Solutions to LE. Irodov’s Problems in General Physics Volume II Waves . Optics . Modern Physics Second Edition ABHAY KUMAR SINGH irector ‘Abhay's LT. Physics Teaching Centre Patna-6 css CBS PUBLISHERS & DISTRIBUTORS 4596/1A, 11 DARYAGANUJ, NEW DELHI - 110 002 (INDIA)ISBN : 81-239-0486-X First Edition : 1996 Reprint: 1997 Second Edition : 1998 Reprint : 2000 Reprint : 2002 Reprint : 2004 Copyright © Author & Publisher All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system without permission, in writing, from the publisher. Published by S.K. Jain for CBS Publishers & Distributors, 4596/1A, 11 Darya Ganj, New Delhi - 110 002 (India). Printed at : J.S. Offset Printers, Delhi - 110 051In the memory of Late Shri Arvind Kumar (Ex-Director, The Premier Institute, Patna) The man who taught me how to teach.FOREWORD Science, in general, and physics, in particular, have evolved out of man’s quest to know beyond unknowns. Matter, radiation and their mutual interactions are basically studied in physics. Essentially, this is an experimental science. By observing appropriate phenomena in nature one arrives at a set of rules which goes to establish some basic fundamental concepts. Entire physics rests on them. Mere knowledge of them is however not enough. Ability to apply them to real day-to-day problems is required. Prof. Irodov’s book contains one such set of numerical exercises spread over a wide spectrum of physical disciplines. Some of the problems of the book long appeared to be notorious to pose serious challenges to students as well as to their teachers. This book by Prof. Singh on the solutions of problems of Irodov’s book, at the outset, seems to remove the sense of awe which at one time prevailed. Traditionally a difficult exercise to solve continues to draw the attention of concerned persons over a sufficiently long time. Once a logical solution for it becomes available, the difficulties associated with its solutions are forgotten very soon. This statement is not only valid for the solutions of simple physical problems but also to various physical phenomena. ‘Nevertheless, Prof. Singh’s attempt to write a book of this magnitude deserves an all out praise. His ways of solving problems are elegant, straight forward, simple and direct. By writing this book he has definitely contributed to the cause of physics education. A word of advice to its users is however necessary. The solution to a particular problem as given in this book is never to be consulted unless an all out effort in solving it independently has been already made. Only by such judicious uses of this book one would be able to reap better benefits out of it. As a teacher who has taught physics and who has been in touch with physics curricula at LLT., Delhi for over thirty years, I earnestly feel that this book will certainly be of benefit to younger students in their formative years. Dr. Dilip Kumar Roy Professor of Physics Indian Institute of Technology, Delhi New Delhi-110016.FOREWORD A proper understanding of the physical laws and principles that govern nature require solutions of related problems which exemplify the principle in question and leads to a better grasp of the principles involved. It is only through experiments or through solutions of multifarious problem-oriented questions can a student master the intricacies and fall outs of a physical law. According to Ira M. Freeman, professor of physics of the state university of new Jersy at Rutgers and author of ‘“‘physic--principles and Insights” -- “In certain situations mathematical formulation actually promotes intuitive understand- ing....... Sometimes a mathematical formulation is not feasible, so that ordinary language must take the place of mathematics in both roles. However, Mathematics is far more rigorous and its concepts more precise than those of language. Any science that is able to make extensive use of mathematical symbolism and procedures is justly called an exact science’. LE. Irodov’s problems in General Physics fulfills such a need. This book originally published in Russia contains about 1900 problems on mechanics, thermody- namics, molecular physics, electrodynamics, waves and oscillations, optics, atomic and nuclear physics. The book has survived the test of class room for many years as is evident from its number of reprint editions, which have appeared since the first English edition of 1981, including an Indian Edition at affordable price for Indian students. Abhay Kumar Singh’s present book containing solutions to Dr. LE. Irodov’s Problems in General Physics is a welcome attempt to develop a student’s problem solving skills. The book should be very useful for the students studying a general course in physics and also in developing their skills to answer questions normally encountered in national level entrance examinations conducted each year by various bodies for admissions to profes- sional colleges in science and technology. BP. PAL Professor of Physics LLT., DelhiPreface to the Second Edition Perhaps nothing could be more gratifying for an author than seeing his ‘brainchild’ attain wide acclaim. Fortunately, it happes so with ‘Solutions to I. E. Irodov’s Problems in General Physics (Volume-II) authored by me. Since inception, it showed signs of excellence amidst its ‘peer-group’, so much so that it fell victim to Piracy-syndrome. The reported on rush of spurious copies of this volume in the market accelerated the pace of our contemplation for this second edition. Taking advantage of this occassion the book has almost been comptelely vetted to cater to the needs of aspiring students. My heart felt thanks are due to all those who have directly or indirectly engineered the cause of its existing status in the book-world. Patna June 1997 Abhay Kumar SinghPreface This is the second volume of my “Solutions to LE. Irodov’s Problems in General Physics.” It contains solutions to the last three chapters of the problem book ‘‘Problems in General Physics’’. As in the first volume, in this second one also only standard methods have been used to solve the problems, befitting the standard of the problems solved. Nothing succeeds like success, they say. From the way my earlier books have been received by physics loving people all over the country, I can only hope that my present attempt too will be appreciated and made use of at a large scale by the physics fraternity. My special thanks are due to my teacher Dr. (Prof.) J. Thakur, Department of Physics, Patna University, who has been my source of energy and inspiration throughout the preparation of this book. I am also thankful to computer operator Mr. S. Shahab Ahmad and artist Rajeshwar Prasad of my institute (Abhay’s LLT. Physics Teaching Centre, Mahendru, Patna-6) for their pains-taking efforts. I am also thanful to all my well-wishers, friends and family members for their emotional support. Abhay Kumar Singh Patna July, 1996CONTENTS Rijece ee accede cetceeceeaadcecna vii PART FOUR OSCILLATIONS AND WAVES. 4.1 Mechanical Oscillations... ee ee eee 1 4.2. Electric Oscillations . . . 54 4.3 Elastic Waves. Acoustics : «. 82 4.4 Electromagnetic Waves. Radiation . 103 PART FIVE OPTICS 5.1 Photometry and Geometrical Optics ©... 2.0 cc ee ee ee 15 5.2 Interference of Light 149 5.3 Diffraction of Light . . 162 5.4 Polarization of Light 196 5.5. Dispersion and Absorption of Light . 219 5.6 Optics of Moving Sources... .....-..0040% 229 5.7 Thermal Radiation. Quantum Nature of Light 238 PART SIX ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR PHYSICS 6.1 Scattering of Particles. Rutherford-Bohr Atom 259 6.2 Wave Properties of Particles. Schrédinger Equation . . 285 6.3 Properties of Atoms. Spectra . . 310 6.4 Molecules and Crystals 337 6.5 Radioactivity 6.6 Nuclear Reactions . . 6.7 Elementary ParticlesPART FOUR OSCILLATIONS AND WAVES 4.1 MECHANICAL OSCILLATIONS 41 (a) ©) 42 @) Given, x = acos (°-3) -a wsin{ or-4) and w, = ¥ = - a0? cos{ w1-4 a On-the basis of obtained expressions plots x(t), v,(#) and w,(r) can be drawn as shown in the answersheet, (of the problem book ). From Eqn (1) ve> ~aosin(or-Z) So, = eatin? os F) Q) So, vy, = But from the law x = acos(wt-7/4), so, x? = a? cos*(wt-1/4) or, cos?(wt-n/4) = 2/a? or si (wr-n/4) = 1-5 @) Using (3) in (2), t= Pe'(1-5) or vz = ar(a-x") @ Again from Eqn (4),, = -@@* cos(wt-1/4) = - ox From the motion law of the particle x = asin? (wt-n/4) = £| 1-cos{2o1-2 2 2 a. a x). a, a. o, x7 $ ~foue(201-3) = ~$sin2ae = Ssin @wr+x) ; aia. ie. x-$ = Ssin(2ws4n). @ Now compairing this equation with the general equation of harmonic oscillations : X = Asin (wpt+a) ‘Amplitude, A = Sand angular frequency, = 20. ‘Thus the period of one full oscillation, T= 2% = 2 po(b) Differentiating Eqn (1) w.rt. time Vv, =a w cos (21+) or Ven a? a? cos? (2.0 t+) = a? 0° [1 ~ sin? (2.001 + )] 2) 2 2 From Eqn (1) (=-5) = Fsin®(2ot+2) 2 or, 4841 Be sin? Qeot+n) or 1-sin’ Qotene ad @) a aa From Eqns (2) and (3), _y, ror ~)r4exe-n Plot of v,(x) is as shown in the answersheet. 4.3. Let the general equation of S.H.M. be x = acos(wrt+a) a So, vx = -aosin(otta) @) Let us assume that at ¢ = 0, x = x9 and v, = vy. Thus from Eqns (1) and (2) fort = 0, x9 = acosa, and vy = - awsina Vx Therefore tana =-—* and a= = 35.35 cm OX, Under our assumption Eqns (1) and (2) give the sought x and v, if tata 240s,a=Vd+(u/o) anda en! (Se « Putting all the given numerical values, we get : x= - 29cm and v, =~ 8lcm/s 4.4 From the Eqn, vz= w*(a*~x?) (see Eqn. 4 of 4.1) vi= w*(a?=27) and v3 = w*(a?-23) Solving these Eqns simultaneously, we get © = V Wi) /09-4) , a= V (id -viad) (9-4) 4.5 (a) When a particle starts from an extreme position, it is useful to write the motion law as x = acosat ) (However x is the displacement from the equlibrium position) It 4 be the time to cover the distence a/2 then from 2 a a a-$ =f acoson o cosenty = 5 = cost 2 (as ,= (b) In this case, it is easier to write the motion law in the form : x= asinot 2) If t, be the time to cover the distance a/2, then from Eqn (2) See eee sin (a8 = "amt 2% cos 22 dt = SE = m/s 46 (a) Asx = asinot $0, Vg = awcoswt ar 3 Jawcos(2x/T)t de “a 0 2v2ew/(.. 2x Thus =fv,dt/fdt= 5 ipso {nin T. =| 8 (©) In accordance with the problem Ve vit so, |<¥d] =| | 2Wieo|_ 2vZae 3x 3x Hence, using part (a), || = | (©) We have got, v, = a@cos wt So, v = |v,] = awcoswt, for ts 7/4 =-awcst, for T/4sts ar1 31/8 J aecoswrdt+f -aw cos tdt fe eae ra i fa 37/8 Using » = 2/T, and on evaluating the integral we get 2(4-V¥2)aw = eee 3x 4.7 From the motion law, x = a cos w £,, it is obvious that the time taken to cover the distance equal to the amplitude (a), starting from extreme position equals 7/4. Now one can write so at n = 1,3,5 ... or for odd n values it passes through the mean positon’ and for even numbers of n it comes to an extreme position (if fo = 0). I T Gtto, [where t <3 and n= 0,1,2, As the particle moves according to the law, x = a cos wt, t Case (1) when m is an odd number : In this case, from the equation x = = asinwz, if the t is counted from 7/4 and the distance covered in the time interval - de . nn to becomes,s; = asin fo = asinw[t—n7] = asin{ we - Thus the sought distance covered for odd 7 is 2 Case (2), when 7 is even, In this case from the equation ' nn : nx S = nats, = na+asin{ of-~]) = a| nesin{ wf- X = acos«t, the distance covered (s2) in the interval fo, is given by 4 2 or, 5) = a| 1-cos{ or-** ; a= 5 Hence the sought distance for n is even so nats a nese[t-co[or-82)] = [net cu (or-A2) a x a= 5 = a008 Wig = easo(tng = acos (w1-n% a In general ( 7 a} n+1-cos| wt-—=- 2 ‘ nx\] ‘ a} n+sin| ar- JJ" is odd48 49 Obviously the motion law is of the from, x = asinwt. and v, = @a cos wt. Comparing v, = wacoswt with v, = 35 cos xt, we get eee x o Now we can write t= 285= 5x 7403 (were re 53} As n = S is odd, like (4-7), we have to basically find the distance covered by the particle starting from the extreme position in the time interval 0-3 s. Thus from the Eqn. x= acest = Scosx(03) 35 35 35 TOT Fe A(OS) or sy = = {1-cos 03 x} Hence the sought distance 5 = 5x 254351 cos03.x} x x = 35.46 —cos03.x} = 22% 7(6- cos 54°) m 60 em ™ 2 {As the motion is periodic the particle repeatedly passes through any given region in the range as xs a. The probability that it lies in the range (x,x+dx) is defined as the fraction AE (as 1+ =) where Aris the time that the particle lies in the range (r, x +d) out of the total time ¢. Because of periodicity this is dP dt 2dx a dx T vT where the factor 2 is needed to take account of the fact that the particle is in the range (x, x+dx) during both up and down phases of its motion. Now in a harmonic oscillator. vai=wacsot=oVa-x Thus since @ T = 2x(T is the time period) dP-= We get ap = 424, -1_2_ 2 Vax Note that aP dx=1 dx 1 so is properly normalized. Sh ale6 4.10 411 (a) We take a graph paper and choose an axis (X - axis) and an origin. Draw a vector of magnitude 3 inclined at an angle 5 with the X-axis. Draw another vector of magnitude 8 inclined at an angle -5 ip (Since sin (wt +x/6) = cos (wt-x/3)) with the X-~ axis, The magnitude of the resultant of both these vectors (drawn from the origin) obtained using paral- lelogram law is the resultant, amplitude. Clearly Bi 03? 484238: cos 2% 9+ 64-484 = 73 - 24 = 49 Thus R= 7 units (b) One can follow the same graphical method here but the result can be obtained more quickly by breaking into sines and cosines and adding : Resultant +0 (se 7plonmrs(6- 7 sino = Acos (t+) 2 2 5 5 Th Ar =[3 +/6-—= a (+7) ( 7) = 70-15V2 = 70-212 So, A = 6-985 = 7 units Note- In using graphical method convert all oscillations to either sines or cosines but do not use both. Given, x, = acos@t and x) = acos2ot so, the net displacement, X =X +X, = a{coswt+cos2@t} = a{cosws+2cos’wt-1} and vy =x = a{-awsinot-4@coswtsinot} For x to be maximum, ¥ = aa coswt-4a0* cos? wt+4ao*sin?ot = 0 or, 8 cos” wt +cos @t-4 = 0, which is a quadratic equation for cos w t. Solving for acceptable value cos ot = 0-644 thus sinwt = 0-765 and | = +a @ [0-765 + 4x 0-765 x 0644] = +273 aw4.12 We write : acos2-11cos 50-01 = : {cos 52-114 cos 47-9 ¢} Thus the angular frequencies of constituent oscillations are 52187! and 479s"? To get the beat period note that the variable amplitude acos 2-1 becomes maximum (positive or negative), when 21r=nn Thus the interval between two maxima is a = 155 nearly. 4.13 If the frequency of A with respect to K’ is vo and K’ oscillates with frequency ¥ with respect to K, the beat frequency of the point A in the K-frame will be v when Vevey In the present case ¥ = 20 or 24. This means vo = 22. &va2 Thus beats of 2v = 4 will be heard when ¥ = 26 or 18. 4.14 (a) From the Eqn: x = asinot sin?@t = x°/a” or cos’wr = 1- > (1) a And from the equation : y= beoswt cos? at = y*/b? Q) From Eqns (1) and (2), we get : ee aaa S+ oe aisage which is the standard equation of the ellipse shown in the figure. we observe that, at t=0,x=0 and y=bd x and at t-3o,x= +a and y=0 Thus we observe that at t= 0, the point is at point 1 (Fig.) and at the following moments, the co-ordinate y diminishes and x becomes positive. Consequently the motion is clock- wise. (b) Asx =asinwst and y = beoswt So we may write 7°= asinwt 7% bcoswt j” ‘Thus r= Wa- oF415 4.16 (a) From the Eqn. : x = asinwt, we have cost = V1 - (x7/a") and from the Eqn. :y = asin2@r 2 = 2asinwt coswt= 2xV1-(x7/a") or y= 4x? (:-3} (b) From the Eqn. : x = asinot sin’ wt = x°/a7 5 Fromy = acos2t 2 y = a(1-2sin2or) = «(1-25] @ For the plots see the plots of answersheet of the problem book. As U(x) = Ug(1-cos ax) So, = -Upasinax qa or, F, = - Uyaax (because for small angle of oscillations sin ax = ax) or, F, = - Usa’x qa) But we know F, = - mwgx, for small oscillation 2 Use Ve Thus 3 == or a =a Hence the sought time period 2x VE VF T= augae u()= 5-2 then the equilibrium position is x = x9 when U' (x9) = 0 or eu eee x) % b Now write : xamty Then wba (xn ay) U (a) +4 (xa) U" (20) % 2 But U" (x) = 94-28 © (2a/by? (35-25) = bY8A? x \ So finally : U(x) = U(%) +4 reeds4.18 4.19 We neglect remaining terms for small oscillations and compare with the PE. for a harmonic, oscillator : 2 , Lmotyte (se) ous 2 2\8a° Veam v8 Thus Ta 2a Note : Equilibrium position is generally a minimum of the potential energy. Then U' (ap) = 0, U" (x) >0. The equilibrium position can in principle be a maximum but then U" (x9) < 0 and the frequency of oscillations about this equilibrium position will be imaginary. The answer given in the book is incorrect both numerically and dimensionally. Let us locate and depict the forces acting on the ball at the position when it is at a distance x down from the undeformed position of the string. At this position, the unbalanced downward force on the ball = mg-2Fsin® By Newton’s law, mx = mg-2F sin 0 = mg-2F0 (when @is small ) x 4F = mg-2F 752 mg-—- x s 4F _4F (om tous f= gfe» 2 (eB putting x’ = xml We get pe uaemn a ta ml Thus T= «V2 = 025 Let us depict the forces acting on the oscillating ball at an arbitraty angular position 0. (Fig.), relative to equilibrium position where Fy is the force of buoyancy. For the ball from the equation : Nz = I Bz, (where we have taken the positive sense of Z axis in the direction of angular velocity ic. 6 of the ball and passes through the point of suspension of the pendulum O ), we get : -mglsinO+Fxlsin0 = mPO Using m = fara, Fs = fur and sin @ = @ for small 0, in Eqn (1), we get :4.20 4.21 Thus the sought time period Suese) 722 = uarasasasatzesisasiiseseres Ve(1-2 Imo (1-8) Hence T=2aV pay = Ls Obviously for small f the ball execute part of S.H.M. Due io the perfectly elastic collision the velocity of ball simply reversed. As the ball is in S.H.M. (|| < a on the left)its motion law in differential from can be written as 6 = - 0 ~ - ufo @ If we assume that the ball is released from the extreme position, 8 = f att = 0, the solution of differential equation would be taken in the form 0 = Boos wot = BeosV £ 1 @ If t! be the time taken by the ball to go from the extreme position @ = B to the wall ic. @ = - a, then Eqn. (2) can be rewritten as ~a= pen VE eM (8)-VG (moe'g) g 8g ’ ; i “1a Thus the sought time T = 26" = 2Y 2 [x-cos”'E 7 2Ve (Fes) [because sin”! x+cos"!x = x/2] Let the downward acceleration of the elevator car has continued for time ¢', then the sought time r= V2 of +1", where obviously YW 24 is the time of upward acceleration of the elevator. One should ote that if the point of suspension of a mathematical pendulum moves with an acceJeration w’, then the time period of the pendulum becomes 2nV (see 4.30) le- In this problem the time period of the pendulum w! w becomes it is moving upward with acceleration4.22 u axV A and its time period while the elevator moves downward with the same magnitude of acceleration becomes Qn Vv mien g-w As the time of upward acceleration equals W/ ~ aH , the total number of oscillations during this time equals V2n/w 2nV1/(g+w) — Vode a DEERETS ‘Thus the indicated time = -2nVig = V2h/w V (g+w)/e nV I/(g+w) Similarly the indicated time for the time interval t' a = a Vg = t' Vg - w/e aVi(g-w) we demand that Vih/w V(g+wy/e +t'V(g-wi/g = V2h/w +e! or, = Vih/w aa eave (VE oe VE GENES wo oVg-Ve-w aV 24 Vi+B-vV1-B re w 1-V1- If the hydromoter were in equlibrium or floating, its weight will be balanced by the buoyancy force acting on it by the fluid, During its small oscillation, let us locate the hydrometer when it is at a vertically downward distance x from its equilibrium position. Obviously the net unbalanced force on the hycrometer is the excess buoyancy force directed upward and equals xrxpg. Hence for the hydrometer. Hence the sought time , Where B = w/g mi =-xPpgx 2 Hence the sought time period T=2aV —S— =25s. mr pg12 4.23 4.24 At first let us calculate the stiffness x, and x2 of both the parts of the spring. If we subject the original spring of stiffness x having the natural length Ip (say), under the deforming forces F -F (say) to elongate the spring by the amount x, then : Fexx Q) Therefore the elongation per unit length of the spring is x//) . Now let us subject one of the parts of the spring of natural length 1 Jy under the same deforming forces F - F. Then the elongation of the spring will be x nom ax lo Thus F=«, (nx) ® Hence from Eqns (1) and (2) K = NK, or Ky = K/7 @) K Similarl = imilarly "Ty The position of the block m when both the parts of the spring are non-deformed, is its equilibrium position O. Let us displace the block m towards right or in positive x axis by the small distance x. Let us depict the forces acting on the block when it is at a distance x from its equilibrium position (Fig.). From the second law of motion in projection form i.e. F, = mw, eee Lae . gy +Kax o -(Eephy]x= mi a er ae Thus Kae 0 << Hence the sotight time period T=2nVn(12n)m/K = 0-13 Similar to the Soln of 4.23, the net unbalanced force on the block m when it is at a small horizontal distance x from the equilibrium position becomes (Ky + 2) x. From F, = mw, for the block : = (Ky +k) x = me Thus gee (S35) m Hence the sought time period T = 22V Ky +k, Alternate : Let us set the block m in motion to perform small oscillation. Let us locate the block when it is at a distance x from its equilibrium position. As the spring force is restoring conservative force and deformation of both the springs are same, so from the conservation of mechanical energy of oscillation of the spring-block system :425 4.26 4.27 13 2 1n(%) 44 toes am(@] tyme tyme Constant Differentiating with respect to time 1 eo 1 s Zm2kE +5 (Ki +KQ)22z = 0 (41 +2) we: m Hence the sought time period T = 2 xy ace During the vertical oscillation let us locate the block at a vertical down distance x from its equilibrium position. At this moment if x, and x, are the additional or further elongation of the upper & lower springs relative to the equilibrium position, then the net unbalanced force on the block will be Kz.x directed in upward direction, Hence = Kpxy = mi a) We also have xeyty @ As the springs are massless and initially the net force on the spring is also zero so for the spring or, Kia, = Kx @) Solving the Eqns (1), (2) and (3) simultaneously, we get Ki K2 (oy 2/e +12) m ‘Thus x= ( Hence the sought time period T = 27 Ky Ko The force F, acting on the weight deflected from the position of equilibrium is 2 7p sin 0. Since the angle 0 is small, the net restoring force, F = 2 T)7 o, Fu kx, where ee 2h gone nenn ene? [pcan aeeeee eee So, by using the formula, To If the mercury rises in the left arm by x it must fall by a slanting length equal to x in the other arm. Total pressure difference in the two arms will then be pex+pgxcos0 = pgx(1+cos0) This will give rise to a restoring force -pgSx(1+cos0) This must equal mass times acceleration which can be obtained from work energy principle.14 4.28 The KE. of the mercury in the tube is clearly : zm 2 So mass times acceleration must be : mx Hence mx +pgS(1+cos0)x =.0 ‘This is S.H.M. with a time period ae rue nk In the equilibrium position the C.M. of the rod lies nid way between the two rotating wheels. Let us displace the rod horizontally by some small distance and then release it. Let us depict the forces acting on the rod when its C.M. is at distance x from its equilibrium position (Fig.). Since there is no net vertical force acting on the rod, Newton’s second law gives : Lol, Cc Ni +N2 = mg (a) KN, -kN, = mi 2) As the rod experiences no net torque about an axis perpendicular to the plane of the Fig. through the C.M. of the rod. Solving Eqns. (1), (2) and (3) simultaneodsly we ket v2 -e7Br Hence the sought time period Vou wat an T= 20V 55 *V Eg = 1SS15 4.29 (a) The only force acting on the ball is the gravitational force F, of magnitude y $5 pmr, where y is the gravitational constant p, the density of the Earth and r is the distance of the body from the centre of the Earth, But, gy & pR, so the expression for F can be written as, F--mg A bere R is the radius of the Earth and the equation of motion in projection form has the form, or, mi'+ "Ex = 0 (b) The equation, obtained above has the form of an equation of S.H.M. having the time period, Teak 8g Hence the body will reach the other end of the shaft in the time, T_ oR 5 tese = 42 27 "Ve mi (0) From the conditions of S.H.M., the speed of the body at the centre of the Earth will be maximum, having the magnitude, v= Ro=RVQR = VBR = 7-9km/s. 4.30 In the frame of point of suspension the mathematical pendulum of mass m (say) will oscillate. In this frame, the body m will experience the inertial force m(- i") in addition to the real forces during its oscillations. Therefore in equilibrium position m is deviated by some angle say at. In equilibrium position Tycosa = mg+mweos(n-6) and Tysina = mwsin(x-B) So, from these two Eqns tan a = £— O08 B wsinB Vf mw sin? B+ (mg -mweos B)? (ay and cos a= mg —mwoos B431 4.32 Let us displace the bob m from its equilibrium position by some small angle and then release ‘it Now locate the ball at an angular position (a. + @) from vertical as shown in the figure. From the Eqn. : No = 1B, ~ mg Isin (a+ 0) - mw cos (x - B) [sin (0 + 0) + mwssin (m - B) cos (a +0) =m 176 or, g (sin a cos 8 + cos at sin @) — w cos (x — B) (sin a cos @ + cos a sin 8) + w sin B (cos ot cos 6 - sin sin 8) = 10 But for small @, sin@ = 0 cosO = 1 So, ~ g (sin 01 + cos 0: 8) ~ w cos (x B) (sin a + cos 0: 0) + w sin B (cos a - sin a8) =180 or, (tan a+ 0) (00s B—g)+wsin (1 tana 0) = Q) Solving Eqns (1) and (2) simultaneously we get -(g?