveeine tae 2010s? fan ° Glycine uy 2a O52 BTL At tmomphere presure and O°C. Ses Qui yseaab) Ors ee ia Jee Quy sen) Oras es bo SesQucysenD) 817 1s Gee Stn Kerowene on er aa Mecuny 18516 20 30 Bisa Statiicomn ‘oss is RSS sel sawater Los 1s ss 6399 Sonnet oi aos 1s Ths Si atts Taos) water 100 4 ts azas Seen foe oes Ga Sat (ASTM-D-1655) Part VI Appendix A Page 521A3. Conversion Factors aon Tema aor Toots eaictoot—=2887 “X10? abe conimeroe * 38 Xi SBS soma - GS XS, sae oe tim X10, Sie none 138 X10 Rete daw Xie: Steno ties X18, Sine mete Hoar X02 She yoce {tes X10? Stowe mint 10 Xe Site ee Seer 168) X10, ade eninwiws as Ye5er X 102 Soe demewe Tim X19 amen of mecay Bye X ot pe ie toes? SEN E18, Serotec Teoer X05 le mete Rese tet flogamasare mete 2a X10 cape ye 1Otss AW tawtoncrasre mtr iiss X10. Seincomoue nh See mew 19099 10f abe conan om Yo Xie SRS Simcoe = earl re Xe, Soc ton $0 10) goers RH ee tonne 13080 cv ace TREX 1h minetes opmecuy 37000 X16 deinen! 14800 X18 Bnew eh second eon ome x — ion Yoo X10 aque crimes os ing x oer aca csscten inn f etitons SE 500 Soe termed STH X10, otore or coms ws HE 1b Sees iam x oe eT eee Voom ewan Bran ownn! 25180 X10 coorenpae 195615 ism x Sirces formar" 350 X18, fearsome mk rome {a X 10° we 3851 1s MSsapowertous Srename 29590 -x ieches of rrciry tom X tos pee Grimes” 38g x Nogeeeauee meer 181 X18, Reon 18005 X19 mites ot mercy 1852 X los Rowena 15900 X10, newanescume mate ce ne 1450010 Boonsnaunre meh fh ermal 01908 aiotsacond seconok ame X10 Gromite” 198 x 10t one ww hea X 10: soe ome” — 15 X10, ferpnimansacone 15600_X_ 10” Slbimeoe secon vot Tete X10) pesoceon ” 94782 x 105° Bish ral es 1 Riggamnennecont ase kgs Vee x 10 wae $000, . . Toke x ot Belper Voom 187 far core 3g) x 107 Ba per oe a forpounes srosecond 86669 X 107 Braham 1888 x 107 ae vemaure ite eae 23005 x sgt calravenend Hee x 10% Berane Free X 1e% feopnostecond ie econ Yoo X 1o3 Saebtectn aurencond 23810 X10" Bran nema 9000 _187_wat = eters iw eto 45959 X10 bloganatow gimee x? mec Sh ee Teetpocade neon estecane ice 3a x Sees ' 8 ion x ceumew 32808 X10 ter xis x on 38M 1S Se Sais x too x ies Hees ieee x 1am X IGS ewe aks see x eRe er oo 197 fetnecond Yes X10, Soe an $505 X TE? Rteoowernoue es nconers i ese } ue 35863 x 10? wa ous x ieee neon Nogamanoumet — igotpeuna 77108 Bris hema scons nse eas erin x eb eegmees Wes aaa x aloes co x eae i ens a x SSE ee on ; ee a 138 uletecind x Soe yoo ised Slogan Se decir x cab eats igeueand 3009 X10 conimeinaecind ah x ee fe Py ioe ‘omer or x sie ets $88 x io" toe x Fropend Sot0> X18 metcrssecon x fe ee shies X te" Mieke Part VI Appendix A Page 522Conversion Factors (continued) Matto oy To obtain seo m pece) ogem SEE Bourgas fot ; aie Seema 2003 Seunceaain fot ws) zee x07 epee oe Haas X 105 Seinen ch yet x10? be meine aT) > beh wera we oma x10" 7 i Ses ey Se Sccporne 0 & tier ie = 0000 103g rea x_10% ‘(iowa Snr 35274 X 107 ounces, e Bes X03 nee ‘ogame 3368 X10 Bran ara Siees Xion Bee sated castor Steer X10? eons ies as csinanacond ie etpocntscons moe a =e Seoer 4 putonind $a x gt $381 x 102 hotsoomer 10000 xX T08, Stowe meters X_107 bowers Biro Eto sine mie i 3 formers 428 x Bitish thermal a toon x ; ioameate is sso00 x 108 tpounbecond ‘ease ae x foot poundsiminute x Timo X10 joacenecons onsen 91190 x item X10, Eopereiwstecana Boe sun x 1m X18 ae aay x iim X ireepowerhow 2886 Bian ema oe wont 33s 108 fearpoone ovens 2206 x ree pur a in * Botan nee ‘owen ow x how 6.0000 X 10, minutes: wn x ow 36000 X 107, seconds 4.1781 X 10°? sidereal days: % 41667 X 102 solar days x 11416 X10" solar years: —28000_X_10"_warrsecon’s __ imperial gation 27742 X 10? cubic inches a ioe sors, ee ter x ie 35400 nietae g HES x wo? om yor x on ‘25400 X 102 meters x snies 277% X 107 yards — x mavens 5 ine x cable hee ayelmecay age x 107 sinenhows Fe Fl en noe Set x to? bie oa, at BEE X10" Synmtscue x Secnaes peony Br OS tau 3259 x 19 nce wate ‘25400 X 10, millimeters of mercury ean U8 eet Skee Xo: Micron mee! - ga k emmeaannee re oe? ‘Bite X10" pounctlsoure en x 0. Stes incnisecond 85533 X 10% Mlometers Ups) 25400 ‘centimetersisecond * 35100 _x_ 10? fowwuecne inch of water 2.4584 X 10"? atmospheres meterisecond mae H3es X10? Maas ot