1 | Short Formula (Physics) SHORT FORMULA CHAMPIONS PHYSICS Uni Measurement of any physical quantity is expressed in terms of an internationally accepted certain basic standard called unit. * Fundamental Units. S.No. Physical Quantity SI Unit ‘Symbol 1 Length Metre m 2 Mass Kilogram Kg 3 Time Second s 4 Electric Current ‘Ampere A 5 Temperature Kelvin K 6 Luminous Intensity Candela cd 7 ‘Amount of Substance Mole mol * Supplementary Units : S.No. Physical Quantity SI Unit Symbol 1 Plane Angle radian r 2 Solid Angle Steradian Sr~ 2 ‘Short Formula (Physics) CHAMPIONS * Metric Prefixes : a No. Prefix Symbol Value 1 Centi c 10" 2 Mili m 10* 3 Micro B 10* 4 Nano a 10* 5 Pico Pp 10" é Kio K 1 7 Mega ™ 1 Average Velocity (in an interval) : = cgy = Tlodslocoment _ = - Tarone wien 7 AE ‘Avorage Speed (in an interval) Total distance travelled ‘Average Speed = "Total time taken Instantaneous Velocity (at an instant): ar lim, So Ves = as AE Average acceleration (in an interval}: aes vey at Instantaneous Acceleration (at an instant): ML in aS at we3 | Short Formula (Physics) Graphs in Uniformly Accelerated Motion along a straight line (a 0) is a quocalpolmomialin tame of Hence x= graph ls parabola woo Ler xt graph Vis tnear polynomial in tems ot. Hence vt graph sa straight ne of slope a. oh eee [ais postne, v+t graph ‘at graph is a horizontal line because ais constant _|_ ats negatvg, t Selaeraton | {SE at graph tect & hina Equations of Motion (for constant acceleration) @ veurat seule dat seta yx sute Sat (©) VES UF + 2as, @) s Gedy © w+ § @n-1) For freely falling bodies : (u = 0)~ 4 | Short Formula (Physics) CHAMPIONS Tne (taking upward direction as postive) @ v= gt 1 1 1 ) s= fo sous Sot hyrh > of (©) = 298 ® Time of flight : Horizontal range : Maximum height : Trajectory equation (equation of path) : yextanO FP cote ~* 1 om Projection on an inclined plane > ° Up the ineiine Down the Taaiine Range ut sinaweos(a+B) 2u sina.cos(a.~p) cos" cos" Risina Risa Time of fight an ee ‘Angle of projection with =p =P incline plane for maximum a8 £,8 Tange a2 a2 Maximum Range vw wt asp) i= sinB)S| shor rama nysies) CHAMPIONS Vpa (velocity of A with respect to B) = vq —Vg ‘ana acceleration of A with respect to B} Relative motion along straight line CROSSINGRIVER ‘A boat or man in a river always moves in the direction of resultant velocity of velocity of boat (or man) and ‘velocity of river flow. y iB 1. Shortest Tim Velocity along the river, V,= Vp Velocity perpendicularto the river, y= Vy The net speeds given by v,, 2 Shortest Path: velocity along the river, Yq and velocity perpendicular to river v, The net speed is given by ,= Yvan -VA at an angle of 90° withthe river direction, velocity v, is used only to cross the river, therefore time to cross the river, t 7 R and velocity v,is zero, therefore, in this case the drift should be zero, Me wah oe vecssine a oeant 28 RAN PROBLEMS van * a « From third law of motion6 1. 12, Short Formula (Physics) From second law of motion aP, 0 at F WEIGHING MACHINE : ‘Aweighing machine does not measure the weight but measures the force exerted by object on its upper surface. ‘SPRING FORCE Fax x is displacement of the free end from its natural length or deformation of the spring where K = spring constant, SPRING PROPERTY K 2 = constant Natural length of spring. If spring is cut into two in the ratio m:n then spring constant is given by me ne. em = ae For series combination of springs For parallel combination of spring ‘SPRING BALANCE: Itdoes not measure the weight. It measures the force exerted by the abject at the hook. Remember WEDGE CONSTRAINT: soy, ccontac\ 07 13. 14, alle Shor Femula Pye) CHAMPIONS Components of velocity along perpendicular direction to the contact plane of the two objects is alvays ‘equal if there is no deformations and they remain in contact. NEWTON S LAW FORA SYSTEM Fog = may tmgay M405 +e Faq =Net external force on the system, My, My Myare the masses of the objects of the system and ‘aj,az,a are the acceleration of the objects respectively, NEWTON S LAW FOR NON INERTIAL FRAME : Fae + Fane “8 Net sum of real and pseudo force is taken in the resultant force. Accel tion of the particle in the non inertial frame Foseudo =—™ Brame (a) Inertial reference frame: Frame of reference moving with constant velocity. (b) Non-inertial reference frame: A frame of reference moving with non-zero acceleration. Friction force is of two types. (@ Kinetic () Static KINETICFRICTION: 4,=14,N ‘The proportionality constant y, is called the coefficient of the nature of the two surfaces in contact. friction and its value depends on STATIC FRICTION : Itexists between the two surfaces when there is tendency of relative motion but no relative motion along the ‘two contact surfaces. ‘This means static friction is a variable and self adjusting force. However it has a maximum value called limiting friction. foc HN~ 8 | Short Formula (Physics) CHAMPIONS WORK, POWER & ENERGY WORK DONE BY CONSTANT FORCE: wee. WORK DONE BY MULTIPLE FORCES LESE+Ryt W=BF].s 0 W= Fy S +h St he S# or WW tt yt WORK DONE BY AVARIABLE FORCE aw = F.d& RELATION BETWEEN MOMENTUM AND KINETIC ENERGY et fm and P mK ; P=linear momentum POTENTIAL ENERGY Ite ie, U2-Uy [rr a u=-f'B-aF--w CONSERVATIVE FORCES WORK-ENERGY THEOREM Wat Way + Way = AK Modified Form of Work-Energy Theorem Wy =~ AU Woy + Wye AK + AU Wey + Wee = AE POWER ‘Average angular velocity Op=H a0 Sa yt at9 10. 12. 13 14, Short Formula (Physics) Instantaneous angular velocity 2 ae or =e m7 _ Ao woh 7 Ae ‘Average angular acceleration Og = do Instantaneous angular acceleration 2 Relation between speed and angular velocity Tangential acceleration (rate of change of speed) Radial or normal or centripetal acceleration Total acceleration ata, a=(at+ ann Where aja 6 anda,-@ v ‘Angular acceleration do = Ge (Non-uniform circular motion) Radius ofcurvature R= = = * If fi of & y (x) ey ax’ Normal reaction of road on a concave bridge +0 < N=mgcose + a maces ™ brdge Normal reaction on a convex bridge N=mgcos@TTL 18. kidding of vehicle on aleve road Me V9 16. Skidding ofan object on a rotating platform qq VuaTt 17. Bendngoteyist ——tano= 9 Banking of road without friction tan 0 19. Banking of road with friction = H+ tone. 1g 1=ptand ra(u-+tane) “? 20. Maximum also minimum safe speed ona banked titional road Vgg= ETT ra(u-tano) "* Vee (1+ plane) ar, acts outwards when the particle selfs taken as a frame. 21. Centrifugal force (pseudo force) 22. Effect of earths rotation on apparent weight N=mg mRof cos 0; where 0 tatitude ata place 23. Various quanites fora crtcalconditon ina vertical loop atierentposiions (os, (True fora sting or on a smooth rack) CE | am “1 2 5 ) w @ Q ° © Vow = V4 Von = V4 Vpn = V4 (or completing the cle) (for completing the cre) (lr completing the cite) 24 Conical pendulum : pd Time period = I: => onal ong vobaty ona tat © Const angular acceleration teat 40 Jeetaa! TTT] stort emule (hysis CHAMPIONS @ Angular displacement Mass Moment :M = me CENTRE OF MASS OF A SYSTEM OF 'N' DISCRETE PARTICLES CENTRE OF MASS OF A CONTINUOUS MASS DISTRIBUTION xdm ydm zdm "= am dm dm dm = M (mass of the body) CENTRE OF MASS OF SOME COMMON SYSTEMS hook Assystem of two point masses m,F, = Mgr, oa ‘The contre of mass lies closer to the heavier mass. a — mat a Rectangular pate (By symmetry) ] L & L % 2 2 ‘Atriangular plate (By qualitative argument) bh at the centroid: y= Asemi-circularring Asemi-circular disc ”2 | Short Fomula (Physics) R 2 x Asolid hemisphere 3R ee Acircular cone (solid) nh MG circular cone (hollow) ih bh Meg a MOTION OF CENTRE OF MASS AND CONSERVATION OF MOMENTUM Velocity of centre of mass of system v at at at tM Vy tmp Vp +Ms V5. M,Vn Pagton = M Vin a aa ae Pat = Mia Myay HM,@yeonnen FH MAAy M M Fax = Maem, IMPULSE Impulse of a force F action on a bodyis defined as~ 43 | Short Formula (Physics) CHAMPIONS Pica riven our as Fat uo P {impulse - momentum theorem) Important points : 4. Gravitational force and spring fore: re always nonsimpulsive. 2. An impulsive force can only be balanced by another impulsive force. COEFFICIENT OF RESTITUTION (0) Fedt Impulse of reformation Velocity of separation along line of impact Impulse of deformation = Fyat e Velocity of approach along line of impact @ e Impulse of Reformation = Impulse of Deformation Velocity of separation = Velocity of approach Kinetic Energy may be conserved Elastic collision. Impulse of Reformation Velocity of separation = 0 Kinetic Energy is not conserved Perfectly Inelastic collision. © o¥%) (@) Amplitude of reflected & transmitted waves,TTL BB | short Fomula (Physics [kiko ks Kok BAS tke STANDINGISTATIONARY WAVES :- ()-y,=Asin(ot kx +04) Yu = Asin (at + kx + 0) 2Acos kxs Yt a= 02-0, The quantity 2A cos kx + represents resultant amplitude at x. At some position resultant amplitude is zero these are called nodes. At some positions resultant amplitude is 2A, these are called antinodes. (c) Distance between successive nodes or antinodes (a) Distance between successive nodes and antinode: (e)All the particles in same segment (portion between two successive nodes) vibrate in same phase. (f) The particles in two consecutive segments vibrate in opposite phase. (g) Since nodes are permanently 10 energy can not be transmitted across these. VIBRATIONS OF STRINGS ( STANDING WAVE) (a) Fixed at both ends : 1, Fixed ends will be nodes. So waves for which 2h 3h L eS 2 are possible giving orn= 2 where n= 1,2,3, {r aft as ve dt 2 gel sm=ne.otloops (b) String free at one end 1. forfundamental mode L = =or n= 4L 1 fundamental mode >< first overtone 3h, First overtone L= 2 Hence a= 4 3 ft (First overtone)23 Short Formula (Physics) Second overtone T _(2n+4) [F Total transtaional KE of gas = 5M = > PV= > RT BRT Vey Degree of freedom : Mono atomic f= 3 Diatomicf = 5 polyatomic f= 6 Maxwell s law of equipartition of energy : 1 Total KE. ofthe molecule = > KT For an ideal gas Intemal energy U= > nRT v, Workdone in isothermal process : W= [2.303 NRT logy Internal energy in isothermal process : AU=0 Work done in isochoric process : dw=o Change in int. energy in isochoric process : au t FRAT =heat given Isobaric process : Work done aW=nR(T, T) change in int. energy AU = ny AT24 | Short Formula (Physics) heat given AQ Specific heat cy=sR Cp= 7ttR () for monoatomic gas (i) for diatomic gas (ii) for tiatomic gas In general Mayer s eq, Adiabatic process : Work done AW In cyclic process : AQ = aw In a mixture of non-reacting gases : My +My Mol. wt. = > Gna) 7 Cy MC yy > Calorimetry and thermal expansion Types of thermometers (2) Liquid Thermometer : 100 (b) Gas Thermometer Constant volume: 100; P_TT{t TBE | snort Fuse (Physie CHAMPIONS v v-v Constant Pressure : Ts (c) Electrical Resistance Thermometer : —Ri=Ro = Rioo-Rp 1° Thermal Expansion : (a) Linear : au a= Tar LeLy(t+aaT) (b) Area/superficial : aA Bo Rat of ARA(T #987) (c) volume! cubical : av Yar fF VEY (tty aT) Thormal stress of a £ a Energy stored per unit volume : 1 E= > KaLy o 1 aT=3 ser TT - clock slow :time-loss CALORIMETRY a Specific heat S = —S—~ 26 | Short Formula (Physics) CHAMPIONS _ AQ Molar specific heat G = Water equivalent = mg Sy, HEAT TRANSFER ‘Thermal Conduction : ‘Thermal Resistance : Series and parallel combination of rod : ta tb (Seres: RK (when Ay =Ay = Ay = nn) (i) Parallel: KyAy =A +H Ay (when ¢ {for absorption, reflection and transmission rettast au, Emissivepower: § E= Taq aE Spectral emissive power: Ey= G> E of abody at T temp. Emissivity: © = Eofablack body at T temp. E (body) Kirchoff s taw ody) = E (black body) Wein Displacement law: 4,.T=b. b= 0.282 em-k Stefan Boltzmann law : usoT® s=567 10%WimtK usu u=eoAC® TZ) fa Newton's law of cooling: Sr K@ &) | Oar Ge™TBE | snort Fuse (Physie ELECTROSTATICS i 1 aa ate, Coulomb force between two point charges Fa 71 ME = Face + The electric field intensity at any point is the force experienced by unit positive charge, given by e-F % Electric force on a charge ‘a’ at the position of lectric field intensity produced by some source charges is F - gE. Electric Potential H(W_ \ygis the work required in moving a point charge q from infinity to a point P, the electric potential of the point P is, (W pent rc) Potential Difference between two points A and Bis Va Ve Formulae of E and potential V Ka wd Pointcharge Tre (0) Inteiytong ine charge z2r=20 V=not defined, vy vy= 2KR In (ry! ty) (8) Inte nonconducting thn sheet $9, V= ot defines, Yo “Ya =—E-loe) (%)—_Uniformty charged ing Kox Fae = Rat ka Mews ™ JRE ane fe TRF x xis the distance from centre along axis. y, () _Infinitely!arge charged conducting sheet ©. V=not defined, Ya Va =~ —fa) (v)_ Uniformly charged hollow conducting! nonconducting soil conducting sphere (@) tore. 84 r Rove Ka R (vi) Uniformly charged solid nonconducting sphere (insulating material) (bd) E=0 forr> Ig_TT{t Te | short Frmusa (Physics CHAMPIONS 16. VOLTMETER Anhigh resistance is put in series with galvanometer. It is used to measure potential difference across a resistor in a circuit sol@ ritmo system s known as voineter Ao—@—o8 Aoi —o ar 8 For maximum potential difference Rg + Io Re Re FRG Specific resistance p and cross-sectional area A are same for whole of the wire | a -Reof (1) where o is resistance per cm of wire. Resstance Box pron) If Ps the resistance of wire between Aand B then Pa P=a(?) Similarly, if is resistance of the wire between B and C, then Q 100 ¢ Q=a(100 4) (2) Pit Dividing (1) by (2), a* ww Applying the condition for balanced Wheatstone bridge, we get R Q=PX= 34 | short Fomula (Physics CHAMPIONS ao 400-1 xero aw x= 10 Since R and é are known, therefore, the value of X can be calculated. 1 @ ay a= cv q: Charge on positive plate ofthe capacitor ©: Capacitance of capacitor. V : Potential difference between positive and negative plates. (i) Representation of capacitor: —| |—. | & ot_ov (i) tromysbrotin apace: U= Lov Energy deniy= ae Relative permittivity ofthe m Dielectric Constant For vacuum, energy density = (Types of Capacitors (a) Parallel plate capacitor e068 eA, “da = A: Area of plates 4d : distance between the plates <« size of plate ) () Spherical Capacitor : Capacitance of an isolated spherical Conductor (hollow or solid) C24 nee, R R= Radius of the spherical conductor Capacitance of spherical capacitor _ @ (b-a) Fim Capacitance perunitlensth = >a, (Capacitance of capacitor depends on35 | Short Formula (Physics) (@)— Areaofplates (©) Distance between the plates (6) Dielectric medium between the plates. (vi) Electric field intensity between the plates of capacitor E : Surface change density q PAs 2. _ DISTRIBUTION OF CHARGES ON CONNECTING TWO CHARGED CAPACITORS: When two capacitors ara C, and C,are connected as shown in figure (vil) Force experienced by any plate of capacitor: F 1,70, 204.0, © GO e © nay Fray (a) Common potential CVs 1CV, ___ Total charge ©,+C, ~ Total capacitance Sas ove Foe ,+0) o) ce OL = GV = FG (+) (©) Heatloss during redistribution 1 Cie . aH=U U5 Gey Ve Veh The loss of energy is in the form of Joule heating in the wire. 3. Combination of capacitor 2%jp2-*9}}.0 20), 0 it Ole Ge Yh OW Series Combination arate! Combination og=O, 4 Oy ex 0): 24° 6,26: Gy alte36 | Short Formula (Physics) CHAMPIONS 4. Charging and Discharging of a capacitor : 8 (Charging of Capacitor ( Capacitor initially uncharged ): pe a= a(t et) v Cc aeey +! Time constant = CR, ‘ % v te Mg mm ossat emote (i) Discharging of Capacitor azqe™ . 4 Intal charge on the capacitor a em T ota > 5. Capacitor with dielectric: @ Capacitance in the presence of dielectric te c= S28 <4, ‘ =a Ke, Yo cia ove ,= Capacitance in the absence of celectc: cesesasteaesshe om ov ae @ 6 Be tke tae E:- election he absence of deectc E., Induced (bound) charge density. 1 Gi) ozo 4), 6. Force on dieleetrie @ ‘When battery is connected Whon batryis not comected F = > $2 w wn bateryis not comected F = o> SE * Force on the dielectric will be zero when the dielectric is fully inside.37 | Short Formula (Physics) CHAMPIONS ‘AC AND DC CURRENT: ‘A current that changes its direction periodicaly is called alternating current (AC). Ifa current maintains its direction constant itis called direct current (DC). t t constant de periodic de a Le ROOT MEAN SQUARE VALUE: Root Mean Square Value of a function, from f, tot, is defined as f POWER CONSUMED OR SUPPLIED INANAC CIRCUIT: ‘Average power consumed in a cycl Vn In = TE Te - 0080 = Vins fis 608 0. Here cos¢ is called power factor. ‘SOME DEFINITIONS: ‘The factor cos ¢ is called Power factor. I, sin § is called wattless current. V, Impedance Z is defined as Z = + ‘oL is called inductive jctance and is denoted by X, L Gq [8 called capacitive reactance and is denoted by X, PURELY RESISTIVE CIRCUIT: V2 asin ot 1», _Vnsinot RR 1, sin at38 ~ Short Formula (Physics) CHAMPIONS Mon MR PURELY CAPACITIVE CIRCUIT: YsV.sin ot Mn Yeas ot Tos tf = cos at = 1, cos ot Xe 1 X,= Go ands called capacitive reactance. |gleads by v, by x!2 Diagrammatically (phasor diagram) itis represented as rr Since 6 =90%,

= Vy y,008 4 = Magnetic field due to a moving point charge Biot-savart’s Law 8 Magnetic field due to a straight wire Magnetic field due to infinite straight wire39 | Short Formula (Physics) 5. Magnetic field due to circular loop (od geal wo At centre: K aD a ig _NIR® @ Atas B= BR 6. Magnetic field on the axis of the solenoid = #0"! (cose 7. Ampere's Law (. { Oo) OBd? = pigl Na ° 8. Magnetic field due to long cylinderical shell B=O.rNp Ess Ex for step up transformer. primary Secondary coil coil 12 Le Oscillations 1. Reflection of Light ® ier 1.3 Characteristics of image due to Reflection by a Plane Mirror: {a) Distance of abject from mirror = Distance of image from the mirror. (b) The fine joining a point object and its image is normal to the reflecting surface, {¢) The size of the image is the same as that of the object. (4) For a real object the image is virtual and for a virtual abject the image Is real“43_| short Formula (Physics) CHAMPIONS 2. Relation between velocity of object and image y From mitror property: X= “Ruy + Yau You 294 Zy= yy object | image Here x, means x coordinate of image with respect fo miror : iB Similary others have meaning . Differentiating wet time , we get Moe Mie! Yow Yoe? Yin Yoo, 3. Spherical Mirror Mirror formula Xo ordinate of centre of Curvature and focus of Concave mirror are negative and those for Convex mirrorare positive. In case of mirrors since light rays reflect back in- X direction, therefore -ve sign of v indicates image and +ve sign of v indicates virtual image (b) Lateral magnification (ortransverse magrification) (8 Onder o)woant—=—— — where — is the velocity of image (©) Ondifferentiating (a) with respect to time we get —=— along Principal axis and — is the velocity of object along Principal axis. Negative sign implies that the image , in case of mirror, always moves in the direction opposite to that of object.This discussion is for velocity with respect to mirror and along tho x axis. () Newton's Formula; XY=1* X and Y are the distances ( along the principal axis ) of the object and image respectively rom the principal focus. This formula can be used when the distances are mentioned or asked from the focus. 1 (8) Optical power of amiror (in Dopters) = = = focal length with sign and in meters. (h) objecting along the principal axis is not of very small size, the longitudinal magnification. usu (itwill aways be inverted)“4 ITT Short Formula (Physics) CHAMPIONS Refraction of Light vacuum, p= =— 41 Laws of Refraction (at any Refracting Surface) Sini Sinr Law. More precisely, ‘onstant for any pair of media and for light ofa given wave length. This is known as Snell's O} 42 Deviation of a Ray Due to Refraction Deviation (8) of ray incident at i and refracted at ris given by 5 Principle of Reversibility of Light Rays ‘Aray travelling along the path of the reflected ray is reflected along the path of the incident ray. Arefracted ray reversed to travel back along its path wil get refracted along the path ofthe incident ray. Thus the incident, and refracted rays are mutually reversible. Apparent Depth and shift of Submerged Object ‘Atnear normal incidence (small angle of incidence i) apparent depth (d )is given by: d 4 1ny{Rofmediam ofincidence ) nf in (Rlof medium ofretracton ) 4 wt oa Apparent shi Rofraction through a Composite Slab (or Refraction through a number of parallol media, as soon from a medium of R. I. 9) Apparent depth (distance of final mage from final surface) 1 Apparent shi ters Nera Critical Angle and Total internal Reflection (7.1. R.) C= sint () Conditions of T.1.R. (@) __lightis incident on the interface from denser medium. (©) Angle of incidence should be greater than the critical angle (i> ¢)45 9. 10. ale Shor Formula Physics) CHAMPIONS Refraction Through Prism 9a 92 o 2) 8 Characteristics of a prism NN'& NIN" ate normals @ Base R 8=(i+0)-(, 45) and HHA bzite-A Variation of 8 versus There is one and only one angle of incidence for which the angle of deviation is minimum. When 8=8,,, the angle of minimum deviation, then i= @ and F; = fy the ray passes Symmotrically w.ct. the refracting surfaces. We can show by simple calculation that 5,,, = 2iy, A where i, = angle of incidence for minimum deviation and 2 sin 5a Say whee n= ——— Also y,=(N~1)A(for small values of A) For athin prism (A 10%) and for small value of, all values of 5 ‘m (mp1 )A where ng = = Dispersion Of Light The angular splitting of aray of white light into a number of components and spreading in different directions is called Dispersion of Light. This phenomenon is because waves of different wavelength move with same speed in vacuum but with different speeds in a medium. The refractive index of a medium depends slightly on wavelength also. This variation of refractive index with ‘wavelength is given by Cauchy s formula.46 1. 