-2wecosp+w)O= IV g+w-2wecosp O Thus 6 = - le # 8 Hence the sought time period T = & =27V ra g-w| Obviously the sleeve performs small oscillations in the frame of rotating rod. In the rod’s frame let us depict the forces acting on the sleeve along the length of the rod while the sleeve is at a small distance x towards right from its equilibrium position. The free body diagram of block does not contain Coriolis force, because it is perpendicualr to the length of the rod. From F, = mw, for the sleeve in the frame of rod -Kxtmorx = mx opaniarcaaie tga) a A figg™ nw, It is obvious from Eqn (1) that the sleeve will not perform small oscillations if o2V 10 rod/s. When the bar is about to start sliding along the plank, it experiences the maximum restoring force which is being provided by the limiting friction, Thus KN = mapa or, kmg = mugaWwW 2 2 or, rece = 4s. gs 8B\T 4.33 The natural angular frequency of a mathematical pendulum equals @) = V g/I (a) We have the solution of S.H.M. equation in angular form : © = 0,,cos (a+ a) If at the initial moment ic. att = 0, @ = 6, than a = 0. Thus the above equation takes the form © = 0,,.COB Wt i ene 38 @,c0s'V Fr = 3°cos WV 55 Thus 8 = 3° cos3-5 ¢ (b) The S.H.M. equation in angular form : 0 = 0, sin (atta) If at the initial moment 1 = 0, 0 = 0, then a = 0.Then the above equation takes the form @ = 6, sin aot Let vp be the velocity of the lower end of pendulam at 0 = 0, then from conserved of mechanical energy of oscillaton Seeeeicee tear eeaeeeeteee eerie or, dmv} = mgl(1~c0s Oy) Thus Om = cos"! (1-28) » cos? f 1-00-22)" J = gs tee Zl 2x9-8x0-8| ~ ‘Tnus the sought equation becomes 0 = 0, sinwgt = 45° sin35¢ Let 6p and vo be the angular deviation and linear velocity at t = 0. As the mechanical energy of oscillation of the mathematical pendulum is conservation © $ mvj mg i(1 ~c05 0) = mg! (1-005 Om) aa or, J = 1 COs Op ~ COS Op ) 2 2 Thus @, = cos~! | cas 8-2} = cos™? | cos 3° - 0022) ei 2x98 x18 Then from @ = 5.4° sin (3.51 + a), we see that sin a = = and cos a < 0 because 4 2 4 1.0 radians and we get the the velovity is directed towards the centre. Thus a = 2 answer. 4.34 While the body A is at its upper extreme position, the spring is obviously elongated by the amount If we indicate y-axis in vertically downward direction, Newton’s second law of motion in projection form ie. F, = m wy for body A gives : morn (a-78) «mote oox(2-TE = m(wra-g) @) (Because at any extreme position the magnitude of acceleration of an oscillating body equals 7a and is restoring in nature.) I€N be the normal force exerted by the floor on the body B, while the body A is at its upper extreme position, from Newton’s second law for body B Ner(a- if) «me m8 2 ; of, N= mens{a-Ti8) = mg -m,(w' a—g) ( using Eqn. 1 ) HenceN = (m, +m) g- moa When the body A is at its lower extreme position, the spring is compresed by the distance (+) a+ 718), K From Newton’s second law in projeciton fonin ic. F, = mw, for body A at this state: m, g-X ay TE = m,(~ oa) oF, x a8 = m,(g+o%a) @) In this case if N' be the normal force exerted by the floor on the body B, From Newton’s second law my for body B we get: N’ = x( a+ "8 ) ome = m,(g+ 02a) + mg (using Eqn. 3 ) Hence N' = (m+ m)g+m,o7a From Newton’s third law the magnitude of sought forces are N' and N, respectively. 4.35 (a) For the block from Newton’s second law in projection form F, = mw, N-mg=my @ But from y = a(1-coswt)©) 436 (a) 19 We get y =o acoswt Q From Eqns (1) and (2) 2 N=mg 1+ 2 Foose @) From Newtons’s third law the force by which the body m exerts on the block is directed 2 vertically downward and equis_N = mg ( 1 +2 cos o ‘) When the body m starts, falling behind the plank of loosing contact, N = 0, (because the normal reaction is the contact force). Thus from Eqn. (3) 2 mg(1+2 tm or] = 0 for some t Hence Oy, = g/0" = Sem. We observe that the motion takes place about the mean position y = a. At the initial instant y = 0. As shown in (b) the normal reaction vanishes at a height (g/w*) above the position of equilibrium and the body flies off as a free body. The speed of the body at a distance (g/«*) from the equilibrium position is wV a”-(g/w)*, so that the condition of the problem gives Vere P Lea a (ae) Tae 28 Hence solving the resulting quadratic equation and taking the positive roof, a= -£ 4 2he = 20cm. _ o Let y(#) = displacement of the body from the end of the unstreched position of the spring (not the equilibrium position). Then my = -Ky+mg This equation has the solution of the form y = A+Bcos(ott+a) h if =m’ Bcos(wt+a) = -K[A+Bcos(wt+a)}+tmg Then wo =~ and A= 78 m x we have y=0 and y=0 at ¢=0.S0 -oBsina = 0 A+Boosa =0 Since B > 0 and A> 0 we must have a = x BuA~ 78 xand y= ™E(1-cos ws) (b) Tension in the spring is T= Ky = mg(1-coswt) so Tax = 2M8, Trin = 0 4.37 In accordance with the problem = _, F--am7r So, m(x 4 yj) = - am( x74 yj) Thus ¥ =-ax and y=-ay Hence the solution of the differential equation X= -ax becomes x = acos(wot+5), where wp = a So, x = - aapsin(wptta) From the initial conditions of the problem, v, = 0 and x= ro at r= 0 So from Eqn. (2) a = 0, and Eqn takes the form X = TyCOSWgf $0, COS Myf = X/Ty One of the solution of the other differential Eqn) = -ay, becomes y = a’sin(@pt+8"), where w = a From the initial condition, y = 0 at t= 0, so 6' = 0 and Eqn (4) becomes : y = a’ sin «9 (5) Differentiating w.r.t. time we get J = a’ 09 008 Wot But from the initial condition of the problem, j = vo at ¢ = 0, So, from Eqn (6) Vo = a'@ 0%, a! = Vo/i Using it in Eqn (5), we get Yo 5 “oy y ‘ogo! or sin @gt = 0 Squaring and adding Eqns (3) and (7) we get : jaaatant a mae Gdn senSonik ny yy 2 alt = we or, (=) +4(%) U(as a, = a@) Q) Q) @) (4) 6) ” 4.38 (a) As the elevator car is a translating non-inertial frame, therefore the body m will experience an inertial force mw directed downward in addition to the real forces in the elevator’s frame. From the Newton’s second law in projection form F, = mw, for the body in the frame of elevator car: -1{ Sey} +meemw = my @0) 21 ( Because the initial elongation in the spring is mg/x ) . ( "*) 80, my = -Ky+mw = ~K/ y-—— & mw K( mw or, gal? e ) te “H- e | @ Eqn. (1) shows that the motion of the body m is S.H.M. and its solution becomes yMt wasn (VE rea] ® Differentiating Eqn (2) wart. time j00VE a VE rea] ® Using the initial condition y(0) = 0 in Eqn (2), we get : : mw asina = - 2% x and using the other initial condition (0) = 0 in Eqn (3) we get aV ~ cosa=0 Thus a= -0/2 and a= ™™ Hence using these values in Eqn (2), we get mw[y_ * asco Proceed up to Eqn.(1). The solution of this differential Eqn be of the form : ms asinl VE Oe asin ( mite é } or, ~bwasa(VE 14) : yo K/m m or, y- Sh asin (opt +8) (ene o=V =| (4) Wo m From the initial condition that att= 0, y(0)= 0,so0=asind or 8=0 at . Thus Eqn) takes the from :y— Ty = asin it ©) a Differentiating Eqn. (5) we get: 7- = awycos wt ©4.39 4.40 But from the other initial condition y(0) = 0 at t = 0. So, from Eqn.(6) ~S = amy of a= -o/ap @ Putting the value of-a in Eqn. (5), we get the sought y(t). ie. at a. a a y-=z = -Zsin@ot or y = 5(aot-sinwot) 0% @ o There is an important difference between a rubber cord or steel coire and a spring. A spring can be pulled or compressed and in both cases, obey’s Hooke’s law. But a rubber cord becomes lodse when one tries to compress it and does not then obey Hooke’s law. Thus if we suspend a‘ body by a rubber cord it stretches by a distance mg/x in reaching the equilibrium configuration. If we further strech it by a distance A h it will execute harmonic oscillations when released if Ah = mg/« because only in this case will the cord remain taut and obey Hooke’s law. Thus A Pyax = m8/K The energy of oscillation in this case is Jetty hE As the pan is of negligible mass, there is no loss of kinetic energy even though the collision is inelastic. The mechanical energy of the body m in the field generated by the joint action of both the gravity force and the elastic force is conserved ie. AE = 0. During the motion of the body m from the initial to the final (position of maximum compression of the spring) position AT = 0, and therefore AU = AU,,+AU,, = 0 or mg hex)+tex = 0 On solving the quadratic equation : 72 asset eee mg, meh es K As minus sign is not acceptable 3 +o Me, VME, 2mgh « If the body m were at rest on the spring, the corresponding position of m will be its equilibrium position and at this position the resultant force on the body m will be zero. Therefore the equilibrium compression A x (say) due to the body m will be given by KAx = mg or Ax =mg/x Therefore seperation between the equilibrium position and one of the extreme position i.e. the sought amplitude44) 23 The mechanical energy of oscillation which is conserved equals E = Usirene because at the extreme position kinetic energy becomes zero. Although the weight of body m is a conservative force , it is not restoring in this problem, hence Uireme is only concerned with the spring force. Therefore mg E = Vciveme = dna? = mghe Te Unlike the previous (4.40) problem the kinetic energy of body m decreases due to the perfectly inelastic collision with the pan.Obviously the body m comes to strike the pan with velocity vo = V2gh If v be the common velocity of the " body m+ pan " system due to the collision then from the conservation of linear momentum mvy = (M+m)v mvp __ mV2gh Y= (iam) ~ (M+m) » At the moment the body m strikes the pan, the spring is compressed due to the weight of “he pan by the amount Mg/« . If J be the further compressian of the spring due to the \ciwcity acquired by the "pan = body m " system, then from the conservation of mecksnical energy of the said system in the field generatad by the joint action of both the gravity and spring forces or FM mys (Mem) gl - ae(*E+") = dy (Ma) F 1 m2gh 1 (Mg) 1p 1, (Ma i on, 5 M+ m) Ty + (M+ mm) gd r(" }tgeP-Mel-5K : (Using 1) 1 om ght 8 or, zeP-mgl (ae 0 mgeV mg? «28g Thus i= ‘As minus sign is not acceptable pe MEL KK If the oscillating “pan + body m” system were at rest it correspond to their equilbrjum position ive. the spring were compressed by (tem)g therefore the amplitude of oscillation an ie ME. MEy/ 1, 2hK KK my4.42 The mechanical energy of oscillation which is only conserved with the restoring forces becomes E = Uciene = +x a? (Because spring force is the only restoring force not the 2 weight of the body) Altemately cote Fema? 0? 1 a(_x_)_1l o2 thus E=35(M+m)a (aim =ZKa We have F = a(ji® &j’) or, m(X TEST) = a(pirzy) So, mx = ay and my = -ai a) From the initial condition,at ¢ = 0, x = 0 and y = 0 So, integrating Eqn,m i’ = ay : a we get say orem Sy Q) Using Eqn (2) in the Eqn m’ = -aix, we get ae a os a 2 3) ye) ase-(S)y @) one of the solution of differential Eqn (3) is y =A sin(@ot+a), where wp = a/m. As att = 0, y = 0, so the solution takes the form y = A sin wot On differentiating w.rt. time y = A Wp Cos Wot From the initial condition of the problem, at ¢ =.0, y = vo So, Vo = Aw) or A = Vo/W Thus ¥ = (Vo/a@y) sin wt (4) Thus from (2) % = Vo sin wot so integrating p< 5) x=B- op COS Wo t (5) : Yo On using x=Oatr=0,B=— ® Yo Hence finally x= al 1- cos wt) © Hence from Eqns (4) and (6) we get [x-(vo/@9) P + 9 = (vo/09)? which is the equation of a circle of radius (vo/@) with the centre at the point Xo = Vo/@o, Yo = 0zo 4.43 If water has frozen, the system consisting of the light rod and the frozen water in the hollow sphere constitute a compound (physical) pendulum to a very good approximation because we can take the whole system to be rigid. For such systems the time period is given by mcat T,=22V 7 1 a where k? = 2R? is the radius of gyration of the sphere. 5 The situation is different when water is unfrozen. When dissipative forces (viscosity) are neglected, we are dealing with ideal fluids. Such fluids instantaneously respond to (unbalanced) internal stresses. Suppose the sphere with liquid water actually executes small rigid oscillations. Then the portion of the fluid above the centre of the sphere will have a greater acceleration than the portion below the centre because the linear acceleration of any element is in this case, equal to angular acceleration of the clement multiplied by the distance of the clement from the centre of suspension (Recall that we are considering small oscillations). Then, as is obvious in a frame moving with the centre of mass, there will appear an unbalanced couple (not negated by any pseudoforces) which will cause the fluid to move rotationally so as to destroy differences in acceleration. Thus for this case of ideal {uids the pendulum must move in.such a way that the elements of the fluid all undergo the same acceleration. This implies that we have a simple (mathematical) pendulum with the time period : H Sraaciere = g Thus nom Vi+3(7) (One expects that a liquid with very small viscosity will have a time period close Ty while one with high viscosity will have a time period closer to T,.) 4.44 Let us locate the rod at the position when it makes an angle from the vertical. In this problem both, the gravity and spring forces are restoring conservative forces, thus from the conservation of mechanical energy of oscillation of the oscillating system : sae (oP +mgd (1-c080)+ $x (10) = constant Differentiating wart. time, we get : a 7206 + El snobs F 7Kl?200 = Thus for very small Hence,26 4.45 (a) Let us locate the system when the threads are deviated through an angle a’ =< cos? f> = 1/2. Thus = Sml Grime Gh (where w= 3 ¢/2)28 4.48 4.49 Let J = distance between the C.G. (C) of the pendulum and, its point of suspension C Originally the pendulum is in inverted position and its C.G. is above O. When it falls to thi normal (stable) position of equilibrium its C.G. has fallen by a distance 2 J. In the equilibriun position the total energy is equal to KE. = 310? and we have from energy conservation : Zrat = mg2t or r= S08! Angular frequency of oscillation for a physical pendulum is given by 2 = mg 1/I V I Vamglo? 4x Thus To2nV Ty Oe mel 38 Let, moment of inertia of the pendulum, about the axis, concerned is J, then writing N, = [By for the pendulum, -mgxsina0=10 ot, 6-- 78% 6 (or small 6) which is the required equation for S.H.M. So, the frequency of oscillation, z Now, when the mass m is attached to the pendulum, at a distance / below the oscillating axis, ea Ges rego qd) ~Megxsin0'-mglsin0 Umer oe t 2 or, 7 I? ot = TS, (For small 8) +m t which is again the equation of S.H.M., So, the new frequency, ¥V g (Maem!) @ 2 ani) Solving Eqns. (1) and (2), _V 8a) ot+mt) ae (r+ml?) 2 Tar+megl ‘ casera or, I(@3- or) = mgl-moxl? and hence, 1 = mI? (a3- g/l) /(wj-03) = 0-8 g-m?29 4.50 When the two pendulums are joined rigidly and set to oscillate, each exert wryues on the other, these torques are equal and opposite. We write the Jaw of motion for the two pendulums as 1,0 = -03)0+6 6 =-03h0-¢ where + G is the torque of mutual interactions. We have written the restoring forces on each pendulum in the absence of the other as - 71,0 and - w3/, 0 respectively, Then hot + hot 2 a 1G 0 = -o 6 = 0 Hence 4.51 Let us locate the rod when it is at small angular position 0 relative to its equilibrium position. Ifa be the sought distance, then from the conservation of mechanical energy of oscillation mga(1-cos8)+ 4 00: (0) = constant Differentiating w.tts time we get : mgasin06+ S1og208 = 0 2 But los = mee ma? and for small 0, sinO = 0, we get ata 12 Hence the time period of one full osscillation becomes Poe 2_ 4x7 (2 T=2n mr? or T* = g at? ag - d(v For Trin » Obviously ie(iza**] =0 e l So, - +1=0 o a= ° 1a? w3 Hence Ton = 2% VW30 4.52 453 Consider the moment of inertia of the triangular plate about AB. (She dm = ff? pdxdy dx : iia On using the area of the triangle AABC = and m= pA. fe i v3 : Thus KE. 2 PE. = mgt (1-cos0) = Lmgh& Here 0 is the angle that the instantaneous plane of the plate makes with the equilibrium position which is vertical. (The plate rotates as a rigid body) Thus g-inte, 5 meh 228, mgh/ me Hence of = 2k. mgh/ mh So TeanV iE -nV 24. and Inte = h/2. Let us go to the rotating frame, in which the disc is stationary. In this frame the rod is subjected to coriolis and centrifugal forces, Fey and F,s, where Foe = f 2am (vx &%) and Fy = f dmogr, where ris the position of an elemental mass of the rod (Fig.) with respect to point O (disc’s centre) and As r= OP = OA+AP dr _a(AP) _y, dt dt As the rod is vibrating transversely, so v’ is directed perpendicular to the length of the rod. Hence 2 dm ( v'x @) for each elemental mass of the rod is directed along PA. Therefore the net torque of coriolis about A becomes zero. The not torque of centrifulgal force about point A: Now, Zr of Ax dmabr = f ar (7) dr08(0A+AP) } So, (as OA is constant)31 = f apx (7a) boa = f Basabsasino(-k) ™ asi F cee = Fopasin(-k)f sds = mapas sin O(-k) 0 So, Tepe = Epa k= -mohadsind According to the equation of rotational dynamics : tg) = J, az or, or, Thus, for small @, x Initially the system 1s in equilibrium position. Now from the condition of translation equilibrium for the block Ty= mg Q) Similarly for the rotational equilibrium of the pulley KA/R= TR or. To= Al 2)455 from Eqns. (1) and (2) Al= eae @) Now let us disturb the equilibrium of the system no matter in which way to analyse its motion. At an arbitrary position shown in the figure, from Newton’s second law of motion for the block F,= mw, mg-T= mw mi @ Similarly for the pulley N,= IB, TR-xK(Al+x)R= 10 () But w= BR or, Y= RO © from (5) and (6) TR-«(AlsyR= Li ( Solving (4) and (7) using the initial condition of the problem es chxe (me “al or, x--(—* 7|* mes Tae Hence the sought time period, T= a. 2m mee Note : we may solve this problem by using the conservation of mechanical energy also At the equilbrium position, N,, = 0 (Net torque about 0) So, mgR-mgRsina = 0 of my = msina 0) From the equation of rotational dynamics of a solid body about the stationary axis (say z-axis) of rotation i.e. from N, = [B, when the pulley is rotated by the small angular displacement @ in clockwise sense relative to the equilibrium position (Fig.), we get : m,gR-mgRsin(a+0) MR? 2 Using Eqn. (1) mgsin a - mg (sin a.cos 0+ cos asin @) : {ue 2m(1+ male 2 + mR*+ ma]33 But for small @, we may write cos @ = 1 and sin@ = 6 Thus we have a . {MR+2m(1+ sina)R} o mgsina-mg(sina+cosa0) = 2 8 2mgcosa a ~ [MR+ 2m(1+ sina)R] Hence the sought angular frequency w» = VV WRe poets amad 4.56 Let us locate solid cylinder when it is displaced from its stable equilibrium position by the small angle © during its oscillations (Fig.). If'v, be the instantaneous speed of the CM. (C) of the solid cylinder which is in pure rolling, then its angular velocity about its own centre C is o =v/r @ Since C moves in a circle of radius (R - r), the speed of C at the same moment can be written as Hence, 6. ve = O(R-r) Q) Thus from Eqns (1) and (2) o- aon @) As the mechanical energy of oscillation of the solid cylinder is conserved, ie. E = T+U = constant So, Smite blo +mg(R -r) (1-cos 0) = constant (Where m is the mass of solid cylinder and J, is the moment of inertia of the solid cylinder about an axis passing through its C.M. (C) and perpendicular to the plane of Fig. of solid cylinder) 2 PP EE t+ mg (Rr) (10080) = constant (using Eqn (1) and 1 or, y mor 2 I= mr 3, aap Ror +g(R—r)(1~cos 0) = constant, (using Eqn. 3) ? Differentiating war. time 3(R-1)266 +gsin06 =0 So, 6 = 6, (because fer small 0, sina 0) ogee "3(R-r) Thus oy =~ V 28 3(R-r)34 4.57 4.58 Hence the sought time period T= 2h any 2k) @o 2g Let x, and x be the spring constant of left and right sides springs. As the rolling of th solid cylinder is pure its lowest point becomes the instanteneous centre of rotation. If @ be the small angular displacement of its upper most point relative to its equilibrium position, the deformation of each spring becomes (2 @). Since the mechanical energy of oscillation of the solid cylinder is conserved, E = T+U = constant ie. $1, (6)? +50 (2R0)? +342(2R 0)? = constant Differentianting w.rt. time rae! ; 7200 +5 (1 +2) 4R7200 =0 mR? 2 +ma’) i cantco =0 mR? 7 + mR?) (Because Ip = [c+ mR? = Hence 6 =- woo a) m a 8x ee us @p = 57 and sought time period 2" am am T= = 2572" ony In the C.M. frame (which is rigidly attached with the centre of mass of the two cubes) the cubes oscillates. We know that the kinetic energy of two body system equals $n va, where is the reduced mass and vj is the modulus of velocity of any one body particle relative to other. From the conservation of mechanical energy of oscillation : 2 1 1 fd gee ese geen] = constant Here /y is the natural length of the spring. Differenting the above equation wart time, we get : 1 CARED Rereese (+x). ge 2xke ned = of comes SUG? «5 - my m Thus’ = -% x (wie - 7 = my +m, mma m +m Hence the natural frequency of oscillation : oy = © where =35 459 Suppose the balls 1 & 2 are displaced by x,, x; from their initial position. Then the energy is: E= imi + mit + Fee -x) dmv Also total momentum..is : m, xX; + m)X) = m,V; myx, + mx Define xe MAtMM, voy iy my +m Then mye X+—_x, ye x- 7 m +m m +m 1_mm, Ea 5m + me TP at Hence ee Vie m, +m, 22 1 mm L 1 it _mivi (1 mm 2 = sme 4S ka? = omivit 2 m +m,” 2 m+") (®) From the above equation Th TxA 4 mim 2 Weseeo = YE Vv 7 88%, when w= SATE = Se, (b) The energy of oscillation is 1oimm 3 1 2 m +m ving We have x = asin (wf + a) 2x (0.12)? = 48 x 10% = 48 mJ Initially x=Oatt=0s00a=0 Then x= asin wf. Also x =v, att = 0. v So wa = vy and hence a = “b= 22 6 2 om, 4.60 Suppose the disc 1 rotates by angle 0, and the disc 2 by angle 0, in the opposite sense. Then total torsion of the rod = 0; + @ 7 1 2 ind tor I PE. = =x (6, +6, and torsional zn ), + 82 ” ia The KE. of the system (neglecting the moment of inertia of the rod) is 1dr zhO+ she So total energy of the rod ; aan Em Shite d+ 5 «(0,487 We can put the total angular momentum of the rod equal to zero since the frequency associated with the rigid rotation of the whole system must be zero (and is known).461 bor Oe Thus 1,0, = 10, ot Th" Uh So 6, = Tan (8,+6,) and f= Ae at) Lhh ie 1 2 and Em 5 rag (O14 Oa +5 «(01 + 02) The angular oscillation, frequency corresponding to this is LL; ot ae/ w/t and T=2xV where 7 = 7 In the first mode the carbon atom remains fixed and the oxygen atoms move in equal & opposite steps. Then total energy is a) 0 c Oo - —_—rx 2 2my2+ i 2nxr where x is the displacement of one of the 0 atom (say left one). Thus wt = K/my. @ 0 c 0 —_ =_ — x ¥ x In this mode the oxygen atoms move in equal steps in the same direction but the carbon atom. moves in such a way as to keep the centre of mass fixed. 2 Thus 2mpxem,y = 0 ony =— = 2m.) 2m KE= } 2m? +5 am( oat J 22mg 2m a? = poma( 1 2 . 2 2 pew de(1+ 2) 2 be (1e2™) 2 obon (142) 2 2 me 2) mm. 2 mi. 2 2 mo 4 2mo a V1.2 V u Hence, @ = 0, V 1455 eo V > = 1910, Thus abot ) and @) = @; mo4.62, Let, us displace the piston through small distance x, towards right, then from F, = mw, or, (p,-P,)S = me But, the process is adiabatic, so from PV = const. P= Hinee a id pi = pees (Vo-Sx)" (Vo+Sx)" 37 Q@) as the new volumes of the left and the right parts are now (Vo + 5.x) and (Vo ~ S x) respectively. So, the Eqn (1) becomes. PoMS (1 iy (Vo-Sx)" (Vo+Sx)¥ PoVhS | (oss) | m or, m (Vo -S?x?)* or, 22 Neglecting the term ae in the denominator, as it is very small, we get, ‘0 uti? Dy Si gn — 22ST yx m Vo which is the equation for S.H.M. and hence the oscillating frequency. ge sV 2px mVo 4.63 In the absence of the charge, the oscillation period of the ball T=2Vilg when we impart the charge q to the ball, it will be influenced by the induced charges on the conducting plane. From the electric image method the electric force on the ball by the plane 2 q 13 Te Teg (2hY of the ball ——z and is directed downward. Thus in this case the effective acceleration4.64 465 2 , q one fae wawna and the corresponding time period reanVb o2nV 1 — g gt ae From the conditon of the problem Tan?’ So, Tean?t’? ot Lan? g oe Thus on solving q = 4hVxegmg(n?