mercury (real imtoo Yas Tiered ol euy ESI x ot, Rewoua na! 5 102 panda eae ne ule ea X 10% British thermal units. horsepower 73880 X a Sa Xie Sir. 10000 X 107 dyne-centimeters: re Sze x $9009 X10 Ge os BB x 73756 X 10" foot-pounds: 1.8083 060 newton meters ioe x 108 Senseo 2m x iogen “40009 X19" gone nn Beem X10 Sumces milethour 1.4667 teevsecond | aa oe iron 146s Schou Bee ge Be Bess x wet tree Fa oe fhe XIE Mmecond jamo x 10 fons imrate of “48882107 dyrestaure 36709 x 107 wonpheree racy ‘anee Sie its Ss Sein —agam x sat Were ecu 0 oa B88 183. Peles of mecuy ong) Bae Xt RENNES aera Steer ee $32 X18 Renonmntere mer care meter 13557107 sotncongune ncn Part VI Appendix A Page 523= aR nvel n Factors (continued) revolution 20000 X 10? degrees Cor rior ( ) ew 21600 .X 10" minutes an same Be = Ms w 1.2960 X 10° seconds Sas are ae ye ore aoe rare eee =e ae IS ee 60000 X 10 — seconds. 48481 xX 0% radians. __ se esos a a ov EE es ee ene * RIC ie Yors) 15 X10 Dordas enor Bo et = aa oe os wig oe. + i 3, Eee TT 5 oe R ors eo tog x 10) Blan aoe 1H XT ma 28, = 5 orcas Poa ae Seri coer IN arco ees meee ore oes |? ae et ao aca Soe ee et ut aeienoo |S oe we x gt name e i Bee Se i it at meee : ie iS Reese ; ame oe dO ae eae 7 ES 3Be Xb: iin = ee ye Bee ; min = F Be ie Be i owe r91es x 102 mies x WB ee piere 9000 )?newionsisquare meter ‘square kilometers 24711 X ‘ x10! em?) 1.0768 x lace ces ceees errs peaks ib) 45359 X 10" kilograms 38610 x ves a = “square meter 247 Xx 12 fa TPE = Pa fon ae = 0000 X 10" square centimeters ue ie Some um x ee 8 ee eo ed i Saree #8 == ate ES a Eon eae a ‘(ost ammo Kk nit) 25900 X 10? hectares vais x 27 x ie * eaole 321% x 3.0976 es ‘thermie 41068 X aa eee cs ca Se = oes... omer eo = eens ee is it seal aor a 1.4400 ‘second) unasthour ww 6009 x 10 British thermal aT eee ge x ae ee scat ‘oc x 10, " et por | am x {3a X10? horspower an yen x Yon X10" ogrmmnriscond Aa s aa me YS So ad) 34378 x +1000 poe heads Lee tot Boheme iE Part VI Appendix A Page 524APPENDIX B: METHODS FOR COMPUTING CIRCUMFERENCES, AREAS AND VOLUMES In the process of airplane project design it is frequently necessary to compute the cross-section circumference, the surface area and/or the volume of components of the airplane such as: fuselages, fuselage boattails, wings, fuel tanks and nacelles. Reference 58, by Professor E.Torenbeek of Delft Uni- versity of Technology in Delft, The Netherlands is an ex- cellent source of methods for computing such items. For that reason, Reference 58 has been copied and adapted for incorporation as Appendix B in this book. Nomenclature Most symbols are used only occasionaly. Therefore, the nomenclature is mentioned in the text or on the relevant figure or diagram. Contents Page B1, Introduction S26 2. Approximation of contours by anslytical functions 526 83. Diagrams for areas, circumferences and volumes S28 B3.1 Sectional (projected) area - disgram 2 S29 83.2 Circumference of a section contour - diagran 3 520 83.3 Volune of todies of revolution - diagrams =» 529 B3.4 Wetted area of bodies of revolution ~ diagran 5 S30 B3.5 Correction factors for double bubble and Flattened cross sections - disgran 6 530 BA. Puselages 531 B4.1 "Accurate" calculations 3) Bh.2 sinplitiea methods 632 5. Wings, taitplanes and fuel tanks 538 85.1 Wetted areas of vings and tailplanes 533 95.2 Puel tank volume Say B6. Zogine nacelles ant air ducts 534 List of references 535 Ficuaes 536 Dircaans sue Part VI Appendix B Page 525Bi. ratroduction In the calculation of mass properties and aerodynamic coefficients like profile drag coefficients and atability derivatives, reference is made to frontal areas, sideviev areas, vetted areas and volumes. Once the detailed shape of the major aircraft components is accurately established by means of lofting processes (e.g. ref.B3), these characteristic areas ‘apd volumes can be computed mmerically or by means of graphical methods. The present subject, hovever, is associated vith project design studic where the detailed shape and dimensions are not alvays accurately knova oF, in some cases, may have been chosen provisionally. An estimation, accurate within fev percent of the exact value, may be acceptable vhen euphasis