2 13, Short Formula (Physics) CHAMPIONS Cauchy's formula _n(2} ag where and are positive constants of a medium. ‘Angle between the rays ofthe extreme colours inthe refracted (dispersed) ightis called angle of dispersion. For prism of small A and with small 1 B= (ny, MA Deviation of beam(also called mean deviation) 1 A Dispersive power (o) of the medium of the material of prism is given by: « De For small angled prism (A 10%) with light incident at small angle i: —|—y- angular dispersion a) n+n, 7 [take n,= 3 ifvalue of ny 's not given inthe problem) Nand .n, are R. |. of material for violet, red and yellow colours respectively. Combination of Two Prisms Two of more prisms can be combined in various ways to get different combination of angular dispersion and deviation, (@) Direct Vision Combination (dispersion without deviation) The condition for direct vision combination is TA a bytlas bya {b) Achromatic Combination (deviation without dispersion.) Condition for achromatic combination is: (nym) A=(n.,=n)A Refraction at Spherical Surfaces For paraxial rays incident on a spherical surface separating two media Ne ‘where light moves from the medium of refractive index, to the medium of refractive index ny. Transverse magnification (m) (of mension perpendicular to principal axis) due to refraction at spherical surface R_ ving isgivenby m= TF = Gin Refraction at Spherical Thin Lens Athin lens is called convex if it is thicker at the middle and itis called concave if tis thicker at the ends. For a spherical, thin lens having the same medium on both sides: where n,, = ———47 | Short Formula (Physics) CHAMPIONS . Work function is minimum for cesium (1.9 eV) rk. fe ‘W = hi fe + work function W = hyp = 2 eton W = hwy = + Photoslectic curent is direct proportional to intensity of incident radiation. (v constant) + Phatoslections ejected from metal have kinetic energies ranging from 0 19 KEnax Hote KEqae = 8V, «stopping potent + Stopping potential is independent of intensity of ight used (-constant) + Intensity in th terms of elt eld is 1 2 ted yee h + Momentum of one photon is + Einstein equation for photoskcric effect is he _ he neewothm =H vey, +2400 + enegy ae = Tatyev * Force due to radiation (Photon) (no transmission) When light is incident perpendicuary @ a-1 1-0 A A Pressure ® ta 2m a ." < (©) when O mass of nucleus + Minimum wavelength for x-rays “he _ 12400 don = BVq Vo(volt) + Moseleys Law Ww =a») ‘and b are positive constants for one type of x-rays (independent of Z) + Average radius of nucleus may be written as R=RA™, Roz 14x10 M A mass number + Binding energy of nucleus of mass M, is given by B = (2M, + NM MC? + Alpha - decay process ax Sh yadHe vale is a= fn (x)-m( «Bota minus decoy ax Ayyapray: @ value = [m(3x)-m(4,,¥)}e + Beta plus-decay tx Ay epee © value = [mn(2x)=m(f,¥)-2mo}e? + Electron capture : when atomic electron is captured, X-rays are emitted AK +e Ayey Q-value = [m($x)-m(%.,Y)]e? + Inradioactive decay, number of nuclei at instant {is given by N= Noe **, A-decay constant + Activity of sample: A= Aye ™ + Activity per unit mass is called specific activity Half te : Tuy = 2523 af Ife : Typ = a en + Average life : Tax = Gags + radioactive nucleus can decay by two different processes having hal vest, and, respectively, Effective hatte of nuces Is gen by 1-4-4BO | shor romuia rye) CHAMPIONS Interference of waves of intensity I, and I, resultant intensity, I= I, + y+ Zit 608 (Aé) where, Ap = phase difference. For Constructive Interference : law® Wh + viet For Destructive interference : la? Win-viah Ifsources are incoherent 11, +, at each point Yose: Path diference, Ap=S,P_ S| =® # d<a,then v=-S* og c= St 4. Uniform Thin Spherical Shell (a) Point P inside the shell, We know, 9 = at Hence Oya,” Sane SATELLITE VELOCITY (OR ORBITAL VELOCITY) om, 7_ oR? ? Reon 7 RH When h << R, then y= JR, = 7.92 10%ms53 Short Formula (Physics) CHAMPIONS Time period of Satellite Mam Energy of a Satellite U Mem ay mR sthen total energy Kepler's Laws Law of area ‘The line joining the sun and a planet sweeps out equal areas in equal intervals of time. 1 prirde) = atea swept _ 2 ty B® 4 Areal velocity = “82S A = EMF constant. Hence + Ho = constant. . Law of periods: Ty = constant FLUIDS, SURFACE TENSION, VISCOSITY & ELASTICITY : fF A Hydraulic pre: =f A ironic press. Pr Re Hydrostatic Paradox Py=P,=Py (i) Liquid placed in elevator: When elevator accelerates upward with acceleration a, then pressure inthe fluid, at depth h may be given by, p= ph [9 + a] t and force of buoyancy, B (g + a) (i) Free surface of quid in horizontal acceleration ™ ws wor ery P; Pe = play where py and p, are pressures at points 1 & 2. Then hy hy = 0 3 {W) Free surface of lui n case of rotating ender, ery *° 2g ° ag Equation of Continuity ayy = ave In general av = constantPin ‘54 | Short Formula (Physics) CHAMPIONS Bernaull s Theorem Fl igh le. G+ 7 + gh = constant (w) Tomcats orem (apeed fe) vey restoring ore ‘rea of the body A ELASTICITY & VISCOSITY : stress = change in configuration Stain, = “riginal configuration aL (Longitudinal strain = = volume strait (ii) Shear Strain : tan gorg= % 7 IA FL 1. Young'emodulusofeasticty y= FA. FL Inter-Atomic Force-Constant k= Yry ov Newtons Lawof viscosity, FAS or 2 Stokes Law F=6xnr¥ Terminal volocty= 5 ‘SURFACE TENSION Total force on ether of the imaginary tine (F) AW Surface tension (T) = Length of the Fae (¢) T=s- 9 ‘Thus, surface tension is numerically equal to surface energy or work done per unitincrease surface area. Inside a bubble: (® p)= “=P : Inside the drop: (® 0)= == Pane Ine ar bubble alaud:ip p= 2 Proce-— “s5 | Short Formula (Physics) CHAMPIONS 2Teos6 lary Rise Capillary Rit na (Longitudinal displacement of sound wave. E=Asin (ot kx) (i) Pressure excess during travelling sound wave ~B— (itis true for travelling (BAK) cos(at kx) wave as well as standing waves) Amplitude of pressure exces: — a Where & = Ellastic modulus for the medium p= density of medium (ii) Speed of sound ¢ for solid where Y = young's modulus for the solid for liquid c iB rll e where B= Bulk modulus for the liquid B_ fe. fee forges c= E-E-[ where M,is molecular wt. of the gas in (kg/mole) Intensity of sound wave Pi <1> = 20 Atov = 3 Pe 1 (i) Loudness of sound: L = 10108: 7 a8 whore l= 10 # Wim#(This the minimum intensity human ears can listen) P Intonsiy at a distance rom a point source = I= hz Interference of Sound Wave if Pe=Dygsin (ot ky, + 8) Pacsin (ot key + 8) resultant excess pressure at point O is P=Py+Py Pepsin (ot kx +0)TT ‘56 | Short Formula (Physics) CHAMPIONS B= (ia PE =P ag 8 where = [k (x, %) + (8, OQ) and 1=h tht iii () Forconstructve interference $= 2ns and a= Put * Pug (Constructive interference) (i) Fordestructive intertrence G=(2ne1)= and py=1Py Pye (destructive interference) I is due to path difference only then 6 Condition for constructive interference : Ax= ni Condition for destructive interference : ax=(2n+ 1) % @) yg =Pywand resultant p = 0.6. no sound ©) Fg =Pyand 6=0, 2x, 4x, P= 20a y= 4h P= 2P ug Close organ pipe : ¥ Sv Se n= overtone water a Open organ pipe : va ov We Beats : Beatsfrequency=If, Doppler s Effect ‘The observed frequency, and Apparentwavelength= 1 | Short Formula (Chemistry) CHAMPIONS CE SHORT FORMULA (GYAN SUTRA) CHEMIST RY ATOMIC STRUCTURE Estimation of closest distance of approach (derivation) of a-particle The radius of a nucleus R=Rj(A)"om he Planck's Quantum Theory : Energy of one photon=hw = 1 Photoelectric Effect : tems dime Bohr’'s Model for Hydrogen like atoms : h Fe (Quantization of angular momentum) 4. mvr=n 3 Jiatom = 1362 ev; a E, z 2, 6,=- ab 222.178 x 10-8 = rf n fie eal xn 3.2% cae 5 2nze? _ 2.18x10%xz n=] * an?e’m Zz ‘ah a ms De-Broglie wavelength : * =e ahoton) smo p fo" photon Wavelength of emitted photon : 2 mo | No. of photons emitted by a sample of H atom : an(an+) 22 = ‘Short Formula (Chemistry) CHAMPIONS EN Heisenbera's uncertainty principle: >- axave axave ge axap> FL or maxave qt ow axave ‘Quantum Numbers : * Principal quantum number (n) = 1,2, 3,4. 10». nh + Otital angular momentum of electron in any orbit = 5 + Aaimuthal quantum number (() = 0, 1... to (n= 1). + Number of orbitals in a subshell = 2¢ +4 * Maximum number of electrons in particular subshell =2 x (2+ 1) : hoy j ash Orbital angular momentum L= 5 (HED = LEED al STOICHIOMETRY Mass of one atom of an element Relative atomic mass (R.A.M) = Total Number of nucleons 1 .1000 Molarity (M) = (Mol wt of Solute) Vins Molality (m): number of moles of solute Molalty = “mass of solvent in gram ‘00 = 1000w,/ Mw, Mole fraction (x) : Me raconotsoong= <8, Mlatontsohent == % Calculation : mass of solute in gM 49 © w= Tass of solution ingm mass of solute in gm @ — %WN= mass of solution in mi” "O° Volume of solution in ml @® where Volume of solution Derive the following conversion : Mole fr f sol I f soll M: exe Jol fraction of solute into molarity of solution M= y XM + Max uM, »1000 olay nto mote faction x,= = 4000 — My 1000 Mote ration into motaty m= “5 mM, Molality into mole fraction x,= 550" ng smpx1000 Molalty into molarity M= qoTh | short Formula (Chemisty CHAMPIONS CHAMPIONS M1000 6. Molarity into Malalty m= +999 ,5— ay M, and M, are molar masses of solvent and solute. pis density of solution (gmm/mL) M= Molarity (molerit.), m= Molalty (mole/kg), x, = Mole fraction of solvent, x,= Mole fraction of solute ‘Average/Mean atomic mass : Yk HK tons HX 100 Mean molar mass or molecular mass : A FAM EM on My hes Weng, Maw Calculation of individual oxidation number : Formula : Oxidation Number = number of electrons in the valence shell ~ number of electrons lef after bonding Concept of Equivalent weight/Mass : Atomic weight For elements, equivalent weight (E) = Vajency-factor M For acid/base, a Basicty / Acidity Where M M For O.AiRA, e-—M_ no. of moles of e~ gained/lost ‘Atomic or moleoulear weight Equivalent weight (E) = ace (ve. ‘Concept of number of equivalents : ww w No. of equivalents of solute = ga. wi EMT No. of equivalents of solute = No. of moles of solute x v.f. Normality (N): Number of equivalents of solute Normality (N) = “Volume of solution (in litres) Normality = Molarity x ve. Calculation of valency Factor : factor of acid = basicity = no. of H’ ion(s) furnished per molecule of the acid n-factor of base = acidity = no, of OH” ion(s) furmised by the base per molecule, ‘At equivalence point NY, MY,=~ 5 | Short Formula (Chemistry) CHAMPIONS Ce Volume strength of H,0, 20V H,O, means one litre ofthis sample of H,0,.on decomposition gives 20 It. of O, gas at S.T.P. Normality oH,0, «) = Yalume.strenathof HO 56 Motarty or H,0, (my = Yetume strength of H,0, lolarity of H,0, (0) aie Measurement of Hardness : massofCacO, Haran 10 in PPM = Total mass of water Calculation of available chlorine from a sample of bleaching powder : 3.55xxxV(ML) %ofCl,= ——Wigy where: = molarity of hypo solution and v= mL. of hypo solution used in titration, GASEOUS STATE ‘Temperature Scale : c-0 _ K-273 R-RO) 700-0 373-273 212-32 ~ R(100)-R(O) Where R= Temp. on unknown scale. Boyle's law and measurement of pressure : 1 Atconstant temperature, vas PV,=P.V, Charles law : Mi _ Ma Atconstant pressure, VaT or TE Gay-lussac’s law: Atconstant volume, — PaT 7,7, > tempon absolute scale Ideal gas Equation : PV=nRT w d Pv= “RT orP= © RT orPm=dRT Daltons law of partial pressure ng RT p-MBT py mRT PLE PL + Py= and so on. Total pressure =6 = Short Formula (Chemistry) CHAMPIONS ESaNee Partial pressure = mole fraction x Total pressure ‘Amagat’s law of partial volume : VEV AV EV Average molecular mass of gaseous mixture : Total mass of miture mM +p My +My Tefal no. of moles in mature Ty +N +My Graham's Law 1 Rate of difusion r= density of gas ve Me (VD, fy Ya, ~ YM, ~ VV-D; Kinetic Theory of Gases : +o PV= 5 mN UF Kinetic equation of gases Average K.E. for one mole = Ny, Root mean sugare speed molar mass must be in kg/mole. ‘Average speed K Is Boltzmman constant Most probable speed (aan eet ws VM Vm Vander wall's equation : (an? +8 | v—no) oR \ Critical constants : 8a To? 27RD= 7 | Short Formula (Chemistry) CHAMPIONS EN Vander wall equation in virial form : Reduced Equation of state : 3 Pa . ( e]ou-n=0r, THERMODYNAMICS ‘Thermodynamic processes : 1, Isothermal process: T= constant dT=0 at 2, Isochoric process: V= constant qv av 3. Isobaric process : constant 4. Adiabatic process: ° (zero) or heat exchange withthe surroundin IUPAC Sign convention about Heat and Work : ‘Work done on the system = Positive ‘Work done by the system = Negative 41 Law of Thermodynamics AU=(U,-U)=a+w Law of equipartion of energy : t U= SnRT (only for ideal gas) t aE = 5 aR @T) where f= degrees of freedom for that gas, (Translational + Rotational) 3 formonoatomic, 5 fordiatomic or linear polyatmic =6 fornon-tinear polyatmic Calculation of heat (q) : Total heat capacity8 Short Formula (Chemistry) Molar heat capacity Aq dd tect nat nat / mole" R R Oat OTs ‘Specific heat capacity (s) : 10 = om Ket mat mat vane K WORK DONE (w) Isothermal Reversible expansion/compression of an ideal gas : W==nRT In (V/V) Reversible and irreversible isochoric processes. Since dV=0 so dW=-P,,.dV=0. Reversible isobaric process : W=P(V,-V) Adiabatic reversible expansion : = Ty,= Ty," Reversible Work PaVo Py _ mR (T ~Th) yt yr Irreversible Work : Ppp =PiVy _ AR (Te = Ty) . PM: a] 9G, (7,=T,) ==Py(Vp=V) and use Free expansion ~ Always going to be irrerversible and since P,, = 0 so dW=-P,,.dV=0 Ino. heat is supplied q = 0 then JE so A Application of Ist Law : AU= AQ + AW = AU= AQ -PaV Constant volume process Heat given at constant volum: du= (69), ‘change in intemal energy CHAMPIONS SM9 ‘Short Formula (Chemistry) CHAMPIONS Constant pressure process : H = Enthalpy (state function and extensive property) H=U+PV > C,~C, = R (only for ideal gas) ‘Second Law Of Thermodynamics 8 unse = 4S sung + 4S sysindng 2.0 for spontaneous process, Entropy (S) San” fo Entropy calculation for an ideal qas undergoin a process : soca > Stato PAVyT, PuVT, i Ve ne, In 4+ RIN (only for an ideal gas) ‘Third Law Of Thermodynamics : ‘The entropy of perfect crystals of all pure elements & compounds is zero at the absolute zero of temperature. Gibb’s free energy (G) : (State function and an extensive property) Criteria of spontaneity : OINAG,,.., 8-ve)<0 process is spontaneous (IFaG.,is> 0 > process isnon spontaneous (ip Ifa. ven =O = systemis at equilibrium Physical interpretation of AG : > The maximum amount of non-expansional (compression) work which can be performed. AG = Wisegg = dH - TAS. Standard Free Energy Change (AG°) 1.AG° = -2.303 RT log, K 2.Atequilibium AG=0. 8. The decrease in free energy (-AG) is given as. -aG= Ve 308 aRTI09,, 4.6 forelemental state = 0 5. AG} = Gjowes — GoactantsShort Formula (Chemistry) > alle CHAMPIONS ‘Thermochemistry : —_ change nstandardenthapy aH = HB.» HE, = heat added at constant pressure, = 6,37 frase” Herts » Reaction should be endothermic as we have to give extra heat to reactants to get these converted into products, andi Hyoay 0 reaction will shift in the forward direction An <0 reaction will shift in the backward direction An = 0 reaction will not shift Effect of pressure + If pressure is increased at equilibrium then reaction will try to decrease the pressure, hence it will shift in the direction in which less no. of moles of gases are formed. Effect of inert gas addition : © Constant pressure If inert gas is added then to maintain the pressure constant, volume is increased. Hence equilibrium ‘wl shifin the direction in which larger no. of moles of gas is formed ‘An > 0 reaction will shift in the forward direction ‘An < 0 reaction will shift in the backward direction An = 0 reaction will not shift (Constant volume Inert gas addition has no effect at constant volume. Effect of Temperature : Eaquilibrium constant is only dependent upon the temperature, 1 aH as IF plot of ink vs = Is plotted then itis a straight line with slope =~ “>, and intercept = “= * For endothermic (4H > 0) reaction value of the equilibrium constant increases with the rise in ‘temperature * For exothermic (AH < 0) reaction, value of the equilibrium constant decreases with increase in temperature For AH > O, reaction shiffs in the forward direction with increase in temperatutre For AH < 0, reaction shifts in the backward direction with increases in temperature, Ifthe concentration of reactantis increased at equilibrium then reaction shift in the forward direction * Ifthe concentration of product is increased then equilibrium shifts in the backward direction Vapour Pressure of Liquid : Partialpressure of H,0 vapours Relative Humidity = —Pattilpressure of, vapours _ Y= “Vapour pressure of Oat that temp._ 13 | Short Formula (Chemistry) CHAMPIONS CSM ‘Thermodynamics of Equilibrium AG = AG"+ 2.303 RT 1og,,Q kK) e (44 Vant Hoff equation- log| i = 2.303R (Tt Th IONIC EQUILIBRIUM 4, OSTWALD DILUTIONLAW: WIA] _[Calta) _ co? HA] c(-0) ~i-a Dissociation constant of weak acid (K,) Mase, then ork, = co? or a= Similarly for aweak base “=e - Higher the value of K, /K, , strong isthe acid / base. ity and pH scale : 2 pH log 8. (where @,. isthe activity of H* ions = molar concentration for dilute solution). [Note: pH can also be negative or > 14] PH = —log (H'1; iH log[OH]; [OH log Ka; ka= 10% log Kb 5 Kb= 109 PROPERTIES OF WATER : 1. Inpure water[H']=[OH] so itis Neutral. 2 Moler concentration / Molarity of water = 65.56 M. 3. Ionic product of water (K,) : K, = [H'][O#] = 10-* at 25° (experimentally) pH=7=pOH = neutral PH<7 orpOH>7 => acidic pH>TorpOoH Note: fora conjugate acid- base pairs pk, + pK, = pk, = 14 at 25°C, pK, of H,0° fons=—1.74 pK, of OH fons =-1.74, ° PH Calculations of Different Types of Solutions : {a) Strong acid solution : fconcentration is greater than 10M In this case H* ions coming from water can be neglected, (i) Ifconcentration is less than 10M Inthis case H* ions coming from water cannot be neglected (b) Strong base solution Using similar method as in part (a) calculate first (OH'] and then use [H'] x {OH}]= 10-* (©) pHof mixture of two strong acids : Number of H" ions trom I-solutio ‘Number of Hons from I-solutor NAV +NSVe iene oy (a) pHof mixture of two strong bases : {e) pH of mixture of a strong acid and a strong base : Ni, NaV> IFNLV, > NV. then solution willbe acidic innature and (H']= N= "yy NeVa-NiVs IN,» NL, then solution willbe basic in nature and [OH ]=N= "yy o PH of a weak acid(monoprotic) solution HIIOH] _ Ca? HA ha Hast st-aynt 3 Kota 3 anf (isvaidita <0.tor 10%) On increasing the dilution > cl sat and [H'] 4 = pHT {g) pH ofa solution of a polyprotic weak acid : pt =3(o%o, 290)48 | Short Formula (Chemisty) RELATIVE STRENGTH OF TWO ACIDS [H*] furnished by 1 acid _oyey _ [katy IH] fumished by Mackd 20 Ky, (h) pH of amixture of two weak acid(both monoprotic) solutions : Kor oy G> K2> Ky pH of NaH,PO, 1 200K PK) pHotNaHPO,= 2 (0K, + pK.) H ofNa.PO,= “(okw+ eka, +09 0) -. Sec hydrolysis can neglect BUFFER SOLUTION : (a) Acidic Buffer : e.g. CH, COOH and CH,COONa. (weak acid and sal ofits conjugate base) (Salt) DHE pK, + 109 facap {Henderson's equation] (b) Basic Buffer: ¢.9. NH,OH + NH,CI. (weak base and salt of its conjugate acid). (Salt POH= PKs * 109 jBase] Buffer capacity (index) : Total no. of molesof acid alkali added per lire Change in pH 3 @1010-) S03 arb=~ 17 | Short Formula (Chemistry) CHAMPIONS Ce INDICATOR : Hin =} H+ In Hi) oT Kee * ay tin (loniseaform} PH= PK #109 tetay = PH= pK. * !09 (Unionised form) SIGNIFICANCE OF INDICATORS : Extent of reaction of different bases with acid (HCl) using two indicators Phenolphthalein Methyl Orange NaOH 100% reaction is indicated 100% reaction is indicated NaOH + HCI —> Nacl+ HO NaOH + HCI > NaC! + HO Na,co, ‘50% reaction upto NaHCO, 100% reaction is indicated stage Is indicated Na,CO, + HCl —> NaHCO, + NaCl Na,CO, + 2HCI—+2NaCl+ H,0+CO, 100% reaction is indicated NaHCO, + HCI —> NaCl+H,0 + CO, NaHico, Q ISOELECTRICPOINT: SOLUBILITY PRODUCT : eytisy K,= (4s) (ys) CONDITION FOR PRECIPITATION : Iionic product K;» > Ksp precipitation occurs, If Kip = Kp Saturated solution (precipitation just begins or is just prevented), _ ELECTROCHEMISTRY ELECTRODE POTENTIAL For any electrode — oxidiation potential = - Reduction potential E.,,= RP of cathode -R-P of anode E_, = RP. of cathode + O.P of anode E_,, is always a +ve quantity & Anode will be electrode of low R.P E>, = SRP of cathode - SRP of anode, Greater the SRP value greater will be oxidising power.= 48 | Short Formula (Chemisty) CHAMPIONS SaaS GIBBS FREE ENERGY CHANGE: AG =—nFE,.y AG® =~ nFE* NERNST EQUATION : (Effect of concentration and temp of an emt of cel = AG=AG°+RTénQ (where Qis raection quotient) AG?=-RT ink, . RT Eat = ear ge 2 2.208RT, ai 10 Ea hp 090 0.0591 Esa Ete —q 109 (AL 208K) [At chemical equim eon 5 Bua =0 ° log K,,= te 99 Kea = 9.0591 log Ke, Foran electrode M(s)/M _2300RT 1 eae "8 CONCENTRATION CELL : A cell in which both the electrods are made up of same material Eye im Forall concentration cell E,,,= 0. (a) Electrolyte Concentration Cell : & eg. Zn(8) /Zn?* (6, || Zn™(C,)/2n13) 2 og (b) Electrode Concentration Cell: y eg. PILHP, am) /H* (IM) Hi, (P, atm /Pt & = 9059 tog (| DIFFERENT TYPES OF ELECTRODES : 1. Mettetatonectode MyM. ven my ewer 285 gry 2 GasionElectrode ——_-PL/H,(Patm) /H* (XM) Pag as a reduction electrode Haq) + © —> 3H, (Palm) = E*—00801 tog Te° 19 _ ‘Short Formula (Chemistry) CHAMPIONS SM Oxidation-educion Electrode PLY Fe, Fe sduction electrode Fe Fe E=E°- 0.0591 | fe") as aredicton electrode Fe +e —» Fe =€°- 00861 og Fes Metal-Metal insoluble salt Electrode eg. Ag/AgCI, CI. ‘as a reduction electrode AgCi(s) + e° —> Ag(s) + Cr Eee sagetiag = Eer-sagcirag ~ 0.0881 log [Ct CALCULATION OF DIFFERENT THERMODYNAMICS FUNCTION OF CELL REACTION ° AG=-n FE. (Atcostant pressure). EsatbT+cr+ ACp of cell reaction dH Cp= oF acp= (aH) a ar FE oa aT? nFT ELECTROLYSIS (@ —K’,Ca®, Na’, Mg”, Als, Zn, Fe, HY, Cu, Ag’, Au a, Increasing order of deposition. (©) Similarly the anion which is strogner reducing agent(low value of SRP) is liberated first at the anode. 