-1) = 2nC Ina magnetic field of induction B the couple on the magnet is - MB sin @ = - MB 0 equating this to 16 we get 16 +MBO =0 2eMB oe ternVt or ot MF ot TH2RV GG Given T, = T/y o vi -Vi lee ° Ks or 2 =n The induction of the field increased 1 times. ‘We have in the circuit at a certain instant of time (¢ ), from Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction : di a& - La 7 NG or Ldi = Bld Asat t=0,x=0, so Lim Bix or i= Stuy ; For the rod from the second law of motion F, = mw, -i1B = mi . Fs PB? 2 Using Eqn. (we get: # = -(F 3 |e mw ~adx 2 where op = 1B/ Vm The solution of-the above differential equation is of the form4.67 39 x = asin(wot+ a) From the initial condition, at t = 0, x = 0, soa = Hence, x = asinagt @) Differentiating w.tt. time, & = a @9 COs wot But from the initial condition of the problem at ¢ = 0, x = vo Thus Vo aa or a = vo/e@ (4) Putting the value of a from Eqn. (4) into Eqn. (3), we obtained oo a @ As the connector moves, an emf is set up in the circuit and a current flows, since the emf is al Bisel 0 § = -B1i, we must hav so, I= BIx/L provided x is measured from the initial position. ‘We then have Blix 2B. L+mg mx = - for by Lenz’s law the induced current will oppose downward sliding. Finally , (BY H+ ene on putting eta tee A:solution of this equation is x= £44 cos (wt+a) cr But x= 0 and x = 0 at ¢ = 0. This gives x= © (1-coswot). Wo We are given x = age~*' sinwt (@) The velocity of the point at ¢ = 0 is obtained from Vo = (X)pn0 = 4 The term "oscillation amplitude at the moment ¢ = 0" is meaningless. Probably the im- plication is the amplitude for ¢ << 7 . Then x = do sin t and amplitude is ay. ' ) x = (-Bapsin w+ wagcoswt)e* = 0when the displacement is an extremum. Then o tan@t = > 8 or ote tan! Penn, m= 041,20 4.68 Given = qye-* coswt 4.69 We write x = age"* we have @ = -Bp-ogoe *sinot © = - PE+Pagoe *sinwt-w7 ge *! cos wt =P pt2poge™sinwt-w'p so (@® ()o = - BG» (Fo = (B°- 07) Go (b) } = -ge7*!(Bcos w t+ w sin wt) becomes maximum (or minimum) when © = go(Br- 0? )e“ 2 2 or tnot = Sa8 2po coswt+2Pagoe*'sinwt = 0 2g? and nat wn SE inn penseaO tsa one ' cos(@t+a). I @) x(0)=02a= spar-F age"* ‘sinwt 5(0) = (t)20 = ¥ way Since ag is + ve, we must choose the upper sign if x(@) <0 and the lower sign if x(0)>0. Thus ag ~ ECL and a = +5 if x(0)<0 5 if t(0)>0 (b) we write x = Re A ePIH°! 4 ow age’? Then x =v, = Re (-B+iw)Ae Pirie! From v, (0) = 0 we get Re (-B+iw)A = 0 This implies A = + i(8+im)B where B is real and positive. Also % = ReA=F OB ‘ol with + signinA if xo <041 ~ signin A if x)>0 So An 2 PSO hal = (Fie s Pll ° © Finally ee (5) Ixol tna = Bg = un? o o a is in the 4 quadrant (- f0 and is in the 2" quadrant (3 2 ‘ Thus ak GUE grap =0 o oe27nR 5, 2 mat! Hence og = 25; and p= zur’ mR481 and angular frequency mR Note :- normally by frequency we mean = : From the law of viscosity, force per unit area = 4 & so when the disc executes torsional oscillations the resistive couple on it is t R = fn-2m. TP er-dr x 2 -15*6 0 (factor 2 for the two sides of the disc; see the figure-in the book) where @ is torsion. The equation of motion is 4 19 +E ote = 0 Comparing with © +2BPH+o9@ = 0 we get B= xR*/2hI Now the logarithmic decrement ) is given by X = BT, T = time period Thus n= 2hAI/nR‘T If p = angle of deviation of the frame from its normal position, then an e.m.f. e= Bao 2: is induced in the frame in the displaced position and a current 7 - og. flows in it. A couple ‘ 26 2 gen Baoan a) then acts on the frame in addition to any elastic restoring couple cp. We write the equation of the frame as 2 4 19 FS orem =0 Bea‘ 2IR Thus B = where B is defined in the book. Amplitude of oscillation die out according to e~*' so time required for the oscillations to i. ' decrease to = of its value is 2IR Ba DI47 482. We shall denote the stiffness constant by x. Suppose the spring is stretched by xo. The bar in then subject to two horizontal forces (1) restoring force - x x and (2) friction kmg opposing motion. If Xp> ad =A the bar will come back. rH (fx) A, the bar will stay put.) The equation of the bar when it is ' moving to the left is mx = -Kx+kmg This equation has the solution x= A+(xp-A) cosV where we have used x = x9, = 0 at ¢ = 0. This solution is only valid till the bar comes to rest. This happens at Jt anal V5 and at that time x = x, = 2A-2p. if x)>2A the tendency of the rod will now be to move to the right .(if A < xq <2 A the rod will stay put now ) Now the equation for rightward motion becomes” mx = -Kx-kmg (the friction force has reversed). We notice that the rod will move to the right only if K(x)-2A)>kmg ie. xy >3.A In this case the solution is x= -A+(%9-34) cosy £ Since x= 2A-x and ie Oat cen na/VE. The rod will next come to rest at tanger VE and at that instant x = x, = x9- 4A. However the'rod will stay put unless x >5 A. Thus @) time period of one full oscillation = 2x/ Fa () There is no oscillation if 0 4 subject to x(0) = x(0) = 0 where F is constant. The solution of this equation will be sought in the form xs EAcos(apt+a), 0s tst x = Bcos(W)(t-t)+B), t>t A and a will be determined from the boundary condition at ¢ = 0. 0 = Fe Acasa 0 = -wpAsina ‘Thus a=Oand4=-= and x = £(1~cosupt) Os t elie Al : and Fy/m Fo/m a - —tem__ . Fo/m Wap ab 46" 2pVas-F 2B h 2 1+{— ipa 2e FoAla(, 4a” mag 2K Anmg|** 2 " ee 7, Since a = V («= 05 + 2B)? + 4B? (09 - B) we must have - 1-08 +2? = - (03-02 +28") ce @} + @; 7 o-2p? = 8 yp, Fy (wh- 07) coswt+2Bosinot xs = Veal ep? Then ye 2Bwcos ot+(w?- ws) sinwt oy s4 par Thus the velocity amplitude is Foo mV (08-07 P +4 Po Yo= This is maximum when and then ie51 2 : @ 2 Now at half maximum Zo | = 128 or w+ 2V3 Bwo-o = 0 ¥F BV3 +V op +3B" where we have rejected a solution with — ve sign before there dical. Writing ow, = Voa+3p?+BV3 , wo, = Vos+3 fp? -BV3 we get (a) @,¢, = @p = Va; @ ( Velocity resonance frequency) o Jo; -@ | @) B= and damped oscillation frequency 7 Vale = V o0,- red 4.88 In general for displacement amplitude 2 ease aaeas Leaeenaetaees ae— m Vda Pea paP epg a teeeeaseeacseetaste) ree titnstetcatetces mV (0 ~ 09 +28") +4 8? ( 0-8) a nee @ of, us me, fiw Yap (ap-B) 26V wp -B 20 But Hence 4.89 The work done in one cycle is r r A= fFdx=fFvd =f Fycoswt(-wasin(wt-@)) dt ° ° T = f Fowa(-cos wesin wt cos @ + cos” wt sin p) de 0 = 5 Fyoatsing = naFosing52 4.90 In the formula x = acos(wt-@p) oF Ociasesaniania gastisissdscose we have a=— = MV (wp-w')+4 Bw 2Bo 7 a - 0 tang = i (09 - 7) tan Thus 6 te : Hence @ = VK7m = 20s, and (a) the quality factor Tas an q-%- a8 -} 4 ot 0 = 21% 6 B (08 - o tan (b) work done is A = xa Fo sin = xma’V (w- 0?) +4" = nma’(wp-w") tang = 6 mJ. sing = xma°x2Bo 4.91 Here as usual tang = 2B& -0 '; where @ is the phase lag of the displacement Fo x = acos(wt-p),a=— ™ V(ab-w) 24 pra? (2) Mean power developed by the force over one oscillation period Foasin® le asi - 7 = 7Foawsing Fo Bat Fob 1 ™ (ap—or yp +4 pro m 2 : i" oo +4p? (o (for the denominator iS then minimur (b) Mean power < P > is maximum when w = Also bi 4mB 4.92. Given B = o/n. Then from the previous problem F009 1 SEE ym FI 2 (2-°} +428 o

=At displacement resonance w = V wg - 2B” F2

, = 20 —_,.- nm 4p 40 z piacere @ - 2 SF ie 4nmay while

max Thus . . N, 493 The equation of the disc is @ +2B@+aRq = Then as before © = Gm Cos (wt=a) where om = Nm aaa = 28%, ™ TE (aa - 07)? +4207)?” oo (a) Work performed by frictional forces 53 r = -fN,do where N, = -21B@ = ~f 2BIq? de = -2nBwlg, 0 =~ x1 @8[( 03-07) +4 Bw? ] sina = —2Ny Pq Sino (b) The quality factor 2 onto _Vab-B Vag 8 at dora 4B wo? AmeDs 2B (5-0? )tna = tana | (aw) (@p-a")? wn 40 wo P Gy Nn wt FO OO em tanta — since wf = w+ cosa 2tana | N2 cos*a me v2 1 ae wal = fe sin Tsina we ' 1 1 40° Pgh (2 Ny cosa ; : "rena | aE (Ot Ig, tt 2 ll 210m N, / wo —— +casa} -1 2 254 4.2 ELECTRIC OSCILLATIONS 4.94 4.95 If the electron (charge of each electron = -¢ ) are shifted by a sinau distance x, a net + ve charge density (per unit area) is induced on the surface. This will result in an electric field E = nex/eg in the direction of x and a restoring force on an electron of ex £0 2 nex Thus mi =- £0 or This gives as the plasma frequency for the problem. Since there are no sources of emf in the circuit, Ohm’s 1 law reads a, ,4! iste where q = change on the capacitor, [ = “4 = current through the coil. Then & Peasy Shr o0da = 0, of = re. The solution fo this equation is 7 = Gm C08 (Wot +a) From the problem Vq = = . Then I = ~ aC V,, sin (gt +a) and V = V,,cos (wt-a) P 2 V2 4-5 = V2 pC 2 ar vet -v2. By energy conservation $L P+ £ = constant ‘When the PD. across the capacitor takes its maximum value V,, the current J must be zero. Thus “constant” = ze v, V? = V2 once again. some Le,55 4.96 After the switch was closed, the circuit am By A é uo or fascia san ae crams where we have used the fact that when the switch is closed we must have -4. meds 2 Veda Vm tm a0 ate = 0. Thus (a) 1 = TH «CV copsin ot = - Va € sinagt L (b) The electrical energy of the capacitor is x cos? Wt and of the inductor is aL Pasin® aot. The two are equal when x oot = 5 At that instant the emf of the oe inductance is -15 = Vycoagt = Vn IVv2 497 In the oscillating circuit, let d = Im COS WE be the change on the condenser where o? = 1. and C is the instantaneous capacity of the. condenser (S = area of plates) LC S ce y y = distance between the plates. Since the oscillation frequency increases 7 fold, the quantity Spengnsaiyanet or OSL changes 1 fold and so does y ie. changes from yo initially to 1° yo finally. Now the PD. across the condenser is Im Y Im Va Gooswt= ase and hence the electric field between the plates is Im E= 295 SOF498 Thus, the charge on the plate being qq cos a f, the force on the plate is 2 F=—cos*wt eS Since this force is always positive and the plate is pulled slowly we can use the average force 7. F- 5; : Fen 21) 4m¥0 and work done is A = F(? yo-yo) = (17-1) 2 tS TaYo Gn ae But Ja% = 315 = W the intl stored energy. Thus. A= (P-1)W. The equations of the L ~C circuit are C,V-fidt C,V-fid 14 page ef ne vf a qi Cr Differentiating again «= L(+) «-1h--14 G G ¢, 1 2 Then hegighh ae Teh+th so L(Cy+C,)I+I = 0 or I= Iysin (apt +a) 2 1 where 0" Teac) (Part a ) (Hence T = 2% = 0,7 ms) Wo At 1=0,l=0s0a=0 T= Iysinogt The peak value of the current is Jp and it is related to the voltage V by the first equation LI=V-fldt(C,+C2) ' 1 : or +Laplocosagt = V- GG, J Jasin ootat (The PD. across the inductance is V at t = 0) 1h VFS oy (cms out 1) af G6, Hence Ty = (Cy +p) VV = V = 8.05 A. L57 499 Initially q, = CVp and q> = 0. After the switch is closed change flows and we get N+2 = CV 4,40 49 | Bid Leo Q Also I = q, = -q. Thus I enn : 4 Por 2 2 +41 + Hence F+upl= 0 a = 7%, C Cc 4, The soloution of this equation subject to -4, “Yo T=Oatr=0 Sw is I= Ipsinaot. Integrating 91 = A- 7 cos aot Finally substituting in (1) A-B_ 21 c Gap C08 M0# +L Ip 0 COS ot =0 cy, Thus A= B= rand CV Ip cee CM so 41 = Ze +008 91) cv 92 = "(1-008 wt) 4.100 The flux in the coil is (1) = {$ <0 0 £>0 : fla The equation of the current is opel (a) dime 2 This mean that ico} +1=0 or with b= f5 I = Ipsin( 1+ a)4.101 4.102 I Putting in (1) ~L Ip Wp 008 ( 9 t+) = ~ T° [€08 (wot +a) ~ cos a] 0 This implies cosa = 0 +. J = * Iycos wot . From Faraday’s law de dI a a =-L9 or integrating from t = - € to - € where ¢ + 0 ® = LJy with + sign in J so, I= 2 COS Wot. Given V = V,, e7*! coswmt (a) The phrase ‘peak values’ is not clear. The answer is obtained on taking |cos wt| = 1 mn o ie te (b) For extrema 2Y = 0 - Booswr- wsinwt = 0 or tanwt = - B/o ie. ot = n+ tan’ The equation of the circuit is OQ ,p42,2. Letra +S -0 where Q = charge on the capacitor, This has the solution Q=Q, e7*' sin(wr+ a) where B=, 0=Vop- BP, of =e. Now 1-42.20 attr =0 $0, QO, 28! (- Bsin(wt+ a)+mcos(wt+a))=0 att=0 Thus cosa = Bsina or a = tan7! 5 Now vq = 2 and Vo = D.atr= 0 = 2 sina v, z yo 7 sina = Gate = Oe eisai Meee ‘mn orp %59 4103 We write 2 rote ™ sinwe = Brie ior = gm I, (gm means imaginary part) (B+ iw)en Bit ier = gm I, SP gm In ee =[e# Bsinwt+ w coswt = P+ o -prsin(wi+d) igo V B+ wo 8 ( An arbitrary constant of integration has been put equal to zero.) Thus =Ine v-2-1, Vv z e7 * sin(wtt 8) V(0) = V% sind = 1, VE ws o + C(1+ 6/0") 4104 f= J, e7* sinwt £ Vv 1 anne fogs Ie’ o = VoR- 8 I= - 4, q = charge on the capacitor Then qa Ine Pt SOLD) tango 2, Vo'+ p 6 Thus Wu = £11 eo? sin? or e728! sin? (wet 8) LER 26 = ot gee ee a sin? (wt+ 3) w+ B*60 Current is maximum when 4 sino = 0 Thus - Bsinwt+ wcoswt = 0 o or wn ot = 2 = tnd 8 ie. orenn+d ‘a? in? and hence Wigaretenas (tien eneinsOuraeee le We sin?(wt+ 3) sin?28 — 4cos?d 1 ip seeeeL Ser, REEL. se Se ee ees 4B'70g 4p? LCR? cr? (Wy is the magnetic energy of the inductance coil and We is the electric enengy of 1 capacitor.) 4.105 Clearly L=L,+1y,R=R,+R 4106 Q = Fe or B-a5 Now Br=inn sore "or = 2101 - 05 ms mv 4.107 Current decreases ¢ fold in time te 2d gee uw 2k caccttations ~2L o R 2x re 1 R? 1 V 4L _ "ERY LG7 4p "2a ¥ Rig 1 7 159 oscillations x _o 4108 Q = FE 35 . - pee “+ @= 282, Baao. a wy oVis—-y or oS eS 1+ 42 oo Por | £100 % « 15x 100% = 05% 9 804.109 4110 4111 Att = 0 current through the coil = £ Rer PD. across the condenser = =~ Rer (a) Ate = 0, energy stored = Wo 2 2 -34(x5) 1 (at) = 52 ESRD. 20 ee (Re ry? -1R2 -1R/L (b) The current and the change stored decrease as e~'””*" so energy decreases as e 2 We We = 0.10 mI. Vo} - B 28 ©, or Ber Vie 49? or B= Now W= We 7 Thus energy decreases 1 times in ot sec. = Inn Vis 49" | Qinn oo = 1.033 ms Yao” 224 In a leaky condenser 4aly_7 rade Gee 1-1! where I’ =p = leak current ~22-,%._,4(4,¥ Now v-Z--17 =-L5 [eR - 124. 4a di? RC dt eee d Oe . +geatiet~° Then = Ime *'sin(wmt+ a)62 4.112 Given V = V,e7*' sinwt, @ = @ BT << Energy loss per cycle Power loss = T ad cvax 26 (energy decreases as Wy e~ 7°! so loss per cycle is Wox 2BT) Thus

= z cv2« £ 2

L or R- v2 a Hence o-ivi -VE x Feb 7 100 on putting the vales. 4.113. Energy is lost across the resistance and the mean power lass is

= R = 5 R12 = 02 mW. This power should be fed to the circuit to maintain undamped oscillations. 2 RCV, 4114

= 57 28 in (4.112). We get

= 5 mW. 4.115 Given q = 41+ a iT h--@h--% = eres Lh=Rh= 4, Thus CL 91+ (q+ @) = 0 RC H+ N+ =0 Putting gq) = Ae’®! qo = Beti®! (1- wLC)A+B=0 tle63 A+(1+ i@RC)B = 0 A solution exists only if (1- wLC)(14+ i@RC) = 1 or iwRC- w LC-iw LRC? =0 or LRCo*-iwLC-RC =0 Thus G1 = (A, cos wot + Az sin wy t) e7** etc. 2p is the oscillation frequency. Oscillations are possible only if 3 > 0 ic. +1 .¢ ce 4p? L° 4116 We have ; Ly h+ Ril = 1, h+ Rh sia ¢c RyLt I=lh+h Then differentiating we have the equations L,CT,;+R,Ch + (+h) =0 1,C 14 RpCh + (h+h) =0 Look for a solution =A, e", b= Ape Then (14 07? L,C+ aR,C) Ai+ Ap = 0 A, + (14+ 0? L,C+#aR,C) A, = 0 This set of simultaneous equations has a nontrivial solution only if (1+ 72, C+ aR\C)(1+ 07L,C+#aRC)=1 3. 2 L:Ro+1pR, Ly+Lp+ Ri RoC Ry+ Rp or a teeeerrerarees ta eee ers caeeet TT ce This cubic equation has one zeal root which we ignore and two complex conjugate roots. We require the condition that this pair of complex conjugate roots is identical with the roots of the equation a?LC+aRC+1=04.117 The general solution of this problem is not easy.We look for special cases. If Ry = Ry = 0, tha Lk 12 | If L;=L2=0, then 2 R=0 and LTS L=0 and R =R,Ry/(R,+Rz) These are the quoted solution but they are misleading. We shall give the solution for small R, Ry . Then we put a = -6 +i when B is small We get (1-071, C-2iB@l,C-B,C+ioR,C) (1-071, C- 2iBwL,C- Bfac+ iwR,C)=1 (we neglect B* & BR,, BR, ). Then L,+ L,; 2 2 2 title (1- @C)(1-aLgC) = te oh PS a ne This is identical with ow Ie if L Tel, also (2BLy- Ry) (1- @L,C)+ (2BL2- R,)(1- wL,C) = 0 R RL? + Rol? RL} + RL? This gi B = Op = aT Teg) 7 Ra 4,,4 =+4 on otlL G+ Ri ta+F on RK “ti Vi For the critical case R = 2V Thus LC G+ 2VIC g+q=0 Sw Look for a solution with q a e*' An independent solution is te*' . Thus pe se : At t=0q=CVo thus A =CVy Also at t=0qg=-1=0 0=B-AT B= VE vic4118 ‘Thus finally 1-4.yVE elie VE eT The current has been defined to increase the charge. Hence the minus sign. The current is maximum when a a& This gives t = VEC and the magnitude of the maximum current is Ye JE Mol = 2VE. The equation of the circuit is (J is the current) Vo it t --Té 1- ye}? dl LG + RI = Vue ot From the theory of differential equations T= Iptle where Jp is a particular integral and Ic is the complementary function (Solution of the differential equation with the RHS = 0 ). Now Te * Ico 7" and for Ip we write Ip = Iq cos (wt-@) Substituting we get v, L-——*{=—, 9 tan? 24 Vrs wh? R Vin RL ‘Thus i, cos (wt- @) + Ieoe” VR es Lt Now in an inductive circuit] = 0 at t= 0 because a current cannot change suddenly. ee) Vw Veea [cos (woe - @p)- cos pe +066 4.119 4.120 Here the equation is (Q is charge, on the capacitor) Q,rzd2. ct R dt Vn cos@t A solution subject to Q = 0 at t = 0 is of the form (as in the previous problem) 2 = O,[ cos (wt- F)- cospe™*°] Substituting back oe cos (at - @)- ORQ,sin(wt- P) = V_ COS OE = V,,{ cos G cos (wt - F) = sinGsin(wr- F)} so Qn = C Vy, COs F ORQ, = V_sin® This leads to cy, ia Qu = F—————, an F = ORC V1+(@RC) Hence a= Is [- since w+ SEE ereme a 3 sin V R24 (ze) oc The solution given in the book satisfies J = 0 at t = 0. Then Q = 0 att = 0 but this will not satisfy the equation at ¢ = 0, Thus J# 0, ( Equation will be satisfied with J = 0 only if Q# 0 at ¢ = 0) y, Wi =0)-—2 ith our J, I(t20) =z The current lags behind the voltage by the phase angle -1 @L = ta — oman eR Now L = yn? xa71, 1 = length of the solenoid Ru bc2xanl sy , 2b = diameter of the wire xb 1 But 2bn=1 2s bagy 2pm a? 1 Won? Ina?-2nv 1 ‘Then oo wi! aaa * Gat -1 Ho ay meses = tai apn4121 4.122 67 HereV = V,,cos ot I = 1,,cos(wt+ @) where Now Vn axe iss Tala Thus the current is ahead of the voltage by eaeee = fs : p= un aa = tant (we) - = 60 ' Side Hee Va IR+ > or weeramenne YO aa Ignoring transients, a solution has the form Tehpsin(wt-a) 9 ee Ty OR Ip cos(wt- a) + 7 sin(@t- a) = - wVp sinwt = — @Vo{sin(wt- a) cosa+ cos(wt- a)sina} so Rly = - Vosina —=-Vcsa a=2+ tan™'(@RC) I= Igsin(or— tan“? @RC-2) = - Iysin(wr- tan“! @RC) Then Q- [rae 20+ “eos (w1-ten"! oR) It satisfies Vo(1+ coswr) = REZ 2if Vo(1+ coswr) = - Rigsin(wt- tan7'@RC) Qo, to 1 + ot G gem (@r- tan aRC) Thus Qo = CV 7 SunauEee and ah = vo/Vis(oRcy VooRC checks Rh = — Vi+(@RCY Vo lence ee Vi+(oRCY © 2- Vi+ (oRCY or W-1 = 0 (RCP or RC =Vre-1/0 = 22 ms. fauee Va__ Vir Voltage Va. MAR current Voltage V @) ©) =~ as 4124 @ I, = (b) tng = 2S, 9 w - 60° Current lags behind the voltage V by p69 Vo = 2 w 0665 KV O fe oc” Vin = InV R24 wh? = 0-SKV V, ee V R24 (2+- se) oc ————_k. —____ Vine V(oRCh+(@Le-iy Vf 2 2 (3 1} + toto ©}70 4.126. 4.127 Vi = Iq V R24 wl? Vn VR? + wb? V r+ (oz- a) oc for a given @,L,R, this is maximum when 1 1 aot Ob © C= >= 2 UF VV R74 oL? For that C, Vi = JA - VV 1+ (ole? ~ 0540 EV Va ol At this C Vo = ee AO L509 Vv ocoa 0000 © Poor Condo|—= ©0000 2000 1! ‘We use the complex voltage V = V,, e'®'. Then the voltage across the capacitor is , 1 U- TYG and that across the resistance RJ’ and both equal V . Thus , Vin ior ' ; ioe SMa ata eecae a eeaae Hence Vn ; ioe I= (1+ iwRC) e The actual voltage is obtained by taking the real part. Then = Vis (orc? cos (wt+ p) Where tang = oRC Note —> A condenser with poorly conducting material (dielectric of high resistance) be the plates is equvalent to an an ideal condenser with a high resistance joined in p between its plates.aT 4128, ah Sha ah Maer oe 7 tae dh dl, Ly 2-1, at Oat ¢ from the second equation Lnh = -Lyh By kh Then [ati ee Thus the current oscillates with frequency 1 Ly cj LL.- >= * E| 4.129 Given V = V,,cos wt I = I,cos(@t~@) L,R where T Vin ews Vv 2 eee rs(at-gh] Idt I,sin(wt-@) Then, ve GS _ esntate) Vin - sin (or- 9) V(1- wLCy+ (RCP ‘As resonance the voltage amplitude across the capacitor See eel ae a ek 1 CR RC Vic L 2 Se =n : cr N/a casei meer Now Q= CGR? 4 nara 4.130 For maximum current amplitude1 Vn Sig ind then Ino = R Now So 4.131 At resonance and Now Then oyb- = VAI wae VFT (assuming «> ©;) mc «3 o _ yaak or oy- Gee = aye VATE Pe or 01+ = SE (y+ @) > wy = VOrO, and o-oo Vea & R_ %-o 6-20 2Vn-1 and o- V8 _ 1 LV OP Dom 1 ae 4 (m= oF 473 o : 4132 Q = = FE for low damping. Now 2% ow 2 v2 or Thus s Aw = 2p and Q = 0 o = 2B and Q =<. 4133 At resonance © = Vn Im (9) = RE Then J, (10) = 4.134 The a.c. current must be T= I) V2 sinwt Then D.C. component of the rectified current is 12 = 5 f V2 sinwtdr T 0 ie ~ V2 5, f snoao _ ov2 x Since the charge deposited must be the same 2 Int) = 21 The answer is incorrect.74 4135 (a) my =ht Ost pfhparh tea 4n Then I, = 2h since =. Now mean square current | r 2 2 21 44h =48 rr an 2h so effective current = a (b) In this case J = I, |sinwt| r 1 « and y= FS hlsinor |ae ° 2s * 1 . Le. 2h = aah |sin@[d0 = ete -= al So te r wig page elon ey Then, mean square current = = 7 ie word as wig 2 wip “3 x tf swtoao = = 0 I so effective current = . v2 4136 ree Pic ™ Vo R es Pe. § R?+ aL? VR?+ aL? 16($2) n R4.137 4.138 4.139 75 Thus Sb ow Vq=1 R or o=7Vn-1 R Y= agEYI~) @ 2 KH of on putting the values. Z = VR?+X2 ot Ry = V27- X? The tan = ae we So oe SEV (3) wt 9 = cos"! 1- (2) = 37. The current lags by @ behind the voltage. 2 v 2 2 also P= VI cosp = —V2? ~ X? = .160 kW. z 2 oe Vva(Ra tn) (Re rh + ol? This is maximum when R+ r = wL for 2 2 P-— Fe 7 oly L Reve Viggo Rer a VR+r v2 Thus R = @L ~ r for maximum power and Pra = 7 7 + Substituting the values, we get R = 200 and Pyar = .114 kW. V?R -_— *_, R’+ (X,- Xe) Varying the capacitor does not change R so if P increases n times Z =VR?+ (X,-Xc)* must decreases V7 times Thus cos = g increases Vin times % increase in cos @ = (vn - 1)x 100 % = 30.4%. P76 4.140 4.141 ae V?R R24(X_YP R?+ (X,~ Xe) At resonance X, = Xc => @ = NICH Power generated will decrease n times when 2 2 peeks erage 2 (%- Xe} (2-32) (ek 2 or o- Bae Vanit Bae Vani 28. Thus ow ¥ 2Vn- 1 Bo- (oF Vane 1 8) = wp + (n- 1) Bp? or 2 Vig (= 1) Bag 2 Via T B/oy 0 (taking only the positive sign in the first term to ensure positive value for = ) 0 Now var ere =V14 49? Thus eee aera * +407) For large Q == = Hot, 100% = 05% ®o oe 30 We have Ke VR Vy = VY Ris Xe V(R+ Ri) + XP V(R+ RP + XP 2 2 V)R so crenreate (Gi). neat (1) yy Yi Hence Re RR = 5 (V7 ve) Ry = 5 (V?- v2 - v2 or 1 a a- Vi)77 v?R, ve Ve gan ft ea” ag2 (V?- v2- ¥,) 1 Heat generated in the coil = ————}—_, = (Ri+ Ry + Xp R? v?- ve- v2 = oR t 30 W 4.142 Here Ip = zg , V=. effective voltage I v ,-——— VR?+ x? R ts EERE : as Re+ XP Ra L 2 I, Regis the impedance of the coil & the resistance in parallel. aif Rs ann (1) 2RR, EB Rp + XP DL)” R?+ x? P-H-12 2RR, 2 Re Now mean power consumed in the coil Vv? RR: P-R-R 1 epee -2 Aa) 2 R(I?- I?- 3) = 25 W. et ae rn 2 ee Zz R z R R ioc = = 409 |Z |= V14(@RCY 4.144 (a) For the resistance, the voltage and the current are in phase. For the coil the voltage is ahead of the current by less than 90°. The current is obtained by addition because the elements are in parallel. qa axis of Voltage To ir I, ® o Ur oO78 (>) Ic is ahead of the voltage by 90°. (©) The coil has no resistance so J, is 90° behind the voltage. ST Ir To I, © 4.145 When the coil and the condenser are in parallel, the equation is di, In dt Ler ee = Vq_ COS WE Teh+h R Using complex voltages V=Vin currént v, ef@! R+iol’ he = ioCV, e* and Rziwks imc (Ris wh? ) jae vino) dm = [Feindeiogia 1 i: (a iol Thus, taking real parts cos(wmt- p) Vn | 12) 1 _ [R74 {wC(R?+ wL?)- oL PY] Zz (@) (R?4+0°L”) wL- C(R?+ ow’ L”) tang = R where and (a) To get the frequency of resonance we must define what we mean by resouance. One definition requires the extremum (maximum or minimum) of current amplitude. The other definition requires rapid change of phase with @ passing through zero at resonance. For the series circuit.79 both definitions give @ = i at resonance. In the present case the two definitions do not agree (except when R = 0 ). The definition that has been adopted in the answer given in the book is the vanishing of phase. This requires C(R?+ WL?) = L 2. 1 R? oe see) . 3 or w= TEn TT Whey Ome = 316 x 10? rad/s. Note that for small R, @ rapidly changes from ~ — > to +5 as w passes through Dyes {OM < Wye 10 > Dyes - VaR CR (b) At resonance In = i ne ‘ CR 80 I = effective value of total current = V —~ = 3.1 mA. similarly ie =v ve = 0.98 A. Vi7e Note :- The vanishing of phase (its passing through zero) is considered a more basic definition of resonance. 4.146 We use the method of complex voltage ZR Vn Vel : ter Te Then Ie = ew iw Cpe"! Cc n Ic = “2 — = iwC Ve Vv LR ToC eVoeaun LR” Reiol : . 23,2 I= let ha y, Rriwbsiwcen +0°L?) jive Then taking the real part VoWR?+{0C(R?+07L?)-oL}? R* 407k? @wL-wC(R?2+07L?) R Te cos(@t-p) where tang =80 4.147 From the previous problem R?4 07k? Vr?+(wc(R?+ @L?)- ol} R?+ wk? Ze (R24 @7L7)(1- 207LC)+ w?C?(R 2+ w7L?)? R?+ w*L? VR? + 07k? V (1- 207LC)+ @7C7(R?+ wb?) V (1- @?LC)2+ (wR)? 