is laid on tine saving. sent, nenorandum methods are presented for the calculation of + areas and volumes, having different degrees of accuracy. In the pi cireunferene The most exact procedure is based on a representation of the surface contour lines by a suitable polynomial vith fractional exponents. Such f tvo-paraneter method is explained in ch.B2 and is very simple to use vhen a three-viev draving of the component is available. Generalized results of the various integrations are presented in disgrans (cb.B3). ‘These are useful not only for accurate computations, but they have been used for the derivation of simplified methods as vel. ‘The reader vho is interested in practical results only may omit the reading of chapters andQ3. Chapters®t,B5 andB6 deal vith applications for fuselages, wings, tailplanes, fuel tanks and engine nacelles. In general, both accurate and simplified methods are presented. For fuse- Anges a reviev of the various availdble methods is given on fig. 5. Bz. Approximation of contours ical ‘The rigid requirenents in aeronautical design have led to the adoption of streamline shapes vith smooth, continuous external lines, resulting in a sncoth rate of change of curvature along the entire length of the dody. For fuselages, the application of « pressurized cabin makes @ circular cross section or a section built up from circular sections « very desireble, if not mandatory feature. Extensive areas of double: curvature, like saddle surfaces, should be avoided because of the associated costly manufacturing processes. The design criteria for vings are entirely different as the external shape is dictated ty serodynanic requirenents, viz. lov drag, high aaximm lift, favourable characteris tics at high incidences and at Mach nunbersvhere compressibility effects fare dominant. For subsonic aircraft, leading and trailing edges of vings and tail surfaces are frequently straight Lines. Aerofoils have neatly Part VI Appendix B Page 526rounded noses, vhile sharp trailing edges are used for good Lifting properties. For ease of production, intermediate sections are often con structed from tip and root sections by assuming straight Lines between corresponding poizts ("Linear lofting"). In general, it vill be necessary to subdivide the body, for vaich the characteristic areas and volumes must be calculated, into several sections. For example, the pressurized fuselage of a transport aircraft {2 logically split up into a nose section, a cylindrical mid section ant fe tail section. The more sections are used in non-cylindrical parts, the higher will be the accuracy of prediction. For project-design purpo: however, a method is required, resulting in an error of probably not more than a fev percent, using @ very Limited amount of subdivisions to ‘ininize the computational tine. ‘The general shape of many curves and external Lines can be represented in a most satisfactory vay by the following tvo-dimensional convex polynomial: i for nym a Yor typical fuselage nose and tail sections examples of this function are plotted in fig. 1 for two combinations of the exponents n and m. 2 and discussed belov. Several special cases of eq. 1 are plotted in fi m= 1), used for cones 1) is representative to some degree for fuse The straight Line (2 Parabole 1 (n= 2 and a lage tail sections. Parabola 2 (n= 1 and m= 2). Provided that the base area is not too large, ‘this parabola may occasionally be used for blunt fuselage enda. The ellipse (n= m= 2), appearing as a circle in fig. 2. Many fuselage and near-elliptic shapes. Ving sections and nacelle noses ha Quartic 1 (n= hj m= 2) and quartic 2 (n= 2; m= 4), repre Diunt noses and tails Lané's quartic (n= m= 4), This curve is of particular interest for the representation of cross-sectional shapes of onal] aircraft vith unpressurized cabine. Tt is not suggested that for s particular body the sectional contour should be approxinated by any of these special functions; errors of 5 - 108 in ‘volumes and vetted areas may be introduced by doing so. Hovever, several, special cases can be treated analytically and are therefore use- (tractional) of the ful to check the general solution, in vhich intermedia values for 2 and m