0}, NO;.OF, €F, BCI Inreacingorder af petion= 20 | Short Formula (Chemistry) CHAMPIONS ES FARADAY'S LAW OF ELECTROLYSIS : First Law: wezq weZit lectrochemical equivalent of substance Second Law: w Wy _ We Wak B= eonstant Ee W _ ixtxcurrent efficiency factor E 96500 actual m 5 deposited/produced Theortical mass deposited/produced CONDITION FOR SIMULTANEOUS DEPOSITION OF Cu& Fe AT CATHODE CURRENT EFFICIENCY = 100 Ee joy — 20594 gg 1 ge ooset 4 og Gar = Eset ire log =o 219 oy fe pe a "00 Eo: Condition forthe simultaneous deposition of Cu & Fe on cathode. CONDUCTANCE: 1 Resistance ‘Specific conductance or conductivity : ‘Conductance = (Reciprocal of specific resistance) K = specific conductance Equivalent conductance : kx1000 a © = Nommality unit: -ohen cm eg Molar conductance : K>1000 "Mola unit: -ohm- em? mole specific conductance = conductance x = KOHLRAUSCH'S LAW Variation of 4/2, of a solution with concentration : () — Strongelectrotyte Ig = hy — Do (i) Weakelectrolytes: 2, deve me where Ais the molar conductivity 1, = No of cations obtained after dissociation per formula unit = No of anions obtained after dissociation per formula unit,21 | Short Formula (Chemistry) APPLICATION OF KOHLRAUSCH LAW 1. Calculation of 2%, of weak Mcncoona * 2 Tocaloulate degree of diossociation of a week electrolyte iy ca? a F Ka= Gay 3. Solubiity (S) of sparingly soluble sat & their K,, 1000 *™ Solubility © IONIC MOBILITY : Its he distance travelled by the fon per second under the potential gradient of 1 volts per cm. i's unit is em?s-*v" Absolute ionic mobility : woew, : Ago RaFueG 29 =F ene onic Mobility y= Eieeee (17 —rpotentialgraaient ‘Transport Number —s_] ransport Number of cation & t, = Transport Number of anion SOLUTION & COLLIGATIVE PROPERTIES OSMOTIC PRESSURE : o gh Where, p= density of soln., h= equilibrium height, (i) Vont Hoff Formula (For calculation of 0.P.) n= CST = cRT= 2 RT gustte Weal gas equation ‘tal conc. of all types of particles, 1+ Cy + Cy + (04 +g +g + ) v Note: IfV, mL of, cone. + V, ml of C, cone, are mixed. (CM +C.V (BM, + mVo (yey, JRT = leah ‘Type of solutions : {a) Isotonic solution ~ Two solutions having same O.P. 1, = ry (at same temp.)22 | Short Formula (Chemistry) = =I Le CHAMPIONS (b) Hyper tonic Ifx,> x,, = I solution is hypertonic solution wrt. 2" solution. {c) Hypotonic ~ I!" solution is hypotonic wrt. 1 solution Abnormal Colligative Properties : (In case of association or dissociation) VANT HOFF CORRECTION FACTOR (i): exp/observed/actual/abnormal value of colligative property Theoritical value of colligative property exp./observed no. of particles / conc. _ observed molality ‘Theortical no. of particles ~ Theortical molality theoretical molar mass (formula mass) ‘experimental /observed molar mass apparent molar mass) OQ 1>1 = dissociation i °° ae 2 Ostwald-Walker Method : Experimental or lab determination of “or jy P-P, _ loss in w.of solvent P, = loss in wt.of solution loss in wt.of solvent P ~ gainin wt.of dehydrating agent 3. ELEVATIONINBOILING POINT: tntnkn RT? RT,?M K jot 7000 Fag, AH yap uC) 4. DEPRESSION INFREEZING POINT AT, =ixK,.m, Se REM K, = molal depression constant = apt * 7000 AFaw RAOULT’S LAW FOR BINARY (IDEAL) MIXTURE OF VOLATILE LIQUIDS P,=X,P,° s PA=X,P, Ula : Alsmore volatile than B BP. of A,.) Ideal solutions (mixtures): Mitureswhich follow Raoutts law at all temperature, 8 aH,,=0 Vou AS,,= + ve as for processto proceed AG, eg. (1) Benzene + Toluene. (2) Hexane + heptane. GBC HBr+ CH. Non - Ideal solutions : which do not obey Raoul’ law. (a) Positive deviation : O Pray? KP%* RPS) Ww BB a—B L Weaker force of attraction (i) a, (wav, as, (ace, eg. H,0+CHOH. H.0+C,H0H HOH + hexane CLH,OH + cyclohexane. CHCI, + CCI, -> dipole dipole interaction becomes weak PPA> PBo) 25 eg. = Short Formula (Chemisty) CHAMPIONS Soe Negative deviation Py exp < xp? + x8, @ gpa strong force of altraction B, wo (L+tL<2L) H,0+HCOOH H0+CH,COOH H.0+HNO, CHCI,+CHOCH, = > PA> PB OP, (P,=PLOX, Gly P= POX,= Pe PE _ WaMp Gu Pape Poe Pe © Bo MWe uRT pe MART py B.P. of solution is less than the individual B.P.'s of both the liquids,26 | Short Formula (Chemistry) CHAMPIONS SM Henry Law : 0 ‘This law deals with dissolution of gas in liquid i.e. mass of any gas dissolved in any solvent per unit volume is proportional to pressure of gas in equilibrium with liquid. map m P weight of gas ™ > Volume of liquid SOLID STATE Classification of Crystal into Seven System Crystal System Unit Cell Dimensions Bravais Example and Angles Lattices Cubic Sc, BCC, Fc Nac orthorhombic SC, BCC, end contred & FCC 8, ‘Tetragonal a=becj;a=B=y= 90° ‘SC, BCC ‘Sn,Zn0, Monoctinic aebsec;a=y=90° 4B SC, end centred Sy Rhombohedtal 490° se Quartz Tritinic asbeciaspeye90" sc H.B0, Hexagonal azbecia=B=90%y= 120° SC Graphite ANALYSIS OF CUBICAL SYSTEM Property sc Bec Fe i 2 re < dge length @ atomic radius (r) 2 22 a= edge lengtt (No. of atoms per unit cet (2) 1 2 4 Gi) No. 6 8 2 (wy) Packing efficiency 52% 68% 74% ® —No.voids (@ octahedral (Z) _ 4 (by Tetranderal @Z) = a NEIGHBOUR HOOD OF A PARTICLE : ‘Simple Cubic (SC) Structure : ‘Type of neighbour Distance no.of neighbours, nearest a 6 (shared by 4 cubes) (vex 12 (shared by 2 cubes) (oexy? 8 (unshared)27 | Short Formula (Chemistry) (Wl) Body Centered Cubic (BCC) Structure Type of neighbour Distance ear (vex! = (vent? (0x? zat (oext = a8 (ll) Face Centered Cubic (FCC) Structure : ‘Type of neighbour Distance oF nearest # (vex! a ext? al? (rex? > (next? ava [5 (vex) ale os © DENSITY OF LATTICE MATTER (A)= ii, | 23 } = CHAMPIONS EN no.of neighbours a 6 2 24 8 no. of neighbours, (22) ‘ a : ~ where N, = Avogadro's No. M= atomic mass or molecular mass. OQ tonic crysTaLs C.No. Limiting radius ratio 0.185 ~ 0.226 (Triangular) 0.225 ~0.414 (Tetrahedral) 0.414 ~0.732 (Octahedral) 0.732 -0,999 (Cubic). © _ EXAMPLES OF AIONIC CRYSTAL {a) Rock Salt (NaCl) Coordination number (6 : 6) Edge length of unit cell :~ {c)Zinc Blende (ZnS) C.No. (4:4) (b) CsCl C.No. (8:8) 2 BOtn)7 28 | Short Formula (Chemistry) CHAMPIONS ) 4 eee oe (a) Fluorite structure (CaF,) C.No. (8:4) loge He) © Crystal Defects (Imperfections) Crystal Defects (Point Defects) Stoichiometric Non-Stoichiometrie ‘Schottky Frenkel Metal excess Non-Metal excess (lon pairs missing) (dislocation of ions) electron in place extracation in. Vacant site extra anion in ‘of anion the interstitial jy place of cation intersiial(not found) CHEMICAL KINETICS & REDIOACTIVITY RATE/VELOCITY OF CHEMICALREACTION : Ac _ mol/it Rate= SF = TOD = moll time-* = mol d= time ‘Types of Rates of chemical reaction = Fora reaction R —> P Total change in concentration Average rate Total time taken —lim (4¢]__ de __ aR] _ alP] Reesames 18 At) at "~ dt 7 dt RATE LAW (DEPENDENCE OF RATE ON CONCENTRATION OF REACTANTS): Rate=K(conc.)~ —_— differential rate equation or rate expression Where = Rate constant = specific reaction rate = rate of reaction when concentration is unity Unit of = (cone)"=" time" Order of reaction : mA + m.B—> products R= AP [B]° Where p may or may not be equal to m, & similarly q may or may not be equal to m,. P is order of reaction with respect to reactant A and q is order of reaction with respect to reactant B and (+ 0) overall order of the reaction.a. 29 | Short Formula (Chemisty) CHAMPIONS INTEGRATED RATE LAWS: ©, oF ais initial concentration and C, ora =xis concentration at ime {a) zero order reactions Rate = k [conc.}° = constant or C,=0,-kt Co Unit of K = mollit* sec’, Time for completion = $® att, , C, So so Kt, Sa t, ca t ¢, iG 2780 = ty OE m2 Cy (b) First Order Reactions : (i) Let a 1" order reaction is, A ——+ Products 2.203 |, So ci to, > = Independent of intial concentration Graphical Representation : 2.303 2.303 t= 22 toa c+ 2 loge, 7 ene tano=_ 2908 @ : ~~ 109676, org atx 163, () Second order reaction : 2° order Reactions Two types A + A — products A +B —+ products, aoa a» ° (a-x) @—) a-x b= wy ow > a 7K Ox Ge 7KA-N 0-9 id 2909 | wa-x = kt ke Bam) P@-w 7a Hab) !9 afo-x) (d) Psuedo first order reaction : :.ForA+B—> Products [Rat Kar eram 30 | Short Formula (Chemistry) CHAMPIONS 2303 ba-x) k= ab) 99 aib—x) Now if "is taken in large excess b> > a “bis very large can be taken as constant kp = 2598 Jog 2 x= 2503 tog —* «is psuedo first order rate constant aon = og 2 > 1 tog 3 «kis psuedo frst order rate constant METHODS To DETERMINE ORDER OF AREACTION (a) Initia rate method : r= kIAPIBP ICE if then fortwo different intial concentrations of Awe have fo =KIAJy . fo: =KIALS > © (b) Using Integrated rate law : Itis method of trial and error. {c) Method of hall es: 1 {for n® orderreaction = RT (4) Ostwald Isolation Method rate = k (AP (8) [CI = k, (AP METHODS TO MONITOR THE PROGRESS OF THE REACTION: (@ Progress of gaseous reaction can be monitored by measuring total pressureatafixed volume & temperature 2.303 ‘orby measuring total volume of mixture under constant pressure and temperature. k=", log Pa(n=1) nPp =P, {Formulas not applicable when n = 4, the value of n can be fractional also} ) — Bytitration method: 2303 Vo 1 axV, a-xeV, = ke oy 2. Study of acid hydrolysis of an easter. tM VY, (©) By measuring optical rotation produced by the reaction mixture :am 31 | Short Formula (Chemistry) CHANIPIONS EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON RATE OF REACTION. jummation of enthalpies of reactants summation of enthalpies of reactants Enthalpy change during the reaction nergy of aevation ofthe forward reaction Ea, = Energy of activation ofthe backward reaction Enthaley E,>E, =» endothermic E. exothermic AH=(E,~E,) = enthalpy change Arhenius equation ry c= kleone ink |, dT RT? eat-(-alba}fomo If, and k,be the rate constant of a reaction at two different temperature T, and T, respectively, then we have etna S(t. 4) ky 2908R (T; T. Ina E, =e ° =ina- slope = - 5. Ink= In~ 5 z E20 Tae KoA Ink iT REVERSIBLE REACTIONS =A, etelRt enfatayiRTa 32 | Short Formula (Chemistry) CHAMPIONS ‘endothermic 4/T exothermic VT pl_k g, Fak +Eko fe ~ Ke a ° Ky +ha (i) REVERSIBLE 1" ORDER REACATION ( both forward and backward ) Kya KK (eth Oras J (iti) SEQUENTIAL 1°" ORDER REACTION tal= tale“ x=alt- (cl CASE (a CASE: — K,>>K, i)TTT 33°| Short Formula (Chemistry) CHAMPIONS PERIODIC TABLE & PERIODICITY Development of Modern Periodic Tabl (a) Dobereiner’s Triads : He arranged similar elements in the groups of three elements called as triads (b) Newland's Law of Octave : He was the first to correlate the chemical properties ofthe elements with their atomic masses (c) Lother Meyer's Classification : He plotted a graph between atomic masses against their respective alomic volumes for a number of elements. He found the observations ; (i) elements with similar properties, ‘occupied similar positions on the curve, (i) alkali metals having larger atomic volumes occupied the crests, (ii) transitions elements occupied the troughs, (iv) the halogens occupied the ascending portions ofthe curve before the inert gases and (v) alkaline earth metals occupied the positions at about the mid points of the descending portions of the curve. On the basis of these observations he concluded that the atomic volumes (a physical property) of the elements are the periodic functions of their atomic masses. (d) Mendeleev's Periodic Table : Mendeleev's Periodic’s Law the physical and chemical properties of the elements are the periodic functions oftheir atomic masses. Periods Number of Elements Called as (Fast 2 Very short period (yen=2 a ‘Short period (@n=3 3 ‘Short period Pn 8 Tong period rn 8 Long petiod| (orn=6 a Vary long period n=? 78 Incomplete period Merits of Mendeleev's Periodic table: ‘© thas simplified and systematised the study of elements and their compounds, ‘© thas helped in predicting the discovery of new elements on the basis of the blank spaces given nits periodic table, Demerits in Mendeleev's Periodic Table Position of hydrogen is uncertain It has been placed in 14 and VIIA groups. No separate positions were given to isotopes. ‘Anomalous positions of lanthanides and actinides in periodic table. (Order of increasing atomic weights isnot strictly followed inthe arrangement of elements in the periodic. table. Similar elements were placed indifferent groups. Ididn’t explained the cause of periodicity. (€) Long form of the P Modern Periodic Law (Moseley's Periodic Law) : Ifthe elements are arranged in order oftheir increasing atomic number, after a regular interval, elements with similar properties are repeated, Periodicity The repetition of the properties of elements after regular intervals when the elements are arranged in the order of increasing atomic number is called periodicity, Cause of Periodicity. jodic Table or Moseley's Periodic Table :‘Short Formula (Chemistry) CHAMPIONS 3 Teper repeliin of he properties of the element i due fo the ecurence of lar valence shell sleconcconiguratons ater catan repr interva “Ie madem pened abe con azo rvs peo) and vera cokimn ups Perio Ther are seven periods numbered 1,234 5.8and7 2 Zach prod ont ere elements having same valence shel e Each period corresponds to a particular principal quantum number of the valence shell present in it. © Each pero sats with an alata having outermos electroniccontguratn ass © Each peiad ends wh noble gas wih outermost electronic coniguaon sy exept helm having eterna ledroniconiguaton 51 © Eacnperiog stash tengo new enery eve © Thenumberofelements mea peed shoe the number ofalmic ras vale energy ve thatisbeing od Groups “Ther re eighteen groups numbered 381,294 8, 19, 14,1, 1,17, 18 Group consis ofa series of elements having sla valence sha electronic configuration oF plc eet aes A = | | 4 -Block lomene Am a oe ets | ott OY [Laas | cn | ste | on | en = LS waa ek ALE LOL LELS % oe eee lt tial Balin] 2 Lateal & | |S oon Nets lek lent) —————~»—eeee Lanthanides | wire 5 | vinte [estn| Stes [se] zte | stino| verze | eos | roe | eer ~rctinides | i wl alm] & |e | a] & | m S| Classification of the Elements : (a) s-block elements Group 1 & 2 elements constitute the s-block. General electronic configuration is [inert gas] ns"? ‘s-block elements lie on the extreme left of the periodic table. (b) p-block elements Group 13 to 18 elements constitute the p-block. General electronic configuration is [inert gas] nsap'* (©) Block elements Group 3 to 12 elements constitute the d-block. General electronic configuration is [inert gas}am 35 | Short Formula (Chemistry) CHANIPIONS (n= 1) a ns'? (4) -Block elements General electronic configuration is (n -2) (a ~ 1) d ns* All -block elements belong to 3° group. Elements of f-blocks have been classified into two series. (1) 1* inner transition or 4 f-series, contains 14 elements ,,Ceto.,,Lu, (2). lind inner transition or 5 f-series, contains 14 elements ,,.Thto bt Prediction of period, group and block : © Period of an element corresponds to the principal quantum number ofthe valence shel. —_Theblock of an element corresponds to the type of subshell which receives the last electron, 2 Thegroupis predicted from the number of electrons in the valence shell or/and penultimate shell as follows, (@)Fors-blockelements; __Groupno.= the no. of valence electrons (b) Forp-block elements Group no. = 10+ no. of valence electrons. (©) Ford-block elements : Group no, Metals and nonmetals : + The metals are characterised by their nature of readily giving up the electron(s) and from shinning lustre, Metals comprises mare than 78% of all known elements and appear on the let hand side of the periodic table, Metals are usualy solids at room temperature (except mercury, galium). They have high melting and boling points and are good conductors of heat and electricity. Oxides of metals are generally basi in nature (ome metals in theirhigher oxidation state fonm acid oxides e.g. CrO). + Nonmetais donot lose electrons but take up electrons to form corresponding anions, Nonmetals are Iocated atthe top ight hand side ofthe periodic tab. Nonmetals are usually solids, liquids or gases at room temperature with low melting and boling points, They are poor conductors of heal and electricty. Oxides of rnonmetals are generally acicicin nature. 10. of electrons in (n= 1) d sub shell + no, of et rons in valence shell Metalloids (Semi metals) : ‘The metalloids comprise of the elements B, Si, Ge, As, Sb and Te. Diagonal relationship 2*perod Li BB oC 3period = Na Mg ALS Diagonal relationship arises because of ® —_ondescenading a group, the atorns and ions increase in size. On moving from lef to right inthe periodic. table, the size decreases, Thus on moving diagonally, the size remains nearly the same, (i= 123A & Mg = 1.36 A; Li'=0.76 A & Mg” = 0.72 A) (i) itis sometimes suggested that the diagonal relationship arises because of diagonal similarity in electronegativty values, (i= 1.0&Mg=12;Be=158Al=15;8=208Si=18) The periodicity of atomic properties () Effective nuctear charge The effective nuclear charge (Z,) = 2-0, (where Zs the actual nuclear charge (atomic number ofthe element) and c is the shielding (screening) constant). The value of c i.e. shielding effect can be determined using the Slaters rules. (i) Atomic radius (A) Covalent radius : It is one-half of the distance between the centres of two nuclei (of like atoms) bonded by a single covalent bond. Covalent radius is generally used fornonmetals,a. 36 | Short Formula (Chemistry) CHAMPIONS (8) Vander Wat's radius (Collision radius) : It is one-half of the internuclear distance between two adjacent atoms in two nearest neighbouring molecules of the substance in solid state, (©) Metalic radius (Crystal radius) itis one-hatf ofthe distance between the nuctei of two adjacent metal atomsin the metalic crystal atic. + Thus, the covalent, vander Wall's and metalic radius magnitude wise follows the order, Variation in a Period Variation in a Group In period left ight Ina group top to bottom ‘Nuclear charge (2) inereases by one unit Nuclear charge (2) increases by more than one unit Effective nuclear charge (2a) almost remaine constant Eectve nuckar charge (Zu) aso inceases because of increased serening eect of ner hala electrons, But number of orale (remains constant But numberof eras (ni) neresses. As a result the electrons are pulled closer'o the |The effect of ncreased numberof atomic shells Hacer esecctn coverveighs the effect of ncreased nuclear charge. As a result of this the size of atom increases fom tp © et Bottom in given group, wet Hence atomic rei decrease with increase in _atomie number ina period fom lett ight (ii) tonic radius : ‘The effective distance from the centre of nucleus ofthe ion upto which it has an influence inthe ionic bond is called ionic radius Cation ‘Anion [Tie formed by The Tose of one or more dlecions Tomi formed by The gain of one oF more eledrone Th Te ne valence shel of an atom of an element. Jalence shel of an atom of an element. [Cations are smalier than the parent atoms because, | Anions are large than the parent atoms because J). the whole of the outer shall of electrons is usually) anion is formed by gain of ene or more electrons in the removed neutral atom and thus number of electrons increases. BU i) in a caton, the number of postive charges on the}magnitude of nucear charge remains the same lnucieus is greater than number of orbital elections) nuctear charge per electrons is thus reduced and the leecing to incresed invard pul of remaining electrong|electrons clouds hed ess tight by the nucleus leading to causing contraction in sizeof the ion lire expansion of the outer shel, Thus size of anion is increased (iv) lonisation Energy: Ionisation energy (IE) is defined as the amount of energy required to remove the most loosely bound electron from an isolated gaseous atom to form a cation Mg) —€25 Mg) +e" NP) + IE, —> M8(9) 40° IE, IE, &IE, are the I, I&II fonization energiesto remove electron from a neutral atom, monovalent and divalent cations respectively. In general, (IE), < (IE), < (IE), < Me @) +E, —> MP @ te * Factors Influencing lonisation energy (A) Size of the Atom : lonisation energy decreases with increase in atomic size. (8) Nuclear Charge : The ionisation energy increases with increase in the nuclear charge. (C)__ Shielding or screening effect : The larger the number of electrons in the inner shells, greater is the screening effect and smaller the force of attraction and thus ionization energy (IE) decreases, (©) Penetration effect of the electron : Penetration effect of the electrons follows the order s> p> d> f for, the same energy level. Higher the penetration of electron higher will be the ionisation energy.37 TL ‘Short Formula (Chemistry) CHAM IONS (©) Electronic Configuration : fan atom has exaclly hall-flled or completely filled orbitals, then such an. arrangement has extra stabil, () Electron Gain Enthalphy : (CHANGED TOPIC NAME) ‘The electron gain enthalpy A. His the change in standard molar enthalpy when a neutral gaseous ‘atom gains an electron to form an anion, X@+e@—X@) ‘The second electron gain enthalpy, the enthalpy change for the addition of a second electron to an. Initially neutral atom, invariably positive because the electron repulsion out weighs the nuclear attraction, Group 17 elements (halogens) have very high negative electron gain enthalpies (.¢. high electron affinity) because they can attain stable noble gas electronic configuration by picking up an electron. ‘Across a period, with increase in atomic number, electron gain enthalpy becomes more negative ‘Aswe move ina group from top to bottom, electron gain enthalpy becomes less negative Noble gases have large positive electron gain enthalpies Negative electron gain enthalpy of O or Fis less than $ or Cl Electron gain enthalpies of alkaline earth metals are very less or positive Nitrogen has very low electron affinity ——= ‘Fromic aze e 000000 0 () Electron affinity ~ (i) Electron affinity « Effective nuclear charge (,.) (ii) Electron atfinity = (iv) Stability of half filed and completely filed orbitals of a — Screening effect subshell is comparatively more and the addition of an extra electron to such an system is di hence the electron affinity value decreases, ull and (VI) Electronegativity : Electronegativit is a measure ofthe tendency ofan elemento attrac shared electrons towards itself ina covalently bonded molecules (a) Pauling's scale A=K,-%,= 0.208 Ena Exn%Ene E,,,= Bond enthalpy! Bond energy of A~B bond = Bond energy of A~A bond £2) = Bond energy of 8 -B bond (All bond energies are in kcal / mol) A=K.