4.148 (a) We have e=- ae. © Osinot = Li+ RI Put Taian (are) eThen @Oysinwt = @Oo{sin(wr- @) cos p+ cos (wt-q) sing} = LI,wcos(wt- 9) + RI,sin(wt- @) so RIy = Oy c08q and LI, = Dosing w & or i aieiaeeeiese eee ead tape VR 20k? R (b) Mean mechanical power required to maintain rotation = energy loss per unit time r a ety Lp. 102 08R Hau eel py bree ee Oa TLR d = Rim RT GT? 4.149 We consider the force Fix that a citcuit 1 exerts on another closed circuit 2 :- FaeP nal i, Here By, = magnetic field at the site of the current element dZ due to the current J; flowing in 1. wo f hahx mp "an Pa where 73) = 7)- 7 = vector,from current element d/, to the current element d 1, Now > > > = o> > 7,- dh x(diyx 7p) Ho ff dl (dh: ra)- (dh: db)ip Fy = LL = AL; woe Sn A) BF i, “e In the first term, we carry out the integration over di, first. Then81 ai, dh > ai, mh > > Sf ee ba Fa) -farg 33 aaa fang aip-v, + a0 2 because ” peneb fed curl (rs)* Thus Fa=- 22 ffan diy. di, ns The integral involved will depend on the vector @’that defines the separation of the (suitably chosen centre of the coils. Let C; and C; be the centres of the two coil suitably defined. Write ™mon- A= - te pepraree : aA? >. => where py (p2) is the distance of dl; (d1) from C, (C) and @°stands for the vector C; Cp « ae Then Pate gr 2 ™ poate Ho di-dh and Fy = Vi. [as wo ff care The bracket defines the mutual inductance Ly). Thus noting the definition of x aly = 52 where < > denotes time average. Now I, = Incoswt = Real part of le!®! : Z , adh ah The current in the coil 2 satisfies Rlp+ Lo"? = - LaZr -iwly or h = Reial, 2° Ipe'®" ( in the complex case pl taking the real part olyk L ieee eae (@L,c0swt-R sinwt) = - ete Iycos(wt+@) Ri+ wl, VR*+ w7L? Where tan p = —7~. Taking time average, we get 2 aly oLyly @LyLyh aly = I 1 0 FSP = Te ey ax VR ew 2 2(R?+w°Li) Ox The repulsive nature of the force is also consistent with Lenz’s law, assuming, of comse, that Lyp decreases with x.4.3 ELASTIC WAVES. ACOUSTICS 4.150 4.151 Since the temperature varies linearly we can write the temperature as a function of x, which is, the distance from the point A towards B. ie., Ta 7+ 222, [ocxl] hence, dT= ( | a @ In order to travel an elemental distance of dx which is at a distance of x from A it will take a time dx dt = 2) alr. Q From Eqns (1) and (2), expressing dx in terms of dT, we get 1_ (tat d= Al “aI Which on integration gives f Achs Je- sai lB ao VT ay (VB - VR) or, a a( = +VTy ) Equation of plane wave is given by E (r,t) = acos(wt-K'F), where R= On called the wave vector Hence the sought time ¢ = and 7 is the unit vector normal to the wave surface in the direction of the propagation of wave. F a Poayz) afi Q x4.152 4.153 4.154 or, &(x,y,z) = acos(wt-kx-ky-kz) = acos(wt—kx cos a — ky cos B - kz cos y) Thus §(41,91,%t) = acos(wt-kx; cos a- ky, cos B-kz, cosy) and (22,92,%,t) = acos(wt-kx,.cos a-ky2 cos B- kz cosy) Hence the sought wave phase difference 2-1 =k [ (a1~#2) 008+ (91 ~y2) 608 B+ (21-22) 2087 or Ap = [o2- ail = & | [(x1-22) 608 0+ (9-92) 008 B+ (21-22) 008] | =F | [C21 72) c08 0 + Cra yn) e058 B + (21-22) cos] | The phase of the oscillation can be written as ® = ot-Fr” When the wave moves along the x-axis ® = wt-k,x (On putting k, = k, = 0). Since the velocity associated with this wave is v, We have =f ‘1 as © o Similarly k= 2 and k= > wn wn wa Thus Bm Pet Othe The wave equation propagating in the direction of +ve x axis in medium K is give as & = acos(wt-kx) So, & = acosk(vt-x), where k= and, v ‘is the wave velocity In the refrence frame K’ , the wave velocity will be (v~V) propagating in the direction of +ve x axis and x will be x’. Thus the sought wave equation. § = acosk{(v-V)t-x'] 7 v or, $+ ecm (of ~kx | = acos[or(1-7) 4x1] This follows on actually putting B= f(t+ax) A , VE 108 th equati = in the wave equation oa (We have written the one dimensional form of the wave equation.) Then Apr (rsax) = of" (r+a2)4.155 4.156 so the wave equation is satisfied if aeet v That is the physical meaning of the constant ot . The given wave equation & = 60 cos (1800 r- 53x) is of the type & = acos(wt- kx), where a = 60x10~*m @ = 1800 per sec and k = 5:3 per metre 2x 2 As ka, oka DO and also k=2, so v= 2% = 340 m/s v k (@) Sought ratio = 5 = gk = 541x107 (b) Since = acos(wt-kx) a -awsin(wt-kx) So velocity oscillation amplitude (3), OF Vm = 4 = O-ll m/s @ and the sought ratio of velocity oscillation amplitude to the wave propagation velocity 32x 107* (©) Relative deformation = a = ak sin(ot-kx) So, relative deformation amplitude ax From Eqns (1) and (2) (se) sre Poe (FE) ax var -(3] = ak = (60x 107°x5-3)m = 321074 m Q Thus (3) - 2 (3) , where v = 340 m/s is the wave velocity. (a) The given equation is, & = acos(wt-kx)4,157 4.158 85 So at teo, § = acoskx Now, #8. _awsin(wt-kx) dt and 48 . awsinkx, at t= 0. dt Also, & = +aksin(wt-kx) and at feo, ay ~aksinkx. dx Hence all the graphs are similar having different amplitudes, as shown in the answer- sheet of the problem book. (b) At the points, where & = 0, the velocity direction is positive, i.c., along + ve x - axis in ag the case of longitudinal and + ve y-axis in the case of transverse waves, where dt is positive and vice versa. For sought plots see the answer-shcet of the problem book. In the given wave equation the particle’s displacement amplitude = a e~"* Let two points x, and x, , between which the displacement amplitude differ by = 1% So, ae" — ae"? = nae"™ or evA(1-n) =e or In (1-q)- yx = - YX ce ee 2Omu) In(1-n) So path difference = - “1S and phase differenci = 2x path difference a 28 n(1 29) 289 2 3 a a 7 hy Let S be the source whose position vector relative to the reference point O is 7” Since intensities are inversely proportional to the square of distances,Intensity at P(1,) & Intensity at Q(z) ~ # where d, = PS and d, = QS. But intensity is proportional to the square of amplitude. 2 a So, Ss 4 or a;d; = ad; = k(say) 7) AL k k q iaceeatttaee ene nariag leaden $ p= band = t P Let ‘1 be the unit vector along PQ directed from P to Q. > Peer ay <> Then PS -dn-+n = ea Oh y i SB -ah ka an pees a From the triangle law of vector addition. ° Siaceettttnmetitiiar aca prnetiate OP + PS =08 o tkhe? a or aritkn = ar q) Similarly men =F oot ai-kn= ai” Q a Adding (1) and (2), penis - a, 77+ a,7} = (a,-a)7 es = UA+ 7 Hence r= a+ ay 4.159 (a) We know that the equation of a spherical wave in a homogencous absorbing medium of wave damping coefficient y is : aye" e- r Thus particle’s displacement amplitude equals cos (wt-kr) aye" r According to the conditions of the problem, aden" @) at r= 1, a= vo and when rer, Da Q) n0) 4.160 (a) or, 87 Thus from Eqns (1) and (2) rar) 2 e a> or, Y(r=m) = In(ym)=Inr I - a or, Inn+InromInr _ In3+inS-in10 _ p99 -1 r=7 3 a'ge 7?” AsE = cos (wt-kr) aa So, as : wsin(ot-kr) dye 7 a'ge” But at point A, : or So, (28) = 22% . 902% _ 50x10 4g, 22 1.45% 10? = 15 m/s ae} am 7 3 7 Equation of the resultant wave, k(xt Bobi = 20cmk/ $ Joos {or - + om {or ACE, where a’ = 2acosk Now, the equation of wave pattern is, x+y =k, (a Const.) For sought plots see the answer-sheet of the problem book. For antinodes, i.e. maximum intensity cos EO=2) 2 1=cosnx or, # (x-y) = 248 =nh or, yexsnh,n=0,1,2,.. Hence, the particles of the medium at the points, lying on the solid straight lines (y =x nh), oscillate with maximum amplitude. For nodes, i.e. minimum intensity, cas EL k(y-x) © x oe (2n41)For, yaxs (2n+1)N2, and hence the particles at the points, lying on dotted lines do not oscillate. (6) When the waves are longitudinal, For sought plots see the answer-sheet of the problem book. a 18 @ k(y-x) = cost cos or, Bo coset Sven] 3 cos k(y—x)-sink(y 2) sin (co = Beosk(y-x)-sink(y-) @) from (1), if sink(y-x) = 0 sin(nx) & = & C1)" thus, the particles of the medium at the points lying on the straight lines, y = x ax will oscillate along those lines (even 7), or at right angles to them (odd n). Also from (1), if cos k(y-x) = 0 = cos(2n+1)F x 2 = 1-82/0, a circle. Thus the particles, at the points, where y = x+ (m+ 1/4), will oscillate along circles. In general, all other particles will move along ellipses. 4.161 The displacement of oscillations is given by § = a.cos(wt-kx) Without loss of generality, we confine ourselves to x = 0. Then the displacement maxima occur at tf = nx. Concentrate at @¢ = 0. Now the energy density is given by w=pa'w’sin'ot atx =0 7/6 time later (where T = 2n is the time period) than ¢ = 0. 2 ote 2% 3 202 w= paro’sin’ = = paw = 2 Thus .= Spat? 7 =4.162 4.163 4.164 The power output of the source much be 4xP Ip = Q Watt. The required flux of accoustic power is then: Q = 2 [\, Where Q is the solid angle subtended by the disc enclosed by the ring at S. This solid angle is Q = 2x (1 - cosa) 1 So flux O=hh{i- 2nP fo Pe) Substitution gives ® = 211 x 30 (1-——_) uw ~ 1.99 pw. Viet 4 Eqn. (1) is a well known result stich is derived as follows; Let SO be the polar axis. Then the required solid angle is the area of that part of the surface a sphere of much radius whose colatitude is s a. a Thus a= f 2xsinodo = 250 - cosa. 0 From the result of 4.162 power flowing out through anyone of the opening Py Az 21.) setae | VR?4(h/2) offy. 4 2\ Varta As total power output equals P, so the power reaching the lateral surface must be. 4 rae] 2h ow 2\0 Var?+n?} Var?+h? We are given & = acoskxort s0 28 _aksinkxcosot and 25 ~ -awcoskxsinor ax or Thus (E)-0 = aooskx, (E)- 22 = -acoskx (3 = akanke. (33) = gkanke ax t=O ax t= T/2(a) The graphs of (&) and (33) are as shown in Fig. (35) of the book (p.332). (b) We can calculate the density as follows : Take a parallelopiped of cross section unity and length dx with its edges at x and x4dx. After the oscillation the edge at x goes to x+&(x) and the edge at x+dx goes to xt+dx+E(x+dr) = x4dx+8(x) +38 ar, Thus the volume of the element (originally dx) becomes (+8) ex ax Po Omteag es 1428 ax and hence the density becomes ! On substituting we get for the density p(x) the curves shown in Fig.(35). referred to above. | (©) The velocity v(x) at time t = 7/4 is ( 3) = -awooskx ar t= 1/4 On plotting we get the figure (36). 4.165 Given & = acoskxcos wt (a) The potential energy density (per unit volume) is the energy of longitudinal strain. This 2 1, (88 ag, vradi . 2*( al es is the longitudinal strain = Sea? R sin? kx cos? wt 2 ech ere But == of Ek’ = po oP f Thus w= Fp 02? sin? kx cos? ws (b) The kinetic energy density is 2 1 (28) 2 1 Ge cos? kx sin? 2(§ ) zPeo cos” kx sin? wt.91 On plotting we get Fig. 37 given in the book (p. 332). For example at ¢ = 0 Wom Wet We = > pa? wo sin kx i 2 and the displacement nodes are at x = + OE so we do get the figure. 4.166 Let us denote the displacement of the elements of the string by § = asinkx cost since the string is 120 cm long we must have &120 = nx If x, is the distance at which the displacement amplitude first equals 3-5 mm then asinkx, = 35 = asin(kx,+15k) Then kxy+1Sk = x-kx, or kx, = HB One can convince ourself that the string has the form shown below 1 It shows that kx120 = 42, 80 k= on” Thus we are dealing with the third overtone Also ka G so a= 35V2mm ~ 4949 mm. 4167 We haven = 2 VE 1 V2! Where af = total mass of the wire. When the wire 21 Vm "214M is stretched, total mass of the wire remains constant. For the first wire the new length = [+ mil and for the record wire, the length is 1 + npl. Also T, = a (1; /) where a is a constant and 7, = 0 (72/). Substituting in the above formula. 1 viem) +m!) “1 a * 2(eml) M ye 1 vy (om!) +m!) 2° 2 (T+!) M va dtm afm Ltn Mo 1+tm mm ltm uly m+ m) Vv 0-04(1+ 0-02) 44 M m+ mm) ~ © 0-02(1+ 0-04) ~92 4.168 4.169 4.170 Let initial length and tension be / and T respectively. 1 So, “37 In accordance with the problem, the new length 1x35 300 7 65! and new tension, T’ = T+ Thus the new frequency «+ r ate VEE fi ‘ae 2x0-657 Me re 13° M7 065 7 065 Hence =2 Obviously in this case the velocityof sound propagation v=2v(h-h) where Ip and J; are consecutive lengths at which resonance occur In our problem, ()-) = 1 So v = 2vI = 2x 2000 x85 cm/s = 0-34 km/s. (@) When the tube is closed at one end ve qi (2m41), where m= 0,1,2,... = eee lanet) = 100(2n+1) Thus for n= 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,..., we get my = 1001H,, my = 3001H,, ns = 5001H,, m, = 7001H,, ns = 9001H,, mg = 11001H,, m = 13001H, Since v should be 50k Hz. Hence the sought number of frequencies between 20 to 50k Hz equals 4. Let two waves &, = acos(wr-kx) and & = acos(wt+kx), superpose and as a result, we have a standing wave (the resultant wave ) in the string of the form & = 2acos kx cos wt. According to the problem 2.4 = dy,4.173 Hence the standing wave excited in the string is & = a, cos kx cos wt (a) ag or, nO COs kx sin wt (2) So the kinetic energy confined in the string element of length dr, is given by : a-4(ta)(] or, Ce ee sin? ot ae ae dT= nae sin? ot cos? 22 x de Hence the kinetic energy confined in the string corresponding to the fundamental tone w forte Because, for the fundamental tone, length of the string 7 = * 2 +} Integrating we get, T im @0? sin? ot Hence the sought maximum kinetic energy equals, Tas = im ao, because for Tinax » Sin? ot = 1 (ii) Mean kinetic energy averaged over one oscillation period axe jn? S sin? wt de Td = imazar. We have a standing wave given by the equation § = asinkx coswr So, 28 oe a inks dat @) and 23 » akeoskx cosot @95 ‘The kinetic energy confined in an element of length dx of the rod 2 dTs p(esas)( HF) - dpsao sin? cot sin? kx de So total kinetic energy confined into rod Te fat -Fosdotsin? “fates 2S a’ p sin? ot or, T. i @) The potential energy in the above rod element ? au = fau- ~ fase where Fy = (osaey2§ or, Fy = - (pSdt)w& zg 50, au = at psd f $e 0 2 Dot SS ay . pots? cos’ ot sin’kx de or, Thus the total potential energy stored in the rod U = s du wa or, te ton f i AE de 0 Ss _ zpSa? w cos” wt °» 4k To find the potential energy stored in the rod element we may adopt an easier way. We know that the potential energy density confined in a rod under elastic force equals : Up = J (stress x strain) = hoe = hye 122 1 pO 7 2f 985 eee : a ee = $9070? cos? wt cos?kx96 4.174 4.175 Hence the total potential energy stored in the rod if 1 U=fUpdv=f 5 para’ cos wt cos*kx S dx cj 2 iaitea = EpSa*o* cos’ wt m 4k @ Hence the sought mechanical energy confined in the rod between the two adjacent nodes 2 42 Eas = SPOS 4k Receiver R; registers the beating, due to the sound waves reaching directly to it from source and the other due to the reflection from the wall. Frequency of sound reaching directly from Sto Ry vy Veen, = Yor When S moves towards Ry and v's-cz, = Yo when S moves towards the wall v+ Now frequency reaching to R, after reflection from wall v Vw, = Yor, > When S moves towards Ry wn tee eo - yp 8 R, and Viy+z, = Yo a , when S moves towards the wall ‘Thus the sought beat frequency Av = (Ysen-Yworn,) Of, (Vwnn,- Ysa.) v__ 2vovu 2uvy -¥ => =1Hz woven yee uy? v aaaea Oar Let the velocity of tuning fork is u. Thus frequency reaching to the observer due to the tuning fork that approaches the observer : v v= Toy = velocity of sound } Frequency reaching the observer due to the tunning fork that recedes from the observer v veu v" = vo So, Beat frequency v-v" = v = vov 2vovu or, ve vu? So, vur+(2vv)u-v2v =04.176 4.177 97 we L2Y MOF V 4vav744vv? 2 Hence the sought value of u, on simplifying and noting that u > 0 ; va (3) -1) Obviously the maximum, frequency will be heard when the source is moving with maximum velocity towards the receiver and minimum frequency will be heard when the source recedes with maximum velocity. As the source swing harmonically its maximum velocity equals aq. Hence Hence Vmax = Yo So the frequency band width AV = Viax- Vin = | or, (Ava?) w+ (2vova)o- Avv? =0 So, o- -2vovae V 4vev7a2+ Ava’v? 2Ava" On simplifying (and taking + sign as > 0 if Av > 0) eee (v 1+(42) -1) Ava It should be noted that the frequency emitted by the source at time ¢ could not be received at the same moment by the receiver, becouse till that time the source will cover the distance dw 1? and the sound wave will take the further time Swit to reach the receiver. Therefore the frequency noted by the receiver at time ¢ should be emitted by the source at the time ty0-63 km no sound will be héard. 4.184 We treat the fork as a point source. In the absence of damping the oscillation has the form Const. r cos (wt-kr) Because of the damping of the fork the amplitude of oscillation decreases exponentially with the retarded time (i.e. the time at which the wave started from the source.). Thus we write for the wave amplitude. go Samt o-8(*-5) calort) alot) PO] ee This means that —_ = vs ' x xtde101 (++) in vd) oo, p ‘Thus e® a4 orp = —4_ 012.57 "a aan v4 BoA v 4.185 (a) Let us consider the motion of an clement of the medium of thickness dr and unit area of cross-section. Let § = displacement of the particles of the medium at location x. Then by the equation of motion pdx =-dp where dp is the pressure increment over the length dr Recalling the wave equation =v 7 ax we can write the foregoing equation as 2 208 dx=-d Pv oe iP Integrating this equation, we get Ap = surplus pressure = - ove, Const. In the absence of a deformation (a wave), the surplus pressure is Ap = 0, So ’Const? = 0 and (b) We have found earlier that w = W,+W, = total energy density v-e(B)--A() Ee) ot 2 ax ax It is easy * see that the space-time average of both densities is the same and the space time average of total energy density is then 2 a The intensity of the wave is ; (apy Tavera ae AP ym Using < (APE > = F(A we get 1. GP) .102 4.186 4.187 4.188 ‘The intensity of the sound wave is (API | (AP Yn 2pv — 2pva Using v = vA, pis the density of air. Thus the mean energy flow reaching the ball is 2 2 2(AP mn uR°I="R 2pve aR? being the effective area (area of cross section) of the ball. Substitution gives 10.9 mW. date CY 4 We have 5 = intensity = “3 or (AP )m = gee 2ar 1 oY 1293 kg/m x 340 m/s x080w _ 4/1293 %340% 8 ( kgkgm?s~?ms"!\)? 2ax15x15 5 2nx 15x15 m? = 49877 (kgm7*s7? = SPa. (AP mn P = 5x107* a (b) We have Ap = -pve (AP )m = PV KEq = PVITVEn (AP )m S: Bao Braye ” 20% 1-293 x 340 x 600 Ey 3x107* _ 1800 2% = ~— 340/600 340 =3pm x107* = 5x10~* Express L in bels. (ie. L = 5 bels). Then the intensity at the relevant point (at a distance r from the source) is : Jo:10° Had there been no damping the intensity would have been : e?"” I-10 Now this must equal the quantity reat where P = sonic power of the source. mr Thus batts 4ar? or P= 4nr7e7"" fy10’ = 1.39 W. 297 Ty10t103 4.4 ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES. RADIATION 4.189 The velocity of light in a medium of relative permittivity © is KE € wavelength of light (from its value in vaccum to its value in the medium) is Thus the change in “Ans clve ele iaaaGaguEE vov 4.190 From the data of the problem the relative permittivity of the medium varies as (x) = ee Hence the local velocity of light VO) = as ee 1 4191 Conduction current density = 0, Displacement current density = ae ereeat a = iweeE Ratio of magnitudes = ae = 2, on puting the valucs. £9 412 so OB aH Wx Fe - 28. 4, 8 = V cos(wt-E°7}x Eq = EXE, sin(wt-F:7") At r= 0 aH ERE, > =- — snot at Ho 1 So integrating (ignoring a constant) and using ¢ = Ve Bo or RKE, 1 9 RX Em H = —— coscktx— Ho pees ng k cosckt104 4.193 As in the previous problem o> oe at kxEy He 7 cos (wt - FF}105 so S-ExH- = Ex (Rx Ey) 5 008? (wt F275 = V2 BB Feo (or FF <> -iVe iF 4197 E = E,,cos(2xvt-kx) @) jas = ap = - 2meqvE,sin(wt-kx) Thus Cia me = << iis >? = V2 megvEy = 0.20 mA/m?, 1 0) = 5 7 EZ as in (196). Thus = 3.3 » W/m? 4.198. For the Poynting vector we can derive as in (196) = 3 i E2 along the direction of propagation. Hence in time ¢ (which is much longer than the time period T of the wave), the energy reaching the ball is mR? x E2xt=5\. 4199 Here E = Ecos kx cost = From div E = 0 we getE,, = 0 so E, is in the y~z plane. Also SF TB = - VeaskxxE, cos ot = E&E,sin kx cos wt so Ba a sinkxsinwt = B,sinkxsin wt Where |B] = AE and Hy 4 Ey in the yz plane At t=0,B = 0, E = E,coskx At t= 7/4 E=0,B = B,sinkx4.201 E- E, cos kx wt a EKER, : He sin kxsin wt (exactly as in 199) =< =» we Ex En Fo Beit = EXE) 1 5 sin2kx sin 201 Wo 1 : : 1 Thus S.= | %0cEm sin2kxsin2ot (+ we") <5,> = 0 Inside the condenser the peak electrical energy W, = 3 Cyn Lip XR? mi 2nd, (d = separation between the plates, ™R? = area of each plate.). V = V,, sin wt, V,, is the maximum voltage Changing electric field causes a displacement current jaa ae = t9E_ © cos wt Vin = OO cos wt This gives rise to a magnetic field B(r) (at a radial distance r from the centre of the plate) soo, ‘m cos wt B(r)-2mr = pom? jas = Wo? B= Lemelvaarer Energy associated with this field is 2 =far om : 1Buy Si an [ Prarnaxv cos? «wt Deer itat ah Rast gies, 7g TEOMO Gg Vm cos wt Thus the maximum magnetic energy i five (o apse *y2 ‘nm 1 iid (foot 15 Hence Wr 7g Mo(OR) aot =5 x 10 ‘The approximation are valid only if @ R < (for r >) Thus S= radially outward from the axis e940 r? This is the Poynting vector. Within the solenoid B = ypnJ and the rate of change of magnetic energy ot py seene ati sLrontred paar ogi) sitesee tia y Wn = 3, (Eur aR ‘) Hon? eR? UT where R = radius of cross section of the solenoid / = length. Also H = B/jip = nI along the axis within the solenoid. By Faraday’s law, the induced electric field is Ey 2mr= nr? B= nr? pont or = Svonir109 so at the edge Ey (R) = $0 nIR (circuital) Then S, = Ey H, (radially inward) and Wy = Svor TR x2RI = Hon’ R71IT as before. 4.207 Given @> 91 The electric field is as shown by the dashed lines (--—>-—---). % The magnetic field is as shown Oo O Oo (©) emerging out of the paper. 5” = E’x His parallel to the wires % and towards right. Hence source must be on the left. 4.208 The electric field (----—>) and the magnetic field (H —>) are as shown. The electric field by Gauss’s theorem is like ga4 r r, Integrating g-Aln eS 0 so A= (n> n) "2 In 2 n Then eee y "2 rin n Magnetic field is igtetee=s oe °" Qnr The Poynting vector $ is along the Z axis and non zero between the two wires (n< 7 < 72). The total power flux is jf 2Qurdr=1V Qn? in 4.209 As in the previous problem Vg t Ty t- g, = OOHOF oy gy. oelas-v) a 2aur rin— nh Hence time averaged power flux ( along the z axis ) = 4 Vo1y cos @110 4.210 4.211 4.212 4.213 214 On using = Loose - Let in” be along the z axis. Then Sin = Fiz Miy-Eiy Mix and Soy = En Hzy Ezy Hox Using the boundary condition E,, = Ez, , Hy, = Hz, at the boundary (t = x or y) we see that Sin = San- 242 P- a [p') when if a But ape m;7; = 0 for a closed system Hence P=#0. Spee? (pide Ane, 30° => 2 IP’ l = (e022) cos? ot 2a b, ew ra? 4s This

= alewaPx == 59456 51x 10 w Amey 3 2 12me9c Here 2 eee ~~ 1 Pia GX fomee = OT aaa 22 Tous Pr eieeractes (eos eee (4mxe9)° (mR?) 3¢ Most of the radiation occurs when the moving particle is closest to the stationary particle. In that region, we can write R? = b+ v70? and apply the previous problem’s formula dt ( be +V 2 1 y? (the integral can be taken between * o with little error.) iaaieaie (idee Thi AW = — es aaa ™4.215 4.216 111 Nog. f dt a f dx aia ai (Biav ity (beta Ube 204 Hence, swe—t ct a (429)? 30° mvb>" For the semicircular path on the right 2 MY Bev ot v= Bek. R m 2 2p? Thus KE. = T= my? -2 2 = 2m : 122: evs Power rained = = 55 ( R ) Hence energy radiated = AW 2 12 (=) xR B’e*R? ” Fee 3c3| im? ) BeR” ~ Gegmic? AW Be* -18 So fe = Ss = 206 x 10. T —3e9c°m (neglecting the change in v due to radiation, correct if AW/T << 1). my Ree 12 fev?) 1 2 (etBy Then Pte 3 R ) ” ane ral m ) 1 aa “3 3 3 megc? \ m This is the radiated power so aT Be* at 3negm*c? Integrating, T = Ty e~'* 1 = 3E0 mc? Bre 1 is (1836 )° ‘» 107° times Jess for an electron than for a proton so electrons radiate away their energy much faster in a magnetic field.112 4.217 P is a fixed point at a distance | from the equilibrium position of the particle. Because 4.218 1 > a, to first order in the distance between P and the instantaneous position of the particle is still For the first case y= 0 so t= 7/4 The corresponding retarded time ist’ = ZL Now FU =- cPacosolF 2) a et asin 2 c ¢ For the second case y = a at f = 0 so at the retarded time t’ = — --2 Thus ya)« ~ aPacos 24 ‘The radiation fluxes in the two cases are proportional to (j" (2) )* so S, tS tan? 2! © 3.06 on substitution. S; c Note : The radiation received at P at time ¢ depends on the acceleration of the charge at the retarded time. Along the circle x = Rsinwt, y = Reos wt where @ = 5. If t is the parameter in x(t),y(¢) and 1 1” is the observer time then lwe> tlm te ft b~\ P where we have neglected the effect of the y--cordinate which is of second order. The observed cordinate are x'(t') = x(t), y(t") = y(t) dy' dy dt dy -oRsinwot | _-ox | -vx/R Then Gat dd 7 oR 1-— sat € ee d?y'! _ dt d(-vx/R vy 1- oR This is the observed acceleration.4219 4.220 4.221 4.222 113 (b) Energy flow density of EM radiation Sis proportional to the square of the y- projection “teal af G4) We know that Sy (r) «2, 7 20° of the observed accéleration of the particle (i« S| : ole At other angles S(r,0) « sin? 6=M/2 Thus S(7,0) = Sp(r)sin*O = Sosin’6 So Average power radiated pk 2 5 5 Sor = Sox 4ar?x (avense of sin?@ over whole sphere is From the previous problem. 8mSor? Py» — 3 or So= Sr S. Thus = te, (Poynting flux vector is the energy contained is a box of unit cross section and length c). The rotating dispole has moments Py = PCoswt, py = psinwr 2 af Thus ee bee aean a meeaeue Ane 3c 6xegc If the electric field of the wave is . E = E, cost then this induces a dipole moment whose second derivative is Hence radiated mean power.