are treated os vell. Part VI Appendix B Page 527Yor a specified contour shape, and m can be determined readily fron the geonstric parmeters p and y, defined in fig. 3. To this end, a suitable choice of the X- and Yaaxes must be made, For fuselages, the X-axis vill usually be located in the plane of syme- try, the Yaris may be on the intersection of the cylindrical part vith the nose or tail section. Yor ving sections, the effect of camber on the circumferential length of a section ia negligible. On the corresponding symmetrical section, the X-axis in the chordline and the Y-axis vill be taken at the point of maximum section thickest Point 8 in fig. 3 in determined graphically in the draving as the intersection of the contourline and the diagonal of the rectangle vhich en- closes the contour. The X-coordinate of $ as a fraction of the projected contourlength (a) defines the paraneter Y. The intersection of the tangent at S and. the X-axis defines the parameter y, The projected height of the contour is b, Although the graphical construction of a tangent is not aivays a very accurate procedure, it vill be shovn later on thet the results are not affected to a great deal by errors in y. The equations relating combinations (n,n) and (y,y) to each other are derived in Ref. 58 ; the results are plotted in diagran 1. Once aod y are measured in the draving, 2 and m can be found and, if desired, ‘check on the accuracy of the approxination by eq. 1 can be mute by calculation of the contour. Hovever, in ch.B3 it vill be demonstrated that for the purpose of calculating volunes and areas, considerable deviations from the actual ahape are acceptable, provided that the value of g is accurate. For example, the parabolae 1 and 2 in fig, 2 have the sane value Y=} (5-1). Te sectional areas for both curves are exactly equal, the circumferential lengths are equal vithin a fev tenths of « percent, vhile the volunes and vetted areas of corresponding bodies of revolution differ by one or two percent only. Dingrans for eress, circunferences and volumes The choice of the polynomial given by ea. 1 provides the tool to calculate areas, circumferences and volunes of boly sections. The suitability of the function is confirmed by the fact that all results can be plotted in tvo- imensional diagrans, although 4 geonetric paraeters (y, y, © and») are involved. The diagrams can be used for a very quick calculation, as so inte= erations are necessary. For cross sections of pressure cabins Giagram is included. pare Part VI Appendix B Page 528Sectional (projected an 2 ‘The area enclosed by the contour, the X-axis and the Y-axis it verona fo 2 By substitution of y from eq. 1 and integration, the final result as derived in Ref. 58 is fount and plotted in diagram 2. In terms of bend m, the aren is determined by !'-functions, vaich are symmetrical vith respect tom aud m, The sinple representation in diagram 2 is not affected by ¥. possible, as the area i 3.2 Circunference of a section contour ~ dingram 3 ‘The expression for the circunferential length i cancumransnce = fi/(axl® + (ay)*= fir@eo ® Yor several special combinations of n ania, this integral can be solved analytically Ref. 58, resulting in expressions vith n, 2 and the ratio a/b as parameters. As in the case of the sectional ares, it eppeers convenient to use p and y instead, but the eftect of y'ppears to be sanll. Hence, in dingran 3 only y ant a/b are used as perancters. Although the result ia nov no longer exact, the error introduced is quite ssall. Yor exampls 4) the difterence betveen the exact results for the tvo parabolae 1 and 2 in indistinguishable in the dingran, ‘b) the two quartics (n= b; m= 2 and n= 2; m= 4) are both represented vy the dotted Line y =y/(V5-I)/2 = 0.786. For a given value of a/, the error with renpect to the exact renult, as shown in the diagran, in Less thaa one percent. In sone cases, the calculation of the circumferential length of « cror section is an intermediate step in the computation of vetted area. In ‘those cases, the height/vidth ratio is alvays between 0.5 and 2 and, within ‘the corresponding range 0.5< a/b < 1.0, the circumference is hardly affected by a/b as vell. This property