-K,£0.1017 Exe -sExaxEoa Avbondonergie are kai ek (b) Mulliken’s scale : IE+EA mu > Paulings's electronegativity z, isrelated to Mulliken's electronegativity x, as given below. Hp = 1.95 (%,)"*= 1.97 ‘Muliken’s values were about 2.8 times larger than the Pauling’s values. (Vl) Periodicity of Valence or Oxidation States : ‘There are many elements which exhibit variable valence. This is particularly characteristic of transition ‘elements and actinoids,a 38 | Short Formula (Chemistry) CHAMPIONS (Vill) Periodic Trends and Chemical Reactivity : 2 Imagroup, basic nature of oxides increases or acidic nature decreases. Oxides of the metals are generally basic and oxides of the nonmetals are acidic. The oxides of the metalloids are generally amphoteric in nature. The oxides of Be, Al, Zn, Sn, As, Pb and Sb are amphoteric. o Ina period the nature of the oxides varies from basic to acidic. Nao Mgo ALO, Si, PO, 80, C10, Strongly basic ‘Basic amphoieric — Weaklyacidic Acidic Acidic~—=—Strongly acidic i ESET ===> ——— ===> CHEMICAL BONDING Chemical Bond : Inthe process each atom attains a stable outer electronic configuration of inert gases. lonic or Electrovalent Bon The formation of an ionic compound would primarily depends upon * The ease of formation ofthe positive and negative ions from the respective neutral atoms. * The arrangement ofthe positive and negative ions inthe solid, that isthe latice of the rystaline compound Conditions for the formation of ionic compounds : © Electronegativtyatference between two combining elements must be larger. @ Ionization enthalpy (M(q) -» Ma) + °) of electropositive element must be low. Gi) Negative value of elecron gain enthalpy (X (g) + &- + X(g) of electronegative element should be high (¥) Lattice enthalpy (M"(@) + X-(a) -» MX (s)) ofan ionic solid must be high. Lattice Enthalpy : The lattice enthalpy of an ionic solid is defined as the energy required to completely separate one male of a ‘solid ionic compound into gaseous constituent ions. Factors affecting lattice energy of an ionic compound : 1 © Lattice energy = 5-5 where (+ F_)=Inorionic Distance @ Lattice energy »Z,,Z Z, = charge on cation in terms electroniccharge. Z_= charge on anion in terms electroniccharge. Determination of lattice energ} Born-Haber Cycle : itinerreates the various energy tems involved during fermation of anionic compound Ita thermochemical cycle based on the Hess's law of constant heal summationam 39 | Short Formula (Chemistry) CHAMPIONS Hydration : Allthe simple saits dissolve in water, producing ions, and consequently the solution conduct electricity. Since LL’ is very small, itisheavily hydrated, This makes radius of hydrated Li* ion large and hence it moves only slowly. In contrast, Cs" is the least hydrated because ofits bigger size and thus the radius of the Cs* ion is, smaller than the radius of hydrated Li", and hence hydrated Cs" moves faster, and conducts electricity more readily Hydrolysis : Hydrolysis means reaction with water molecules ultimately leading to breaking of O-H bond into H* and OH ions, Hydrolysis in covalent compounds takes place generally by two mechanisms, (@) By Coordinate bond formation : Generally in halides of atoms having vacant d-orbitals or of halides of atoms having vacant orbitals (b) By H-bond formation : For example in Nitrogen tihalides General properties of ionic compounds {a) Physical state : At room temperature ionic compounds exist either in solid state or in solution phase but not in gaseous state. {b) Simple ionic compounds do not show isomerism but isomorphism is their important characteristic, e9., FeSO,7HO | MgSO, .7H,0 {c) Electrical conductivity : All ionic solids are good conductors in molten state as well as in their aqueous Solutions because their ions are free to move, {D) SOLUBILITY OF IONIC COMPOUNDS : Soluble in polar solvents like water which have high dielectric constant Covalent character in ionic compounds (Fajan’s rule) : Fajan’s pointed out that greateris the polarization of anion in a molecule, Cation anion more is covalent character init More distortion of anion, more will be polarisation then covalent character increases. Fajan’s gives some rules which gover the covalent character in the ionic compounds, which are as follows: @ Size of cation :Size of cation « 1 / polarisation. () Size of anion : Size of anion a polarisation (Charge on cation : Charge on cation « polarisation, (Charge on anion : Charge on anion a polarisation. () Pseudo inert gas configuration of cation : Covalent Bond : It forms by sharing of valence electrons between atoms to form molecules e.g, formation of Cl, molecule Bebe orci-ci Covalent bond between to Cl atoms The important conditions being that @ Each bond Is formed as a result of sharing of an electron pairbetween the atoms, @ Each combining atom contributes at least one electron to the shared pair. Gi) The combining atoms attain the outer- shell noble gas configurations as a result ofthe sharing of electrons.40 | Short Formula (Chemistry) Coordinate Bond (Dative Bond): The bond formed between two atom in which contribution of an electron pair is made by one of them while the ‘sharing is done by both. i (9 NH (ammonium ion) Kon ae boner Aceon ° (0,200) a Formal Charge: ema scl| ~ [eaoneices, | -[exsratante] 1) bonding (shared) O, y\. oY Formal charges help in the selection of the lowest energy structure from a number of possible Lewis structures fora given species. Limitations of the Octet Rule : 1. The incomplete octet of the central atom LiCl, BeH, and BCI, AICI, and BF, Odd-electron molecules ritric oxide, NO and nitrogen dioxide. NO, G=N-6 The expanded octet be t f a NE H-6-8-9-H EPS E PSE i F: EO 0: PF, SF, Hs, 10-lectrons around the P atom 12 electrons around the S alom 12 electrons around the S atom 4. Other drawbacks ofthe octet theory ©) _somenoble gases (for example xenon and krypton) also combine with oxygen and fluorine to form a number of compounds like XeF, , KiF, . XeOF, etc. @___Thistheory does not account for the shape of molecules, Gi) Itdoes not explain the relative stability of he molecules being totally silent about the energy of a molecule.a“ “ (ii) ‘Short Formula (Chemistry) CHAMPIONS Valence bond theory (VBT) : H,(g) + 435.8 kJ mol-—> H(g) + H(@) Distance of saparation + Enereyeimes) 435.8 Bond Length 74pm inemsceardsance—> Orbital Overlap Concept according to orbital overlap concept, the formation of a covalent bond between two atoms results by pairing of electrons present, in the valence shell having opposite spins, ‘Types of Overlapping and Nature of Covalent Bonds ‘The covalent bond may be classified into two types depending upon the types of overlapping (9 sigma(a) bond, and (If pi (x) bond ‘Sigma (o) bond : This type of covalent bond is formed by the end to end (head-on) overlap of bonding orbitals along the internuclear axis, i + — ae 1 +@e@ — S@ ‘© pp overlapping: Thistype of overlap takes place between half filed p-erbitals ofthe two approaching atoms, @@ :@e — @@?@ p-otital portal p-p overiaping pix) bond : In the formation of x bond the atomic orbitals overtap in such a way that their axes remain parallel to each other and perpendicular to the intemuclear axis, 9.9. @—= 6° i 7 p-orbital Le = P-p overlaping ‘Strength of Sigma and pi Bonds : In case of sigma bond, the overlapping of orbitals takes place to a larger extent. Hence, itis stronger as compared tothe pi bond where the extent of overlapping occurs toa smaller extent.42 a ‘Short Formula (Chemistry) CHAMPIONS Valence shell electron pair repulsion (VSEPR) theory : 0 @ wo ” “9 1. 2 3. 4 The main postulates of VSEPR theory are as follows: ‘The shape of a molecule depends upon the number of valence shell electron pairs [bonded or nonbonded) around the central atom, Pairs of electrons in the valence shell repel one another since their electron clouds are negatively charged. ‘These pairs of electrons tend to occupy such positions in space that minimise repulsion and thus maximise distance between them, The valence shellis taken asa sphere with the electron pairs localising on the spherical surface at maximum. distance from one another. ‘Armultiple bond is treated as iit isa single electron pair and the two or three electron pairs of a multiple bond are treated as a single super pai. Where two or more resonance structures can represent a molecule, the VSEPR model is applicable to any ‘such structure, ‘The repulsive interaction of electron pairs decreases in the order : lone pair (ép) lone pair ('p) > lone pair (?p) - bond pair (bp) > bond pair (bp) -bond pair (bp) Hybridisation : Salient features of hybridisation : The numberof hybrid orbitals is equal to the number ofthe atomic orbitals that get hybridised Tho hybridsed ortas are always equivalent in energy and shape “The hybrid orbitals are more effective informing stable bonds than the pure atomic orbitals. These hybrid orbitals are directed in space in some preferred direction to have minimum repulsion between electron pairs and thus a stable arrangement fs obtained. Therefore, the type of hybridisation indicates the ‘geometry ofthe molecules. Important conditions for hybridisation : ‘The orbitals present inthe valence shel ofthe atom are hybridise “The orbitals undergoing hybridisation should have almost equal enero. Promotion of electron isnot essential condition prior to hybridisation itis the orbital that undergo hybridization and na the electrons Determination of hybridisation of an atom in a molecule or ion: Steric number rule (given by Gillespi ‘Steric No, of an atom = number of atom bonded with that atom + number of lone pair(s) left on that atom. Table-3 Steric number ‘Types of Hybridisation Geometry 2 sp Linear 3 3p Trigonal planar 4 sp Tetrahedral 5 spd ‘Trigonal bipyramidal 6 spa Octahedral 7 spd Pentagonal bipyramidal Hybridization Involving d-orbital : Type of orbital involved spd dz spd? dye ~ y' & dz? spd? de ~ ys, dz? & dy dsp? 443 ae Short Formula (Chemistry) CHAMPIONS Molecular Orbital Theory (MOT) : 0 @ @w developed by F. Hund and R.S. Mulliken in 1932. Molecular orbitals are formed by the combination of atomic orbitals of comparable energies and proper symmetry. ‘An electron in an atomic orbital is influenced by one nucleus, while in a molecular orbital itis influenced by two ‘or more nuclei depending upon the numberof the atomsin the molecule, Thus an atomic orbital is monocentric while a molecular orbital is polycentric. The number of molecular orbitals formed is equal to the number of combining atomic orbitals. When two atomic. orbitals combine, two molecular orbitals called bonding molecular orbital and anti-bonding molecular orbital are formed The molecular orbitals ike the atomic orbitals are filled in accordance with the Aufbau principle obeying the Pauli Exclusion principle and the Hund’s Rule of Maximum Multiplicity. But the filing order of these ‘molecular orbitals is always experimentally decided, there is no rule like (n + 1) rule in case of atomic orbitals CONDITIONS FOR THE COMBINATION OF ATOMIC ORBITALS : ‘The combining atomic orbitals must have the same or nearly the same energy. ‘The combining atomic orbitals must have the same symmetry about the molecular axis. The combining atomic orbitals must overlap to the maximum extent ENERGY LEVEL DIAGRAM FOR MOLECULAR ORBITALS : “The increasing order of energies of various molecular orbitals for, and Fis given below 9 18 < 0° 18 < 028 < o'2s < (n2p,= n2p,) < 02, < ("°20,= n'2P) < 02, The important characteristic feature ofthis order's thatthe energy of 2p, molecular orbitals higher than. that of x2p, and x2p, molecular orbitals. BOND ORDER Bond order (b.0.) = %(N,—N,) ‘A positive bond order (.¢., N, > N,) means a stable molecule while a negative (ie., N, < N,) of zero (.e.,N, = N) bond order means an unstable molecule. NATURE OF THE BOND: Integral bond order values of 1, 2 or 3 correspond to single, double or triple bonds respectively BONDENGTH: The bond order between two atoms in a molecule may be taken as an approximate measure ofthe bond length. The bond length decreases as bond order increases. MAGNETIC NATURE If all the molecular orbitals in a molecule are doubly occupied, the substance is diamagnetic (epelled by magnetic field .g..N, molecule. Dipole moment : Dipole moment (u) = Magnitude of charge (a) * distance of separation (4) Dipole moment is usually expressed in Debye units (D). The conversion factors are 2 1D = 3.93564 x 10 Cm, where C is coulomb and m is meter. 1 Debye= 1x 10% es.u. cm. For example the dipole moment of HF may be represented as $e HE “The shift in electron density is represented by crossed arrow (| >) above the Lewis structure to indicate the direction ofthe shit.am 44 | Short Formula (Chemistry) CHAMPIONS ‘amolecule will have a dipole moment ifthe summation of al ofthe individual moment vector is non-zero. ( R= (pb? a | Bases Where Ris resultant dipole moment. Resonance: Definition : Resonance may be defined as the phenomenon in which two or more structures involving in identical position of atom, can be written fora particular compound, For example, the ozone, O, molecule can be equally represented by the structures | and Il shown below Pe 3 8 LE, Pe= ss Sf %& of Xs of % 3 oO eo % qi 7 nm Resonance in the O, molecule Resonance Hybrid : It isthe actual structure of al different possible structures that can be written for the ‘molecule without violating the rules of covalence maxima for the atoms. O-8- © Resonance hybis Hydrogen Bond : ---HeoF Conditions required for H-bond () Molecule should have more electronegative alom (FO, N) linked to H-atom (i) Size of electronegative atom should be smaller. (iil) Alone pair should be present on electronegative atom. A HEF Order of H-bond strength —O-eH- ‘TYPES OF H-BONDS: (A) Intramolecular H-Bonding : itis formed when hydrogen atom is present in between the two highly electronegative (F, O, N) atoms within the same molecule. ‘cnydroxy benzaldehy thas lower boling point (e. more volatile) than its para-derivative Necessary conditions for the formation of intramolecular hydrogen-bonding : (@) the ring formed as a result of hydrogen bonding should be planar. (b)a5-or6- membered ring should be formed (©) Interacting atoms should be placed in such a way that there is minimum strain during the ring closure.am Short Formula (Chemistry) CHAMPIONS Intermolecular H-Bonding : itis formed between two different molecules of the same or different compounds, @ — Inwater molecules BeBe br Be Gt ror BF H—-9.H—9.H—..H—G 1 H Hoe WBE HOE Hae (© The hydrogen bonds in HF link the F atom of one molecule with the H-atom of another molecule, thus forming a zig-zag chain (HF), in both the solid and also inthe liquid, “AN ‘ Intermolecular forces (Vander Waal’s Forces) : Intermolecular attractions hold two or more molecules together. These are weakest chemical forces and can be of following types. (@) lon-dipole attraction (©) Dipole-clipole attraction (© lon-induced dipole attraction (@) Dipole-induced dipole attraction (¢) Instantaneous dipole- Instantaneous induced dipole attraction : (Dispersion force or London forces) O Strength of vander waal force « molecular mass, O van der Waal's force « boiling point. Metallic bond : Two models are considered to explain metallic bonding: (A) Electron-sea model. (B) Band mode! ‘Some special bonding situations : (a) Electron deficient bonding: “There are many compounds in which some electron deficient bonds are present apart from normal covalent bonds or coordinate bonds. These electron deficient bonds have less numberof electrons than the expected suchas three centre-two electron bonds (3c-2e) present in cporane 8,H,,Al (CH), BeH,() and bridging metal carbonyis (b) Back Bonding : Back bonding generally takes place when out of two bonded atoms one ofthe atom has vacant orbitals (Generally this atom i from second or third period) and the other bonded atom is having some non-bonded electron pair(generally this atom is from the second period). Back bonding increases the bond strength and decreases the bond length. For exemple, in BF, ro Vacant Filed 2potial partial the extent of back bonding in boron trihalides BF,> BCI, > BBr,a. 46 | Short Formula (Chemistry) CHAMPIONS COORDINATION COMPOUNDS Addition Compounds : ‘They are formed by the combination of two or more stable compounds in stoichiometric ratio. These (1) Double salts and (2) Coordination compounds Double salt: Those addition compounds which lose their identity in solutions. £9, K,80,,,AlS0,), Coordination Compounds : Those addition compounds which retain their identity (.¢. doesn't lose their identity) in solution are Fo(CN), + 4KCN > Fo(CN).. 4KCN ork, [Fe(CN),](a9.) <= 4k’ (aq) + [Fo(CN),I* (aa.) Central Atomilon : Ina coordination entity-the atomn/ion to which are bound a fixed numberof ligands in a definite geometrical arrangement around it Ligands : ‘The neutral molecules, anions or cations which are directly linked with central metal atom orion in the coordination entity are called ligands. Chelate ligand : Chelate ligand isa dior polydentate ligand which uses its two or more donor atoms to bind a single metal ion producing a ring Ambidentate Ligand : Ligands which can ligate through two different atoms presentin it 0 MENS ition Moos nitito-0 M<-SCN thiocyanate orthiocyanato-S ; M<-NCS__isothiocyanato or thiooyanato-N Coordination Number : The number of ligand donor atoms to which the metal s directly attached, Oxidation number of Central Atom : The oxidation number ofthe central atom is defined as the charge itwould cary ifallthe ligands are removed along withthe electron pairs that are shared withthe contral atom, [Fe(CN),}*is +3 anditis written as Fol).47 | Short Formula (Chemistry) Denticity and Chelation : Table : 1 ‘Common Monodentate Ligands ‘Common Name PAG Name Formula reat eooyanie roatysocvande CHING Trehon phosphine ‘phenyl phesphiraishenypresprane | PRs Pride Prine CHAP Tat anine retain went water sais or aque HO Tiscaony ‘ocsbony Gg nioeyt roa nO ho Too or Fr om eno or Sen e ome Troma 6 border a Tete Teas oor r ane jane a ayaa [boned or Teeeyare Tesco ot yanidon Wns) —_|_NE= Tieeyane ‘Thocyanate SS bonds) ew Tetrivcyono cyanate NV ond nes rans (ovaate) erento. (O-tonded oene Teccyarto sooyanaiay | eyanatoN (bonded Co” Tyeoxo Tyoxo or nyone™ on ito rt (bende) NO it nO (O-bondedy ONO” ale ra nO ie rie = J mide cs aie ero © oJ onde a prone peor oF supede Sipe oF urate pate SOF [osuiphete ‘Wosuphato sar [sure stohio 0 Iverogon suite Tyeeaersuphito HS ‘phe stp ortho = Iyaregen opr Tyegerauphde or meteanto 1 ont Went Os itosyiur iosyur or mvosorar no" foram = nOam 48 | Short Formula (Chemistry) CHAMPIONS Table : 2 Common Chelating Amines ‘Chelating Common Name TUPAC Name ‘Abbreviation Formal Points. ‘dente atnylenedarine 1.2-ahenediamine! = NASCHCHNE, Ghana diamine tidertate ——_prupanedamine 1 2-nepanedienine oN o ory oH trifenate —— detnynersamine (4 2aminoetnyt ton NH.CHCHNHCH,CH.NA, ctnamecemine or datyenettamine feradenate—tethyenetetaamine —N,N-bs(2arinoetyfet, tien NH.CH|CH.NMGH,CH.NHCH,CHNH, Petnanesarine or Metnjenatareamine tiaminotistnjamne ppt amines ven NHVCHoHNCHCHAN, ee OHH Pertcerle ernemyonopertamine 14.710 pernecancecone NH,CH.CH NHCH.CHLNACH CHNHCHLCHNH, eeylenepertaamine ooCHe, sorcoo hcadensle etylinadlaminceraacetate 1.2-cthanediy(@nero) ena \, ae tevaacaite NHCHN Crethyleredaminetersacetate gach Nex,coor Table : 3 ‘Common Muttidentate (Chelating) Ligands fcstyicetanato lrsoetaceanato see ercocnencns ae bz fe z-boyneyi tiny fou 1, s0-gnenarnaine) } sogrner }r0-amropreranmene | prenpren foots lrasto Jorsio oe feor |,20taenenvinsemnnemane [i Zatrene ange fonsecssieeme faenyinens | fr2aneenene cmetyreae) smatysoere) tam fettuasertane [aetiovanenet rman ouc — froncicrcicrino” Jtneseanettassn aninorerocette goa |roocersncrycHnicn,coor fyarcrs. pvezavnta levaze" ypeomtoa 49 | Short Formula (Chemistry) CHAMPIONS Homoleptic and heteroleptic complexes Complexes in which a metal is bound to only one type of donor groups, e.g., [Cr(NH,),}™, are known as homoleptic. Complexes in which a metal is bound to more than one type of donor groups, €.9.. [Co(NH,), Br, are known as heteroleptic Nomenclature of Coordination Compounds Writing the formulas of Mononuclear Coordination Entities : 0 @ ) o ” # wi The central atom is placed fist. ‘The ligands are then placed in alphabetical order. The placement of a ligand inthe list oes not depend onits charge. Polydentate ligands are also placed alphabetically In case of abbreviated ligand, the first letter of the abbreviation is used to determine the position of the ligand in the alphabetical order. The formula for the entire coordination entity, whether charged or not, is enclosed in square brackets. When ligands are polyatomic, their formulas are enclosed in parentheses. Ligands abbreviations are also enclosed in parentheses. ‘There should be no space between the ligands and the metal within a coordination sphere. When the formula of a charged coordination entity isto be writen without that of the counterion, the charge is indicated outside the square brackets asa right superscript withthe number before the sign For example, [Co(H,0),}", [Fe(CN),P*et. The charge of the cation(s) is balanced by the charge ofthe anion(s). Writing the name of Mononuclear Coordination Compounds : 0 w wo w wo wip Like simple salts the cation is named first in both positively and negatively charged coordination entities, ‘The ligands are named in an alphabetical oer (according tothe name of ligand, not the prefix) before the name of the central atorrvion, "Names ofthe anionic ligands end in -o and those of neutral ligands are the same except aqua for HO, ‘ammine for NH,, carbonyl for CO, thiocarbonyl for CS and nitrosyl for NO, But names of cationic ligands end in-ium, Prefixes mono, dit, etc, are used to indicate the numberof the one kind of ligands in the coordination entity. When the names ofthe ligands include a numerical prefix or are complicated or whenever the use of normal prefixes creates some confusion, itis set off in parentheses and the second