= ————";114 4.223 4.224 On the other hand the mean Poynting flux of the incident radiation is fe yt = Pa x7 Fo 2 Be eet 2 en le a) Thus eee (S a £0 é m For the elastically bound electron. mP+mogr'= eE,cos wt This equation has the particular integral (ie. neglecting the part which does not have the frequency of the impressed force) E 2B ey? 7 Ea => Ey coswt = Fe —O SSP soand 5 = -—3— m w-o (@3- 0") m P cos wt Hence P = mean radiated power 2 1 2 ew? 1,2 Fre 3c>\ m(wp—or)} 2° The mean incident poynting flux is Thus Ox Let r = radius of the ball R = distance between the ball & the Sun (r< = 1B. (b) The sphere subtends a solid angle 2x (1-cosa) = 24[1-—7 at the point source and therefore receives a total flux of VP-R Sear ei ccttebetesieritt 50-8 The area irradiated is : aan f sinoao = 20 R*(1-sina) = aan -1) ° Thus = 50 lux.117 54 Luminance L is the light energy emitted per unit area of the emitting surface in a given direction per unit solid angle divided by cos 0. Luminosity M is simply energy emitted per unit area, Thus Mm f-coso-aa Where the integration must be in the forward hemisphere of the emitting surface (assuming Tight is being emitted in only one direction say outward direction of the surface.) But L = Locos 0 mm wef P73 5.5 (a) Fora Lambert source L = Const The flux emitted into the cone is ® = LAScosadQ tanO = V3 Then the maximum illuminance is 3V3 pES 16m R? This illuminance is obtained at a distance Rcot@ = R/V3 from the ceiling. Substitution gives the value 0-21 lux119 5.9 From the definition of luminance, the energy emitted in the radial direction by an element dS of the surface of the dome is d®=LdsdQ Here L = constant. The solid angle dQ is given by «| dQ = GAcos8 R 0 where dA is the area of an element on the plane illuminated by the radial light. Then do ~ LAS 4A A, 9 The illuminance at 0 is then w ; E - fe ~ ff Hanntsinodoeee9 22nd [xdx= xk dA R 4 0 5.10 Consider an element of area dS at point P. Tt emits light of flux d® = LdSdQcos0 dA # sec? 0 LdSdA ~ EdSdA =Lds +cos?@ os" 0 in the direction of the surface element dA at O. The total illuminance at O is then B= f 1Scos'o But dS = 2nrdr = 2nhtanOd(htan0) = 2h? sec” 0 tan 0d 0 x2 Substitution gives E- 2nLf sind cos0d0 =aL 0 5.11 Consider an angular clement of area Quxdx = 20h tanOsec’0d0 Light emitted from this ring is d® = LdQ(2nh’ tan O sec? 0d 0) + cos 8120 dA cos @ 1? sec? 8 where dA = an element of area of the table just below the untre of the illuminant. Then the illuminance at the element dA will be Now dQ-= Ey ~ f 2xtsinocesoao e-0 R where sina = Finally using luminosity M = 1 Vit +R? R Eo = Msin?a = M : eR 2 or M=£, ( +a) = 700 im/1u? t 1x = 11 dimensionally } m See the figure below. The light emitted by an element of the illuminant towards the point O under consideration is a® = LdSdQ0os (a+) The clement dS has the area dS = 2xR’sinada The distance v2 OA = [#+R?-2AReosal we also have OA h R sina sin(a+B) — sinp From the disgram hcos a-R cos (a+ p) = “SEE cos p = bz Reese HOA IC we imagine a small area dE at O then d2cs8 49 OA Hence, the illuminance at O is fe = f 220 R? sincad a HOSEA) Ros a) (oa)121 The limit of a is a = 0 to that value for which a+ = 90°, for then light is emitted tangentially. Thus = cos Oax he AR Gas Thus e-f L2nRsineda A=Reos a) (heos aR J (+R? -2.AR cos a) we put y = +R-2hR cosa So, dy = 2hRsinada R-# wt R oy +R -y oe 2h 2R 2_dy a J 2 WURR ¥ e-Ry K _ L2aR We ene R?-y) ” 8 R 2 Ry -K @-RY aL [_@-RY ae S [wes ‘lo -% ieee = 2 [G+ RP - 0-9) - PR?) + (h- RY] anLR* 7 SE [ai e2e-2 +2] = Ri Substitution gives : E = 25-1 lux 5.13 We see from the diagram that because of the law of reflection, the component of the incident unit vector 2”along: changes sign on reflection while the component || to the mirror remains unchanged. Writing "= ey + er é where @, = nen) q- eae) we see that the reflected unit vector is ‘7 2 = Gat = e271) Sy Xy122 5.14 5.15 5.16 ‘We choose the unit vectors perpendicular to the mirror as the x, y,z axes in space. Then after reflection from the mirror with normal along x axis a" = eh21(Fe) = -Eite, re k where 1, }, & are the basic unit vectors. After a second reflection from the 2nd mirror say along y axis. a" =e -2 5 (je) = -e Ie hee, & Finally after the third reflection >" Netuehe-# 2" 2-6, 1-0 }-ek=-& Let PQ be the surface of water and n be the RI. of water. Let AO is the shaft of light with incident angle ©, and OB and OC are the reflected and refracted light rays at angles , and 0, respectively (Fig.). From the figure 8) = 7 ~ 0, From the law of refraction at the interface PQ sin 0, sin 0, a sinO, ~ (x _ sn[-0) sin 0, or, n tan 0, * cos 8; Hence @, = tan“'n Let two optical mediums of RI. m, and nz respectively be such that 7, >”, . In the case when angle of incidence is N ©; (Fig), from the law of refraction ny sin Oe, = My q Ne Q In the case , when the angle of incidence is ,, from the P 7, law of refraction at the interface of mediums 1 and 2. n, sin ®, = nsin 0, Sron But in accordance with the problem 0, = (/2-0,) so, 1, sin 0, = 1 cos 0 (2) Dividing Eqn (1) by (2) sinOy, 1 sin®, — cos 0; (3) so cos 0, = 7 and sin, = my _ cos Oy But en m ~ Sind;5.17 5.18 123 m 1 i So, a_it_1_ 3) 6, Ses (Using 3) Thus m1 _ m nL From the Fig. the sought lateral shift ' x = OM sin(0-B) =dsec B sin (0 - B) = dec B (sin 0 cos f - cos @ sin B) = d(sin @ - cos 0 tan B) @) But from the law of refraction sin® sin@ = nsin® or, sinB = So, cos B = and tanB = V n?—sin?0 Thus x = d(sin 6 -cos OtanB) = d{ sin @-cos @ —=2i8.2__ V n?—sin?@ 1~sin?@ ~ asino|1-V i= | n?—sin’@ From the Fig. : MN cosa sinda = OM ~ hsec(a+da) As dais very small, so MN cosa. _ MN cos’ dam seca h ® Similarly 2 ao = MNeos Q) From Eqns (1) and (2) da _ h'cos'a hoos*® da 40 hos’ cosa 40 From the law of refraction @) nsing. = sin® (A)124 5.19 5.20 sina = 28, so, cosa = @) Differentiating Eqn.(A) da cos 8 noosada=cosOd@ or, Fe = (4) Using (4) in (3), we get , _ heos? => () neos' a 3 2d Hence ft = hos © ___, _w hos" 0 sing Bgn.(B) J sae) (»?-sin?@) The figure shows the passage of a monochromatic ray through the given prism, placed in air medium. From the figure, we have © = Bit Br @) anda = (a +2) -( Br + Ba) a= (aj+a)-0 ® From the Snell’s law sin = sin B, or oy = 7; (for small angles) @ and sing = nsin By or, 1, = "B (for small angles) 8) From Eqns (1), (2) and (3), we get a = (By, +By)-8 So, a = n(0)-0 = (m-1)0 [Using Eqn.A} (a) In the general case, for the passage of a monochromatic ray through a prism as shown in the figure of the soln. of 5.19, a = (a, +0,)-0 Q And from the Snell’s law, sinc = nsinB, or oy = sin~!(nsin B,) |" Similarly o2=sin7! (sin B,) = sin™! [sin (0 -B,)] (As O= B, +B.) Using (2) in (1) a= [ sin” (resin By ) + sin“? (msin (0-8) ]- 05.21 125 da For a to be minimum, —— = 0 4B, = noosB __ _ncos(O-Fi) __g Vi-n?sin?B, V1 n?sin?(0- By) a cos”Bi____ cos” (@- Bi) e (1-n?sin?B,) 1-n?sin?(@-8,) or, 0s? By (1—n7sin?(@- By )) = cos?(O-B1) (1-7 sin” By ) or, (1 ~ sin? By) (1? sin? (0 - B,)) = (1-sin?(-B1)) (1-7 sin” By ) or, 1-1? sin? (0 - B,) - sin” B, + sin? B, n” sin” (0 - By) = 1-7’ sin” B, - sin’ (6 - B, ) + sin” B, n?sin? (0 - B,) or, sin? (@-B,)-n? sin?(@-B,) = sin” By (1-77) or, sin?(@-B,)(1-m7) = sin? B,(1-n7) or, 0-6, =f, or B, = 0/2 But Bi +B, = 6, so, f) = 0/2 = By which is the case of symmetric passage of ray. In the case of symmetric passage of ray a, = @ = a! (say) and B, = Bp = B = 0/2 Thus the total deviation a = (a,;+a,)-4@ a=2a'-@ or But from the Snell’s law sina = msinB 248 asin? 2 2 So, sin Im this case we have sin 222 © nsin® (ee soln. of 5.20) 2 2 In our problem a = @ So, sin® = nsin(@/2) or 2sin (8/2) cos (0/2) = sin (0/2) Hence cos (0/2) = 7 or @ = 2cos~1(n/2) = 83°, where n = 15126 5.22 5.23 5.24 In the case of minimum deviation a+0 v4 sin = nsin 7 ~ 2 So, a = 2ain"'{ nang |-0 = 37°, for n= 15 Passage of ray for grazing incidence and grazing imergence is the condition for maximum deviation (Fig.). From Fig. a= x-0= 2-20, (where 0,, is the critical angle) So, a = x~2sin(1/n) = 58°, for n = 15 = RI. of glass. The least deflection angle is given by the formula, 8 = 20-0, where a is the angle of incidence at first surface and 0 is the prism angle. Also from Snell’s law, m sina = nm, sin (8/2), as the angle of refraction at first surface is equal to half the angle of prism for least deflection sin 30° = 5639 33 or, a = sin~!(-5639) = 34-3259° Substituting in the above (1), we get, 8 = 865° 80, sing. = sin(@/2) = ny From the Cauchy’s formula, and also experimentally the R.I. of a medium depends upon the wavelength of the mochromatic ray ie. n = f(2). In the case of least deviation of a monochromatic ray the passage a prism, we have: . ae 1 a+ nsin= = sin () 2 2 ig The above equation tales us that we have n = n(c.), so we may write dn dn= faa @ From Eqn. (1) dnsin® = dogs 228 2 2 2 con 228 dn 2 or, = @) do asin’ From Eqns (2) and (3) a+0 An=— sa127 .2(a+0 auc ( 2 } V 1-n? sin? or, | An = ha. = ———2—Aa ( Using Eqn. 1.) aio 8 dsin > 2sin> Thus Fermat’s principle : “ The actual path of propagation of light (trajectory of a light ray ) is the path which can be followed by light with in the lest time, in comparison with all other hypothetical paths between the same two points. ” “Above statement is the original wordings of Fermat ( A famous French scientist of 17th century)” Deduction of the law of refraction from Fermat’s principle : Let the plane S be the interface between medium 1 and medium 2 with the refractive indices m, = c/v, and m = c/vp Fig. (a). Assume, as usual, that ny <7. Two points are given— one above the plane S (point A ), the other under plane S (point B ). The various distances are : AA, =h,, BB, = hy, A,B, = 1. We must find the path from A to B which can be covered by light faster than it can cover any other hypothetical path. Clearly, this path must consist of two straight lines, viz, AO in medium 1 and OB in medium 2; the point O in the plane S has to be found. First of all, it follows fom Fermat’s priniciple that the point O must lie on the intersection of S and a plane P, which is perpendicular to S and passes through A and B. A Indeed, let us assume that this point does not lie in the plane P; let this be point O in Fig. (b). Drop the perpendicular 0; O, from O, onto P. Since AO, 0, s < 0 so we get 5.30 All rays focusing at a point must have traversed the same optical path. Thus f= VP 46-27 xP anf or (nf-x? = WP 4 (f-xP or, vP = oe = (nf-x+nf-nx)(nf-x-nf+nx) = x(1-1)2nf-(n4+1)x) = 2n(n-1)fx-(n+1)(n- 1) Thus, (n+1) (4-1)? -2n(n-1frtw? = 0 fz Vr n-1PP-wP (tt) n-1) Ray must move forward so x f for small r, so sign. (Also x -» 0 as r + 0) (x >f means ray turning back in the direction of incidence. (see Fig.) Hence xe tli vi wiz | n+l n-1f? For the maximum value of r, 2 Vinee 1- =0 A) n-1 ft @ because the expression under the radical sign must be non-negative, which gives the maximum value of r. Hence from Eqn. (A), Tmax = f V (a-D/n+1)132 5.31 As the given lense has significant thickness, the thin lense, formula cannote be used. For refraction at the front surface from the formula ~~ = 7—" On simplifying we get, s’ = 30cm. Thus the image J’ produced by the front surface behaves as a virtual source for the rear surface at distance 25 cm from it, because the thickness of the lense is 5 cm. Again from the refraction formula at cerve surface nen wen L Wi 25e a5 On simplifying, s’ = + 6-25 cm Thus we get a real image J at a distance 6-25 cm beyond the rear surface (Fig.). 5.32 (a) The formation of the image of a source S, placed at a distance u from the pole of the convex surface of plano-convex lens of thickness d is shown in the fig- ure. On applying the formula for refraction through spheri- \ cal surface, we get \ 2 La(n-1y/R, (bere men and n, = 1) TA 0 o oo ele G ie ole 5 5 d sj {n (n=) ' . poe G- —S 4 Sada But in this case optical path of the light, corresponding to the distance v in the medium is v/n, so the magnification produced will be, = 8 fa_@-i)) 1d fn_@-)_ 1 _d@-) aa 7a aa i “AR Substituting the values, we get magnification B = - 0-20. © If the transverse area of the object is A (assumed small), the area of the image is B°A. 2 > A. Then light falling on the Jens is : LA ree We shall assume that 2”133 from the definition of luminance (See Eqn. (5.1c) of the book; here cos 0 ~ 1 if D? << s? and dQ = = Then the illuminance of the image is LA 2A | BPA = Lina D*/4d? Substitution gives 42 1x. 5.33 (a) Optical power of a thin lens of RI. n in a medium with RI. ng is given by : 11 @=(n-m0) (5-7 | @ From Eqn.(A), when the lens is placed in air : 1 p= (n- Dm zm) @ Similarly from Eqn.(A), when the lens is placed in liquid : 1 ® = (n- mi zm) @) Thus from Eqns (1) and (2) nom o- al Po = 2D The second focal length, is given by fe > » where n' is the RI. of the medium in which it is placed. f= B= 50m (0) Optical power of a thin lens of RI. n placed in a medium of RI. mg is given by : ® = (n- mom “e} @ For a biconvex lens placed in air‘medium from Eqn. (A) % = (9-1) ( Ro aa 2a) @ where R is the radius of each curve surface of the lens Optical power of a spherical refractive surface is given by : a=" ®) For the rear surface of the lens which divides air and glass medium ® = ao (Here n is the RI. (2) of glass)134 5.34 (a) (a) Convex lens (b) Figure 5.5 (a) & (b) with lens Similarly for the front surface which divides wate- -nd glass medium non _n-M% aria 2) Hence the optical power of the given optical system een mol," re, hme @ = © = 0,40, = R From Eqns (1) and (4) Focal length in and focal length in water = 3° = 20 cm for mp = 4. Clearly the media on the sides are different. The front focus F is the position of the object (virtual or real) for which the image is formated at infinity. The rear focus F’ is the position of the image (virtual or real) of the object at infinity. (a) Figures 5.7 (a) & (b). This geometrical construction ensines that the second of the equations (5.1g) is obeyed. (a) Convex lens (©) Concave lens (P is the object)5.35 5.36 135 (c) Figure (5.8) (a) & (b). Clearly, the important case is that when the rays (1) & (2) are not symmetric about the principal axis, otherwise the figure can be completed by reflection in the principal axis. Knowing one path we know the path of all rays connecting the two points. For a different object. We proceed as shown below, we use the fact that a ray incident at a given height above the optic centre suffers a definite deviation. The concave lens can be discussed similarly. Since the image is formed on the screen, it is real, so for a conversing lens object is in the incident side. Let s, and s, be the magnitudes of the object distance in the first and second case respectively. We have the lens formula 1 = ® SIF In the first case from Eqn. (1) 1 ie at Ouee CED ap) ete ne Similarly from Eqn.(1) in the second case 11 a if W=an” Gay 5 C-al-F Thus the sought distance Ax = 52-5, = 0-Smm ~ Alf?/(I-f?) or, 5) = = 26-36cm. The distance between the object and the image is /. Let x = distance between the object and the lens. Then, since the image is real, we have in our convention, u = -x, v = [-x : ete : Pa ar ea or x(l-xy)= Uf or? -xl+ f=0 Solving we get the roots ead [le vP ay] (We must have ! > 4f for real roots.) (a) If the distance between the two positions of the lens is AJ, then clearly Al = x)-x; = difference between roots = VP - 4if : +0 pe Feel Ln om,136 5.37 5.39 The two roots are conjugate in the sense that if one gives the object distance the other yjuga i i gives the corresponding image distance (in both cases). Thus the magnifications are _ levi - 4if 1-VF-4 1- VP - af (enlarged) and - [evecare (diminished). The ratio of these magnification being 1 we have 1-VP aap WF 4f vy -1 or ——— = 1-ve-ap*" vy +i or oe (+ vay Z Hence fn SS = 20 om We know from the previous problem that the two magnifications are reciprocals of each other (B' B" = 1). If A is the size of the object then h’ = B’ h and i’ = Bh Hence h= Vi". Refer to problem 5.32 (b). If A is the area of the object, then provided the angular diameter of the object at the lens is much smaller than other relevant angles like = we calculate the f xD? light falling on the lens as LA 2 where u? is the object distance squared. If B is the transverse magnification (B = ‘) then the area of the image is B”A. Hence the illuminance of the image (also taking account of the light lost in the lens) aD? 1 | (i-a)aD*L 43° BA 4f? since s' = f for a distant object. Substitution gives E = 15 1x. E=(1-a)LA (a) If s = object distance, s' = averagé distance, L = luminance of the sounce, AS = area of the source as- sumed to be a plane surface held normal to the prin- cipal axis, then we find for the flux A ® incident on the lens A= [LAS cosodaQ fe 2 ~ LAS fcos 02 xsin0d0 = LASmsin?a « taste , 4s5.40 5.41 137 Here we are assuming D << s, and ignoring the variation of L since a is small 2 Then if L’ is the luminance of the image, and AS! = (5) AS is the area of the image then similarly pe PB as eres tsg | 4s" 4s? —) or = L imrespective of D. 7 $s Ss (b) In this case the image on the white screen from a Lambert source. Then if its luminance is Lo its luminosity will be the Lo and 2 2 sf D nly Sy AS = LAS2 5x oe 4? or Ly « D* since s' depends on f, s but not on D. Focal length of the converging lens, when it is submerged in water of RI. mp (say) : 1_(™ 11) 2@-%) ape (eee 1 io (etl) ea ° Similarly, the focal length of diverging lens in water. g°(B-)(Se- i) 2(m- M9) Q) fr \% RR mR Now, when they are put together in the water, the focal length of the system, ieee Sehieals 20 =m) _2lm=M9) _ 2(m-m) 7R 7%)R mR aR © 2(m =m) or, = 35cm C is the centre of curvature of the silvered surface and O is the effective centre of the equivalent mirror in the sence that an object at O forms a coincident image. From the figure, using the formula for refraction at a spherical surface, we have Cc 0 mii n-i ene R ReoaueR of" Fan) Gn our convention f is - ve). Substitution gives f = - 10 om.138 5.42 (a) Path of a ray, as it passes through the lens system is as shown below. Focal length of all the three lenses, fe in = 10cm, neglecting their signs. Applying lens formula for the first lens, considering a ray coming from infinity, 11.1 ae preg mS =f = 10cm, and so the position of the image is 5 cm to the right of the second lens, when only the first one is present, but the ray again gets refracted while passing through the second, so, 11 a 1 sy 5" fF" =10 or, s’ = 10cm, which is now 5 cm left to the third lens so for this lens, quia 1 1 = vs" % "10 or, s" = 10/3 = 3-33 cm. from the last lens. (b) This means that if the object is x cm to be left of the first lens on the axis OO’ then the image is x on to the right of the 3rd (last) lens. Call the lenses 1,2,3 from the left and let O be the object, O, its image by the first lens, O, the image of O; by the 2nd lens and Os, the image of O, by 0, and Oy must be symmetrically located with respect to the lens Ly and since this lens is ° our 0; concave, QO, must be at a distance 2 | f, | to be the right of Ly and Oz must be 2|f9| to be the left of L. One can check that this satisfies lens () equation for the third lens L; u = -(2|f| + 5) = -25 cm. si=x, fy=10 cm Hence i i= + = + so x = 16,67 cm. 5.43 (a) Angular magnification for Galilean telescope in normal adjustment is given as. T = fo/fe or, 10 =f,Yfe or f, = 10f, @5.44 5.45 139 The length of the telescope in this case. l=f,-f = 45cm. given, So, using (1), we get, fe = +5 and f, = +50cm. (b) Using lens formula for the objective, Alle gy 2 ef So So fo’ ° Seth From the figure, it is clear that, s'g= "+ fe, where 1! is the new tube length. or, I= vo-fe = 505-5 = 45:5 cm. So, the displacement of ocular is, al = ou'S cm = 455-45 = 05cm In the Keplerian telescope, in normal adjustment, the distance between the objective and eyepiece is fy + f,. The image of the mounting produced by the eyepiece is formed at a distance v to the right where 1 1 itt But s=-(o +f, elireey Dh gervess Leeeteateeeee l0.szaes S fe forth feo + fd The linear magnification produced by the eyepiece of the mounting is, in magnitude, l= 121-£ so s sf This equals & according to the problem so fae: eh d It is clear from the figure that a parallel beam of light, originally of intensity Jy has, on emerging from the telescope, an intensity. 2 fo! Ish i) because it is concentrated over a section whose diameter is f-/fy of the diameter of the cross section of the incident beam.140 5.46 5.47 Thus So Now Hence YW = W'/Vy = 0.6’ on substitution. When a glass lens is immersed in water its focal length increases approximately four times. We check this as follows as : 1 1 1 p70 Olea a n 1 EG bk Now back to the problem. Originally in air pleas ane n-th ma-Dh r= fais so l=fpth= f+ In water, fia ee = 7% and the focal length of the replaced objective is given by the condition fil tfial=C+dft or fl=-C+0R-K Hence ie pee) carey Substitution gives (n = 1.5, mg = 1.33), I’ = 3.09 If L is the luminance of the object, A is its area, s = distance of the object then light falling on the objective is La pe Z 48 The area of the image formed by the telescope (assuming that the image coincides with the object) is 1? A and the area of the final image on the retina is 6 ra Where f = focal length of the eye lens. Thus the illuminance of the image on the retin (when the object is observed through the telescope) is5.48 5.49 141 LDA | LxD? 2 re 22 4pr ae ra “f a ic When the object is viewed directly, the illuminance is, similarly, - LxD? | Lxd ‘We want = apr” af? So, T s a = 20 on substitution of the values. Obviously, f,=+1cm and f,=+5om Now, we know that, magnification of a microscope, T= (f-)2 i? for distinct vision or, of, Vo = lem. Since distance between objective and ocular has increased by 2 cm, hence it will cause the increase of tube length by 2cm. 50, s=8'n42 = 1B fo fe It is implied in the problem that final image of the object is at infinity (otherwise light coming out of the eyepiece will not have a definite diameter). and hence, : r= ( in = 60 (a) We see that s’92B = |so|2c., then p- lle Then, from the figure d= 27,8 = 20 / 7 = 268-240 / i sol But when the final image is at infinity, the magnification I’ in a microscope is given by La = least distance of distinct vision) Sod = 2/a/T fe See cee greece eee acne eee ae ea dy142 (b) IFT is the magnification produced by the microscope, then the area of the image produced on the retina (when we observe an object through a microscope) is : I? (4 A ‘Where u = distance of the image produced by the microscope from the eye lens, f = focal length of the eye lens and A = area of the object. If @ = luminous flux reaching the objective from the object and d < dp so that the entire flux is admitted into the eye), then the illuminance of the final image“on the retina D “72 WsyA But if d = d&, then only a fraction (dp | d)* of light is admitted into the eye and the illuminance becomes v6) a4 — A ( Te d independent of I’. The condition for this is then dzd o Ts Ty= 15. ed 2 A ( Qtay 5.50 The primary and secondary focal length of a thick lens are given as, f= -(@/®)|1-(@/n') &} and f= + @"/®)(1-(@/n') O}, where © is the lens power n, n' and n" are the refractive indices of first medium, lens material and the second medium beyond the lens. , and ®, are the powers of first and second spherical surface of the lens. Here, n= 1, forlens, 1! = n, for air and n" = no, for water. So, le d=0, and f = +19/® Now, power of a thin lens, = 94%, where, and So, © = (2n-m-1/R From equations (1) and (2), we get, petieeece ears @n-n-1) f = -11.2cm (yy @and mR f* Gn-m=D = +149cm. 143 Since the distance between the primary principal point and primary nodal point is given as, So, x =f {(n"-n/n"} in this case, X= (1o/®) (M9 = 1)/119 = (tg - 1)/® Mm 1 2 = Old pep = 3-710. 2 5.51 See the answersheet of problem book. 5.52 (a) ©) © Draw P’X parallel to the axis OO’ and let PF interest it at X. That determines the principal point H. As the medium on both sides of the system is the same, the principal point coincides with the nodal point. Draw: a ray parallel to PH through P’. That determines H'. Draw a ray PX’ parallel to the axis and join P’X’. That gives F. We let H stand for the principal point (on the axis). Determine H" by drawing a ray P’ H' passing through P’ and parallel to PH. One ray (conjugate to SH) can be obtained from this. To get the other ray one needs to know F or F’. This is easy because P and P’ are known. Finally we get S’. From the incident ray we determine Q. A line parallel to OO’ through Q determines Q and hence H’: H and Hi are then also the nodal points. A ray parallet ° to the incident ray through H will emerge parallel to itself through H’, That determines F’. Similarly a ray parallel to the emergent ray through H determines F. (c) 5.53 Here we do not assume that the media on the two sides of the system are the same. ' 1 ==144 5.54 (a) Optical power of the system of combination of two lenses, © = 0,+6,-d,%, on putting the values, ®=4D or, fq $ = 25cm Now, the position of primary principal plane with respect to the vertex of converging lens, x= 22. 10 ~ Geo 10cm Similarly, the distance of secondary principal plane with respect to the vertex of diverging lens. ox = — 221. 100m, ie. 10 cm left to it ® (b) The distance between the rear principal focal point F’ and the vertex of converging lens, do, teas )eaon = Seer | ® 1)/@d 4% 1 and falx (3) eo’ BINS = 1/dd-do, = 1/d(®,+0,-d®,)-d, = 1/d%,-¢ , 6, Now, if f/1 is maximum for certain value of d then 1/f will be minimum for the same value of d. And for minimum 1/f, d(V/f/dd= ©,-24%,%,= 0 or, d= 0/2, = 1/20,= Som or, So, the required maximum ratio of f/I = 4/3. 5.55. The optical power of first convex surface is, Paras dee Sree Peer eT Poy R and the optical power of second concave surface is, (i-n) a, = OF 10D So, the optical power of the system,145 ®= ®,+0,-20, 0, =-4D Now, the distance of the primary principal plane from the vertex of convex surface is given as, | [nn] 22> bere ms = 1 and my » m. de, "On" Som and the distance of secondary principal plane from the vertex of second concave surface, , (1) (a) 9. 