will be used for the simplified calculations of par. 4.2. B3.3 Volume of dodies of revolution - disgran By rotation of the contour, given by eq. 1, about the X-axis, a body of revolution is formed, vith a volume equal to: vane + fo?ex ow ° Part VI Appendix B Page 529The complete solution is derived in Ref. 58 in terns of n and m and plotted in diagram b, Te parameters pand y aay be used instead. The volume, expressed as a fraction of the cylinder volume (Length a, radius d), is not affected by a/b. As in the previous cases, the parameter is most prominent, y is of secondary importance. It can be shovn that formulae for the sectional shape different from eq. 1 yield essentially ‘the sane remulte, provided that the sane value of is used. hb Wetted ‘The body of revolution as defined in the previous paragraph has the folloving vetted are arena area = fe ry//laxi® + (a7)%= x Jn +x (5) Yor specie) combinations of n and m, analytical expressions for this integral can be derived (see Ref.56). The wetted area, plotted in ingram 5 as a fraction of the cylinder external area (2rab) plus one ide area (10), is affected primarily by 9 and a/b. In analogy to the case for the circunference, the omission of y results in errors of not more than 1 or 28. This is illustrated in the diagram for the tvo para- Dolae, both represented by PeH(/5 - 1) and the tvo quartics, with pryie- vie stors for double bubb: For fuselages vith "double bubble” cross sectional shapes, like the DC- 8, DC~9, Vo-10 and others, or a flattened belly belov the cabin floor (e.g. P27, C-5A), correction factors can be derived, relating the ciremference and sectional area to those of « circle. The circle dis meter is assumed equal to the max. width of the actual fuselage. The relevant equations are presented in fig. 4 and the results plotted in Aiagran 6, ALL parameters used can be measured on a draving of the cro: section or front view. Part VI Appendix B Page 530Ba. useage ‘Me methods presented in this chapter refer to the gross vetted area of ‘the streamline body by vhich most fuselage shapes can be approximated. Cockpit canopies, fillets, ving-fuselage attachrents, air scoops, ete. ‘are: ignored and must be accounted for seperately. A choice can de made detveen several methods. The most accurate of these in described in par.fl.1 and can be used vien a complete three-viev raving is available. Yor substantially non-cylindrical fuselage: cross sections must be available as vell. The simplified methods discussed in par.Bh.2 are useful vhen the fuselage shape or sone dimensions ere not completely knovn. A survey of the applicability of the various methods is given in fig. 5. veral Bh. 1 “Accurate” calculations ‘a. Ruseloges vith circular cross sections ‘The nose and tail sections are usually nearly bodies of revolution as vell, The planview is used to subdivide the fuselage into a nose section, a cylindrical mid section (if present) and a tail section and the parameters 9 and y are determined (fig. 3). Projected areas in sideview or planviey can be derived fron diagram 2. Volumes and vetted areas are computed vith diagrams 4 and 5. |. Fuselages vith a blunt base or a beaver tail ‘The approximation for blunt and beaver taile, as presented in dingrans T and 8, can be used on the condition that the contour lines are not too @ifferent froa a parabolic shape. Formilse for ogives can te found in ret. 86, c+ Pusele es vith double-bubble or flattened cross sections ‘The volume and vetted area are computed, assuming that the fuselage is body of revolution vith diameter equal to the maximm vidth of the fuselage (fig. 4). Similarly to the planviev is used. The correction factors in diagran 6 are then applied to the frontal area, ‘the volume and the vetted are 4, Puselages vith pon-cireular cross sections The folloving procedure is suggested: 1. A subdivision into a suitable oumber of segnents is nade. Part VI Appendix B Page 5312, The parallel ent faces of the segnents are local cross sections; the: ‘arens and circunference are calculated vith diagrams 2 and 3. 3s The segnents are approximated by bodies of type A or Bin fig. 1. Their volumes are conputed and added. 