set of prefixes is used 2 di bis 3 ti tris 4 tetra tetrakis 5 penta pentakis 6 hexa hexakis 7 hepta heptakis ‘Oxidation state of the metal in cation, anion or neutral coordination entity is indicated by Roman ‘numeral in the parentheses after the name of metal Ifthe complexion is cation, the metal is aamed same as the element. For example, Co in a complex. cation is called cobalt and Pt is called platinum, Ifthe complex ion is an anion, the name of the metal ends with the suffix- ate. For example, Co in a complex anion, [Co(SCN),[~is called cobaltate. For some metals, the Latin names are used in the complex anions. iron (Fe) ferrate lead (Pb) plumbate silver (Ag) argentate tin (Sn) stannate gold (Au) urate ‘The neutral complex molecule is named similarto that of the complex cation,a ‘50 | Short Formula (Chemisty) CHAMPIONS Werner's Theory : ‘Acoording to Wemer most elements exhibit two types of valencies (a) Primary valency and (b) Secondary valency. (a) Primary valency : This corresponds to oxidation state of the metal ion. This is also called principal, ionisable orionic valency. It is satisfied by negative ions and its attachment with the central metal ion is shown by dotted lines. {b) Secondary or auxiliary valency : Itis also termed as coordination number (usually abbreviated as CN) ofthe central metal ion. Itis non-ionic or non-ionisable (i.e. coordinate covalent bond type). In the modem terminology, such spatial arrangements are called coordination polyhedra and various possibilities are CN=2 linear ON. cON=4 tetrahedral or square planar ON 3 Triangular 6 octahedral Effective Atomic Number Rule given by Sidgwick : Effective Atomic Number (EAN) = Atomic no. of central metal ~ Oxidation state of central metal + No. of electrons donated by ligands, Valence bond theory : ‘The model utilizes hybridisation of (n-1)d,ns, np or ns, np, nd orbitals of metal atom orion to yield a set of equivalent orbitals of definite geometry to account for the observed structures such as octahedral, square planar and tetrahedral, and magnetic properties of complexes. The number of unpaired electrons, measured by {he magnetic moment ofthe compounds determines which d-orbitals are used Table: § Coordiantion number of metal | Type of hybridisation | Shape of complex 4 sp Tetrahedral 4 dsp ‘Square planer 5 sod Trigonal bipyramidal 6 spd ‘Octahedral 6 sp ‘Octahedral Coordination Number Six In the diamagnetic octahedral complex, [Co(NH.),, the cobalt ion is in +3 oxidation state and has the electronic configuration represented as shown below. teow — [ALATA ML, + nH,0 By convention, the water displaced is ignored, as its concentration remains essentially constant. The above overall reaction takes place in steps, wth a stability formation) constant, K,,K,, Ky... K, foreach step as represented below53 Short Formula (Chemistry) M(H,0), +L = ML(H.0), + HO = IML(H,O), J IMCH,0), LD, ML, ,(H.0) +L —= ML, +H,0 K,= IMU IML, , 4.0) M(H,0), + nk == ML, + nH,0 B, 2K, XK, XK, Xoo XK, [the stability constant, is related to thermodynamic stability when the system has reached equilibrium, ISOMERISM (1) STRUCTURAL ISOMERISM : (A) lonisation isomerism: This type of isomerism occurs when the counterion in a coordination compound is itself @ potential ligand and can displace ligand which can then become the counterion [Co(NH),S0,INO, and [Co(NH.).NO.1SO, (8) Solvate / hydrate isomerism : Itoccurs when water forms a part of the coordination entity oris outside it Complex Reaction with AgNO, Reaction with conc. H.SO (dehydrating agent) [enHO),e1, inthe motar ratio of :1 Nowaler molecule is ist or no reaction [GrCi¢H,0)J01,H0 inthe molarratio of 2:1 one mole of water's lost per mole of complex [CrGL(H,0)JCI2H.0 inthe molarratio of 1:1 ‘two mole of water are lost per mole of complex (©) Linkage isomerism Insome ligands, ike ambidentate ligands, there are two possible coordination sites. In such cases, linkage isomerism exist €.9., For example : [Co{ONO)(NH,)qI Cl & [Co(NO;) (NH,)¢] Cl {©) Coordination isomerism : Coordination compounds made up of cationic and anionic coordination entities show this type of isomerism due tothe interchange of ligands between the cation and anion entities. Some of the examples are [Co(NH J[Or(CN), and [CrINH)Co(CN),) (©) Ligandisomerism: Since many ligands are organic compounds which have possibilities fr isomerism, the resulting complexes can show isomerism from this source. (F) _ Polymerisation isomerism Considered to be a special case of coordination isomerism, inthis the various isomers diffe in formula weight from one another, so not true isomers in real sense. (2). Stereoisomerism Geometrical Isomerism Geometrical isomerism is common among coordination compounds with coordination numbers 4 and 6 Coordination Number Four : Tetrahedral Complex : The tetrahedral compounds can not show geometrical isomerism as we all know that all four positions are equivalent in tetrahedral geometry. ‘Square Planar Complex ON oN ON en a ae) Geometrical isomers (cis and trans) of PUNH,)Cl,J 54 | Short Formula (Chemistry) CHAMPIONS ‘Square planar complex of the type Ma, be (where a,b,c are unidentates) shows two geometrical isomers, ay b ay © iM cis— trans— ‘Square planar complex of the type Mabed (where a,b,o,d are unidentates) shows three geometrical isomers. a ba ca . MW. M. Mi d oe boc id ate ab ard Coordination Number Six Geometrical isomerism is also possible in octahedral complexes. a a Nite Nil Nl NA [- NH, NH | NH, = trans Geometrical isomers (cis and trans) of [Co(NH,),Cl Number of possible isomers and the spatial arrangements of the ligands around the central metal ion forthe ‘specific complexes are given below. (0) Complexes containing only unidentate ligands Map, = - 2 : Mabe = iy a,b, (W)) Compounds containing bidentate igand and unidentate igands, © M(AA)a,b-Two geometrical isomers are possible. i a A a A a M, M. be a AY ‘b e a bra ara ‘Three geometrical isomers are possible. @ Maa,85 | Short Formula (Chemistry) a a i: A b A a A a : Mt 7 a b Al b A a a > iL ata am bo Note: With {M(AA)bJ, only one formis possible. M(AA)abed have six geometrical isomers. i) W(AA),0, Two geometical isomers are possible. i. < {i aN “D> Ot M) and a x acceptor (OC oe METALLURGY The compound of a metal found in nature is called a mineral, The minerals from which metal can be economically ‘and conveniently extracted are called ores. An ore is usually contaminated with earthy or undesired materials, known as gangue {a) Native ores contain the metal in ree state, Silver, gold, platinum etc, occur as native ores. {b) _Oxidised ores consist of oxides or oxysalts (e.g. carbonates, phosphates, sulphates and silicates ) of metals. {c)__Sulphurised ores consist of sulphides of metals lke iron, lead, zinc, mercury etc. {d) Halide ores consist of halides of metals, Fe(n?-CsH.),it Ns 57 | Short Formula (Chemistry) CHAMPIONS Metal [ores [composition [Aluminium Bauxite [AlO\(OH)s >< lwhere 0 Cu,S+2FeO + 380, CuS + FeO + SiO, —> FeSiO, (Fusbiestes) + Cu,S (mats) qecmel eT (vpper ayer (ower layer) Matte also contains a very small amount of iron(l) sulphide ‘To remove unwanted acidic impurities like sand and PO,,, smelting is done in the presence of limestone. Caco, > Cad + Co, Ca0 + SiO, —+ CaSiO, (usbie sien) 6CA0 + P,0,, + 2Ca,(PO,), (ust ia - Thomas san) Reduction of a metal oxide : ‘The free metal is obtained by reduction of a compound, using either a chemical reducing agent or electrolysis,a 59 | Short Formula (Chemistry) CHAMPIONS Chemical reduction method : Reduction with carbon : PbO + C_— Pb +CO (extraction of lead) Reduction with CO : In some cases CO produced in the furnace itself is used as a reducing agent. Fe,0,+3C0—+2Fe +360, Reduction by other metals Metalic oxides (Cr and Mn) can be reduced by a highly electropostive metal such as aluminium that liberates a large amount of energy (1675 kJ/mol) on oxidation to Al,O,, The process is known as Goldschmit or aluminothermic process and the reaction isknowm as thermite reaction. 61,0, +Al— 26r(0)Al.O, Magnesium reduction method : Magnesium is used in similar way to reduce oxides, In certain cases where the oxide istoo stable to reduce, electropositive metals are used to reduce halides. Ticl, +2 Mg Keto 5 Ti+ 2MgCl, Ticl,+4Na M2", Ti+ 4 NaCl ‘Self-reduction method : ‘This method is also called auto-reduction method or air reduction method. Ifthe sulphide ore of some of the less electropositive metals like Hg, Cu, Pb, Sb, etc. are heated in air, a part of these is changed into oxide or ‘sulphate then that reacts with the remaining part of the sulphide ore to give its metal and SO.. Cu,S +30, —> 3Cu,0+280, 2Cu,0 + Cus —> 6Cu+ SO. Electrolytic reductior Itpresents the most powerful method of reduction and gives.a very pure product. Asit isan expensive method ‘compared to chemical methods, itis used either for very reactive metals such as magnesium or aluminum or for production of samples of high purity 4. Imaqueous solution : Electrolysis can be carried out conveniently and cheaply in aqueous solution that the products do not react with water. Copper and zinc are obtained by electrolysis of aqueous solution of their sulphates. 2. Infused metts : Aluminum is obtained by electrolysis of a fused mixture of Al,O, and eryolite Na AIF.) Extraction of Aluminium : It involves the following processes (@) Purification of bauxite (Bayor's Method i)Hals Methoa used for red bauxte containing F6,0, and| (used ferred peux containing F,0,ané | (used townie bauxite containing silcates as impurties) slicates as imputties) slicaasimpuriies) AMO, 210+ 2NwoH— > N0,.2H,0+Na,cO, > NO,.240 + 90+ Na 2NaNIO, (soluble) #340 2NaA, (coluble}+60,+2H,0 | 2AIN + 360 + 24,0 Fe,0, (insoluble) separated as ted mud by| 2Naalo,-3H,0+C0, —2*°-> 2AIN + 31,0 + AKONLL + NH, fiteraton solution is dluted with water and seeded with freshly prepared AXOH), I nduces aor). =Naco,| 90-*200-2 200,08 the preciptation of AVOH),. ACH), i ftered | 2ayoH), MK 5 a10,43H,0 icone voatses at his ter leaving behind silicates in solution os 2AKOH), "7" JA,0, +340 NaAlO, +2H.0-> NaOH + A(OH),L 2NyoH), » ALO,+3H,0a 60 | Short Formula (Chemistry) CHAMPIONS (b) Electrolytic reduction (Hall-Heroult process) : 2A10,+3C ——> 4al+3CO, Cathode AB (melt) +3e° > Al) ‘Anode C{s) + 0% (melt) —+ COW) +2e C(s) + 20* (melt) —> CO, (g) + 4e- Metallurgy of some important metals 1. Extraction of iron from ore haematite : Reactions involved : ‘At 500 ~ 800 K (lower temperature range in he blast furnace) 3Fe,0,+CO —> 2Fe,0,+C0, Fe,0,+CO —> 3Fe+4CO, Fe,0,+CO —> 2Fe0 +00, ‘AL. 900 - 1500 K (higher temperature range in the blast furnace) c+C0, —> 2c0; Feo +CO ——>Fe+Co, Limestone is also decomposed tom CaO which removes silicate impurity of the ore as slag, The slag is in ‘molten state and separates out from iron. Caco, —+Ca0+C0,; — Cad+Si0, —> Casio, Extraction of copper: From copper glance / copper pyrite (self reduction) : 2CuFeS, + 40,—+ Cu.S + 2Fe0+ 380, Cu,S + FeO + SiO, + FeSiO, (tusilesiag) + Cu,S (nate) 2FeS +30, —> 2Fe0 +280, ; FeO+Si0, —> Fesio, 2Cu,S +30, —+ 20u,0+280,; 2Cu,0+ Cu,S ——> 6Cu+ SO, (self reduction) Extraction of lead : © 2PS{s) +30, (g) —*+ 2PbO (s) “2+ 2PD(X) + CO, (@) © sPes(5) "2". pos «6 200 6) Sn + 200 2Fe+ 0, —+ 2FeO Extraction of Magnesium : From Sea water (Dow's process) : ‘Sea water contains 0.13% magnesium as chloride and sulphate. itinvolves following steps. (@ Precipitation of magnesium as magnesium hydroxide by slaked lime. (©) Preparation of hexahydrated magnesium chloride61 0) am Short Formula (Chemistry) CHANIPIONS “The solution on concentration and crystalsation gives the crystals of MgCl, 6H,O. (© Preparation of anhydrous magnesium chloride (© Electrolysis of fused anhydrous MgCl. n presence of NaCl MgCl, <3 Moi" + 20 Atcathode: Mg” + 2e- ——> Mg(99% pure): At anode = Ce eee Extraction of gold and silver (MacArthur-Forrest cyanide process) (a) From native ores : Extraction of gold and silver involves leaching the metal with CN”. 48u1/AG(6)+ 8CN (aq) + 2H, 02g) + 0,46) > 4{Au/Ag(CN),H(aq) + 4OH-(aa) 2[Au/ Ag (CN),} (aq) + Zn(s) —+ 2Au/Ag (s) + [Zn(CN),* (aq) (b) From argentite ore : {Ag.S (conc. ore) + 2NaCN “> 2AgcN + Nas 4Na.S +50, +2H.0 > 2Na,SO, + 4NaOH + 2S AQCN +NaCN ——+ Na[Ag(CN).] (soluble complex) 2NalAg(CN),}+ Zn (dust) —» 2g. + Na,(2n(ON),) Airy Purification or Refining of metals : Physical methods : These methods include the following processes (1) Liquation process : This process is used forthe purification ofthe metal, which itself is readily fusible, but the impurities presentin it are not, used for the purification of Sn and Zn, and for removing Pb from Zn-Ag alloy. (1) Fractional distillation process : This process is used to purify those metals which themselves are volatile and the impurities in them are nonvolatile and vice-versa. Zn, Cd and Hg are purified by this process. {i) Zone refining method (Fractional crystallisation method) : This process is used when metals are Fequited in very high purty for specific application, For example pure Si and Ge are used in semiconductors Chemical methods : These methods include the folowing methods () OXIDATIVEREFINING : ‘This method is usually employed for refining metals ike Pb, Ag, Cu, Fe, etc. n this method the moten impure metal is subjected to oxidation by various ways. () POLING PROcESs: This process is used forthe purification of copper and tin which contains the impurities of their own oxides. Green wood -» Hydrocarbons -» CH, 4CuO+CH, > 4Cu (pure metal) + CO, + 2H,0 (ll) ELECTROLYTIC REFINING: ‘Some metals such as Cu, Ni, and Al are refined electrolytically. (IV) VAPOR PHASE REFINING : (i) Extraction of Nickel (Mond’s process) :The sequence of reaction is H,0@) +C —> CO() +H, Nils) + 4COKS) 8, [Ni(CO,] @) INi(CO),J@) 20 _, Ni+ 4c0(@) Van Arkel-De Boer process : Impure Ti+ 21, 2-250" Tie 2,a ‘Short Formula (Chemistry) CHAMPIONS s-BLOCK ELEMENTS & THEIR COMPOUNDS Group 1 of the periodic table consists of the elements : lithium, sodium, potassium, rubidium, caesium and francium The elements of Group 2 include berylium, magnesium, calcium, strontium, barium and radium. Hydration Enthalpy The hydration enthalpies of alkali metal ions decrease with increase in ionic sizes Li" has maximum degree of hydration and for this reasons lithium salts are mostly hydrated e.9., LiCl. 2H,0 Physical properties : Allie alkali metal are silvery white, soft and light metals. Because ofthe larger size, these element have low density, The metting and boiling point of the alkali metals are low indicating weak metalic bonding alkali ‘metals and their salts impart characteristic colour to an oxidizing flame. Metal_[ OF Na K Rb [es Violet? lcolour |crimson |Yellow lilac |Red — |tue red liotet Chemical Properties: The alkali metal are highly reactive due to their larger size and low ionization enthalpy. (© Reactivity towards air: They bum vigorously in oxygen forming oxides. Lithium forms monoxid forms peroxide, the other metals form superoxide. (© Reducing nature: The alkali metals, are strong reducing agents, thium being the most and sodium the least powerful (© Solution in liquid ammonia: The alkali metals dissolve in liquid ammonia giving deep blue solution which are conducting in nature. dium Mi (x + y) NH, —> IM(NH, ), + fe(NH) ‘The blue colour ofthe Solution is due to the ammonidted electron and the solutions is paramagnetic. Mi(am)+ e+ NH, (9) —2°2#°9°9_ MINH, (am) + 1/2H,(@) In concentrated solution, the blue colour changes to bronze colour and becomes. diamagnetic. ANOMALOUS PROPERTIES OF LITHIUM () exceptionally small size of its atom and ion, and (i) high polarising power (Le., charger radius ratio). The similarity between lithium and magnesium is particularly striking and arises because of their similar size: atomic radi, Li= 152 pm, Mg = 160 pm; ionic radii: Liv = 76 pm, Mg = 72 pm. GROUP 2 ELEMENTS : ALKALINE EARTH METALS The first element berylium differs from the rest of the member and shows diagonal relationship to aluminium, Hydration Enthalpies Hydration enthalpies of alkaline earth metal ions, Be > Mg* > Ca > Sr*> Bar’. The hydration enthalpies of alkaline earth metal ions are larger than those of alkali metal ions. Thus, compounds of alkaline earth metals are more extensively hydrated than those of alkali metals , e.g,, MgCl, and CaCl, exist as MgCl, 6H.O and CaCl, 6H,O while NaCl and KCI do not form such hydrates, Physical Properties ‘The alkaline earth metals, in general, are silvery white, lustrous and relatively soft but harder than the alkali ‘metals. The melting and boiling point of these metals are higher due to smaller sizes. Because of the low ionisation enthalpies they are strongly electropostive in nature, The electrons in berylium and magnesium are 100 strongly bound to get excited by flame, Hence these elements do not impart any colour tothe flame, Calcium, strontium and barium impart characteristic colour tothe flame,63 a. ‘Short Formula (Chemistry) CHAMPIONS Metal [Be [Mg [ca [sr [6a colour] No | No | Brick [crimson] Apple colour | colour | rea green Chemical Properties © Reactivity towards air and water: Berylium and magnesium are inert to oxygen and water. Magnesium ismore electropositve and bums with dazzling biliance in airto give MgO and Mg.N, Calcium, strontium and barium are readily attacked by arto form the oxide and nivide Q Reducing nature : The alkaline earth metals are strong reducing agent. This is indicated by large negative value of their reduction potentials © Solution in tiquid ammonia: The alkaline earth metals dissolve in liquid ammonia to give deep blue black solution forming amimoniated ions. M+ (+ y) NH, [M(NH),}*+ 2 fe(NH), From these solutions, the ammoniates, (M(NH.),* can be recovered. ANOMALOUS BEHAVIOUR OF BERYLLIUM Berylium the first member ofthe Group 2 metals, shows anomalous behaviour as compared to magnesium and rest of the members, Further, t shows diagonal relationship to aluminium Diagonal Relationship between Beryllium and Aluminium The ionic radius of Be* is estimated to be 31 pm; the charge/radius ratio isnearly the same as that of the Al ion. Hence berylium resembles aluminium in some ways, Compounds of s-block elements : ‘Sodium Oxide (Na,O) : Oe] fo, fimited amount ) TaN, NEO ‘Sodium peroxide (Na,0,): ‘combustion3. 64 Short Formula (Chemistry) Potassium Super oxide (KO): Comeuston| 0, From ar ‘Sodium Hydroxide (NaOH) (ea) xx0 ‘Sodium Carbonate (Na,CO,): root eluents N, Pb, Sn or Zn) NaNO, NoNO, Neco,6. ca ca aT Short Formula (Chemistry) CHAMPIONS Potassium sulphate (K,S0,): sa i802, um KS Quick Lime, Slaked Lime and Lime Water : Limestone 1060'S. auc ima HO. siked ime (ence) c20) Tearonn} | ‘Suspension ——— Susp in water ee + coke Haneda dace, gO" GH, Rostone Ammonis. NH(Ammonia) ——_eloar) [| miik of ime (white washing) [ime water (forthe detection of CO,) cao HO, caro ch Osa oma 7 SEC] 2. Btoaching powder lime aking win [B20 wacH(causte-soda) Neo satton SiO, L_S0. pacts or paristwater Sosalime ‘Slaked "Shea {Amicureat Ca(OH), and NaOH) im ‘0d absorbent for numberof pases Sa (@utding materia 3Ca(OH), +2Cl, —» Ca(OCI),, Ca(OH)». CaCl,.2H,0 (bleaching powder).66 | Short Formula (Chemistry) p-BLOCK ELEMENTS & THEIR COMPOUNDS. TRENDS IN PROPERTIES OF p-BLOCK ELEMENTS. ica (A) GROUP 13 ELEMENTS : THE BORON FAMILY Oxidation state and trends in chemical reactivity : General Oxidation State = + 3 Reactivity towards acids and alkalies 2Al(s) + HCl(aq) ——> 2 Al (aq) + 6 CI(aq)+3H,(a) 2Al(S) + 2NaCH (aq) + BH,0 (1) —> 2Na* [AI(OH),] (aq) + 3H,(9) Sodium tetrahydroxoaluminate (It!) Reactivity towards halogens 2E(S) + 3X, (Q) > 2EX, (8) (X= F.CIBr. I) BORON (B): ‘Some Important Reactions of Boron and its compounds : No.8, lH 3 + SBI, s lu. — CHAMPIONSaT oon [= nwcrniv0, 2 Naw, mate. +0, 2 © co ecasl piper ae 6 sme or omre 82 {05 HEEL rc, mi pst, ones “No, & ‘iJetner wee. Bool +l teciHel SE \ gues BM, oN BQN) {BHT BF, bocaaine) © Small amines such as NH,, CH.NH, and (CH.),NH give unsymmetrical cleavage of diborane. BH, + 2NH, —> [H.8 (NH),J°+ [BH 2 Large amines such as (CH.),N and pyridine give symmetrical cleavage of diborane. 2(CH).N+B.H, —> 2H,B <— N(CH), 2 — BH,+2c0 26204, 29H.c0 (borane carbony) (B) GROUP 14 ELEMENTS : THE CARBON FAMILY Carbon (C), silicon (Si), germanium (Ge), tin (Sn) and ead (Pb) are the members of group 14. Electronic Configuration = ns* np’ Oxidation states and trends in chemical reactivity Common oxidation states = +4 and +2. Carbon also exhibits negative oxidation states. In heavier members the tendency to show +2 oxidation state increases in the sequence Ge < Sn < Pb,68 a ‘Short Formula (Chemistry) CHAMPIONS Reactivity towards oxygen : {All members when heated in oxygen form oxides, There are mainly two types of oxide: dioxide of formula MO and MO, respectively. Reactivity towards water : ‘Tin decomposes steam to form dioxide and dihydrogen gas. i.e, monoxide and Reactivity towards halogen : These elements can form halides of formula MX, and MX, (where X = F, CIB, |). Stabilly of dihalidesincreases down the group, ANOMALOUS BEHAVIOUR OF CARBON : Catenation : The order of catenation is C >> Si> Ge ~ Sn, Lead does not show catenation, Due to the property of catenation and pr-px bonds formation, carbon is able to show allotropic forms. Bond Bond enthalpy (kJ mor) Bond Bond enthalpy (kJ mot") co 348 sisi 297 Ge—Ge 260 Sn—Sn 240 Allotropes of Carbon Diamond: Crystalline lattice sp* hybridisation and linked to four other carbon atoms by using hybridised orbitals in tetrahedral manner. The CC bond length is 154 pm. and produces a rigid three dimensional network of carbon atoms. Graphite : Graphite has layered structure. Layers are held by van der Waal’s forces and distance between two layers is. 340 pm. Each layeris composed of planar hexagonal rings of carbon atoms. C~C bond length within the layer is 141.5 pm. Each carbon atom in hexagonal ring undergoes sp? hybridisation graphite conducts electricity along the sheet. Graphite cleaves easily between the layers and therefore, itis very soft and slippery. For this, reason graphite is used as a dry lubricant in machines running at high temperature. Fullerenes : C,, molecule has a shape like soccer ball and called Buckminsterfullerene. it contains twenty six-membered rings and twelve five membered rings. This ball shaped molecule has 60 vertices and each one is occupied by ‘one carbon atom and it also contains both single and double bonds with C ~C distance of 143.5 pm and 138.3 pm respectively. SOME IMPORTANT REACTIONS OF CO, CO, AND METAL CARBIDES KIFe(CN}]+ H,S0. (cone) Fe(co), C+ O¥imites) 280. Hoy oH OH, ‘cajom,HH, gor,+ Ba-c= cH 1g0-—+ Heo; —+ co6 a) ®) ©) 0) «) Fr) am Short Formula (Chemistry) CHAMPIONS CLASSIFICATION OF SILICATES Pr Onthosilicates:| Pyrosilicate : Cyclic silicates Chain silicates : Two dimensional sheet silicates : In such silicates, three oxygen atoms of each tetrahedral are shared with adjacent SiO," tetrahedral. Such ‘sharing forms two dimension sheet structure with general formula (Si,0,),°~ Three dimenstional sheet silicates ‘These silicates involve all four oxygen atom in sharing with adjacent SiO, * tetrahedral units, SILICONES 2 Silicones can be prepared from the following types of compounds only MRSC! — RSI, Gi) RSICI, = Silicones from the hydrolysis of (CH), SiC oH, on cH ot 2(CH),Sicl 0. 