2% ee ee The optical power of the system of two thin lenses placed in air is given as, © = b,+0,-dd,o, Llijl la i i or, FO RTT F Ae Mie fis the equivalent focal length 1 _fh+h-d fe The ae or, f- ith @ This equivalent focal length of the'system of two lenses is measured from the primary principal plane. As clear from the figure, the distance of the primary principal plane from the optical centre of the first is O,H= x = +(n/®) (d/n') ®, af A _ (4)(_fh li) lesn=a| eee fith Now, if we place the equivalent lens at the primary principal plane of the lens system, it will provide the same transverse magnification as the system. So, the distance of equivalent lens from the vertex of the first lens is, ah re Ath-4146 5.57 The plane mirror forms the image of the lens, and water, filled in the space between the two, behind the mirror, as shown in the figure. So, the whole optical system is equivalent to two similar lenses, seperated by a distance 2/ and thus, the power of this system, 4®, @, Oud, 4+,- 7 2 where ®, == 0; = optical power of individual lens and ny = RL. of water. t Now, ©’ = optical power of first convex surface + eptical power of second concave surface. - ee» 7O=” nis the refractive index of glass. (Qn-m-1) Cnzme) @ and so, the optical power of whole system, 2 ®=20'- a = 3.0, substituting the values. 0 5.58 (a) A telescope in normal adjustment is a zero power conbination of lenses. Thus we require ©-0-%+%-40,% 2-1) Ro+ AR 1 But @, = Power of the convex surface = , = Power of the concave surface = — (a-1)AR .d_(n-1) Thus, O = Ry + AR) * mR (Ro + AR) So = 45 cm. on putting the values. 5 5 d 5x5 () Here, @ = -1 6 5 - Get ie pas 35-20, 4x2, 5x W_ 5, 200d EME) 3 ato 200d _ 2 =< or d= (3/100)m = 3 cm.5.60 147 The principal planes are located on the side of the convex surface at a distance d from each other, with the front principal plane being removed from the convex surface of the lens by a distance R/(n - 1). n+1,R-Ri(n-1y OO Piece cee are eae (@- 1) (R- Ry) n-1 San [+S] Rr aie /aaiel len scunesteviitat'| RseitiReg jist Ro Both principal planes pass through the common centre of curvature of the surfaces of the lens. Let the optical powers of the first and second surfaces of the ball of radius R, be and 4, then ’ yr (n - 1) O = (0-1/R, and Y= (1m) / (-R) = oe This ball may be treated as a thick spherical lens of thickness 2 R;. So the optical power of this sphere is, ae b= a- Pha Similarly, the optical power of second ball, , = 2(n-1)/nR, If the distance between the centres of these balls be d. Then the optical power of whole system, = 2(n-1)/nR, @ © = 9,+0)-dd,% _ 2@- (2-1) 4d(m-1 nRy nRy WR, Ra _ 2@-1) _2d(n-1) aR, | +R) a). Now, since this system serves as telescope, the optical power of the system must be equal to zero. 2d(n-1) 2(n-1) +R) ~ 260-0, aR,” 9° n (Ri +R.) or, a= saop 7m Since the diameter D of the objective is 2, and that of the eye-piece is d = 2 Ry So, the magnification, 2K, Tn Diam FRR R= 5.148 5.61 5.62 5.63 Optical powers of the two surfaces of the lens are ®, = (n-1)/R and ® = (1-n)/-R = So, the power of the lens of thickness d, : d®O n-1 n-1 d(n-1)/R’ ® = O4+0,- a eR and optical power of the combination of these two thick lenses, We consider a ray QPR in a medium of gradually varying refractive index n. At P, the gradient of n is a vector with the given direction while is nearly the same at neighbouring points Q, R. The arc length QR is ds. We apply Snell’s formula sin = constant where @ is to be measured from the direction Vn. The refractive indices at Q,R whose mid point is P are ned |vnlao cos 8 so tn - $1 ¥.n|d0 cos 6) (sin + $ cos @ do) =(m+ ; |'V n|d0 cos @) (sin ® - 5 cos d6) or ncos0 dd = |Vn|ds cos 0 sind (we have used here sin (9 = $40) = sinO * cos © do) Now using the definition of the radius of curvature ; = 2 LLL val sine ep 7 The quantity | Vn|sin@ can be called be i.e. the derivative of n along the normal N to 1 6 the ray, Then saya From the above problem ie 1bVn = pVn=|Vn| = 3x10 m (since p|| Vn both being vertical ). So p = 33x 107m For the ray of light to propagate all the way round the earth we must have p = R = 6400km = 64x10°m Thus |Vn| = 16x1077m"!149 5.2 INTERFERENCE OF LIGHT 5.64 (a) In this case the ‘net vibration is given by X = a;Cos @1+ a cos (wt+d) where 5 is the phase difference between the two vibrations which varies rapidly and randomly in the interval (0 , 27). (This is what is meant by incoherence.) Then X = (a, +4;.C0s5) cos wt + asin dsinwt The total energy will be taken to be proportional to the time average of the square of the displacement. Thus E = < (a, +a,0085)+a3sin'b > = al+a3 as = O and we have put = = J and has been absorbed in the overall constant of proportionality. In the same units the energies of the two oscillations are a7 and a3 respectively so the proposition is proved. (b) Here 77= a; cosw rita, cos (wt+8)) and the mean square displacement is a a7 + a3 if 6 is fixed but arbitrary. Then as in (a) we see that E = E,+Ep. 5.65 It is easier to do it analytically. &, = acoswt, & = 2asinwr & = 2a cos Z cos w1—sin sin wt sna? 3 3 Resultant vibration is a= owote 4 (2-232 Jano V 494(8-3V3) = 1890 Then the amplitudes are Ay = aei(N-18 This has an amplitude = 5.66 We use the method of complex amplitude: Al=a,4,=4 and the resultant complex amplitude is Am Ay+Agt nn tAy = a(LeePeetFe ig el(¥-Dey150 The corresponding ordinary amplitude is 5.67 (a) With dipole moment 1” to plane there is no variation with 0 of individual radiation amplitude. Then the in- P tensity variation is due to interference only. In the direction given by angle 9 the phase difference is 4 2x 2% (dcos0)+p = 2kx for maxima b » 4 S4e080 Thus cos 0= (35) 20 ke 0,21,22,.. 2 2 We have added @ to x d cos @ because the extra path that the wave from 2 has to travel in going to P (as compared to 1) makes it lag more than it already is (due to ¢). © Maximum for 0 = x gives -d= (#2) a defatereeeeeseati/ cyrest set L Minimum for © = 0 gives d = (K-32 +5) Adding we get (tre -Z+5}a~0 x2 This can be true only if R= -ko-5 since O ~ in the formula for A x of the last example. b+r)r x Hs a a SUGzeteeutgeperesses=eee (A plane wave is like light emitted from a point source at ©). Then d= 2aAx = 064um. 5.73 ge + $ (aaa SS SSE f a (@) We show the upper half or the lens. The emergent light is at an angle 35 from the axis. Thus the divergence angle of the two incident light beams is a eee5.74 5.75 153 When they interfere the fringes produced have a width axe ke YL 015mm. ya The patch on the screen illuminated by both light has a width b y and this contains A ed - a fringes = 13 fringes (iE we ignore 1 in comparison to oy (£5.71 (@)) (b) We follow the logic of (5.71 c). From one edge of the slit to the other edge the distance is of magnitude 8 (i$ to 5+} 2 If we imagine the edge to shift by this distance, the angle 1p/2 will increase by oe . ¥ and the light will shift = oe : : ao ob The fringe pattern will therefore shift by eno eee LR gn Equating this to 2 24 We get Saux Jab 375 um. In ax- i l= a+b d=2(n-1)0a d d= (n-1)0 d= 26a n= RI. of glass Thus gw BUDGE oggum. atb It will be assumed that the space between the biprism and the glass plate filled with benzene constitutes complementary prisms as shown, Then the two prisms being oppositely placed, the net deviation produced by them is 3 = (n-1)0-(n'-1)0 = (n-n')0 Hence as in the previous problem d= 20d =2a0(n-n') Sy Ax = -(a+b)a * 2a0(n-n')154 For plane incident wave we let a—> so R Ax = Secqcwy 7 ORM. 5.76 Extra phase difference introduced by the glass plate is ile. by teat bd 2 mm, The fringes move down if the lower slit is covered by the plate to compensate for the extra phase shift introduced by the plate. 5.77 No. of fringes shifted = (v-mt =N so ve neh. 1000377 . 5.78 (a) Suppose the vector E, E’, E” correspond to the incident, reflected and the transmitted wave. Due to the continuity of the tangential component of the electric field across the interface, it follows that © E,+E, = E", @) where the subscript + means tangential. The energy flux density is ExH = 5”. Since Now S. nE? or so HV up = EVe 8 watVE Va enVEE and since the light is incident normally mEp = mET+mE,” ® ny (Ey-E7) = mE,” m (E,- Ey) = mE," ® » 2m B= ak Since E,” and E, have the same sign, there is no phase change involved in this case. From (1) & (3) or (tm) Ed + (m-m)E, = 05.79 5.80 155 If m,>m,, then E,’ & E, have opposite signs. Thus the reflected wave has an abrupt change of phase by x if m)>m, i.e. on reflection from the interface between two media when light is incident from the rarer to denser medium. Path difference between (1) & (2) is 2nd sec 0, - 2d tan ®, sin 0, n sin? 0, = 2d———*—_ = 2aV in? 8, Vs me For bright fringes this must equal (e+ 3)» wos 3 comes from the phase change of x for qd). Here k=0,1,2,.. Thus 4dV sin’, = (2k+1)0 7 d= (42k) = 014(1+20)pm.. 4V 12 — sin? 0, Given 2aVn 1/4 = (#25) 064m ¢ wit fringe) 2dVn'-1/4= kh x0-40nm (dark fringe) where k, K ate integers. Thus 64, k+ 40K or 4(2k+1) = 5K 2 This means, for the smallest integer solutions ka2,k a4 Hence d156 5.81 When the glass surface is coated with a material of RI. n' = Vn (n= RI. of glass) of appropriate thickness, reflection is zero because of interference betwcen various multiply reflected waves. We show this below. Let a wave of unit amplitude be normally incident from the left. The reflected amplitude is -r where Incident =1 r ee Its phase is -ve so we write the reflected wave as - Tr. -r<4 The transmitted wave has amplitude t 1-— ~tey ltVan This wave is reflected at the second face and has amplitude -tr Pan ee tnd eee nt¥n Vatl The emergent wave has amplitude - f/f’ r. We prove below that ~1/’ =1-r7. There is also a reflected part of emplitude trr’=—tr?, where r’ is the reflection coefficient for a ray incident from the coating towards air, After reflection from the second face a wave of amplitude ttf =4(1-r?)r? emerges. Let 8 be the phase of the wave after traversing the coating both ways. Then the complete reflected wave is -r-(1-r?)re® (1-17) re2!? =(1-77) re = -r-(1-r*)re® ( ) 1+r7e”? 2 Of 2) oid 1 wrfttre a (ire re 1+e’® 1tre®® =-r This vanishes if 8 = (2k+1)x. But be 23 2Vnd so a 4Vn d- (2k+1)We now deduce tf’ = 1~r? and r= +r. This follows from the principle of reversibitity of light path as shown in the figure below. therrad -rttrt=0 5 tt = 1-r? r=. (- r is the reflection ratio for the wave entering a denser medium ), 5.82 We have the condition for maxima 24V n?— sin? 0, ~(#+3)a This must hold for angle 0 + se with successive values of k. Thus V vtcan®[o 88) = (4-2 2d n?-sit'(0+5?) (« 2) ay 2dVn sit (0-52) (+3) Thus a = 24{ Vn? sin? 0+ 8 0 sin 0 cos © -Vn?—sin? 08 Osin 0 cos 6 | =2d 5 sin 0 cos 8 n?— sin’ @ n*~sin’0% Thus ~sin2060 7 7H For small angles @ we write for dark fringes 2 7] 2dV n°-sin?0 = 2a(n- oa | Tt RtO)A For the first dark fringe © « 0 and 2dn = (kg+0)A For the i™ dark fringe a? sin? 0; : 2a{n- = ) = Garten 2 een ee ni nO, = "* (i-1) = or sin? = Ti) =158 Egasstid Gussatggertt Lato 2 2 Finally TC d(-re) "aE n(i-k) 5.84 We have the usual equation for maxima 2haV we —sin®O, = (e+z}a Here Ay = distance of the fringe from top hyo. w dy = thickness of the film Thus on the screen placed at right angles to the reflected light hk Ax = (My- hy) 008 8; cos O, 2aV 7 sin? Oy 5.85 (a) For normal incidence we have using the above formula are ag so a= A = 3 on putting the values (b) Ina distance / on the wedge there are WE einges. If the fringes disappear there, it must be due to the fact that the maxima duc to the component of wavelength 2 coincide with the mainima due to the component of wavelength +A A. Thus a 1 Ni= (¥-z}a+am or Ak= ay AR 1 Ax 021, 2 7" 2N 7 217 30 The answer given in the book is off by a factor 2. so 0-007.5.86 5.87 5.88 5.89 5.90 159 We have 12a SEAR So for k differing by 1(Ak = 1) 1 1 2rAr= SAAR = SAR or ar = AR, 4r The path traveresed in air film of the wave constituting the k* ring is 2 pout wake when the lens is moved a distance Ah the ring radius changes to r’ and the path length becomes a F+2an= der Thus r= V7r?-2RAh = 15mm. rok In this case the path difference is ———" for r>rg and zero for r= ro. This must equals (k- 1/2) (where k = 6 for the six” bright ring.) Thus r = From the formula for Newton’s rings we derive for dark rings a? az 7" k,Rd, cain kR ap - dp 4(kg-k)R Substituting the values, 4 = 05pm. so Path difference between waves reflected by the two convex surfaces is afd “(atm) Taking account of the phase change at the 2™ surface we write the condition of bright rings as 2(1 1). 2k+1, RR 2 k = 4 for the fifth bright ring. r5.91 5.92 Thus Now so ee Here n = RL of gla Here ® = (m-ay/ oo RR,” 2(n-1)" As in the previous example, for the dark rings we have irs (aisat is) jatene Dees * IR R,| ~ 2(n-1) k = 0 is dark spot; excluding it, we take k = 10 hre. re = kh Then (b) Path difference in water film will be where F = new radius of the ring. Thus 2 eee or F=r/Vny = 303mm. Where ng = RI. of water = 1:33. The condition for minima are femmes) R™ 2iau (There occur phase changes at both surfaces on reflection, hence minima when path difference is half integer multiple of A). In this case k = 4 for the fifth dark ring (Counting from k = 0 for the first dark ring). Thus, we can write r= V(2K-1)KR/2m ,K=5 Substituting we get r = 117mm. 5.93 Sharpness of the fringe pattem is the worst when the maxima and minima intermingle :- mh = (m-3)%5.94 5.95 5.96 161 or putting And, ye AtAR we get mAh x M4 a or “FAX Tp tip 7 Interference pattern vanishes wnen the maxima due to one wavelength mingle with the minima due to the other. Thus 2Ah = khy = (k+1) where Ah = displacement of the mirror between the sharpest pattems of rings Thus kQg-) = or So Ah= The path difference between (1) & (2) can be seen to be A = 2dsec0-2dtanOsin 0 = 2dcos0 = kd for maxima. Here k = half-integer. The order of interference decreases as @ increases i.e. as the radius of the rings increases. (b) Differentiating 2dsin080 =A on putting Ok = -1. Thus x 00 Fasind 30 decreases as 0 increases. (a) We have kas * 24. for 0 = 0.= 10% (b) We must have 2dcos® = kX = (k-1)(A+AK) a Ricans d 1 ‘ Thus f= 7q° and AR =F = 53 = Spm. on putting the values.162 5.3 DIFFRACTION OF LIGHT 5.97 5.98 5.99 5.100 The radius of the periphery of the N™ Fresnel zone is ty = VNbK Then by conservation of energy Inx(VNbXKY = f 2xrdrI(r) 0 Here r is the distance from the point P. 2 Thus fo= Non f rari). By definition abr eR eh for the periphery of the k" zone. Then arj+bnR = kabr eee Iaeeead aus kahk-m kad-? on putting the values. (It is given that r = r,) for k = 3). So b = 2metre. Suppose maximum intensity is obtained when the aperture contains k zones. Then a minimum will be obtained for k +1 zones. Another maximum will be obtained for k +2 zones. Hence ab eae ab ne (e+ 2). a+b Thus d= 39! A-r) = 0598 ym On putting the values. (a) When the aperture is equal to the first Fresnel Zone :- The amplitude is A, and should be compared with the amplitude 4 when the aperture is very wide. If Ip is the intensity in the second case the intensity in the first case will be 4p ‘When the aperture is equal to the internal half of the first zone :- Suppose Aj, and Ayy are the amplitudes due to the two halves of the first Fresnel zone. Clearly Aj, and Ag differ in phase by > because only half the Fresnel zone in involved. Also in magnitude lal = |Aoue |. Then163 a At=2|A,P so |4aP = z Hence following the argument of the first case. Ij, = 2 Jy (>) The aperture was made equal to the first Fresnel zone and then half of it was closed along a diameter. In this case the amplitude of vibration is 4 Thus I=h. 5.101 (a) Suppose the disc does not obstruct light at all. Then (because the disc covers the first Fresnel zone only). 1 SOApemsinte = ~ 5 Adie Hence the amplitude when half of the disc is removed along a diameter 1 1 1 = Adie + Aromainder * Adie 7 Adie ~ 0 Hence J = 0. (b) In this case We write Where Aig (Agu) stands £07 Aiwena! (Acsena )- The factor i takes account of the 5 phase difference between two halves of the first Fresnel zone. Thus 1 ia Aw-f4q and T= TAL On the other hand pe FUR + Ade) = yAL 1 so t=kh. 5.102 a When the screen is fully transparent, the amplitude of vibrations is =A, (with intensity 2 a h- gai ) 2: : 3 : 9 (@) (1) In this case A = 3(34) so squaring I = 1g164 5.103, (2) In this case 4 of the plane is blacked out so 2 1/1 1 A= 3(341] and I= ho . 1 i @) In this case A = 4 (41/2) and I = eh. 1 : 1 . 1 I (4) In this case A = 2(24) again and = iy 80 ty = E 2x where @ is the total angle blocked out by the screen. (b) (5) Here A = a{34 a In general'we get I(@) = 4(1-(35)) 1 :) +gAt A, being the contribution of the first Fresnel zone. 5 25 Thus Aa ZA, and = 2h 1/1 = a > 4-5 pA}+ga = jm and T= 3h 1/1 3 1 49 MA=5 oa} ea = Ar and I= elo 1(1 1 3 9 @) A= z[z4i]+7A1 = Gr andl = Zhe Ue = Je) In 5 to 8 the first term in the expression for the amplitude is the contribution of the plane part and the second term gives the expression for the Fresnel zone part. In general in (5) to 2 I= ( 1+ (%)) when @ is the angle covered by the screen. We would require the contribution to the amplitude of a wave at a point from half a Fresnel zone. For this we P proceed directly from the Fresnel Huyghens principle. The complex amplitude is written as E=fK(q) Seas 6 Here K(@) is a factor which depends on the angle @ between a normal 7’to the area dS and the direction from dS to the point P and r is the distance from the element ds wP. ‘We see that for the first Fresnal zone165 2 (ung rw Bo $5 (tn Vere )) Vox Ea® f 0 For the first Fresnel zone r = b+2/2 so 7° = b*+bXand p* = bA ikb-ik'26 x dp (K() #1) a0 -ikb € i =p 2ne b CT 4m. wine = G2nie °(-2) = - Fide ee AY For the next half zone Hh _ yma) : Poni en (414i) = If we calculate the contribution of the full 2™ Fresnel zone we will get - A;. If we take A, (1+i) a account of the factors K (@) and 2 which decrease monotonically we expect the contribution to change to - Ap. Thus we write for the contribution of the half zones in the 2™ Fresnel zone as - G2) a - a) ‘The part lying in the recess has an extra phase difference equal to - 6 = - Zon = 1)h. Thus the full amplitude is (note that the correct form is e~‘*”) A; A; (4-Fusojes 7 FU -i)+As-Aat ~ (Fa-aje"-Fa-o-FA Ay A: -(Fo-0 et iby iF (as Az » Ay» Ay) and Az—Ag+ As... =F The corresponding intensity is At ayetit, d yeio_ | re Glade + ]lartde -i] + lo[3-2005+2sin8] = o[3+2V2 in(8 - 3) (@) For maximum intensity sin(0 -8)e41 x x or 0 -F a 2kae5, b= 01,2, 3x _2n 0 = 2kne =F = SE (n-1)h a 3 . w= By(e3) (b) For minimum intensity sins) = x 3x Tn bp Fn2kne or b= Qkne Ft a Ix 50 na (# r ) (©) ForI = Ip, cos 8 = 0) or f sind =0 sin 3 = -1 cos 5 = +1 Thus b= 2kn he SX n-1 3x a 3x or on ake SE, he (ee 2) 5.104 The contribution to the wave amplitude of the inner half-zone is pV OM? 2nage* nie 8 f eH Ab ody 0 hle ike DMA 2 2x age te inter — o J 2nage~! b5.105 167 2miae!*” AL ; i 1)= + F(14i) A - With phase factor this becomes (1+ i) e!* where 8 = 2a n—1)h, The contribution of A the remaining aperture is Fu-!) (so that the sum of the two parts when 8 = 0 is A, ) Thus the complete amplitude is 5 Aig Ale 7 (ite +7 U-i) and the intensity is Tm h[(1+i)e!+(1-i)][(1-i)e7 + (14i)) = Ig[24+24+(1-iPe + (1+i Pet] = Ig[4-2ie7!)+2:e'?] = 19(4-4sind) At 4 an aperture of infinite extent (and no recess). Now J is maximum when sind = -1 Here Ip = is the intensity of the incident light which is the same as the intensity due to 3x or b+ 2kae a 3 50 ee 4| and (6) Imax = 81p- We follow the argument of 5.103. we find that the contribution of the first Fresnel zone is ani i Ay = -=fi ae id A For the next half zone it is -F0 1+i) A (The contribution of the remaining part of the 2 Fresnel zone will be - "(1 - 9) If the disc has a thickness h, the extra phase difference suffered by the light wave in passing througit the disc will be 2x b= SE (n-1)h. Thus the amplitude at P will be A; is 4 Ben (A1- Fs) BOI ths AeA i (AP en = Fra siy168 5.106 5.107 5.108 The corresponding intensity will be I = In(3-2cos8-2sind) = to(3-2¥2 sin( +7) ‘ The intensity will be a maximum when sin(8+3) --1 or ben = 2k 3 ie 3. (#+g)-2 neat ats s0 hed ie) ameeee Note :- It is not clear why k = 2 for hyiq-The normal choice will be k = 0. If we take k = 0 we get Mpin = 0°59 pm. Here the focal point acts as a virtual source of light. This means that we can take spherical waves converging towards F. Let us divide these waves into Fresnel zones just after they emerge from the stop. We write r= f?-(f-h)=(b- md/2)' - (b- hy | Here r is the radius of the m fresnel zone and h is the P distance to the left of the foot of the perpendicular. Thus h Pw 2fh = —bmh+2bh So h = bmd/2(b-f) and P = fomd/(b-f). The intensity maxima are observed when an odd number of Fresnel zones are exposed by the stop. Thus mn ne a where k = 1,3,5,... For the radius of the periphery of the k” zone we have 7 neV en eb =VERD ifa=o. If the aperture diameter is reduced 1 times it will produce a similar deffraction pattem (reduced 1 times) if the radii of the Fresnel zones are also 1 times less. Thus ree” This requires b’ = b/n?. (a) Ifa point source is placecd before an opaque ball, the diffraction pattern consists of a bright spot inside a dark disc followed by fringes. The bright spot is on the line joining the point source and the centre of the ball. When the object is a finite source of transverse169 diamension y, every point of the source has its corresponding image on the line joining that point and the centre of the ball. Thus the transverse dimension of the image is given by 22 y= 2y= 9mm. () The minimum height of the irregularities covering the surface of the ball at random, at which the ball obstructs light is, according to the note at the end of the problem, com- parable with the width of the Fresnel zone along which the edge of opaque screen passes. So Iain * AY To find Ar we note that 72. Khab a+b or QrAr=DAr a= ob ag a+b Where D = diameter of the disc (= diameter of the last Fresnel zone) and Ak = 1 hab Thus hain = B Cay py 7 0099 mm. 5.109 In a zone plate an undarkened circular disc is followed by a number of alternately undarkened and darkened rings. For the proper case, these correspond to 1*, 2°, 3%... Fresnel zones. Let r, = radius of the central undarkened circle. Then for this to be first Fresnel zone in the present case, we must have SL+LI-SI=W/2 Thus if r; is the radius of the periphery of the first zone Vers eVirea (a+b) =* iL $ i(,1)_2 ua cLeees ae a or 2(2*5) A or 3 T It is clear that the plate is acting as a lens of focal length A ab fin P= AS = 6 metre. This is the principle focal length. Other maxima are obtained when aR d SL+LI-SI= 35,555. hoa These focal lengths are also pre eees170 5.110 Just below the edge the amplitude of the wave is given by { | | a { | A= dar ~AgtAg-Agt... Jen? +3 (Ar Ant As Aut He Here the quantity in the brackets is the contribution of various Fresnel zunes; the factor : is to take account of the division of the plate into two parts by the ledge; the phase factor 6 is given by 2x b= SE h(n-1) and takes into account the extra length traversed by the waves on the left. A Using A,-Az+A3-Agt... © z A ; we get Aa Flite) and the corresponding intensity is 2 A In sites. where Ip « (2) (@) This is minimum when cos8 = -1 So b= (2k+1)x a and hm (2k aay FA OL2 using n = 15, h = 060 pm h = 060(2k+1) um. (b) I= fo/2 when cosd = 0 x x or B= kat 5 = (2k+1)F Thus in this case h = 030(2k+1) pm. 5.111 (a) From the Cornu’s spiral, the intensity of the first maximum is given as Teaz,1 = 137 Ig and the intensity of the first minimum is given by Tpin = 0-78 Ig so the required ratio is tows 1.76 Fain171 (b) The value of the distance x is related to the parameter v in Fresnel’s integral by veiViz: For the first two maxima the distances x,, x2 are related to the parameters v,, v2 by af ok 4/bu AVE war Vae Thus Oa-wyV & = xy-x = Ax 2 2/f_Ax . a= 5 (men From the Cornu’s spiral the positions of the maxima are vy = 122, vp = 234, vy = 3-08 ete ee Ax Thus na 5 2 ni] = 063 4m. 5.112 We shall use the equation written down in 5.103, the Fresnel-Huyghens formula. Ne Suppose we want to find the intensity at P which is such that the coordinates of the edges (&-coordinates) with respect to P are x, and -x,. Then, the amplitude at P is E=fK(o) Peas We write dS = dxdy, y is to integrated from - © + 0+ © .We write pope a) 2b (r is the distance of the element of surface on J from P. It is Vb? +27 +y* and hence approximately (1)). We then get172 E = (oy f ota ane f a =. A f- 7 aus f cay % VE mneVE where v2 = ba 2M ba The intensity is the square of the amplitude. In our case, at the centre yemeVA sev a 2 064 s 26K (a = width of the strip = 0-7mm, b = 100cm, 4 = 060m) At, say, the lower edge vy = 0, vy = 128 Thus of ie 064 eaue p 2 1 2 fei 2dus f ei? au 1_¢(064)) +(4-s5(064) Tecate _ | 664 ce 2 2 = o (1-C (128) + (1-5 (128) wT tte, fama, TBH is ce c nu? where (OS S(v) = fin ay ° Rough evaluation of the integrals using cornu’s spiral gives Jecitre Tat = 24 1 ® 2 ° 2 mu’ Papi aot (We have used f cos 7 du ~ fm 7 du 5 C (064) = 062, 5 (0-64) = 0-15 C (1-28) = 0-65 S (1:28) = 0675.113 5.114 173 If the aperture has width h then the parameters (v, -v) associated with (#2.- 3) are given by Y veh - ava d+, The intensity of light at O on the screen is obtained as the b square of the amplitude A of the wave at O which is y j Te y A _ const f e!