4. Me circumferential lengths of the cross sections are plotted on the Longitudinal axis and integrated numerically (e.g. Sixpson's rule, ref.B6) or vith diagram 3. ‘Te integral in corrected by addition of an extra percentage: Alwetted area) . 75 frontal ar 6 vetted aca” > (fuselage lengen)? * ‘This approximate correction accounts for the fact that integration of the circumferential length should take place along the external contour instead of the longitudinal axis Bh.2 Simplitiod methods, In many cases the fuselage contour is not completely defined and a certain ancunt of help from statistical data vill be acceptable. The designer can make a choice betveen the folloving approximate methods: a, Maree-view draving is available In chapters 2 and 3 the parameters (and y vere introduced to find the fractional exponents 2 and m. Tt vas found that + the effect of y is very small or completely absext, + for practical cross-sectional shapes the effect of the height/ width ratio on the cireuference is negligible, Moreover, by application of the method to practical fuselages, it vas concluded thet for the most comon nose and tail sections the vetted area as a-fraction of the cilinder area (2rab in diagraz 5) is approxinately « function of p only. Therefore, the procedure of ch.Bh.1 can be simplified and the results are sumarized in diagran 9. w ih of mid section are Diagram 10 is composed from the results of calculations of volumes and wetted areas for several actual fuselages vith near-circular cross sections, using diagrams 2-6. The dotted line is taken as the mean value and corrections are derived fron diagram 2 and 3. This si @iagram may be of use ven the actual shape of nose and tail sections are not specified. c+ Axisymmetric streanlize bodies of given length and dianeter In fig. 6 the ratio wetted ares Lengts svhere A = 2Wri(volune) 2/3 diameter Part VI Appendix B Page 532ie plotted for cylinters, ellipsoids, paraboloids, double cones and ‘typical streamline shepes vith and vithout « cylindrical center section, This ratio is epproxinated by a simple function of A for streamline bodies. Once the volume is knova, the vetted area can be calculated in a straight forvard manner. The expressions for the volume are based on typical nose and tail section shapes, according 4. Yous vetted eres based on cabin dimensions ‘Wuen observing actual fuselage shapes, it is noted that the fuselage Length is considerably affected by the detailed shape of the nose and ‘the tail extremities. On the contrary, the volume and vetted area are much less affected, In preliminary design the fuselage tail length may de subject to optimization at a later stage, vhen accurate date are available on structure veight and afterbody drag, in order to find the most favourable tailplane moment arm. Tae dimensions of the passenger cabin and the freighthold volume, hovever, are established at a very early phase of the design, the: ‘being derived mainly fron the design specifications. Hence, diagran & statistical correletion of gross vetted areas and volunes with the principal dimensions of the pressurized section and vith cabin plus freighthold volume. The disgran may be used in different ways: for given pressure cabin outside dimensions, the volume and vetted area are found imediately; if only the passenger cabin plus freighthold volume are knovn, the fuselage volume is read from the diagram and the vetted area is computed with the presented formule (based on fig. 6). For payloads in excess of 30 passengers roughly, the correlation is remarkable in view of the simplicity of the method. 5. Wings, tailplanes and fuel tanks B5.1 Wetted aren of vings and tailplanes ‘The vetted area is computed by spanvise integration of the circumference. The net (exposed) area (8,45) to be used is the horizontal projection of the area exposed to the airflov. ‘The circumference of an arbitrary section can be computed fron diagres 3, using @ suitable subdivision of the contour. For most subsonic sections, the folloving simple expression is reasonably accurate: tional circumference * 2 x chordlength (1+ 0.25 + t/e) (7) vhere t/c = thickness/chora ratio, (tig. 8) Part VI Appendix B Page 533

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