20H), (OH) — CH Boh HOB = "2s ch—8— 0G, cH, on, cH cH Silicones from the hydrolysis of a mixture of (CH)), SiC1& (CH), SiCl, Hy OK \ on cH ol \ oth CHSi--O—Si—0F SiC \ 1 bh be hkJ 70 | Short Formula (Chemistry) CHAMPIONS * When a compound like CH,SiCI, undergoes hydrolysis, a complex cross-linked polymeris obtained. = Thehhycrocarbon layer along the slicon-oxygen chain makes silicones water repellent. COMPOUNDS OF LEAD: 5-16] xo P300,+ Ho lou, RE (easeleas cabana) i puoneu? |naicr ~pu,soetow me 1c | 5] trem ah er fis } Sty on a wot me] 0700, aso, + oP PHO" FO Puno}, 120, HOBO RG PME src +110 0 or 0 No.0, Puom COMPOUNDS OF TIN: exon Een FB FeCl, ‘noi, } HCL] + 14g,c1—S0 Hg nen) on ho ner \uo SMOHICI [SnCLy — [H,SPCL] Snow), (©) GROUP 15 ELEMENTS : THE NITROGEN FAMILY Electronic Configuration :ns* np* Covalent and ionic (in a particular state) radii increase in size down the group. Atomic and lonic Ra Physical Properties Allthe elements of this group are polyatomic. Metallic character increases down the group. The boiling points in general , increase from top to bottom in the group but the melting point increases upto arsenic and then. decreases upto bismuth. Except nitrogen, al the elements show allotropy.nm aii) (ii) w Short Formula (Chemistry) Chemical Properties : Oxidation States and trends in a chemical reactivity : ‘The common oxidation states of these elements are -3, +3 and +5. The stablity of +5 oxidation state decreases and that of +3 state increases (due to inert pair effect) down the group ; Bi*"> Sb > As™; BI" < Sb” < As™ Nitrogen exhibits +1, +2, +4 oxidation states also when it reacts with oxygen, Anomalous properties of nitrogen : The stability of hydrides decreases from NH, to BiH, which can be observed from their bond dissociation enthalpy. Consequently , the reducing character of the hydrides increases, Basicty also decreases in the order NH,> PH, > AsH, > SbH, > BiH, PROPERTIES OF HYDRIDES OF GROUP 15 ELEMENTS. Property NH [PH | As | SbH | Bim, Meting pont | 1952 | 1095 | ts67 | 105 | - Boling pontk | 2365 | 755 | 2106 | 2546 | 200 E=MDstance/pm | torr | 1419 | 119 | wor | - HEH angle vore | sas | ore | 13 | - at fkimor” | —461 | 124 | 664 | 1451 | 276 etE-HyKImor'| 360 | 32 | 207 | 2s | - ‘The oxide in the higher oxidation state ofthe element is more acidic than that of lower oxidation state. Their acidic character decreases down the group. The oxides ofthe type E.O, of nitrogen and phosphorus are purely acidic, that of arsenic and antimony amphoteric and those of bismuth is predominantly basic Nitrogen does not form pentahalide due to non — availablity ofthe d-orbitals ints valence shell, Pentahalides are more covalent than trihalides. Halides are hydrolysed in water forming oxyacids or oxychlorides. PCL, + HO—>H,PO, + HCI; ‘SbCI,+H,O—+ SbOCIL (orange) + 2HCI; BiCI, + H,O—+ BiOCI | (white)+ 2HCI These elements react with metals to form their binary compounds exhibiting ~3 oxidation state , such as, Ca,N, (calcium nitride) CaP, (calcium phosphide) and Na,As, (sodium arsenide). NITROGEN (N) AND ITS COMPOUNDS : na, HNO, @WHCK0, Sa Nh agg eee LN ath, (ou NL IE Fo caco,+NH.<#2 cach+6 NO MaN, —> Nis+MafOH, (eaten)72 Short Formula (Chemistry) FeO.x40 NANO, acy fu, ewityso, (600 +H,0- Ca(0H}),.use fr dying of NH, CHAMPIONS ee SSS ee Dintragen oxide No +1 | NHNO>n0+2HO ‘colourtess gas , neutral oe 2 Nivogen dioxide +4 2PONO), “2%, 4no,+2Pe0+0] brown gas, actaie [Nirogen(Iv} oxide) | NO: Dinirogen owanxide| NO, +4 | ano, Sno, ‘colours sof | — ee | _ : NaOH + NH,+ NaN, oe HOH No, ‘Cr(NO). a Noct 2 {Fe(t.0),Noy”73 Short Formula (Chemistry) FE tao, sano, 0, NO No! NO, as manavesus sent) Nak, noigo NOIHs0y fa ooh n081 47 NOtNOrO, (nso ohtte, 6 sn, a iso, N10, NaNO,+NO,CI © st 0; A+ Ono, so @)dite NHNO, 4Sn+10HNO, — 4Sn(NO)+ NH.NO,+3H,0 (Dyconcentrated «NO, 'Sn+4HNO, > HSNO, "+ ANO,+H.O ma san tine cd NAO. 9,1H,80 cone) Oswais Bickolond yo 4 N20 Nno—>no HOT Ho, [+s 10, +o, Jp |e 14P0, + No¥ 'c0,+NO, PHOSPHORUS (P) AND ITS COMPOUNDS : PQ», caspo3,+ 6+ 50, Sy 2 OH agra cece 280° FF MEOH on, 5 snat.P0, f » Pe PS ‘When white phosphorus is heated in the atmosphere of CO, or coal gas at 573 K red phosphorusis produced ta-black phosphorus is formed when red phosphorus is healed in a sealed tube at 803K. [i-black phosphorus is prepared by heating white phosphorus at 473 K under high pressure. (Order of thermodynamic stability of various allotropes of phosphorus : black > red > whiteAs CHAMPIONS Omagpto, P+ NaOH NO, + HPO, HO - 10, | 0, ‘e é " ‘ ws tis ral HPO sore "2 Yr.o[ HO > Hpo, 2 oe ale 0 ne +H P0, aa PHJBr ae CHEN + HPO, P,+ CO Ca(PO,), Coxoaclds of Phosphorus rman HER att charac ona = cael rormuls | phosphorus ‘their number Preparat Sebo famoewomoie| Hp0, | + Teer | whtePyo hat omrse lomermamene| eos | 3 ee PosK omese yeemsmnon| Heo | +3 Tore | Posen, aro romans | ron | +4 Torso | arieanan Omephenere | HPO | +8 Tees | POwrko aro Pyenmnere | ror] 8 Toren ean Tw weaoante | Poo] 8 Treen ee mieeB 6°? | natnsestoe Poot, sche poy 8 sourrevrrga, |, |B ; 8 P904+00, ee} a fost 2-6 [oo poeta PO 80, pod, Hel + poo, Hf HOL+ HPO.<—S2 Sree 2HCI + $0,Ct, + POC oea ‘Short Formula (Chemistry) CHAMPIONS (0) GROUP 16 ELEMENTS : THE OXYGEN FAMILY “ Electronic Configuration : ns* np Atomic and lonic Radit Due to increase in the number of shells , atomic and ionic radii increase from top to bottom in the group. The size of oxygen atoms s however, exceptionally small Physical Properties : (Oxygen and sulphur are non-metal, selenium and tellurium metalloids, whereas polonium isa metal. Polonium. is radioactive andis short lived (Half-life 13.8 days). The melting and boiling points increase with an increase in ‘atomic number down the group. Catenation : Tendency for catenation decreases down the group. This property is prominently displayed by sulphur(S,). The ‘SS bond is important in biological system and is found in some proteins and enzymes such as cysteine, Chemical Properties Oxidation states and trends in chemical reactivity : Elements of the group exhibit + 2, + 4, + 6 oxidation states but + 4 and + 6 are more common, Anomalous behaviour of oxygen : ‘The anomalous behaviour of oxygen is due to its small size and high electronegativly. The absence of d orbitals in oxygen limits its covalency to four. Their acidic character increases from H,0 to H.Te. The increase in acidic character can be understood in {terms of decrease in bond (H-E) dissociation enthalpy down the group. Owing to the decrease in bond (H-E) dissociation enthalpy down the group , the thermal stability of hydrides also decreases from H.O to H,Po. All the hydrides except water possess reducing property and this property increases from H,S to H,Te, PROPERTIES OF HYDRIDES OF GROUP 16 ELEMENTS: [Property Ho nS Se tite mpik 273 188 208 222. lo pak 373 213 232 269 H-E distancefpm 96 134 146 169 HEH angle (?) 104 92 ot 90 ik mot 286 -20 3 100 AassH (H-E)IkI mot 463, 347. 2768 238 Dissociation constant’ | 1.810% | 1.3% 10 13xt0* | 23x10° Reducing property of dioxide decreases from SO, to TeO,, : SO, Oxides are generally acidic in nature The stabilities of the halides decrease in the order F > C1> Br> I, Sulphur hexafluoride SF, is exceptionally stable for steric reasons. The well known monohalides are dimericin nature, Examples are S,F., S,Cl,, S,Br,, Se,Cl, and Se,Br,, These dimeric halides undergo disproportionation as given below: 28e,Cl, > SeCl, + 38¢. reducing while TeO, is an oxidising agent.76 | Short Formula (Chemistry) CHAMPIONS OXYGEN (O,) AND ITS COMPOUNDS : 2. Ethyl antnraguinot CRBs) erst SiReas 00, |p, cape nso, aso, ~ ™ H.0, FeSouHt Fe{SO.), FeS +H,SO, peek, ® hwo. oo! (74O,).0H.(H.0}1) (yallowiorangecelouration) X ae CP igreen) ; Dn. Na,cOyH.0. aco, LMRCOME, Natiso, 25°. na,s0, Hs0, ~_Ho ; ee (no S—S bond) pall (overeaupture at) detergent Oxo-acids of Sulphur 4. Suplhurous acid series Hi @Hs0, si) suiphurous acid Wo? 2. Sulphuric acid series, (@)H,S0, sv) ‘sulphuric acid a 3. Peroxo acid series @Hso, sw peroxomonosulphuric acid Caro, acid)TT | Short Formula (Chemistry) CHAMPIONS | Lead-Chamber Process HS, $0, _F080,xiNH,)S0.+C0 NaOH NaS NSO NaS 50, NAO Nao, Nas, eal s 3 i so+s-— 4 | Nas, [+L —+n035,0, + Nat NaHs0,+ Ho — 45 —| RO Ags Lon NO RG ttg(8,0,, 19 excoss of 25.0) IFews.0. ° ‘or NaAatS.0,}) (Pink oF yet) eae ay o (oluble) fe” a] Ho 2 1507 5 NaS, . — Se v8.0, 2S + Ne, [ou/S.0.3] {couse complex) {E) GROUP 17 ELEMENTS : THE HALOGEN FAMILY Fiuorine, chlorine, bromine, iodine and astatine are members of Group 17. Electronic Configuration :ns*np® ‘Atomic and lonic Radi ‘The halogens have the smallest atomic radi in their respective periods due to maximum effective nuclear charge. Physical Properties Fluorine and chlorine are gases, bromine is aliquid whereas iodine is a solid. Their melting and boiling points steadily increase with atomic number, The X- bond disassociation enthalpies from chlorine onwards show the expected trend : Cl-Cl> Br-Br> F-F> 1-1,78 | Short Formula (Chemistry) CHAMPIONS Chemical Properties Oxidation states and trends in chemical reactivity Allthe halogens exhibit ~1 oxidation state. However, chlorine, bromine and iodine exhibit + 1, + 3, #5 and +7 oxidation states also. 2F ,(g) + 2H,O(¢) > 4H” (aq) + 4F- (aq) + O,(g) X(@)+H.0() SHX(@q)+HOX(aq) 4F (aq) + 4H" (aq) + 0,(g) +21, (8) + 2H.0() (where X= Clor Br) ke +r ASO cor, ‘re. | v0 ct vai orm) KE ee sleceobes| oy Fi) 01) Ye Site $F, By. 0 01a) + NoF +110«N0OH Qe ro, ewoen scaci snd ase, QA |-6Is0F + nF, FSO, 0080F! i IMnF + SOF, Co HSO, a airs o2 26+ 2420 Naci+ cone HO, Rages N\ cre 30.8) tor NaBr oral s HPO, NaCl + 80, + 10 +0, HBr Narang Hare song recucng Hecgreaves method o Sgt an ecco, 680, EE No, onto ie pace Fei + 5 Bille HO Na ave souton a * go #20. 40 — + 06, Onenane cman) 24E0_ 79 | Short Formula (Chemistry) CHAMPIONS O10 ORG cocunorset +0310, + Chowne) 2 go Ca, HO*NE”s cot, sto) Hocie tL? {6,5} 4 +c1,+0, Cath sKonHlont . we [kon casclo},+ 620, NH,CleNs Koc he compotion testing pouderis CH(0C)2 CaE2 Ca(OH 220. NaClO, + 60. +H.80, commersial {F) GROUP 18 ELEMENTS : (THE ZERO GROUP FAMILY) helium, neon, argon, krypton , xenon and radon Most abundant element in air is Ar. Order of abundance in the air is Ar > Ne > Kr> He > Xe, Electronic Configuration : nsinp* ‘Atomic Radii ‘Atomic radil increase down the group with increase in atomic number. Physical properties Allthe noble gases are mono-atomic, They are colourless, and tasteless. They are sparingly soluble in water. ‘They have very low melting and boiling points because the only type of interatomic interaction in these elements is weak dispersion forces, Chemical Properties : In general, noble gases are least reactive. Their inertness to chemical reactivity is attributed to the following reasons: © Thenoble gases except helium (1s*) have completely filed ns® np electronic configuration in their valence shel @ _—_Theyhave high ionisation enthalpy and more positive electron gain enthalpy. The reactivity of noble gases has been investigated occasionally ever since thelr discovery, but ll attempt to,_ 80 | Short Formula (Chemistry) CHAMPIONS force them to react to form the compounds were unsuccessful for quite a few years. In March 1962, Neil Bartlett, then at the University of British Columbia, observed the reaction of a noble gas. Fist , he prepared a red compound which is formulated as ©.” PIF.~. He , then realised that the first ionisation enthalpy of molecular oxygen (1175 kJ mol~) was almost identical with that xenon (1170 kJ mol ~”), He made efforts to prepare same type of compound with Xe" PAF, ~ by mixing PtF, and Xenon. After this discovery, a number of xenon compounds ‘mainly with most electronegative elements like fluorine and oxygen, have been synthesised. 2 If Helium is compressed and liquified i forms He() liquid at 4.2 K. This liquid is a normal liquid like any other liquid. But if itis further cooled then He(II) is obtained at 2.2 K, which is known as superfluid, because itis a liquid with properties of gases. It climbs through the walls of the container & comes out. It has very high thermal Conductivity & very low viscosity CLATHERATE COMPOUNDS : During the formation of ice Xe atoms willbe trapped in the cavities (or cages) formed by the water molecules in. the crystal structure of ice. Compounds thus obtained are called clatherate compounds. Clathrate provides a convenient means of storing radioactive isotopes of Kr and Xe produced in nuclear reactors, 1 i, 1s ig Xoo F2 PFET RG, BIE ye THF ig 7 Che xerHE port ieR BIS uy yx SF, + Kea] Ker, [ACT PETES Gye OIE Hwee Sug Fa? O:* Xe HF : KF + Xe CNG co er TISbF ee ee Poe Re 800.21 +0, 3 Heexercu NO. F+ Xe a Par xe xe XerHe [ROT Ber el siaxcor, «SOT Ker, PHO Ker. +HE tno oT, Ce x0 Os x20, merrerr Te Noe BE (caliker XeF.+ Caer d-BLOCK ELEMENTS & THEIR COMPOUNDS The general electronic configuration of d-block elements is (n—1) d“" ns, where nis the outer most shell General trends in the chemistry of transition elements. Metallic character ‘Nearly all the transition elements display typical metallic properties such as high tensile strength, ductility, ‘malleabilty, high thermal and electrical conductivity and metalic lustre. With the exceptions of Zn,Cd, Hg and, Mn, they have one or more typical metallic structures at normal temperatures. The transition elements (with the exception of Zn, Cd and Hg) are very much hard and have low volatility Melting and boiling points : “The metting and boiling points ofthe transition series elements are gernerally very high.=~ 81 | Short Formula (Chemistry) CHAMPIONS Ce Density : “The atomic volumes ofthe transition elements are low compared with the elements of group 1 and 2. This is because the increased nuclear charge is poorly screened the transition metals are high. Oxidation states : ‘Most of transition elements show variable oxidation states. Participation of inner (n= 1) d-electrons in adit to outer ns-electrons because, the energies of the ns and (n~ 1) d-subshells are nearly same. Different oxidation states of first transition series. Outer Element electronic ‘Oxidation states configuration Se ad'4s? 3 Ti 92,43, 44 v 42,43, 44,45 Cr ‘das! 42, #3, (+4), (15), +6 Mn das? 42,43, +4, (45), 46, +7 Fe adhas" 42, +3, (+4), (+5), (+6) co ad'as? 42,43, (+4) Ni 304s" 42,43, +4 cu 304s" 44,42 Zn 34s" 2 Characteristics of Oxides and Some lons of V and Cr Si ant +4 vo, amphoteric vor ‘oxovanadium (IV)|—bhie (vanadite) 2 | cop] mee | femme” | “ison cr{OH), (chromaus} oa [ooo enon |82 ae alle ‘Short Formula (Chemistry) CHAMPIONS Standard electrode potentials : ‘The value of ionisation enthalpies gives information regarding the thermodynamic stability of the transition ‘metal compounds in different oxidation states, Smaller the ionisation enthalpy of the metal, the stable is its ‘compound. Electrode potentials : In addition to ionisation enthalpy, the other factors such as enthalpy of sublimation, hydration enthalpy, ionisation enthalpy etc. determine the stability of a particular oxidation state in solution. The overall energy change is. AH=AHP+IE+ AH ‘The smallerthe values of total energy change for a particular oxidation state in aqueous solution, greater will be the ‘stability of that oxidation state. The electrode potentials are ‘a measure of total energy change. Qualitative, the stability of the transition metal ions in different oxidation states can ro ; bbe determined on the basis of electrode potential data. The a lower the electrode potential .e., more negative the standard © cote reduction potential of the electrode, the more stable is the oxidation state of the transition metal in the aqueous solution. Thermochemical data (kJ mol”) for the first row Transition Elements and the Standard Electrode potentials for the Reduction of M'toM Element (MAHA) AM [AME [AHO | EW 7 ‘ao | eer] aio] te88 “88 v sis | ea | jaro | 008 448 & ge | oss | jex0| 1008 2 in gre | Me | isto | 1862 a8 fe ate | fee | eco | 1088 au & ar | ter | few | 2078 23 nt S| tee | ico | ur 33 & ge | te | eo] 212t ou in io | dos | treo | 2050 7 Formation of Coloured ions : “ ‘Most of the compounds of transition metals are coloured in the solid form or solution form. The colour of the compounds of transition metals may be attributed to the presence of incomplete (n~ 1) d-subshell eo ¢ ep de Gop Ge dd transition hv t, 4, d, by dy dy The excess of other colours constituting white light are transmitted and the compound appears coloured. The ‘observed colour ofa substance is always complementary colour of the colour whichis absorbed by the substance. Magnetic Properties Paramagnetic substances : The substances which are attracted by magnetic field are called paramagnetic, ‘substances.=~ “ “i (ii) 83 | Short Formula (Chemistry) CHAMPIONS ES Diamagnetic substances : The substances which are repelled by magnetic field are called diamagnetic. substances. The ‘spin only’ magnetic moment can be calculated from the relation = yn(n+2) BM. where nis the number of unpaired electrons and u is magnetic moment in Bohr magneton (BM) units. ‘The paramagnetism first increases in any transition series and than decreases. The maximum paramagnetism is observed around the middle ofthe series (as contains maximum number of unpaired electrons) Formation of Interstitial Compounds : ‘Transition metals form intersitial compounds with elements such as hydrogen, boron, carbon and nitrogen Catalytic properties : Many transition metals and their compounds act as good catalysts for various reactions. OF these, the use of Fe, Co, Ni, V, Cr, Mn, Pt, etc, are very common, ‘The catalytic property of transition metals is due to their tendency to form reaction intermediates with suitable reactants. These intermediates give reaction paths of lower activation energy and, therefore, increase the rale of the reaction In some cases, the transition metal catalysts provide a suitable large surface area for the adsorption of the reactant. This increases the concentration of the reactants at the catalyst surface and also weakens the bonds inthe reactant molecules. Consequently, the activation energy gets lowered, In some cases, the transition metal ions can change their oxidation states and become more effective as catalysts, Alloy Formation : Alloys are hard, have high melting points and are more resistant to corrosion than parent metals. d-BLOCK METAL COMPOUNDS : 1. Hydrated Ferrous Sulphate (FeSO, 74,0), Ferric chloride (FeCl, ) and iron (ill) oxide (Fe,0,) i a aa orc ve BF scxycr00%, evan _ Turballs he eee Ee ocr Foca, en-e—22 | ra a —— ss.= 84 | Short Formula (Chemistry) CHAMPIONS 2. Hydrated copper sulphur (CuSO, 5H,0): U2 H5O +0. raaneg (tite) Cul, FCHO* OH cu 0a} rover Cu solu Kicucn+—S%— cudhs faite) cufor, 'cus.0.4 (colross solble complex) [ones feanty cus.0,4 (Coop blue coturation) psc. NaJCu(8,0.) soluble complex) Silver nitrate (AgNO, ite weer ion) AME agente) CA] ‘a AgS.0,Lguhite) sfio AGS (black) AQ KIAKCN)] Aa * HPO/HASO, + HNO, Potassium permanganate (KMnO,): Wa, we AL KOH + KcI0, elactraiyss (atanode) [OH eRO, = HAO,85 Short Formula (Chemistry) CHAMPIONS Mn.0, (exploive ol) KMnO. (groon) ITKMRO. ig nexcess faci is in excoss Kttno, + Mn0, +0, Moo, + 0, (placed in sunight) + om) Basyers reagent decoltsost ‘compounds ) HOseMn0, $F MnO, -$0-+ MnO, MnO, Potassium dichromate (K,Cr0,): aa] a |Naco, + air rs O(g) + COT] +40 oom oo ro (deep bue in ether) orgroen) +. 180..110 + KHS0, + CxO, (oringh arangeted) NSO 51 HO ESOC SOL AAO CCP groen) + Fes Cr'(green) + SOF KCI is , ™~ ‘chrome alum: a BO SUG" $io,c1 82H na,c10, CaSO,+H,0+C0, 1 © Lime watersBaryta water (Ba(OH),) test CO, + Ca(OH), —+ CaCO, J (milky) + H,0 CaCO, + CO, +H,0 —> CatHCO,), (soluble) —- Caco, 1+ H,0+C0, 2, SULPHITEION (80, © Dilute H,SO, test CaSO, FH,SO, —> CaSO, + H,0 + SO, 1; SO, has suffocating odour of burning sulphur. © Acidified potassium dichromate test : The fiter paper dipped in acidified K,Cr,O, turns green, Cr,0;+ 2H" +380, —> 2C+* (green) + 3802 +H,0 © Barium chloride/Strontium chloride solution : 80,?+BatiSi® ——+ BaSOySrSO, | (white. 2 White precipitate dissolves in dilule HCl. BaSO, | +2H* + Ba’ + SO, 7+H,0. 3. SULPHIDE ION (S*): © Dilute H,S0, test : Pungent smelling gas lke that of rotten egg is obtained. SDH HST © Lead acetate test : (CH,CO0),Pb+H,S > PbS 4 (black) # 2CH,COOH. © Sodium nitroprusside test : Purple coloration is obtained. S?