*4? du Thus T= 21 ((C(v) P+ (S(¥) 7) where C(v) and S(v) have been defined above and J is the intensity at O due to an infinitety wide (v = 0 ) aperture for then aenentta 1 1 1 1+ 24 2) +(4 )-2meden. By definition v corresponds to the first minimum of the intensity. This means vey, s90 7 - h+Ah when we increase h to h+Ah, the corresponding v = relates to the second 2b minimum of intensity, From the comu’s spiral v) ~ 2-75 Thus Ah =V2b% (-v,) = 085V26R 2 2 Ah 1 0-70 1 or »= (as) 25 * (Sas) Tose = 0565 um Let a = width of the recess and a 06 = —— « 060 V2bK -V2x077x 065 be the parameter along Cornu’s spiral corresponding to the half-width of therecess. The amplitude of the ditacted wave is given by “can |. weet annl weep ta where 3 = 23 (n-1)h is the extra phase due to the recess. (Actually an extra 4 le phase e~'* appears outside the recess. When we take it A 0 out and absorb it in the constant we get the expression written). a Thus the amplitude is v174 ~ const |(C (v) - iS (v)) e+ 3-co) -i $-50) From the Comnu’s spiral, the coordinates corresponding to the parameter v = 0-60 are C(v) = 057, S(v) = 013 so the intensity at O is proportional to 2 | (0:57-0-13i)e’? - 0.07 - i037] | = (057° + 0-137) +0077 +0377 + (057 -0-13 i) (-0-07+037i)e!* + (0-57 +0-13 i) (-007-i037i)e7*® We write 057 F013 i= 0585 e*!* a = 128° -0-07 + 0-37i= 6377 e*'? B = 100-7° Thus the cross term is 2.x 0585 x 0:377 cos (5 + 88°) = 2.x 0585 x 0:377 om (845) For maximum intensity ete 2khx, K =1,2,3,4,... = 2(ke1)x, k= 0,1,2,3,.. or d= 2kxe 3% a 3 1 w= Ay (ed) 5.115 —— pra — a 6 TINTT7 STITT TTT screen 1 2 Using the method of problem 5.103 we can immediately write down the amplitudes at 1 and 2. We get : ¥ essere 2 oe eee nut, Atl amplitude A, _ const | f e7!** dus ef e!™*7 du176 At2 amplitude Az _ const fom raven ei? ay where ved bh is the parameter of Cornu’s spiral and constant factor is common to 1 and 2. ‘With the usual notation - ¥ 2 xu C= C(v) = f cos 7 au ’ el S=S(v) = fisin au 2 mu 1 and the result fon 3f eau ~fontfau "3 ‘We find the ratio of intensities as c (5-¢)-i(-s) rong "{(2-¢)-(2-5)} (The constants in Ay and Az must be the same by symmetry) In our case, a = 030mm, A= 065um, b= 11m = 050 C(050) = 048 5 (050) = 0-06 2 2 2_| _ | 1+(o02-o4siyva elt? 7, | 002-04dieeL 2. a | Atel 002-044 14(002-0-44i)¥2 e-# But 0:02-0-44i = 0-44e'*, a = 1525 rad (= 87-4°) ‘ 2 a. 140-44 x V2 x ef( 8-070) 142 (0-44)? 4+2V2 x 0-44 cos (8 - 0-740) q, 140-44 x V2 x e7 (5497) | 14.2(0-44 2+ 2V 2 x 0-44 cos (6 + 0-740 ) J; is maximum when 8-0-740 = 0( modulo 2%) ‘ h 1-387 + 1-245 2-632 Thus in that case T= Tay Totem CiaB) 7 ag. 7 ETS176 5.116 We apply the formula of problem 5.103 and calculate S genus -f of a The contribution of the full 1" Fresnel zone has been evaluated in 5.103. The contribution of ‘the semi-circle is one half of it and is ~ a Ziage i? = -iaghenit® The contribution of the slit is os0Vbx : 20 i -ikb ,-ik= b e e726 dx 0 0 [e-tiar ayo fei Now fer Teeny, fe bx dy VER feinttay «VER eo Thus the contribution of the slit is 09xv2 405K enitb-ins f erin gy vf B® b 127 = ayhenitenins 1 f eit? ay ° a ° Thus the intensity at the observation point P on the screen is 2 (eaa7)-isa27)| - rr aan | -i+ (on using C (1:27) = 0-67 and S(1-27) = 065) = a3X? | -1 +001 - 066 |” = a2? | 0-01 - 1-66 i |” = 2-76 agn? Now a} 2” is the intensity due to half of 1" Fresnel zone and is therefore equal to J. (It can also be obtained by doing the x-integral over- % to + © ). Thus I= 216 Ip.177 5.117 From the statement of the problem we know that the width of the slit = diameter of the first Fresnel zone = 2V bA where b is the distance of the observation point from the slit. We calculate the amplitudes by YOY ILL evaluating the integral of problem 5.103 Bm 4, We get UMTS UWE A= 2 7 eith gd ax f eS ay -Vbx ° va : Ces aes f en bar scd 2 e dux du VE 0 pet (c(V 2)-is(V¥2)) Vb “3p b ar : - 2A; facrartt, ORCL ~i) . ike Ay = -iaghe + (¢(¥2)-is (v2) Je where the contribution of the 1* half Fresnel zone (in A, first term) has been obtained from the last problem. aa fe av aanep: emi (onwsing c(v2) = 053,5 2) = 0-72) = a2? | -0-095 - 0-625 i |” = 03996 a2? he4h Ty = 032? | - 0.095 - 0625 i-i |” = an? | -0-095 - 1-625 i |? = 26496 a9 A? So I, = 661; Thus Tytlytly = 1:4:7178 5.118 The radius of the first half Fresnel zone is VbA/2 and the amplitude at P is obtained using problem 5.103. -aVb 2 eon edp. -nVb2 a 2 xs -f ike bay -f ef ox dx nVbx2 nVox2 - V® ((-eo)-i($-sn)) Thus A= agpxt xd [(3-c(n)) -i(3-sen) raacr- a where we have used vbw J 0 “it on pdp = 2Ib( 1-1) = 22% (1-i) = Ab(1-i) Thus the intensity is 2 r-|4P- avtra[ or cn) +(2-s~™) |5.119 From Comu’s Spiral, C(n) = C(107) = 0-76 S() = $(107) = 050 T= aghx2x (0-74) = 1094907 As before Ip= 32? so I~ Ip. If a plane wave is incident normally from the left on a slit of width b and the diffracted wave is observed at a large distance, the resulting pattern is called Fraunhofer diffraction. The condition for this is b’ « 1 where | is the distance between the slit and the screen. In practice light may be focussed on the screen with the help of a lens (or a telescope). Consider an clement of the slit which is an infinite strip of width dx. We use the formula of problem 5.103 with the following modifications. 179 A=xsing The factor 4 characteristic of spherical waves will be omitted. The factor K ( @) will also be dropped if we confine overselves to not too large @. In the direction defined by the angle the extra path difference of the wave emitted from the element at x relative to the wave emitted from the centre is A= -xsing Thus the amplitude of the wave is given by +072 ihe id -idibsn = fcmras x (efbtbsay _ecigtiine -b/2 xb a sing 8B ing x P Thus In Aas xb. where a = % sing and Jn is a constant Minima are observed for sina = 0 but a» 0 Thus we find minima at angles given by )/ iksing bsing = kh, k= + 1,2 2,23...180 5.120 5.121 Since I(a)is +ve and vanishes for bsin = kA ic for a = kx, we expect maxima of T(a) between a = + . a = +2, etc. We can get these values by. sina _d sina a - A. =0 Z(1(a)) = 2S Za in cos o =0 o tnasa z oe Solutions of this transcendental equation can be obtained graphically. The first three solutions are a, = 1-43. op = 246%, a3 = 3470 on the +ve side. (On the negative side the solution are - 0), - 2, ~ 3, -..) Thus bsing, = 1-432 bsin gy = 2-462 bsings = 3-472 Asymptotically the solutions are bsing, « (+2) The relation b sin ® = kA for minima (when light is incident normally on the slit ) has a simple interpretation : b sin 0 is the path difference between extreme wave normals emitted at angle 0 > sloxXe Ly When light is incident at an angle @ the path difference is b (sin @ - sin Q ) and the condition of minima is b(sinO-sinO)) =k For the first minima b(sinO-sinO)) = * A or sinO = sinOy= s Putting in numbers Q) = 30°, 2 = 050um b = 10pm i 1,2 sin® = 52 35 = 055 or 045 6,1 = 33°-20' and 0, = 26°44’5.122 (a) This case is analogous to the previous one except that the incident wave moves in glass of RI n. Thus the expression for the path difference for light diffracted at angle © from the normal to the hypotenuse of the wedge is (sin @ - nsin ©) we write 0 =O+A0 Then for the direction of principal Fraunhofer maximum 6 b(sin(@+A0 )-nsin©) = 0 or A® = sin7'(nsn®)-O Using © = 15°, n = 15 we get AO = 784° (b) The width of the central maximum is obtained from (A= 0:60 1m, b= 10 um) b(sin@,-nsin ©) = 2X Thus 1 = sin"! (nsin +5 ) = 2663° 0, = sin7? nsino } = 19-16° 80 = 0,,-0., = 747° The path difference between waves reflected at A and B is d (cos dt - cos a ) and for maxima d(cos dg- cosa) = kA, k= 0, 1, 2, In our case, k = 2 and ap, @ are small in radiaus. Then Bina o- ad nn a(234) 2_ of -03)d Thus pe eee 7 M4 o6tum 3x ge 10-3 for a = Te9 % iso’ @ 10°" m 181182 5.124 The general formula for diffraction from N oe is sin? sin?NB Teh SS a sin’B xasin® where serine: = (a+b) sind 6 a and N = 3 in the cases here. (@) In this case a+b = 2a so 6 =20 and [= nite (3-4sin? 20)? On plotting we get a curve that qualitatively looks like the one below (©) In this case a+b = 3a so Ba 3e and 12 pS2(2- 4sin?3.0) This has 3 minima between the principal maxima 5.125 From the formula dsin@ = md we have dsin 45° = 22, = 2x 065 pm or d= 2V2x065 pm Then for 4; = 0:50 in the third order 2V2 x 0-65 sin = 3x 050 1 in® = ——-— = 081602 se 3 xV a This gives © = 54-68° =55°5.126 5.127 5.128 183 The diffraction formula is dsin Q) = mph where Q> = 35° is the angle of diffraction corresponding to order 7g (which is not yet known). toh Thus d= ite: = mx 0-9327 um on using A = 0535 um For the n® order we get sin® = sin Q) = “(0573576 ) no no If mp = 1, then n> ng is at least 2 and sin@ >1 so n = 1 is the highest order of diffraction. If mp = 2 then n = 3,4, but sin@>1 for m = 4 thus the highest order of diffraction is 3. Tem = 3, then n= 45,6. For n = 6,sin0 = 2x0'57> 1, so not allowed while for n= 5, sinO = 20573576 <1 is allowed. Thus in this case the highest order of diffraction is five as given. Hence mm =3 and d = 3x 09327 = 27981 ~ 28um. Given that dsin®, = dsin@, = dsin(@,+A0) = 22 Thus sin 0,'cos A 0 + cos 0; sin AO = 2sin 0, or sin 0,(2-cos A@) = cos 0; sin A sind @ ” 120 81 = J cos AO or sin 0, = ———Si2 40_ V sin? A@+(2-cos AO)? _ sine V5~4co0s 40 Finally = —4sin 48. V5~4cos AO Substitution gives A = 0:534um (@) Here the simple formula dsin® = m,X holds. mx 0530 Thus 15 sin®@ = mx 0-530 sin® = 15184 Highest permissible m is m = 2 because sin 0>1 if m = 3. Thus ives © = 45° nearby. . 1-06 : sin @ = [55 for m = 2, This (b) Here d(sin @)-sin@) = nA Thus sin @ = sin 8) ~ 22 = sin 60° — nx 93 = 086602 ~ n x 0-353333 For n = 5, sin@ = - 0900645 fbr on = 6, sn0<-1. Thus the highest order isn = 5 and we get © = sin” ' (-0-900645 ) = - 64° 5.129 For the lens por) (E-a) o f= n-1 For the grating dsin®, = or sin@, = a cosec 0; = 2, cot 0, = a tan 8, = —————— Hence the distance between the two symmetrically placed first order maxima = 2ftan60, = SFTP HATAELAEAEE wo On putting RK = 20, n= 15, d = 60m 2 = 0-60 um we get 8:04 cm. 5.130 The diffraction formula is easily obtained on taking account of the fact that the optical path in the glass wedge acquires a factor n (refractive index). We get d(nsin © -sin(@6,)) = kA Since >0, @- Q)> and so Q must be negative. We get, using © = 30° 3 Le anc a0° in 48-6° 3% 7 sin (30° - 0) = sin 48-65.131 185 Thus O) = - 186° Also for k = 1 3 _ gin (30° Oo eL 7sin(30°-0,1:) = F255 = | Thus 0, = 0° We calculate @, for various k by the above formula. For k = 6. —->— sin (0,-30°) = 3a & = 786° Fork =7 sin (0,-30°) = + 1=> & = 120° This is in admissible. Thus the highest order that can be observed is k=6 corresponding to O, = 78-6" (for k = 7 the diffracted ray will be grazing the wedge). The intensity of the central Fraunhofer maximum will be zero if the waves from successive grooves (not in the same plane) differ in phase by an odd multiple of x, Then since the phase difference is The path difference between the rays 1 & 2 is a approximately (neglecting terms of order 6” ) asinO+a-na = asinO-(n-1)a Thus for a maximum asind-(¥+5)2 = mh ee (mew +3) # = 0,1,2,.. m= 0,#1,#2,... The first maximum after the central minimum is obtained when m+k = 0 We'get' asin®, « da186 5.132 5.133 5.134 When standing ultra sonic waves are sustained in the tank it behaves like a grating whose grating element is d= = = wavelength of the ultrasonic v = velocity of ultrasonic. Thus for maxima ~ sind, = md v On the other hand ftan0,, = mAx Assuming @,, to be small (secause a << _ fan, ftn®, _ Avs we get Ax ™ sing, v vi ant ie einen Ax Putting the values A = 055m, v = 4:7 MHz f = 0:35 m and Ax = 0:60 x 107?m we easily get v = 151 km/sec. Each star produces its own diffraction pattern in the focal plane of the objective and these patterns are separated by angle wp. As the distance d decreases the angle @ between the -neighbouring maxima in either diffraction patter. increases (sin @ = 4/d ). When @ becomes equal to 2 wp the first deterioration of visibility occurs because the maxima of one system of fringes coincide with the minima of the d other system. Thus fromthe __—_ condition © = 2y and sin® = » we get 1 hue w= 78 = 77 (radians) Putting the values we get 1p = 0-06" (a) For normal incidence, the maxima are given by dsinO = nd so Clearly ns 2as sinO>1 for n = 3. Thus the highest order is n = 2. Then187 gee dd ~ dees 8 k a a Vi-(# Putting k = 2,4 = 053um, d= 15pm = 1500nm 40.60 = 6-47 ang. min/nm. we get D = <2 (b) We write the diffraction formula as d(sinQ)+sin0) = kA 10 sin @)+sin@ = kx d Here Q = 45° and sin @ = 0-707 so sin Qj +sin@ < 1-707. Since a _ 053 7 Te 7 0353333, we see that ks4 Thus highest order corresponds to k = 4. dé Now as before D = an so k k/d ice deo Oe Vi sin o) = 12-948 ang. min/nm, 5.135 We have dsin®@ = ki eran ae an doos0 ~ 2 5.136 For the second order principal maximum dsin®, = 24 = kd Nx x minima adjacent to this maximum occur at or dsin®, = 2Nx NX asin(0,2.40) = (2N#1)x or dcos 0,40 = %188 5.137 5.138 5.139 5.140 Finally angular width of the 2" principal maximum is ip Quast at > Neceeetarrseeeeeds 2 A ceeeeccseserepem od 2 Naess wayisceway On putting the values we get 11-019" of arc Using » Ndsin@ Ra sTokN > isin Dgnerne hat For the just resolved waves the frequency difference fei IA peers Cieranreeciess X “XR” XEN sraniCisuenesteiLy “Ndsin® ~ dt since N d sin @ is the path difference between waves emitted by the extremities of the grating. ove 82 = -050nm a. 600 R= ay = Gy 7 12000 (nearly) =kN On the other hand dsin® = kr ieee Thus Ey sin = where | = 107? metre is the width of the grating Hence sin® = 12000 x% = 12000 x 600 x 107” = 0-72 or 0 = 46°. (a) We see that N = 65x 10x 200 = 13000 Now to resolve lines with 8 = 0-015 nm and A ~ 670: nm we must have rors) oo1s Since 3NN190 5.143 Suppose the incident light consists of two wavelengths 4 and 4+ which are just resolved by the prism. Then by Rayleigh’s criterion, the maximum of the line of wavelength > must coincide with the first minimum of the line of wavelength 2 + 6 A. Let us write both conditions in terms of the optical path differences for the extreme rays : For the light of wavelength bn-(DC+CE) =0 For the light of wavelength 2 +5 b(m+8n)-(DC+CE) = A482 because the path difference between extreme rays equals 2 for the first minimum in a single slit diffraction (from the formula asin @ = 2). Hence bonwd dn and ~ ble a dn 3 5144 @) 2 = R= b| SE = 2Bb/ For b=Scm,B=00ipm? 2d, = 0-434pm =5x104um Ry = 1-223 x 10* for dy = 0-656 pm Rp = 0:3542 x 104 (0) To resolve the D-lines we require 5893 n= 523 og 002 xb Th = us (05893) 3 b = 282% (05893) on = 1.005 x10 wm = 1-005 cm 0-02 5.145 b = KN = 2x 10,000 6x010pm7! = 2x10* b = 2x10°um = 02m = 20cm. dn an191 5.146 Resolving power of the objective D 5x107? a 2. = 7-45 x 10 4 y09~055u107° 122% 122x055 x 10 Let (AY mn be the minimum distance between two points at a distance of 3-0 km which the telescope can resolve. Then (AY mn 122% 2 3x 10° D 7-45 x 10° 3 or (AY Jn = 2222 2 0.04026 m = 4:03 em. 7-45 x 10° 5.147 The limit of resolution of a reflecting telescope is determined by diffraction from the mirror and obeys a formula similar to that from a refracting telescope. The limit of resolution is 2 _ 122K — (AY)oun eae Dir where L = distance between the earth and the moon = 384000 km Then putting the values 4 = 055um, D = Sm we get (AY mua = 51-6 metre 5.148 By definition, the magnification T = angle subtended by the image at the eye _ y! angle subtended by the object at the eye wy At the limit of resolution ye ah where D = diameter of the objective On the other hand to be visible to the eye w’ = we where dp = diameter of the pupil Thus to avail of the resolution offered by the telescope we must have 1224 122k _D ee eee a Hence Tun = ze - Pam . 2s sag c A B' 90-L£ B A192 5.150 Let A and B be two points in the field of a microscope which is represented by the lens C D. Let A’, B’ be their image points which are at equal distances from the axis of the Jens CD. Then all paths from A to A’ are equal and the extreme difference of paths from A to B’ is equal to ADB'-ACB’ = AD+DB’-(AC+CB') = AD+DB'-BD-DB' +BC+CB'-AC-CB’ (as BD+DB’ = BC+CB') = AD-BD+BC-AC = 2A Bcos(90°-a) = 2ABsina From the theory of diffraction by circular apertures this distance must be equal to 122% when B’ coincides with the minimum of the diffraction due to A and A’ with the minimum of the diffraction due to B. Thus AB = ¥22% «9.6, 4% 2sin sin a Here 2. is the angle subtended by the objective of the microscope at the object. Substituting the values AB = eS am = 1-40 ¢m. Suppose dai, = minimum separation resolved by the microscope w = angle subtended at the cye by this object when the object is at the least distance of distinct vision Ip (= 25 cm). 122% \v' = minimum angular separation resolved by the eye = —— 0 From the previous problem and a ngle subtended at the eye by the image T = magnifying power = Joie subtended at the eye by the object when the object is at the least distance of distinct vision res(Eh ANG 25 Thus ra -a( Smee 2eSon 305.151 Path difference = BC-AD = a (cos 60° - cos «) For diffraction maxima a (cos 60° - cosa) = kA, since A = za, we get 193 1 cosa = 5-2 ice , and we get k= -1, cosa= $42 = 09, a = 26 k= 0, cosa= $= 05,0 = 60° fo : k= tesa 4-2 = 01,0 = 84 14 : k= 2,cosa= 5-$ = -03,a = 1075 1 6 k= 3,cosa= $-$ = -07,a = 1344 Other values of & are not allowed as they lead to [cos a|>1. 5.152 We give here a simple derivation of the condition for diffraction maxima, known as Laue equations. It is easy to see form the above figure that the path difference between waves scattered by nearby scattering centres P, and P is P,A-P,B APB T) APRS. Here 7” is the radius vector P,P) . For maxima this path difference must be an integer multiple of A for any two neighbouring atoms. In the present case of two dunensional lattice with X-rays incident normally 775"= 0. Taking successively - nearest neighbours in the rE-RT x~ &y — directions We get the equations acosa = hh boosB = kh Here cos « and cos B are the direction cosines of the ray with respect to the x & y axes of the two dimensional crystal. Ax cosa = V(Axy+4P? . sin( un 57) = 028735194 5.153 5.154 so using b= k= 2 we get 40 x2 a = B23 pm = 0278 nm Similarly cos 8 = ——4AY__ sin( an" 57) 0-19612 V(Ayyl +4? 80 = Soph ~ 0408 Suppose a, and y are the angles between the direction to the diffraction maximum and the directions of the array along the periods a, b, and c respectively ( call them x, y, & z axes). Then the value of these angles can be found from the following familiar conditions a(1-cosa) = kA beosB = kh and ccosy = kh where ky, ky, ky are whole numbers (+, -, or0) (These formulas are, in effect, Laue equations, see any text book on modem physics). Squaring and adding we get on using cos” a + cos” B + cos?y = 1 ky G k Z k; fe 2hnr 2-2e0a=|(4) (2) -(8) |e ~2hk a b c a 2k /a ooo [Casay + (asa + (e/a) ] Knowing a, b,c and the integer k,, ky, ks we can find a, By as well as 0. Thus The unit cell of NaC! is shown below. In an infinite crystal, there are four N a* and four CI” ions per unit cell. (Each ion on the middle of the edge is shared by four unit cells; each ion on the face centre by two unit cells, the ion in the middle of the cell by one cell only and finally each ion on the comer by cight unit cells.) Thus ae =p-a where M = molecular weight of NaCl in gms = 585 gms Ng = Avogadro number = 6-023 x 10% L M_ >, Thus x4 Ving 2:822A The natural facet of the crystal is one of the faces of the unit cell. The interplanar distance d= da= 280A5.155 5.156 195 Thus 2dsina = 2% So 2X = dsina = 2972 Ax = 244 pm. ‘When the crystal is rotated, the incident monochromatic beam is diffracted from a given crystal plane of interplanar spacing d whenever in the courst-of rotation the value of 0 satisfies the Bragg equation. We have the equations 2dsin@, = k,A and 2dsin®, = kd But %-20,=%-20+a or 20; = 20,-a a so +S Thus 24 { sn, co § + cos yin} = bad Hence 2dsin £cos 0, = (4e-treos O. ot also 2dsin Fsin ®, = k Asin n Squaring and adding adsin§ = (42412 -2h Arcos $) » A Tage a]? Hence a-— [Aiea “2hhow S| 2sin F Substituting a = 60°, k= 2, =3,0 = 174pm we get d= 21pm = 281A (and not 0-281 pm as given in the book.) (Lattice parameters are typically in A's and not in fractions of a pm.) In a polycrystalline specimen, microcrystals are oriented at various angles with respect to one another. The microcrystals which are oriented at certain special angles with respect to the incident beam produce diffraction maxima that appear as rings. The radial of these rings are given by r= ltan2a where the Bragg’s law gives 2dsina = kd In our case k = 2, d = 155pm, 4 = 178pm .-1178 ° soa = sin“! = 66° andr = 352 cm. 155196 5.4 POLARIZATION OF LIGHT 5.157 Natural light can be considered to be an incoherent mixture of two plane polarized light of intensity Jy / 2 with mutually perpendicular planes of vibration. The screen consisting of the two polaroid half-planes acts as an opaque half-screen for one or th¢ other of these light waves. The resulting diffraction pattern has the alterations in intensity (in the illuminated region) characteristic of a straight edge on both sides of the boundary. At the boundary the intensity due to either component is (o/ 2) 4 and the total intensit edge, the illuminance in front of the edge is I / 4). 5.158 (a) Assume first that there is no polaroid and the amplitude due to the entire hole which extends over the first Fresnel zone is Ay ag ie ‘When the polaroid is introduced as shown above, each half transmits only the corresponding polarized light. If the full hole were covered by one polaroid the Then, we know, as usual, Ip = amplitude transmitted will be (A; / V2). Therefore the amplitude transmitted in the present case will be = =) bou ndary) i is ai « (Recall that when light of intensity Jy is incident on a straight through either half. Ay Ba 0) Since these transmitted waves are polarized in mutually perpendicular planes, the total intensity will be Ay ie AL) 4? ‘ Vint) a Ovi anata We interpret the problem to mean that the two polaroid pieces are separated along the circumference of the circle limiting the first half of the Fresnel zone. (This however is inconsistent with the polaroids being identical in shape; however no other interpretation makes sense.) From (5.103) and the previous problems we see that the amplitudes of the waves trans- mitted through the two parts is5.159 5.160 5.161 197 Ni ae) and the intensity is 2 2 weer -»| * 40, 2h 2 When the polarizer rotates with angular velocity o its instantaneous principal direction makes angle wt from a reference direction which we choose to be along the direction of vibration of the plane polarized incident light. The transmitted flux at this instant is py cos? wt and the total energy passing through the polarizer per revolution is r Jr cos*wrar, T=2x/0 0 x = * = 06m. Let Jp = intensity of the incident beam. Then the intensity of the beam transmitted through the first Nicol prism is 1 l= 5h uf h- (34) Ty = Iy-1 0087p and through the 2™ prism is Through the N* prism it will be a £ fpcas?"- Hence fraction transmitted cos?@4-1) 90 0-12 for N= 6. =tene Ty 2 and p= 30° When natural light is incident on the first polaroid, the fraction transmitted will be be (only the component polarized parallel to the principal direction of the polaroid will go).198 5.162 5.163 The emergent light will be plane polarized and on passing through the second polaroid will be polarized in a different direction (corresponding to the principal direction of the 2° polaroid) and the intensity will have decreased further by t cos”. In the third polaroid the direction of polarization will again have to change by @ thus only a fraction 1 cos” will go through. Finally Tehx ie cos* p Thus the intensity will have decreased pee ere IT Bcos*p for t= 081, p= 60°. ‘Suppose the partially polarized light consists of natural light of intensity J and plane polarized light of intensity J, with direction of vibration parallel to, say, x - axis. Then when a polaroid is used to transmit it, the light transmitted will have a maximum intensity 1 2, when the principal direction of the polaroid is parallel tox - axis, and will have a minimum h+h, intensity th when the principal direction is L” to x- axis. Trax ~ Toxin L Tox* Inn +h aeeireseees O25 ease i," 1-P " 075" 3° Thus Pe so If, as above, 1, = intensity of natural component J, = intensity of plane polarized component z then Snax = 541 +a I, 1 and I= ae - zhtheos’» Ft 2 50 Ja Inu (1-5 ose n 1 2 2h, 2 Ty = 2g] 1-[ 1-— = — - cos z I ( a }eoeee sin? | i A 1 bh Kh” 3[1_coty)s1-b 110829 n n5.164 199 On putting n = 30, 9 = 60° we get p-—2—-#-08 143x5 Let us represent the natural light as a sum of two mutually perpendicular components, both with intensity Ig . Suppose that each polarizer transmits a fraction a, of the light with oscillation plane parallel to the prinicipal direction of the polarizer and a fraction a with oscillation plane perpendicular to the principal direction of the polaizer. Then the intensity of light transmitted through the two polarizers is equal to Iy = af [n+ 07 I when their principal direction are parallel and Ty = 0, 02! +02 0, Iy = 20, 02/9 when they are crossed. But ee Qo oazto? 0 Oy = OD Oy +O nt so iF (a) Now the degree of polarization produced by either polarizer when used singly is p= imax aon | 1-2 0" Trax*tImin 0 + Op (assuming, of course, ct, > ct ) a Mol 4/2 Thus Po=V i Viz 70905 (6) When both polarizer are used with their principal directions parallel, the transmitted light, when analysed, has maximum intensity, Ing, = @2 Jy and minimum intensity, Ipin = C7 Io 2 2 so pu OOF | tino (a +02) ap+oy a, +O ap+az n+l | *azea? - VET (1-1) nei n VEE (128) = 0.995.200 5.165 If the principal direction N of the Nicol is along A or B, the intensity of light transmitted is the same whether the light incident is one with oscillation plane N, or one with Nz, If N makes an angle 8p with A as shown then the fractional difference in intensity transmitted (when the light incident is Ny or N2 ) is 2(g9°_ 2_ ~cos?{(90° + 2- cos (° 7 69] cos (0 +4 69) noo e 2sin £-2.cos £5. a = —42 4 _— - aca fsg sin? 2 _ 2 IN makes an angle 8 p(<<@) with B then 2s $-2sing/2 9 Ar ~ ei (o/2-d9)- cos" (9/2489) | é = dtng/2dq I), cos” p/2 cos” p/2 AI Ar Thus n= (7), / (7), = cot? 9/2 or @ = 2tan™ i va This gives p = 11-4° for y = 100. 