+IFe(CN), (NO) > [Fe(CN),NOSI* (viol. ‘* Cadmium carbonate suspension’ Cadmium acetate solution : Na,S+CdCO, —> CdS J (Yellow) + Na,CO, 4, NITRITE ION (NO,): © Dilute H,SO, test NO,"+H" > HNO, ; (2HNO, —> H,0 +N,0,): 3HNO, —> HNO, +2NO+H,0 ;2NO+0, ——> 2NO, 7 © Starch iodide test 2NO,-+31- + 4CH,COOH —> 1; +2NO T+ 4CH,COO-+2H,0 Starch +1 > Blue (starch iodine adsorption complex) 5. ACETATE ION (CH,COO”) © Dilute H,S0, test: (CH,CO0),Ca+ H,S0, > 2CH,COOH (vinegar lke smell) + CaSO, © Neutral ferric chloride test : GCH,COO-+ 3Fe* + 2H,0 —= [Fe,(OH),(CH,COO), (deep red! blood red colouration) + 2H” Fe (OH),(CH,COO),) + 44,0 —Eel_, 3Fe(OH),CH,COO | (brownish red) + 3CH,COOH + Ht {b) CONC . H,SO, GROUP 1. CHLORIDE ION(CI”) © Concentrated H,S0, test: Cr +H,S0, ——> HCI (colourless pungent smelling gas) + HS, © NH.OH+ HCI —> NH,CI T (white fumes) + H,0. © Silvernitrate test: Cr+ Ag* —+ AgCl (white) z White precipitate is soluble in aqueous ammonia and precipitate reappears with HNO, AgCI+2NH,OH — [Ag(NH,),JC! (Soluble) + 2H,O ; [Ag(NH,),JCI+ 2H* —> AgCl 1 +2NH,* ¢ —Chromyi chloride test :_ ‘88 | Short Formula (Chemistry) CHAMPIONS Cecio ACI + C1,0,2- +6H" (conc) —> 2C10,Cl, (deep red vapours) +3H,O C10,Cl, # 40H —> CrO,? + 2C- +2H,0; C102 + Pb? —> PbCIO, | (yellow) 2. BROMIDE ION (17) © Concentrated H,SO, test : 2NeBr+ H,SO, > Na,SO, + 2HBr; 2HBr+ H,S0, —> Br, 7 (reddish-brown) + 2H,0+ SO, © Silvernitrate test : NaBr+ AgNO, —> AgBr (pale yellow) + NaNO, * Yellow precipitate is partially soluble in dilute aqueous ammonia but readily dissolves in concentrated ammonia solution. AgBr + 2NH,OH —> [Ag(NH,),] Br+ H,O © Chlorine water test (organic layer test) 28r+ Cl, —> 2+ Br? Br, + CHCI,/ CCl, > Br dissolve to give reddish brown colour in organic layer. 3.JODIDE ION CI") © Concentrated H,S0, test : 2Nal + H,SO, ——> Na,SO,+2HI 2HI+H,S0, ——> 1,7 (pungent smelling dark violet) + 2H,0 + SO, © Starch paper test : lodides are readily oxidised in acid solution to free iodine; the free iodine may than be identified by deep blue colouration produced with starch solution. 3+ 2NO,- + 4H — I> +2NO 7 +2H,0. © Silvernitrate test : Bright yellow precipitate is formed. F+agt — agl 1 Bright yellow precipitate is insoluble in dilute aqueous ammonia but is partially soluble in concentrated ‘ammonia solution. © Chlorine watertest (organic layer test) : 2Nal+ Cl, —> 2NaCl+ |, I, + CHCl, — |, dissolves to give violet colourin organic layer. 4, NITRATE ION(NO,) : © Concentrated H,SO, test : Pungent smelling reddish brown vapours are evolved 4NO,"+2H,S0, —> 4NO, T+ 0, +250, + 2H,0 _Adaition of bright copper turnings or paper pellets intensifies the evolution of reddish brown gas. 2NO,- + 4H,S0,+ 3Cu ——> 3Cu** + 2NO T+ 4S0,?-+ 4H,0; 2NO 7 +0, — 2NO, 7 4C (paper pelle!) + 44NO, —> 2H,0+ 4NO, + 460, © Brown ring test: 2NO,-+ 4H,SO, + BFe? ——> 6Fe% + 2NO 1 + 480,2-+4H,0. Fet! +NOT+5H,O — [Fe!(H,0),NO'F? (brown ring). 3. Miscellaneous Group 4, SULPHATE ION (S0,): ¢ Barium chloride test : Na,S0,+BeCl, —> BaSO, | (white) + 2NeCl ‘White precipitate is insoluble in warm dil. HNO, as well as HCI but moderately soluble in. boiling concentrated hydrochloric ace © Lead acetate test : Na,S0, + (CH,COO),PD —> PSO, | (While) + 2CH,COONa White precipitate soluble in excess of hot ammonium acetate. PbSO,+ 2CH,COONH, —» (CH,COO),Pb (soluble) + (NH,),S0, 2. PHOSPHATE ION (PO,*): © Ammonium motybdate test : Na; HPO, (aq) + 12(NH,)MoO, + 23HNO, -+ (NH,),PMo,,Oyo{ (canary yellow) + 2NaNO, + 21NH,NO, + 12H,0=~ 89 | Short Formula (Chemistry) CHAMPIONS ANALYSIS OF CATIONS 41. AMMONIUM ION (NH,*) : 2NH, + Mn?++H,0, +H,O —> MnO(OH), | (brown) + 2NH," Nessier’s reagent (Alkaline solution of potassium tetraidomercurate(I) : NH," + 2[Hgl.-+ 40H" —»> HgO Ha (NHI (brown) +71-+ 3H,0 3NH,’+ [Co(NO.),> —> (NH)ICO(NO, gL (yellow) 2NH,"+ [PIClg- —> (NH,); [PtCi,)! yellow 1 GROUP (Pb*, H,”, Ag’): Original Solution in H,0 + dilute HC1(2M) ee ey cearacn Fiitrate, move fer Il Group Dissolve m hot water and ee TT” precipitate doesnt If recitateassolves (PUCL), sealve(Hg.Cl or AGC), Divide the solution into trae pans ‘Ad NH OH and shake and fer oe Mpat=KCr0, I part + di, H80, bl) i. 1 Yalow prostate (PoCrO,) White preciate PSO.) solublain HINO, a5 wells in solublein ammenium +a a ‘acetate oer Twat «dt 0, Nagi (eit )cl+ Ha). > Dissolve in aquaregia White praca by oling. Divae into Preciitate gets Three partstHgO).solubio(AgiNH,.ch._,| Divide into 3 pars pan + KI [> Yetow precipate ai) Ii part + .C*0, _ 4 Bick red red preciptate (A9,C10,) I part+ Snot, Moan + IM pan + Gu tunings 1 v Grey or Bick procptate Rod prociptato Hat.) Black procipiat Hg holy divided) (Hg) soluble in excess Ki Torey KIM]90 | Short Formula (Chemistry) CHAMPIONS A Group (Hg, Pb®, Bi, Cu, Cd*) ‘roupfirate + HCI +. (a Precpitate. Frvae, move fo i" group Black precise (98, PLS, CuS o 8.8). ‘Yolow procptate (Ca). Dissolve In 0% HNO, and Inn Bad KCN Delete aah tl ee Colourtess sctton, CaN) Pass Hie) t Fite bpspinll-os (itrates of Pb, Bi and Cu) _Yellow precipitate (Ca). Dissowe in aquarega * Sn, t Slack preiitate Hg) CColouress solution of PINO, cr BINO,)). Add dite luo clour solution (CUINO,)). HiSO, and litte C.HOH (it further decreases the Add ammonia sluton Solbity ef POS.) ad iter Intense blue cour soution [CuNH, AND) Add KON Fitrate (8 {80,)). sotsion nexcess Add NOH i excess ¥ Colours soutonot (Cu(CN).> ‘and aide ino two par HCHO) _athterrecpate tH Pans HS) aie Noack pipe of cus. oat 7K tpat #0, Yelowpocttte Yotow prepete HHT NAOH* NaSr0, Mpa eee tater ae es Black peeciitae (2. ‘White turbidity (BOTS, IIB Group (As™, Sb, Sn®, Sn“) Soluble in (NH,,S, as (NH), ASS,, (NH), SbS,, (WH),Sn8,,. q ‘Add dilute HCI and filter. ————_ Insolubie (A3,8, + some S). ‘Soluble (S9CI, & SnCi). Dissolve In cone. HNO, Divide Into two parts andcivide into two pers. 4 4 [ L per Upart+ Fe powder orZn {part Ammonium meiybdate, ——_tipart + NELCl+ i Late area orn t NHOH + g50, White predtats Mt Neat ond add HOC Yellow precipitate L {SbOC». Ick oF grey precipitate (NH), A80,-12 M00, Wiite preiptate + opeteteta eerie (tn 80). ‘strat aid 1 Precpitate fs soluble91 | Short Formula (Chemistry) vs Group (Ar®, Cr, Fe") Group _Boitot Five =~ a. CHAMPIONS HS t then add cone. HNO, (1-2) drops + NHCI (solid) + NH.OH oo Preciptate, Fitrate, move for IV" group. It getatnous white Dreciitate (AOH),) 4 4 Dissolve in tuts Itreddisn brown precipitate (Fe(OH) Dissolve in dilute tt gre0n precipitate (CH(OH)). J Fuse the precipitate with HCIalcl} HCl (FeCl) fusion mura & ave the (KNO, +Ne.CO,) 4 soliton ta two pars extract with water (Na,C10)) Ac sar Divide solution into two parts hydroxide soliton. white preciptate a WF parts Sssolves im KFo(ON KSCN. . e ‘excess of precipitant tate W* part +890, nado, 4 4 chcooH + (cx,co0)Pe, Prussian blue (aq) Blood red (aa) procpate ot ‘OLFe(SCN), Yeon precipitate Yelow precipitate Fe,Fe(CNt. of PEO, of BaCrO, ‘Add NHCI, and heat Gelatinous white precipitate oFAKOH),92 | Short Formula (Chemisty) CHAMPIONS SaaS IV® GROUP (Zn?*, Mn*, Ni*, Co): I Group rate + NHLOH (excess) & NHI, then pass HS ++, Predptata Fitrate, [2S (wit, Mr eight pink), NS (black) o CoS (lack) owe far” grou. |i ate HCl ant shake ant iter a] Black precitte (CoS oF NS) nay Dissolve ia aquaregia an + Scoporsko baryoene Bolo remove any #15 dssohes, di BI J.0 + NSO ane ito Blue residue Yellow residue Black preciptate Ftrote ‘coc ‘nich ‘tind (va2n0) Tums pin water Tue gran in tar _ ote ce Die the Suton to v HNO. ana then ad ‘wo pst. ‘Add demethylgyoxime PbO, and heat — ‘nramman cal ston v Violate I pert + NHOH + par + RedResy ree precipitate (purple colour) CHCDOHFKNO,NHCNS(sat) —((CAHLNO, NI. solution (HNO). 1 + am sleonot Yelow precipitate J (ietea0vo3) Blue calouin Pass 4.5 trough part + alooral ayer of I par. (cH.COOH + (nit) [e0 (SCN, t KcretON, ite practate 1 (es) nit precipitate of variable composton. ‘Add excess of FO(CN)) + Procptate of composition Zn, Fe (CN Ve Group (Ba, Sr, Ca”) : WV Group filtrate + Boll off H,S then add (NH)),CO, (aq), NH,OH & NH,Cl(s) White precipitate Fitrate, (BaCo,, SiO, or CaCO) move for VI group. Dissolve in CH, COBH and divide into tree parts and test in the Sequence given below. "art +K.010, Pat +H) 80, pan NH).6.0, Yellow precipitate White precipitate White precipitate (@acro, insoluble n CH,COOH). (iSO). (CaC,0,) vit GROUP : MAGNESIUM ION (Mg) : Mae Nips HPO? > MatNl PO, ite) 5Mgi" +600," +7 H,0 > 2MgCO,, Mg(OH),. 5 HO. + 2HCO;- “tan Yellow (a water soluble yellow dyestuffs adsorbed by Mg(r),prodcin @ dep red colour or preci-. 93. Compendium (Chemistry) CHAMPIONS 1. Alkane Wurtz reaction : eg, RIX+REX+2Na—9 RI RE+ 2NaX Decarboxylatio General reaction RCOONa _H*_, R-H+Na,co, ¥) Oy ae ee +c : Mechanism Reg RK hon ‘The thermal decarboxylation of free acids may be fou Go aot HEE +f + Resco, >R-H+00, 2. Alkyl halide Nucleophilic substitution Reaction (S,1, S,2) 6, reston R-OH+HK —> RX+ Rmayrearanoe) Reactivity of HX HL> Hor> Hel Reactivity of ROH allyl, benzyl > 3° > 2° > 1° (Carboocation) Canecaton erned e ° e Mechanism Ron, ROH, Og Xo eex cone. HBr CH,CHCH, the (CHsCHCHs ‘or NaBr, HSO, | I reflux Br OH Isopropylbromide Isopropyl alcohol 5,2 reaction Alkyihalide are hydrolysed to alcohol very solwly by water, but rapidly by silver oss suspondoun bling wal Bees RON TI Mechanism HOR x > Hom rn —yHO-R+X t Flow bonk b A se — — +x VINO 10o/ IN Williamson's synthesis : Its the reaction in which sodium or potassium alkoxide is heated with an alkyl halide (8,2),_ ‘Compendium (Chemistry) CHAMPIONS RO FREK ERE. RE. K—RIOR? 4X19) ‘This method is particularly useful for preparing mixed ethers. Grignard Reagents RIH+Mg(OH)X , 42° RIMgx _R20H_, RIH+ Mg(ORIX “The majorty of Grignard reactions fallnto two groups (i) Addition of the Grignard reagent to a compound containing a multiple - bond group e.g. — ree eo ee De+0;-CaN; Do#s; -N=0; >8=0 (i) Double decompsiton with compounds containing an active hydrogen alom ora reactive halogen atom, RIH+ Mg(OH)X 42 RiMgx BO RH + Mg(ORDX Important chemical synthesis by Grignard reagent Hydrocarbons : RMgBr+ H.0 > RH+Mg(OH)Br RMgBr+ RNH, 4 RH + RNHMgBr Alcohols Oo RMX Hyer (@) Primary alcohols RMgxX —22+ RO.Mgx _RMBX_, 2ROMgx “2 2ROH OMgx Hyo® (©) Secondary alcohols R'CHO + R'Mlgx —> Hon > RICHOHR Rt RL -OMOX 0% RL OH r Soso+rt » Bee bs Kor (©yTetanyaleonols: | 020+ RMEK —> Se ee Ethers: RIOCH.CI+ R'MaX —> RIOCH.R? + MgXCI Aldehydes : HK OMX 0 So-o+rmax—> Se, HO" aco E10 EO Ketones: 0° RIC (OCH), + R'MgX —> R'R'C (OC,H,)x + Mg (OC,H,)x ——+ R'COR® iMgx "2°", irmec =n) 2°". 'coR'+ NH, Ketimine RICN+ R°MgX —> RRC Acids : 20 ° re" RCO.H 0 RMX+ Cf —> R— Koyo ——> ROO! Esters= 95 | Compendium (Chemistry) CHAMPIONS ES a CL OMX 1,09 N \ 7 Hat =O +RMGX —> > EO RCO. 8107 = e0” SR : 8. Alkyl Cyanides : RIMgX + (CN), —> RCN + Mg(CN)x 9. Primary amines : #0 RMgX + RONH, > RNHMgX + RH + Mg(OCH )cl—2°"_, INH, (40-90%) RMgX + CINH, > RNH, * MgxCl 4. Alkene & Alkyne Electrophilic addition reactions Meche Sep! Attack of he electrophieon x bond forms a carbocation Lo er) (eee step2 Attack by a nucleophile gives the product of ation, Leer \ \ =o- Os No; > -0-6 > ie E E Nu Nee” Lt eo. @aatootwaer SoacC+ Ho Hy dd. on (©) Addition of hydrogen halides (where HX= HCI, HBr, Hl) Hx x kd c-R XS R-cH=cx-e —** eco (Markovnikxo adation) Lk 5. Aromatic compounds Electrophilic aromatic substitution : (a) Bromination of Benzene : Bromination follows the general mechanism for electrophilic aromatic sub- sitution, Bromine itself isnot sufficiently electrophilic to react with benzene, but a strong Lewis acid such as FeBr, catalyzes the reaction, ‘Step 1 : Formation of a stronger electrophile. ‘Step 2 : Electrophilic attack and formation of the sigma complex. oe Ee 4 nite Br CBr FeBr, X H Br 4 _ - = ty ‘oe — Ot ere: i . re Yn te_ 96 | Compendium (Chemistry) CHAMPIONS CREO Step 2 Loss of a proton gives the products. geen: HS * . Mor Fe oe) sen PX J me / S _ (©) Nitration HO -No, #82 No, tHS2s H,0% + Hs0?+®NO, ® _Elecropitc 2 + NO? _Electrophiic_, (e-complex) (@ comple) w+ OF CK Ke. The elcrophilic reagent, 8, attacks the benzene ing fom theintermedite carbocation 2H,S0, <= 60,+ HO" + Hiso? ° OAH Oke her Ree aie O (@) Friedel Craft reaction Alkylation mechanism © — R-Gi # Rc, —» R CEI—Aic, —> Rs aici? ee or of ‘o-complex97 Compendium (Chemistry) : : Acylation mechanism Acylation of benzene may be brought about with acid chlorides or anhydrid in presence of Lewis acids, ‘Step 1 : Formation of an acylium ion, ° sS le 2 \ e R-C-Ch + Ric, —s R-C-G-Alc, —= Yo, + R-8=G-—-R-0-83 SS oa seylumton Step 2: electrophilic attack . ° Ie dk OT > | Ger R “4 = Step3: Loss ofa proton, Complexation ofthe product. 3 i é i ae, An, fg) acta, CO ong) Gifs, 4 oe . oe I co sata WAL, chor, ono” O ethylbenzene —20ety! chloride: CHCH, oangergemee Note :Friedal - Crafts acylations are generally free from rearrangements and multiple substitution. They do ‘not go on strongly deactivated rings, cock, es Oo + crycoci As oS 7 seo Chemical Reactions of Benzene Cone. HNO, NO, —7150, + HO #50, i Cone. HS0, +803 S0H ae + HO98 | Compendium (Chemistry) CHAMPIONS CREO ly FeCl; + Hel RCI ce + HO! Friedel-Craf’ alkyation O- RCOCI =u + HCI Fricdel-Craft’saoylation CoH, oD, = HNO; + Ho NeN-Ar ANN! + HK Nucleophilic Aromatic Substitution = ‘The reaction is second-order in which nucleophilic sbustitution occurs on benzene ring. It is generally accepted that the reaction proceeds via an intermediate c-complex, the benzenonium carbanion (or the pentadienyl anion), e.g a by cl _LOH f= @e- © Ss wee99 Compendium (Chemistry) 6. Chemical Reactions of Phenol oH (0H) cons chicook a ckcoct SOE AC cH cooc eNCOOWH — Cncooen, Zola - oe Koc NHC ay MeOH, OH oy Pot ener+ Poot + Het MAOHICKE Coc, Taig — OHSO.0CM, Bi WH >. 4 6 tromopherel SAHIN: 9 &p nivopheno HNO, H.80, 2,4, Binirophenol (minor) + Major eoxidative eavage] HNOLIHSO. estroge phenol cock, | -Weuicoe! GP cnspanproact Ho, 6 . HOS. H Mor meno eno weet .£0,0H-22- Bakeite 00H oH Hor on ico, PihakeanhySis6 . phenophinalne SOs ee wii ma . Grom Cock, [OHOLINEOH/O , HO. satoyadehyde Lo on_ 100) Compendium (Chemistry) CHAMPIONS TEIN Reimer-Tiemann reaction : ‘The reaction is conversion of phenol to salicylaldehyde. The mechanism of the Reimer-Tiemann reaction is, believed to involve the formation of dichloromethylene. (4 a ci no. oe fs ae or oye OFF iH.0 a HCl, sa HO Kolbe Reaction : Itis the industrial method of preparation of salicylic acid from phenol OH .ONa LOH @ General reaction Co NaOH co. 8 a Jeoon ‘COON oo O OH ye Mechanism Ch po Ceo: = 8, ay 4, ‘ co; coon 7. Chemical reactions of aniline Sandmyer’s Reacti When a diazonium salt solution is run into a solution of cuprous halide dissolved in the corresponding halogen acid, the diazo-group is replaced by a halogen atom ‘m-=Chloronitrobenzene NH, Necr gl sa, seine (68-71%) _ = NO, NO, p-Bromotoluene te cH, cH, "HSO- Br101 Compendium (Chemistry) Chemical Reactions of Aniline : NH, Aniline CH.NH, HCL, fogHeNHaICr HO, | #80. iotgglsso% | HAUCle Icy HeNHg]AUCl HePICl, (CghgNHa]PtCle- CHI CHL ‘ SL? CHNHICH,) 2" > CoHaN(CHs)s | CH:COC! , c NHcock, | CH.00C1 , ora nricooyH, CHMOBE 64, #SOCl oH, -S0,-NH-C,H, 20% oa. -ne- oa, ° S25 CH,-NH- G NHC, 7 tCSuHCl , oH,-N=C=8 ae Na, C.H.NHNa IsCHO_. c.H.CH=N-C,H, sa CLH,NH, | vec, wee oo BrICS, oe . Br /H.O. Br HNO, /H.SO, a —— mNitro Aniline (i) CH.COCI Or og nitro Aniline TH HNO, SO, (wD_ 102) Compendium (Chemistry) CHAMPIONS Cecio 8. Aldehyde & ketone ‘Aidol condensation Carbonyl compounds having acidic «- H shows tis reaction in presence of dl. NaOH ordi. acid. ji on i Ns \ 20Hs-C-=0 _DUNEOH , Gy, b cH, cho I Crossed aol condensation A — CH,CHO+HCHO __DiLNaOH, HOCH, —CHlp-cHo HIE, cH =cl-cHO Dit NaoH rr ( —CH,COGH, + HCHO TT cH360—CH,CHOH “> cHyco—CH Hy Cannizzaro reaction : Carbonyl compounds not having o-H shows following disproportion reaction ° I 2H-C-H + NaOH > CHy-OH + HCOONa 50%) 2CgHsCHO + NaOH ——> CeHsCH,OH + CcHsCOONa (60%) Crossed Cannizzaro reaction Formation of hydrzones and azines NHNH, | Sco N NY ON sa 2, penne .c=0 + NHNH, —>| ¥¢ HON c= nn, > Senne A i" ae eA 7 < ‘Amides formation : RCO.H+ COINH), > RCONH, + C0, + NH, @. 9) RCOCI+2NH,—+RCONH,+NH,CI (vg) (RCO),0 + 2NH, —» RCONH, + RCO.NH, (v9) RICOOR'+ NH, —>R'CONH, + OH (@) ‘Carbyl amine reaction NH, + CHCl, #KOH—> RNC + 9KCI+3H,0 Perkin reaction: When benzaldehyde (or any other aromatic aldehyde) is heated with the anhydride of an aliphatic acid (containing two a-hydrogen atoms) in the presence of its sodium salt, condensation takes pla Brarylacrylic acid ; e.g, with acetic anhydride and sodium acetate, cinnamic acid is formed, C,H,CHO+ (CH,CO),0 SCO, C,H,CH=CHCO.H CH,COOCOCH, + CH.CO, => CH,COOCOCH, +CH;CO;H p i f : a On FEHCOOCOCH, = SHEcHcnocAGH, _H, cHgoHcooGoCH, no 4 as CH.CH HCOOCOCH, 42, C,H,CH= CHCO,H+CH,COH_ 103] Compendium (Chemisty) CHAMPIONS HAMPTONS Ester formation Hf ° General reaction Ro + ROH R-CK + HO OH” Alotot oR aid Ester Hydrolysis of ester 10. Carboxylic Acids Chemical Reactions of acids Na Metal e R-CH,-COONa +H, — R-CH,-COONa+H,0 @ Marie, R~CH,~COONa +0, +H.0 a R—CH,—COOMgBr + CH,? NaOH (CaO) 4 R-CH,+Na,CO, © }—Peh__, k_ch,-cool a Nisa R-cH,-C-NH, © i ° we R-CH,-C-O-C-CH,-R 2 " I 0 0 ROHIHSO. poy con’ 0) i ° P+X,, (i) HO R-CH-COOH a 1 x () SOCI, (i) CHIN, (i. A.0 () HO. 03) R-CH,—CH,—COOHCHAMPIONS ca 0 aye wadde ssauipra(9 (1) royoare aie BI rouoaqe 908 eel ign sieadde ssauipreig G2) ‘ rouooresay i] reieey Cid Aaerpiut Frouz pluue + 194 ‘2u00] se vsay seam [ae sveadie ssaulpnary 6) qwabeay eon HOw . " HO'N+ SONBW(@) away? By9 "9-y — iy Ho" 9- vd WA . (ony 29-8 Ho 9-4 eae (pai9.9" 9-a opm lONd+ HO" O-a vdé peg | HO'HN+ apuolyo snosdng (e) = uoweuunig dd enya —— 440 = 249 + 9 sesunojozep inojeo pel usa : £ , "9 5 4 saveddesiq onmoipin we ne | 73=9 EZ _vowwrhxopsy| 840-7 Copagse— 0+ OH + THO = THO sn0}09 Ue {weteas sJefeg) 5 eu uopes 3 syremoy focal Homenrosqo aaa 5 8 (90d) $3801 Asoyesoqeq Aq sdnoin 104‘HAMPION: Compendium (Chemistry) 105 ‘HOY Aq pauinsa, s1snojoo yu ey “sseyno}o0 5111 08“Og YMA PIEIMIES epLo\YooipAy auIjUISoY- PS Mas av wsars6umysg! — otHz £7 0'9 + HOODY sf 0+ OHOY dd pay uuonnyes Bunya (48d eBve10 0 bs vounos (aNav'2) |g oe WerdNd ‘dd eBue0 mo) aurzeup Ay jAuaydostulg-p'Z Oe syousyd /sjous e(oud)eal ay ueai6 “ana 9}0 : sjou3 ee _l%(O4e)es— 9924+ HO"HPD9 es ennen)‘igea | HOW syremioy uopesy MeALes4O, eee ace6 7. Short Fomula Phsics) CHAMPIONS SHORT FORMULA (GYAN SUTRA) _ MATHEMATICS Distance Formula: d= le -x2F +, -voP 1 jy = Mat Section Formula : xe Centroid, Incentre & Excentre: x a 1X Yat ¥2 +¥9 [ AXr+DX2+OXs aYrtbY2+ Cys ) centroids [ Te arbre" avbec | Fe Area of a Triangl yf % 4 AaBC= 5\x%2 Ye x Ye | Slope Formula: =e (Line Joining two points (x, y) & (x,y), m= ~—™ aot Condition of collinearity of three points: x;y. 1 xs Ys 1 Angle between two straight lines : tan@ pon Two Lines : ax + by + ¢= 0 and a’x + b'y + 0”= 0 two lines t.parauelit = #5 arallel i res : vy"? cyt 2. Distance between two parallel lines = |--*S2- jfa?b? 3 Perpendicular: If aa’ + bb’ = 0.2 10. 1. 12, NOE Short Forma (ysis CHAMPIONS Apoint and line: 1. Distance between point and line = ax j+by y+6 2. Reflection of a point about a line: — a?+b 2-H aebyyse 3. Foot ofthe perpendicular from a point on the tine is ~ p= et = ~ hE axrby +e Bisectors of the angles between two lines: er? ateb? la, Condition of Concurrency :of three straight lines axt by + 6.=0,1=1,2.3is)@2 bs bs b, | A Pair of straight lines through origin: ax+ 2nxy+ by’= 0 If is the acute angle between the pair of straight lines, then tan 6 CIRCLE on the Axes: Intercepts made by Circle x°+ y+ 29x + 21y + (@) 2y9?-c on x-axis way Parametric Equations of aCircle: § x=h+rcos0; y=k+rsin@ Tangent : © ony -aixs {a) Slope form: y= mx a tem? (b) Point form : xx, + yy, = a or T= 0 {c) Parametric form : x cos + y sin Pair of Tangents from a Point: Ss, = 7°. Length of a Tangent : Length of tangent is JS, Director Circle: x + y Chord of Contact: T= 0 a for x? + yP= a? 2LR VRE 41, Length of chord of contact 2. Area of the triangle formed by the pair of the tangents & its chord of contact3 ‘Short Formula (Physics) 3. Tangent ofthe angle between the pair of tangents from (x, y)=| [FF | 4. Equation of the circle circumscribing the triangle PT, T, is: (x—x) (K* 0) *Y—¥,) #9 =0. Condition of orthogonality of Two Circles: 24,0,+ 24, Radical Axis : S,- $,=0 ie. 2(9,-9,) x+2(f,-f) y+ @,-¢) =0. Family of Circles: S, +k S,=0,S+KL=0. +e, PARABOLA Equation of standard parabola : y= 4ax, Vertex is (0, 0), focus is (a, 0), Directrix is x * a= 0 and Axisis y = 0 Length of the latus rectum = 4a, ends of the latus rectum are L(a, 28) & L' (a, - 2a). Parametric Representation: x = at? & y = 2at ‘Tangents to the Parabola y? = 4ax: 41, Slope form y= mx += (#0) 2. Parametric form ty = x + at® 3.Point form T= 0 Normals to the parabola y? = 4ax : y-y = 3E (x) at OK, y,) iy = Mx— Zam — am? at (am, — 2am) y+ bx= Zat + at a (at, at) ELLIPSE oe Standard Equation : “> + i> = 1. where a> b&b" = a7 (1 —e%. ia a Eccentricity: e= 1 "5, (0" —2a(1_e*) Auxiliary Circle : x + y?= a? Parametric Representation : x= a cos & y= b sin § Position of a Point w.r.t. an Ellipse: -1> a*m® + bt Tangents: Slope form: y= mx Ja?m®ib® , Point form xcose . ysing ab Parametric form:r 8. 2 3. 4 5. 4 ) i ‘Short Formula (Physics) CHAMPIONS Zn Be ae ax _b —0? Normals: Y 2 at b?, ax. sec by cosecd = (a? — bi), y = mx— bv?) 7 ye? bem? Director Circle: x’ + y?= a+ b* HYPERBOLA 2 2 ‘Standard Equation: standard equation of the hyperbola is > z =1, where b? Foci: S = (tae, 0) Directrices :x= + * Vertices :A=(+a,0) Latus Rectum (¢):/= 2 = 2a,e" 1) Conjugate Hyperbola are conjugate hyperbolas of each. Auxiliary Circle : x + y?= a Parametric Representation : x= asec 0 & y= btan 0 Position of A Point 'P' w.r.t. A Hyperbola : 1 >, = or < 0 according as the point (x, y,)lfes inside, on or outside the curve. Tangents : (Slope Form :y=m xyi'u" (ii) Point Form : at the point (x, y,) is “1 — 294 (ii Parametric Form ; **¢0 _ yan ean Normals : ax by . (a) atthe point P (x, y,)is “+? = aee r= aret = Y1 (b) atthe point P (asec 8, btan 6) is =at+ b= ate’, seo” tand (2+b?}m (6) Equation of normals in terms of its slope 'm' are y = mx + > e bm? Asymptotes : * + t =0 ad *X 0. Pair of asymptotes: a aT] short Fuse (Pye CHAMPIONS 9. Rectangular Or Equilateral Hyperbola : xy = c*, eccenticity is V2 Vertices : (t 0 +c) ; Focit :(+ /2c; V2c}. Directrices :x + y=+ 2 ¢ Latus Rectum (!) TASCA Parametric equation x = ct, y= cit, te R— {0} Equation ofthe tangent at P(x,y,)is “+ =28 at is S+1y=20 Equation ofthe normal at P()fsxt*—yt=6(¢1) Chord with a given middle point as (h, k) is kx + hy = 2hk. LIMIT OF FUNCTION 1 Limit of a function f(x) is said to exist as x —> a when, Liat ¢a—ty = Umit f(a +n) = some finite value M (Left hand limit) (Right hand limit) 7 Indeterminant Forms: 0 0X20, 69 ~ 09, 60°, 0°, and 1”. Standard Limits: Limit SX _ Limit am _ Limit tan _Limit Sin" _ Limit @*=1 _ Limit {n(1+%) Mg Ty eH a = Sgt = 1¥ oat Limit (1 + gms Limit [1+ log.a,a>0, Limit X28" = pao x} xa a> iy eF=t4 a ee cost W tanx= x (vi) tans ve 5 + (vil) sine’ n=) (n= ‘(n-2) ) forki= asx—a=lim = gintor-to Sandwich Theorem or Squeeze Play Theorem: = Limit nog then it If £6) SaG) Shoo Vx & Limit Fog = ¢ = Limit Lint ge) = METHOD OF DIFFERENTIATION Differentiation of some elementary functions 4 : 4 at 4 . 4. Ge Gem 2, Rg nid= 24 S00) = in 4 4 @ 8. & (Sin x) = cosx 6. 5 (608%) =— sin x 7. 4 (se6 x) = seox lan x 4 4 4 8.5 (cosec x) =—cosecxcotx 8. F-(tanx) = sec? x 10. (cot x) = — cosec? x Basic Theorems : ro) #01 a a ast Sere A CED AFOD LOR) 2 FUKFOO) AK Fe MOY 3. Gy (FO. aC) = £00) G'OO + 960 £00 d (£00) _ 90) FO)-foogo) a A , a |)" oF) 5. 5 (QC) = Maem) 9°) Derivative Of Inverse Trigonometric Functions. deos“"x dsin-tx _ ox Vinx dx oe vfor-t 8 = 2nx+awhere we [0, 5] (ii) tang =tana + 6=nn+awnere a (iv) sin?9= sinta, costo = costa, tan?0= tanta => 0= nneo. QUADRATIC EQUATIONS ion: ax? + bx + azo = = ** the expression b? 4ac=Dis called discriminant of quadratic equation,14 Short Formuda (Physics) CHAMPIONS Ifa, Bare the roots, then (a) u+B=-2 (0) ap= £ ‘A quadratic equation whose roots are a & B, is (x - a) (x ~B) Lee-(a+B)x+aB =0 Nature of Roots: Consider the quadratic equation, ax? + bx+¢=0 having o. fias its roots; [ 1 bedac D Deo Roots are equala:= B =~ bi2a Roots are unequal a,b,cc R&D>0 a.bce R&D<0 Roots are real Roots are imaginary a= p+ ia, f abccaa abcceaa Dis. perfect square Disnot a perfect square = Roots are rational = Roots are irrational 4 ie a=p+ya,B=p-va a=1,b.ce 18 Disa perfect square = Roots are integral Common Roots: Consider two quadratic equations a,x' +b,x+ 0,=0& a,x° +b, x+ 0,=0 ()_ftwo quadratic equations have both roots common, then SL = PL = SL abe Gi only one root «is common, then « = 182 E281 = hice — bee ayby—apby cay —epay Range of Quadratic Expression f (x) = ax? +bx+c. Range in rest ted domain: Given xe [x,, x] @ if Fe exten, #00 € [min {r(x,), (<2), max {r(x,), #2) fl oP ex xtten, 409 [rn tn). tea) BA} max to). ee) —$ I15 | Short Formula (Physics) 5. Location of Roots: Let f(x) = ax + bx+ 0, where a> O&abce R () Conditions for both the roots of f(x) = 0 to be greater than a specified number'x,’ are bP 4ac 2 0; {(x,) > 0 & (-b/2a) > x, (Conditions for both the roots of f (x) = 0 to be smaller than a specified number ‘x,’ are be 4ac 20; {(x,) > 0.& (-b/2a) 0: F(x) > 0 & x, < (-b/2a) 2b=a+c8ifa.b.c,dareinAP. > ard +o. (i) Three numbers in A.P. can be taken as ad, a, a +d; four numbers in A.P. can be taken as a-3d,a—d,a+d, a+ 3d; five numbersinA.P. are 2-24, ad, a, a+d, a+2d & sixterms in A.P. are a 5d, 2-34, a-d, a+d,a+3d, a+ 5d etc, Gi) Sum of the terms of an A.P. equidistant from the beginning & end = sum of first & last term, Arithme! Mean (Mean or Average) (A.M.): I three terms are in A.P. then the middle term is called the A.M, between the other two, so if a, b, care in AP, DISAM, of a&c. n—Arithmetic Means Between Two Numbers Ifa, b are any two given numbers & a, Ay, Ap... Ay bare in A.P. then Ay, Ay... A, are the 2b-a) aib-a) 2 at avi? NAM.s between a & b.A, =a + ©, A,= nA where A is the single A.M. between a & b. Geometric Progression: a, ar, ar, ar is a GP. with a as the first erm & ras common ratio. on term= art (Sum of the first n terms Le. S, ma, rat Gil) Sum of an infinite G.P. when |r| <1 isgivenby S., He) Tece 18 | Short Forma Physics) SHAMEIONS Geometric Means (Mean Proportional) (G.M.): Ifa, b, ¢> Oare in GP, bis the GM. between a & c, then b?= ac n-Geometric Means Between positive number a, b: If b are two given numbers & a, G,, G>, bare inGP., Then G, G;, G,,..., G, are nGM.s between a & b. G, = a(b/ay"""", G, = a(biay"",.....G, = a(bra)™" Harmonic Mean (H.M.): 2ac If a,b, © are in H.P,, Bis the H.M, between a &c, then b= 14 HM. Hof ay, a, ais given by f= 2 Relat n between means : G=AH, AM.2GM.2HM. and AM.=GM.= HM. Important Results OY @td)=¥ ae S ow) L kak S a, ci) Y k= Mk: where kis a constant et naBed gy F parreze seen gemesnanen Seats aeare oor (2 Yaa, =F at cha FOr ae tO) BINOMIAL THEOREM 1 Statement of Binot I theorem : Ifa, be R andne N, then (oye 1cyeb! 76,088 470, abt Gat bree aire BA! Properties of Binomial Theorem : @ General term: T,.,= °C, ab’ i) Midate term(s) : (@) fis even, there is only one middle term, which is nat net (©) Htmiscoad, tere are two mile torms, hin are ("3 hand ("3+ tn terms, nt Hy ela ght Multinomial Theorem: (x, +x, ++ xy Tag Po Here total number of terms in the expansion= ""C,_,7 ce Short Formula (Physics) SHAMEIONS Application of Binomial Theorem : If (VA+B)” = 1+ f where I and n are positive integers, n being odd and 0Oand JA-B< 1. If mis an even integer, then (I+) (1 ~f) =k" Properties of 1,490,490, +... C2" di)", ="C, +0, +1, =0 il) CFPC, FIC. EPC, FC HC, + "ners "yr Binomial Theorem For Negative Integer Or Fractional Indices M FC, eC, w (ersten mat), min n—2) D-H 2) nnd =F49 yy et 2 ot MMO Dre lOOD re xpet 3! TT = MOE MO=ZaM=FHD PERMUTATION & COMBINNATION lumber of permutations of n different things taken rat a time al (n-n! Arrangemen "Pen (n—1) (n= 2).. (n=) = Circular Permutation ‘The number of circular permutations of n different things taken all at atime is; (a 1)! Selection : Number of combinations of n different things taken rat a tim Geol ‘The number of permutations of ‘things, taken all at a time, when'p’ of them are similar & of one type, q of them are similar & of another type, ‘r of them are similar & of a third type & the remaining n= (pare) ae allaiferentis 50 Selection of one or more objects @ Number of ways in which atleast one object be selected out ofr distinct objects is "C, #10, #°C, + +°0,=2'=1 (©) Number of ways in which atleast one object may be selected out of 'p' alike objects of one type alike objects of second type and "alike of third type is FN @ecrt)—-1 () Number of ways in which atleast one object may be selected from 'n’ objects where ‘p' alike of one type 'q' alike of second type and 'r' alike of third type and rest n= (p+ q+) are different, is (B41) G+ 1) (C41) Bra Multinomial Theorem : Coefficient of x’ in expansion of (1~x)"= "0, (ne N) Let N= pt q? Fu. where p,q, fn. are distinet primes & a,b, c..... are natural numbers then {a) The total numbers of divisors of N including 1 & Nis = (a+ 1) (b+1) (c+ 1)18 Short Formuda (Physics) CHAMPIONS {b) The sum of these divisors is = (B+ Pt Pa PHANG HG) (OH EPH HA, {c) Number of ways in which N can be resolved as a product of two factors is, Hern Nera. Nisnot apertet square Flas +r(e+9...01] Nis a perfect square (4) Number of ways in which a composite number N can be resolved into two factors which are relatively prime (or coprime) to each other is equal to 2 where n is the number of different prime factors in N. Dearrangement : Number of ways in which 'n’ letters can be put in n’ corresponding envelopes such that no letter goes to (tte ae Dr fi-te ttt correct envelope isn! t= 55 3." 35 gy PROBABILITY Classical (A priori) Definition of Probability : If an experiment results in a total of (m + n) outcomes which are equally likely and mutually exclusive with one another and if ‘m’ outcomes are favorable to an event ‘A’ while ‘are unfavorable, then the m__ mA) men ~ 1) We say that odds in favour of ‘A’ are m : n, while odds against ‘A’ are n : m. probabllity of occurrence of the event ‘A’ = P(A) = PA) = = 1- PA) Addition theorem of probability : P(AU8) = P(A) + P(B) ~ PAB) De Morgan's Laws : (a) (AUB) = A‘ Br (©) (ANB) = AUB Distributive Laws :(a) AU (BOC) = (AUB) (AUC) — (0) AN(BUC)= ANB)U(ANO) @ Por B or G)= P(A) + P(E) + PIC) - P(A VB) - PB AC) - PIC HA) + PAB AO) P (at least two of A, B, C occur) = PIB. C) + PIC A) + P(A B) = 2PM BC) P(exaclly two of A, B,C occur) = P(B. mC) + P(C mA) + PAB) = 3P(AB 9 C) P(exactly one of A, B, C occur) P(A) + P(B) + P(C) ~ 2P(B mC) ~ 2P(C A) ~ 2P(AB) + SPA BC) P(AnB) PB) Conditional Probability : P(a/8) = Binomial Probability Theorem Ian experiment is such that the probability of success or failure does not change with trials, then the probability of getting exactly r success in 1 trials of an experiment is °C, p'q”-*, where ‘p'is the probability of a success and q is the probability of a failure. Note that p +.q= 4 Expectation : If a value M, is associated with a probability of p,. then the expectation is given by © pM, P(A) = ,PC6)).P(A/B,) Total Probability Theorem7 19 ce Short Formula (Physics) SHAMEIONS Bayes’ Theorem : I an event A can occur with one of the n mutually exclusive and exhaustive events B,, B,, ..., 8, and P@,).P(A/B,) the probabilities P(A/B,), P(A/B,) ... P(A/B,) are known, then P(G,/ A) = P@).P(A/B)) 8 By By, % B'S NB) OW OB) VU ANB) Uo UAOB) P(A) = PA NB) + PAB) + + PA OB) = 2PANB) Binomial Probability Distribution : Mean of any probability distribution ofa random variable is given by:w= 22% = xp x, (Variance of a random variable is given by, o® = © (x,- wy. p= Ep, x?- ue COMPLEX NUMBER The complex number system 2 a+ ib, then a~ ibis called congugate of z and is denoted by Z Equality In Complex Number: 4 Re(2,)=Re(2,) and I, (2,) ln (22): Representation Of A Complex Number: Properties of arguments (@—ara(z,z_) = arg(z,) + arg(z,) + 2m for some integer m. i) arg(e\lz,) = arg (2,) ~arg(z,) + 2mx for some integer m. il) arg (22) = 2arg(2) + 2me for some integer m. () —arg@)=0 zis positive real number — arg(2)=+n/2 <> zis purely imaginary and 2 +0 Properties of conjugate @ elFlzi @ z= dip 5 = z M AB a-% 2 =e Ww (2 (i) Lay Fag (ey +2) GHz) = Ley! + leg? +2422 + Zee wi) @) =2 (w= f(2), then w = (2) () —argtz) + arg(2) Rotation theorem20 10. ve Short Formula (Physics) SHAMEIONS Demoivre’s Theorem : Case 1: If nis any integer then () (6088 + isin 8)" = cos nd +i sin nd (608.8, + i sin 8.) (cos Bi sin @,) (C088, + i sin 83) (C08 83 + i sin 8) ....(C08 8, + isin 8,) 7 005 (By + 8, + 83 + sss Oy) #1 SIN (8, + 8) # 89+ se + OD 2k + po ( 2kx-+ pe) Case I: If p, qe Zand q #0 then (cos 8 + isin @)P° a | ti sin | where k= 0,1,.2, 3, 004-4 : Cube Root Of Unity : © The cube roots of unity are 4, E+ 13, == (@ _Heiisone ofthe imaginary cube roots of unity then 1 + @ + oF = 0. In general 1 + af a= 0; where Te I but is not the multiple of 3 Logarithm Of A Complex Quantity : Log, (a-+i B)= tog, ce + Be) +i 207 + a8) where ne I. Geometrical Properties: Distance formula : |2, ~ 291 Section formula : z= "2-21 (internal division), z= ™2— (1) amp(2) = @ is a ray emanating from the origin inclined at an angle @ to the x-axis. 2 ema vison @ —_ |z~a| = |z~b] isthe perpendicular bisector of the line joining a to ) The equation ofa line joining z, & 2, is given by, z= z, +t (2,~2,) where tis @ real parameter. (@) The equation of circle having centre 2, & radius p is [2-25] = porzz ~2)2 ~ 22+ 2,29 —p*=0 which is of the form 27+ E2402 +k=0,kis eal, Centre is — a & radius = (AG — Kk Circle will be real ifo.at ~ k = 0. (©) tle, ~2,1 + 2~2:| = K> [2, ~241 then locus of 2 an ellipse whose foci are 2, & 2, © 7p | =k 1,0, then locus of zis circle Mtl |2=2,|~|2~25] | =K< [2,25] then locus of 2 isa hyperbola, whose foci are 2,82, VECTORS Position Vector Of A Point: let © be a fixed origin, then the position vector of a point P is the vector OP. If a and b are position ‘vectors of two points A and B, then, AB = b-a = pv of B- pv of A.21 | Short Formula (Physics) DISTANCE FORMULA : Distance between the two points A(a) and BiB) is Al na*mb Mid point of AB = 2~ SECTION FORMULA mn Scalar Product Of Two Vectors: 4.5 =|a|| 5| cos, where |a|,| 6 | are magnitude of @ and B respectively and @ is angle between @ and B a I * projection of 4 on B = Wa =ai+aj+ak&b =bi+bj+bkthend.b =a,b,+a,b,+ a,b, a a) 151" The angle g between & 6 isgiven by 5 ¢ ososn Oealb Ge0b+0) Vector Product Of Two Vectors: Ise are two vectors & dis the angle between them then &xb = [lj sin ii, where iis the unit vector perpendicularto bothd&b such thata , b & fi forms a right handed screw system, Geometrically x b| = area of the parallelogram whose two adjacent sides are represented bya & b ixi jk ijk Wisaj+aj+ae ab=b,i+,)+b,k then axb=| a, a a5 by by by 4xB=6 ea andb are parallel (collinear) (a #0 , b #0)i.e.4=Kb where Kis scalar. Unit vector perpendicular to the plane of && Bis i== 2%® jaxd] If@,b & & are the py's of 3 points A, B & C then the vector area of triangle ABC = i + ei] The prints 8 &C ae colinearit xB + Bd + 8x8 = a AA 1 ‘Area of any quadrilateral whose diagonal vectors are d, & d, is given by |a,xd (aby2 Short Formula (Physics) Scalar Triple Product: ‘The scalar triple product of three vectors , b & & isdefined as: Axb.¢ = Volume of tetrahyaron V6] Ina scalar triple product the position of dot & cross can be interchanged Le. 4. 6xd)=Gxb).8 OR [44] = (Bea) = (845) (xb) ie, [FbE lay a> a If d=aitajeak; b = b,itbjeb,k &6 =c,itc,j+c,k then[abé] =|b, b, b,| ©. es Ingeneral, fi =a,i ta,M+ai:b=b1 +d,M+d,i &T=qi +e,M+ cA tnen[abe]=lo, b, 0, [Faia]: where? fi & fare non coplanar vectors. 113,58 are coplanares {a 6] =0 in Volume of tetrahedron OABC with O as origin &A(a), B(b) and C(c) be the vertices gana The positon vector of the centroid of a tetrahedron if the pv's of its vertices area, b, ¢ & d are given by Liaebeced a Vector Triple Product: ax (x)= @.Hb- GH. @xb)xF=G.Hb-(b * — @xb)xé¥ Ax (xO, ingeneral Reciprocal System Of Vectors: 11, B, & & #,01,8 are two sels of non coplanar vectors such thal. # = 1 then the two bxe axé systems are called Reciprocal System of vector, where a= O%S-_ [abe] labé] 3-DIMENSION Vector representation of a point : Position vector of point P (x, y,2) is xi + yj + zk Distance formula : V(%1~%)" +(¥1~Y2)" #122)", AB=|OB - OA| Distance of P from coordinate axes : PA=\y? +2*.23 Short Formula Physics) SHAMPIONS Section Formula: x= "2" y= M2 “s = Ma ta point: x= ae Direction Cosines And Direction Ratios (Direction cosines: Leto, B, be the angles which a directed line makes with the positive directions of the axes ofx, y and z respectively, then cos 0, cosB, cos 7 are called the direction cosines ofthe line. The direction cosines are usually denoted by (¢, m,n). Thus ¢ = cos a, m= cos B, n= cos (ii) If ¢, m, n be the direction cosines of a line, then (+ m?#n?=1 (ii Direction ratios: Let a, b, c be proportional to the direction cosines £, m,n then a, b, ¢ are called the direction ratios (iv) Ife, m,n be the direction cosines and a,b, ¢be the direction ratios of @ vector, then a ¢ Veae Vases a obP re? (vi) Ifthe coordinates P and Q are (x, y,,2,) and (x,, y,,2,) then the direction ratios of line PQ are, a x, Dey, ~y, & =z, ~z, and the direction cosines of line PQ are ¢ = per and n= “ae Angle Between Two Line Segments: aya, + bib, + e362 0s @ =| a Ps he fat +b? +07 yal +b3 +03 The line will be perpendicular ifa,a, + b,b, + c,c,=0, parallel i 2. => Project n of a line segment on a line I P(%,, yu. 2) and Q(%,, ¥>,2,) then the projection of PQ on a line having direction cosines , m, nis, | x, x) +m(y, -y,)-+ al, -%))| Equation Of A Plane : General form: ax + by + cz + d= 0, where a, b, c are not all zero, abcde R (Normal form ; ex-+ my + nz=p (ii) Plane through the point (x, y,.2,) :@ (X—x) * b(y-y,) +e (2—z,) =0 yi iii) Intercept Form: ~+¥ 0) pt Ane I2A | hort Forma (Phe) CHAMPIONS (iv) Vector form: (7 a). 41 (¥) Any plane parallel to the given plane ax + by + cz +d=Ois ax+by +cz+2=0. Distance between ax + by + cz +d, = Oand ax+ by + cz+d,=0is= Sal ve? +b? (vi) Equation of a plane passing through a given point & parallel to the given vectors: 7 = G+26 +e (parametric form) where A & 1 are scalars. or ¥.(bx@) =4.(6x@) (non parametric form) APlane & A Point (Distance of the point (x’,y‘, 2’) from the plane ax + by + cz+ Cis given by (i) Length ofthe perpendicular from a point (a) to plane fi = dis given by p=" (iii) Foot (x, y’, 2’) of perpendicular drawn from the point (x,, y,, 2,) to the plane May yoy 224 a tby, +0240) axtby+oz+d=Oisgiven by 21-41-2215 _ at byi scr) =o abe ect (iv) To find image of a point w.rt. a plane: Let P (x,,y,, 2,) isa given point and ax + by + cz +d = Ois given plane Let (x, y’,2’) is the Hy Vn _ ZZ (ax, + by, +62, +d) = . 2 ean bec +bP +c 10. Angle Between Two Planes: image point. then aasbb'yc0" Va? sb? +c? Ja? yb? +c cos 8 $ Planes are perpendicular aa’ + bb’ + cc’ = 0 and planes are parallel if Planes are perpendicular iii i = 0 & planes are parallelif fi, = Aii,, Risa scalar The angle @ between the planes Fj, = 4, and Fil, = 4, is given by, cos@= 11. Angle Bisectors (The equations of the planes bisecting the angle between two given planes ax+by+oz+d,=Oandaxtby+oz+d,=Oare axthytentd, 2, axthyteetd, ya? +b; +e) ya +b} +325 12. 13, 14, Short Formuda (Physics) CHAMPIONS (ii) Bisector of acute/obtuse angle: First make both the constant terms positive. Then a,a,+b,b,+0,0,>0 = origin lies on obtuse angle aa,+bb,+00,<0 = origin lies in acute angle Family of Planes ()Anyplane through the intersection of a,x+ by +¢,2+ axtbytoz+d,+haxtbytoz+d Baxtbytoz+d,=0is (i) The equation of plane passing through the intersection of the planes Fi ii, 1, IS. (9, + ila) =, + 2d, where 2is arbitrary scalar Area of triangle : From two vector js and AC, Then areaisgiven by 4 |ais xAC| Volume Of A Tetrahedron: Volume of a tetrahedron with vertices A(X, ¥,,2,), BCX» ¥o. 2), © Oy Yo yy al Yo a 1 Zand DK. ¥.z)isgivenbyV=—lx. yy. 7 | Xo m1 ALINE n OF A Line (i) Astraight tine is intersection of two planes, itis reprsented by two planes ax +by +o,2+d,=Oandaxt byt toz+d (ii) Symmetric form (ii) Vector equation: (vi) Reduction of cartesion form of equation of a line to vector form & vice versa Angle Between A Plane And A Line: ‘ESA (If Bisthe angle between tine = a¢+bm+en [erst act) (tambon? (ii) Vector form: If @ is the angle between a line; =(q +A) and; . =d then sin O=, Condition forperpendicularty “= "=" Gxq=0 it) Condition for perpendicularity — = B x oy ee a c (iv) Condition for parallel af+bm+cn=0 bei =026] shat Formula (Phys CHAMPIONS 3. Condition For A Line To Lie In A Plane XX) LYTM Lz (Cartesian form: Line = a Would ie ina plane ax + by +z +d=0, ifax, + by, #07, #d=08 al + bm+cn= (ii) Vector form: Line? = +46 would lie in the plane? = dit hii 4. Skew Lines: aie (i) The straight lines which are not parallel and non-coplanar i.e, non-intersecting are called ana BB Y-¥ skew lines. IfA=| ¢ mn | #0, then ines are skew. com or (iii) Vector Form: For lines 7 = i, +i, and F =, + Ab, tobe skew (é, x 6). (iy ~ i) # 0 Ga) xb {iv) Shortest distance between lines; =a, + 4b & F 5. Sphere General equation of a sphere is x° + yi + 2° + 2ux + 2vy + 22 +d=0. (-u,-v, —w) is the centre and Ju? H+? -d Is the radius of the sphere SOLUTION OF TRIANGLE . a bie ere sina sinB sinC 2. Cosine Formula: () cos (i) cosB ii) cose 2be 3. Projection Formula: (i) a= b cosC + c cosB (ji) b= ¢ cosA + a cosC (ii) 2ea 2ab a cosB +b cosA 4. Napier’s Analogy - tangent rule: A ce cot 5 Gi) tan 5. Trigonometric Functions of Half Angles: a, (epee sind ae “ A_ [epeo_ 4 asbre (iy tan = FES seh meres= = 2S is sem’ perimete of tangle 2 2a WW) sinks \SG=wIE=DIE=O) = (ivy sin te ® raB7] shat Formula Phys) CHAMPIONS 6. Area of Triangle (A) : 7. m-n Rule: a BD: DC=m-=n, then & (m+n) coto = meota~n cots =n cotB~ m core 8. Radius of Circumcirlc B - . c ab © abe 2sinA 2sinB 2sinC 44 9, Radius of The Incircle : A A B c red (ii) r= (sa) tan > = (sb) tan = (S~o) tan a sin§ sing AL BC (it) r= & 0.00 iv) r= 4R sin > sin > sin 10. Radius of The Ex-Circles : re (0 exten cos cos ne = ASSESS g 0 on (in ,=4R sin, cosy cos 14. Length of Angle Bisectors, Medians & Altitudes : (ii, e cosh p= teed bee () Length of an angle bisector from the angle A= & 12. The Distances of The Special Points from Vertices and Sides of Triangl A (i) Circumcentre (0): OA= R & O,= RcosA (i) Incentre (): A= rcosec > & A (ili) Excentre (1,):1,A=r,cosec (iv) Orthocentre : HA= 2R cos A & H, = 2R cos B cos C ()— Centroid (@) Gi 13. Orthocentre and Pedal Triangle: ‘The triangle KLM which is formed by joining the feet of the altitudes is called the Pedal Triangle. (0 Its angles are x - 2A, x - 2B and x - 2.2] shat Formula Phys) CHAMPIONS (il Its sides are a cosa = R sin 2A, bcos8 = R sin 2B and © cosC = R sin 20 (ii) Circumradii of the triangles PBC, PCA, PAB and ABC are equal. 14, Excentral Triangle: ‘The triangle formed by joining the three excentres I, 1, and I, of AABC is called the excentral or excentric triangle. (SABC is the pedal triangle of the A 1,1, x Br _C ji) Itsangles are © - 2 " 2 2°22 A b c Gi) Mis sides are 4R cos. 4 Rosy 84 R cos A c ) 11=4Rsin-S 31 (9 Incentre 1 of A ABC isthe orthocentre ofthe excentral 1,1, 1, 15. Distance Between Special Points : (i) Distance between circumcentre and orthocentre Or (1-8 cosA cos B cos C) (i) Distance between circumcentre and incentre or=Re(1 Bsn sin & sin S)= RE-2Rr (iii) Distance between circumcentre and centroid OG’ - fees b+c) INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS. 4. Principal Values & Domains of Inverse Trigonometrie/Circular Functions: Funetion Domain Range © ye sinx where Eeysh di) y= cos! x where 11 yesecx — where xs-lorx4 (ys cot'x where xeR P-2 @ — sin“(sinxy (i) eos (cos x29 Short Formuda (Physics) CHAMPIONS fi) tandany=x Tex ek 9 — cott(cot =x; OOy>O8xy<1 x = n+ tan’ xO yr ORxy>1 ==, x>0y>0Rxy=1 () sin-txsinty = sin] x4) Wi], x20, y20 @ — costx~costy = cos|xy + VI=x Vi-y’|, x20y20x 0 2sintx it [xis 2 ) sin H2sin’x if xo te ” ( * 2 fe+2sin"x) if x< (r+ 2sin-*x) $ 2eostx if O130 | Short Formula (Physics) w ” Wlan'x+ tanty + tan NOTE: o w ay : ato, lst sin =| n-2tan"x if x24 = eee) tox _ | 2tanx ifxe0 ie tt © |-atan "x. ifx<0 If, x> 0, y>0,2>08 (xy + yz+2x) <1 Iftan ‘x + tan ty + tan '2 = ethen x+y #2 = xyz tftan ix etan-ty +tan-'2=% then xy + yz-# 2x = 1 tan *1+tan 2+ tan 13 = tan ‘1 +tan 4 +tan 4 ant + tan 12+ tan 3 tan te tan tan" 2