5.166 Fresnel equations read sin? (0, -0,) tan? (0; - 02) M-h-7 — Fo Te.) sin? (0, +0) tan? (0; + 0) At the boundary between vacuum and a dielectric 0, # @, since by Snell’s law : sin ®, = nsin@, Thus [ /1, cannot be zero. However, if 0; +0, = 90°, I’) = 0 and the reflected light is polarized in this case. The condition for this is sin®, = nsin®,, = nsin(90°-0;) and Fy = Hy or tan @, = 8; is called Brewsta’s angle. The angle between reflected light and refracted light is 90° in this case.201 5.167 (a) From Fresnel’s equations a. sin? (8 - 82) ait sin? (0, + 8) ) at Brewste’s angle Te) I’, = [sin (0,-0,) a 51(sin 0; cos 0; ~ c0s 0, sin 0»)? Now tan 0, = 7, sin 0, = n Vitel cos 8; = » sin @, = cos 0; 1 Virol cos 8, = sin 0, erie a n= 33a} on putting n = 15 (b) For the refracted light ‘ 1 wei 4n? 74. (+1) Nie wie ~ Ny at the Brewster’s angle. Thus the degree of polarization of the refracted light is Myth siya "Foal, 7 Gtaiyaant Tel LP s4an rs —_P-1f ip ” 207+19-(-1p 1-e On putting p = 0-074 we get P = 0-080.202 5.168 5.169 5.170 The energy transmitted is, by conservation of energy, the difference between incident energy and the reflected energy, However 90 the intensity is affected by the change of the cross section of the beam by refraction. Let Aj, A,, A, be the cross sections of the incident, reflected and transmitted beams. T Then Aj = 4, A, = ASST cosi But at Brewster’s angle r = 90-i so A, = Ajtani = nA; Thus jinintteee n The amplitude of the incident component whose oscillation vector is perpendicular to the plane of incidence is A, = Asing and similarly Aj] = Ao cos @ jn? : 6, - Then Tye ip 82) in? sin (8; + 0) sin 0, cos 6, + cos 0, sin 0 2 a wei led ry we Hence p= ite 2 sin 0; cos 82~ cos 0,sin®,] > = [p| Sm Oreos Ba— cos 0: sin 02 ° Putting n = 1-33 for water we get p = 0-0386 Since natural light is incident at the Brewster’s angle, the reflected light 1 is completely polarized and P, = 1. Similarly the ray 2 is incident on glass air surface at il Brewster’s angle { tan~ *| sc 3 is also completely polarized. Thus P, = 1 Now as in 5.167 (b) Py= op = 0-087 if p = 0-080203 Io Oo PI "3Io 13(1-29)To g $-2pMg Finally as shown in the figure tle _apye 27 7(1-20) 1 to 30-292, 2pU- gp et eect CLD) ergy 11), 5, 1-2pC-p) 7t2(1-2e) 5.171 (a) In this case from Fresnel’s equations sin? (0,- 0) Tel, + sin? (0, +0, ) 2 at we get fy = [=| bo = ply say wel then T= (1-p)lo, bs = p(1-p)Io (°p is invariant under the substitution n —> 1 y n 16 n* hy = 0-726 Ip. (Psi? 2 (>) Suppose p’ = coefficient of reflection for the component of light whose electric vector oscillates at right angles to the incidence plane. finally I= (1-ph = From Fresnel’s equations Then in the transmitted beam we have a partially polarized beam which is a superposition of two (|| & 1) components with intensities fee ; zlo& 5lo(1-p'y ny? 2 4 4 Tous Pw Wamp’) (ety 16 | 1-076 _ ose 1+(1-p'? (nr? +1)*416 0 1+0-726204 5.172 (a) When natural light is incident on a glass plate at Brewster’s angle, the transmitted light has 16 n* (+1) where Jo is the incident intensity (see 5.171 a) After passing through the 2" plate we find I = 4o/2 and [! = Ip/2 = a Iy/2 wad m 1 Al" = zo and h"" = (a PI Thus after N plates ie = 3h 1 Tf"! = of zh Hence (b) af = 0-726 for n= 3. Thus P(N = 1)= 0-158, P(N = 2) = 0310 P(N = 5) = 0663, P(N = 10) = 0922. 5.173 (a) We decompose the natural light into two components with intensity J) = Fh = L, where || has its electric vector oscillating parallel to the plane of incidence and has the same 1” to it, By Fresnel’s equations for normal incidence 2 fy = lim sin’ (0,-@) = lim 81-0 = mee . =p T, ” gro sin?(0,+0,) 6,10 | +0 nel : ry n-1 similarly si-e- (i Thus (b) The reflected light at the first surface has the intensity T= ply Then the transmitted light has the intensity i (i I= (1-p)lo Z I4 At the second surface where light emerges from glass lo into air, the reflection coefficient is again p because ic i . nan 1 p is invariant under the substitution n —> — n Thus J; =p (1 -p) Jp and I,=(1- p)*Jp.5.174 5.175 205 For NV lenses the loss in luminous flux is then ee Suppose the incident light can be decomposed into waves with intensity 1), & , with’ oscillations of the clectric vectors parallel and perpendicular to the plane of incidence. For normal inciderice we have from Fresnel equations 1,{ 2% . | 0,0, where we have used sin Q ~ 0 for small 0. ie Similarly ry = Hy ( ia Then the refracted wave will be 4n' 4n' F de! and J,” =I, WAGE ay ea (wat ye At the interface with glass I =I , similarly for Jy” we see that a +. - ifn’ = Wn, similarly for || component. Loot This shows that the light reflected as a fraction of the incident light is the same on the two surfaces ifn’ = Vn. Note:- The statement of the problem given in the book is incorrect. Actual amplitudes are not equal; only the reflectance is equal. Here 0, = 45° see g av sin, = +xx+ = = = = 04714 Vite) Vos @, = sin7 10-4714 = 28-1° in? 0-6 eae 1, = 7,3 Orn) * sin? (0; + 0,) 2 a: sin 16-9° 1 - 7h(sesi | Foe5.176 5.177 T= 3 Thus (a) Degree of polarization P of the reflected light 0-0838 ” o100g ~ 831 (b) By conservation of energy I= Flyx 0-907 I= thx 09915 Thus The wave surface of a uniaxial crystal consists of two sheets of which one is a sphere while the other is an ellipsoid of revolution. The optic axis is the line joining the points of contact. To makes the appropriate Huyghen’s construction we must draw the relevant section of the wave surface inside the crystal and determine the directions of the ordinary and extraordinary rays. The result is as shown in Fig. 42 (a, b & c) of the answers In a uniaxial crystal, an unpolarized beam of light (or even a polarized one) splits up into O (for ordinary) and E (for extraordinary) light waves. The direction of vibration in the O and E waves are most easily specified in terms of the O and E principal planes. The principal plane of the ordinary wave is defined as the plane containing the O ray and the optic axis. Similarly the principal plane of the E wave is the plane containing the E ray and the optic axis. In terms of these planes the following is true : The O vibrations are perpendicular to the principal plane of the O ray while the E vibrations are in the principal plane of the E ray. ‘When we apply this definition to the wollaston prism we find the following : (exaggerated.)5.178 207 When unpolarized light enters from the left the O and E waves travel in the same direction but with different speeds. The O ray on the left has its vibrations normal to the plane of the paper and it becomes E ray on crossing the diagonal boundary of the two prism similarly the E tay on the left becomes © ray on the right. In this case Snell’s law is applicable only approximately. The two rays are incident on the boundary at an angle 0 and in the right prism the ray which we have called O ray on the right emerges at Me -11658 1 in-) sin @ = sit 1. 33.91° sin apne: sin” age * 2 33-91 where we have used nz = 11658, 1m = 1-486 and 0 = 30°. Similarly the E ray on the right emerges within the prism at sin? sin = 26-62° This means that the O ray is incident at the boundary between the prism and air at 33-91-30" = 391° and will emerge into air with a deviation of sin ~* rp sin 3-91° = sin”) (1-658 sin 3-91° ) = 6-49° The E ray will emerge with an opposite deviation of sin” + (n, sin (30° - 2662° ) ) = sin” ( 1-486 sin 338°) = 503° Hence 3 = 649° +5-03° = 11:52° This result is accurate to first order in (n,- Mp) because Snell’s law holds when n, = fg. The wave is moving in the direction of z- axis (a) Here E, = Ecos(wt-kz), Ey = Esin(wt-kz) 2 2 Eee Bates of the electric vector moves along a circle. For the right handed coordinate system this represents circular anticlockwise polarization when observed towards the in- coming wave. (b) E, = Ecos(wt-kz), E, ~ Foos(or-ke+ 3) Eo 1 so =X mw L cos(wt-kz)- Se sin(wt-kz) E vz 7 2 a & 15s) 1/,_ 2 Esser fot) isle [tel 2 2 or Fe yp he 1 BE 2208 5.179 This is clearly an ellipse. By comparing with the previous case (compare the phase of E, in the two cases) we see this represents elliptical clockwise polarization when viewed towards the incoming wave. We write the equations as E,+E, = 2B cos (wr-kz+ feos § : x) x -E,- +26 sin(or-kz+ sing 2 Thus t& ) (Eh) oy x Sti 2E cos 2Esing x Since cos 37 sing » the major axis is in the direction of the straight line y = x. (©) E, = Ecos(wt-kz) E, = Ecos(wt-kz+n) = -~Ecos(wt-kz) Thus the top of the electric vector traces the curve E,=-E, which is a straight line (y = -x). It corresponds to plane polarization. For quartz n, = 1553 ing = 1544} OF 2 = 589mm. In a quartz plate cut parallel to its optic axis, plane polarized light incident normally from the left divides itself into O and E waves which move in the same direction with different speeds and as a result acquire a phase difference. This phase difference is 8 = 22(n,-m)d where d= thickness of the plate. In general this makes the emergent light clliptically polarized. (a) For emergent light to experience only rotation of polarization plane 8 = (2k+1) x, k= 0,1,2,3... : fiteeee For this d = (2k+1)-—*— (2k) 2G =m) 589 2x 009 # The maximum value of (2k+1) for which this is less than 0:50 is obtained from 0-50 x 18 “355° 15-28 589 Then we must take k = 7 and d = 15 x=" = 0-4908 mm = (2k+1) 589 = (2k+1) Fo mm5.180 5.181 209 (b) For circular polarization 8 = a modulo 2m ie. d= (4k41)5 a 0589 so d= (4k TAS = (41S 050 x 36 Now ~a5a5 7 3056 The nearest integer less than this which is of the form 44 +1 is 29 for k= 7. For this d = 0-4749 mm As in the previous problem the quartz plate introduces a phase difference 8 between the O &E components. When 5 = 1/2 (modulo x ) the resultant wave is circularly polarized. In this case intensity is independent of the rotation of the rear prism. Now 7 2% 0.009 x05 x10? m Omi hin wm For 4 = 0:50pm. 6 = 182. The relevant values of 6 have to be chosen in the form (#93). For k = 17,16, 15 we get 2 = 05143 wm, 05435 um and 0:5806 pm These are the values of A which lie between 0-50 4m and 0-60 wm. As in the previous two problems the quartz plate will introduce a phase difference 5. The light on passing through the plate will remain plane polarized only for 5 = 2kx or (2k+1) x. In the latter case the plane of polarization of the light incident on the plate will be rotated by 90° by it so light passing through the analyser (which was originally crossed) will be a maximum. Thus dark bands will be observed only for those 4 for which b= 2kx 2n . 20 -3 Now 3 = 22 (n,-my)d + 2E x 00915 x10"? m - 720. in um) For = 055 we get 8 = 4909.x Choosing 8 = 48 x, 46 x, 44x, 42m we get 4 =0-5625 um, 4 =0:5870 pm, A= 0-6136 pm and 2 = 0-6429 pm. These are the only values between 0:55 xm and 0-66 pm. Thus there are four bands.210 5.182 5.183 5.184 Here be 2a, 0:009 x 0-25 m a Se a in pm. We check that for A = 428-6nm 8 = 1057 d= 529-4nm 8 = 850 2 = 6923nm 8 = 65x These are the only values of for which the plate acts as a quarter wave plate. Between crossed Nicols, a quartz plate, whose optic axis makes 45° with the principal directions of the Nicols, must introduce a phase difference of (2 k + 1) x so as to transmit the incident light ( of that wavelength) with maximum intensity. For in this case the plane of polarization of the light emerging from the polarizer will be rotated by 90° and will go through the analyser undiminished. Thus we write for light of wavelengths 643 nm 2.x x 0-009 = SS * d(mm) x 107? 0643 x 107 aie 18xd ne = (2k+1)x () To nearly block light of wavelength 564 nm we require 18nd , ose 7 (2K) Q We must have 2’ > 2k +1. For the smallest value of d we take 2k’ = 2k+2. Thus 0643 (2k+1) = 0564x(2k+2) so 0-079 x 2k = 0:564 x 2 - 0-643 or 2k = 6139 This is not quite an integer but is close to one. This means that if we take 2 k = 6 equations (1) can be satisfied exactly while equation (2) will hold approximately. Thus d 7x 0-643 18 = 0-250mm Ifa ray traverses the wedge at a distance x below the joint, @ then the distance that the ray moves in the wedge is 2x tan and this cause a phase difference b= ZR On, ng)2xtan 2 between the E and O wave components of the ray. For a general x the resulting light is elliptically polarized and is not completely quenched by the analyser polaroid. The condition for complete quenching is 8 = 2kx— dark fringe5.185 211 That for maximum brightness is 8 = (2k+1) x— bright fringe. The fringe width is given by Ax«= A 2(n,- ng) tan & 2 Hence (nang eee 2Axtan 0/2 using tan(@/2) = tan 175° = 0:03055, A= 055m and Ax = 1mm, we get At=Io ne- Mg = 9-001 x 1073 Light emerging from the first polaroid is plane polarized with amplitude A where N, is the principal direction of the polaroid and a vibration of amplitude can be resolved into two vibration : E wave with vibration along the optic axis of amplitude A cos@ and theO wave with vibration perpendicular to the optic axis and having an amplitude A sin. These acquire a phase difference 5 on passing through the plate. The second polaroid transmits the components : A.cos @ cos and Asin gsin What emerges from the second polaroid is a set of two plane polarized waves in the same direction and same plane of polarization but phase difference 5, They interfere and produce a wave of amplitude squared R? = A? | cos? @ cos? g' + sin? p sin” g! + 2 cos @ cos g sin @ sin cos 8 J, using —_ cos” (p - g") = (cos @ cos @' + sing sin g’)” = cos” @ cos” gy’ + sin” @ sin? g’ + 2 cos @ cos g' sin @ sin we easily find R? ~ A2[ coe'(-9')-sin2sin2sin? 5 Now A? = I)/2 and R* = I'so the result is Te celal ceeemema Special cases Crosse 2g! =2p- 180 Thus in this case polaroids : Here g-g'=90° or g'=p-90° and T=hh= asa Fos? 2 sin?212 Parallel polaroids : Here @ = p' and =i, 2lo(1-si? 293) With 8 = 2h 4 » the conditions for the maximum and minimum are easily found to be that shown in the answer, N 5.186 Let the circularly polarized light be resolved into plane ware polarized components of amplitude Ag with a phase E wave difference 5 between then. On passing through the crystal the phase difference becomes 8 + 7 and the components of the E and O wave in the direction N are respectively Ao cos @ and Ay sin @ They interfere to produce the amplitude squared R? mA cos’ @ +Ag sin? + 2.42 cos p sin @ cos (+3) = Ag (1+sin2 sind) Hence T= Iy(1+sin2psind) Here Jy is the intensity of the light transmitted by the polaroid when there is no crystal plate. 5.187 (a) The light with right circular polarization (viewed against the oncoming light, this means that the light vector is moving clock wise.) becomes plane polarized un passing through a quarter-wave plate. In this case the direction of oscillations of the electric vector of the electromagnetic wave forms an angle of + 45° with the axis of the crystal OO’ (see Fig (@) below). In the case of left hand circular polarizations, this angle will be - 45° ( cP Pay UM () If for any position of the plate the rotation of the polaroid (located behind the plate) does not bring about any variation in the intensity of the transmitted light, the incident light213 is unpolarized (i.e. natural). If the intensity of the transmitted light can drop to zero on rotating the analyzer polaroid for some position of the quarter wave plate, the incident light is circularly polarized. If it varies but does not drop to zero, it must be a mixture of natural and circularly polarized light. 5.188 The light from P is plane polarized with its electric vector vibrating at 45° with the plane of the paper. At first the sample $ is absent. Light from P can be resolved into components vibrating in and perpendicular to the plane of the paper. The former is the E ray in the left half of the Babinet compensator and the latter is the O ray. In the right half the norhenclature is the opposite. In the compensator the two components acquire a pahse difference which depends on the relative position of the ray. If the ray is incident at a distance x above the central line through the compensator then the E ray acquires a phase FE (me (1-2) 4m (I42)) an © while the O ray acquires l 2n x SE (no(tnx) Me (14) tan © so the phase difference between the two reays is 2% (n,—ng)2xtan © =8 we get dark fringes when ever 6 = 2k because then the emergent light is the same as that coming from the polarizer and is quenched by the analyser. {If 6 = (2k+1) , we get bright fringes because in this case, the plane of polarizaton of the emergent hight has rotated by 90° and is therefore fully transmitted by the analyser.} If follows that the fringe width Ax is given by a fcue : [tan © Ng (b) If the fringes are displaced upwards by 6 x, then the path difference introduced by the sample between the O and the E rays must be such as to be exactly cancelled by the compensator. Thus 2x d (nome) + (me~ no )2dx tan @ | = 0 or d(no-nlg) = -2(me-m9)dxO using tan@a ©.214 5.189 5.190 Light polarized along the x-direction (i.e. one whose electric vector has only an x component) and propagating along the z-direction can be decomposed into left and right circularly polarized light in, accordance with the formula 1 ae : E, = 5 (E,+iB,) +5 (E-iE,) On passing through a distance J of an active medium these acquire the phases dy = 2B ng and = 2E nl so we get for the complex amplitude J (Eg+iB oe" +3 (B,-i8, yet ath -ety [Ferrie ete BiB, heh 8 8 = eT | B00 5B, sn5 ,b=d- 8. Apart from an over all phase ( 5, + 8;)/2 (which is irrelevant) this represents a wave whose plane of polarization has rotated by x 77 RCAm)L, An = |mg—m| By definition this equals a! so An = 2. = 5895 x 107° mm x 21-72 deg/m m a x Fao 4) = 0-71x10"* Plane polarized light on entering the wedge decomposes into right and left circularly polarized light which travel with different speeds in P and the emergent light gets its 8 plane of polarization rotated by an angle which depends on the distance travelled. Given that Ax = fringe width Ax tan @= difference in the path length traversed by two rays which form successive bright or dark fringes. 2x Thus SE lm -m|Axtand = 2x P Pol Thus a = SA". ayaxtano = 208 ang deg/m m5.191 5.192 215 Let x = distance on the polaroid Pol as measured from a maximum. Then a ray that falls at this distance traverses an extra distance equal to + xtanO and hence a rotation of taxtun0 =< 52 By Malus’ law the intensity at this point will be oo( i): a Ax If I~ intensity of natural light then dh= intensity of light emerging from the polarizer nicol. Suppose the quartz plate rotates this light by @, then the analyser will transmit 1 zoos? (90-9) Ly si lpo = zlosin’ Ni P ! of this intensity. Hence nh = in sin? @ gy or g = sin“*V2q 0-8 No(Anal) But = ad so in“ 1V2q For minimum d we must take the principal. value of inverse sine. Thus using a= 17 ang deg/m m. dyin = 299mm. For light of wavelength 436 nm ALS? xd = kx 180° = 2kx 90° (Light will be completely cut off when the quartz plate rotates the plane of polarization by a multiple of 180°.) Here d = thickness of quartz plate in mm. For natural incident light, half the light will be transmitted when the quartz rotates light by an odd multiple of 90°. Thus B11? xd = (2K +1) 90° as Now BS 13344» t Thus k= 2and = 1 and a= 428 _ g67mm. 415216 5.193 Two effects are involved here : rotation of plane of polarizatin by sugar solution and the effect of that rotation on the scattering of light in the transverse direction. The latter is shown in the figure given below. It is easy to see from the figure that there will be no scattering of light in this transverse direction if the incident light has its electric vector parallel to the line of sight. In such a situation, we expect fringes to occur in the given experiment. From the given data we sce that in a distance of 50 cm, the rotation of plane of polarization must be 180°. Thus the specific rotation constant of sugar rotation constant concentration 180/50 180 a g me/dee/em = Sam x( 500 gm/cc) 500 § = 72° ang deg/(dm ‘gm/cc) (1dm = 10cm) 5.194 (a) in passing through the Kerr cell the two perpendicular components of the electric field will acquire a phase difference. When this phase difference equals 90° the emergent light will be circularly polarized because the two perpendicular components O & E have the same magnitude since it is given that the direction of electric field E in the capacitor forms an angle of 45° with the principal directions of then icols. In this case the intensity of light that emerges from this system will be independent of the rotation of the analyser prism. Now the phase difference introduced is given by 2 b= SEC)! In the present case 8 = F (for minimum electric field) ne Mo = 47 Now ng— My = BLE? aft 5 so Exio= V Gai - = 10°/ V88 = 10:66 kV/cm. (b) If the applied electric field is E = E,sinot,o = 2nv than the Kerr cell introduces a time varying phase difference 8 = 20B| EZsin’ wr = 2x 22x 107 x 10x (50x 10°)? sin? wr =U xsin’ ot5.195 5.196 5.197 217 In one half-cycle ie. im time = = 7/2 = o 2v this reaches the value 2 kx when 2 2 4 6 8 10 peer eteaeresaT aah Ah22 10eee aT 2 4 6 8 W Wu’ ni’ in’ i.e. 11 times. On each of these occasions light will be interrupted. Thus light will be interrupted 2vx11 = 2-2 10° times per second (Light will be interrupted when the Kerr cell (placed between crossed Nicols) introduces a phase difference of 2 kx and in no other case.) From problem 189, we know that An = 24 ™ where « is the rotation constant. Thus 2a _ 2ac 2a @ On the other hand Gmag = VE 2eVH ve An= Thus for the magnetic rotations An Part of the rotations is due to Faraday effect and part of it is ordinary optical rotation. The latter does not change sign when magnetic field is reversed. Thus o = al+ VIN @ = ol-VIH. Hence 2V1H = (g1-%) or ve (52) / um Putting the values Ve Bee wh 107 perA = 0-015 ang min/A We write © = Pchemicat + Pmagrene We look against the transmitted beam and count the positive direction clockwise. The chemical part of the rotation is annulled by reversal of wave vector upon reflection. Thus Peremet = OL Since in effect there is a single transmission.218 5.198 5.199 On the other hand mg = -NHVI To get the signs right recall that dextro rotatory compounds rotate the plane of vibration in a clockwise direction on looking against the oncoming beam. The sense of rotation of light vibration in Faraday effect is defined in terms of the direction of the field, positive rotation being that of a right handed screw advancing in the direction of the field. This is the opposite of the definition of Paremica for the present case. Finally p= (a-VNH)I (Note : If plane polarized light is reflected back & forth through the same active medium in a magnetic field, the Faraday rotation increases with each traveresal.) There must be a Faraday rotation by 45° in the opposite direction so that light could pass through the second polaroid. Thus V1 Hin = 0/4 WA | _45x60_ A VI” 259x026 m = 401 KA m or Fnin = If the direction of magnetic field is changed then the sense of rotation will also change. Light will be completely quenched in the above case. Let r = radius of the disc | He oe then its moment of inertia about its axis = 3 m re In time ¢ the disc will acquire an angular momentum tear? tb o when circularly polarized light of intensity / falls on it. By conservation of angular momentum this must equal zmr?-o where wo = final angular velocity. A Mow Equating ee © c MCW But Oe eae Substituting the values of the various quantities we get t = 11-9 hours219 5.5 DISPERSION AND ABSORPTION OF LIGHT 5.200 In a travelling plane electromagnetic wave the intensity is simply the time averaged magnitude of the Poynting vector :- Te SIEKH|> = CV BED = : 1 on using c= EVe@ =HVw. Veo Ho (see chapter 4.4 of the book). Now time averaged value of E? is E2/2 so 1 20 I= 3 tEo or Ey = eee (a) Represent the electric field at any point by E = Eosinwt . Then for the electron we have the equation. mx = eEysinwt eEy mo so xen sinwt The ampitude of the forced oscillation is cE —t.-SV = 51x10" cm mo mw " Ce The velocity amplitude is clearly E M0 541x107 x 3-4 x 10° = 1-73 cm/sec mo (b) For the electric force F, = amplitude of the electric force = ey For the magnetic force (which we have neglected above), it is (evB) = (evuoH) E = evE Ve =ev— V®0Ho a writing v = -vocoswt eEy where vo = —2 mo we see that the magnetic force is apart from a sign evo E 8 sin20t 2c220 5.201 (a) ) Fn Hence Fr." Ratio of amplitudes of the two forces e vatent “1 Ze 29x10 This is negligible and justifies the neglect of magnetic field of the electromagnetic wave in calculating vo. It turns out that one can neglect the spatial dependence of the electric field as well as the magnetic field. Thus for a typical electron mr’= eEgsinot ek so 7"= -——% sin wt (neglecting any nonsinusoidal part). mo’ The ions will be practically unaffected. Then > +> ne _\—> and D = eE+P = e9| 1- E eg mor 2 e Hence the permittivity e=1- oe. tomo The phase velocity is given by c v= 0/K = - So Thus 5.202 From the previous problem é wa1-—* Emo 1-__me 4x egmv Thus np = (427 v? meo/e”) (1-27) = 2:36 x 107 cm~?221 5.203 For hard x- rays, the electrons in graphite will behave as if nearly free and the formula of previous problem can be applied. Thus 2 oe emo noe” 2eome on taking square root and neglecting higher order terms. noe? moe? ht? So ne -— ee 2egm or’ 8x epme and nel- ‘We calculate my as follows : There are 6 x 6-023 x 10 electrons in 12 gms of graphite of density 1-6 gm/c.c. Thus 6 x 6-023 x 10% (12/16 ) Using the values of other constants and 2 = 50x 107? metre we get n-1 = -5-4x1077 nN = per c.c 5.204 (a) The equation of the electron can (under the stated conditions) be written as mi +ye+kx = eEycosot To solve this equation we shall find it convenient to use complex displacements. Consider the equation mi +yi+kz = eEye Its solution is eE,ei* = honk -mo-iyotk (we ignore transients.) Writing p= Ta «= £ eE we find z= —e'*'/ (@,- a" -2i Bw) ™ Now x = Real part of z E = 2Fo,__cos(@t+) = gcos(wt+@) V (ap - 0?) +4 Bo? 2B rh tal - where ng = eer 2po sing = -—_—2Bo ____ V (a= 03) +4 fo222 (b) We calculate the power absorbed as Pa = Sekycoswt(-wasin(wt+q))> 2 eral 2Bo saa mo’ —- ‘o m2 (ao) +4P'o m } (ap- 07) +4 B20" This is clearly maximum when W) = « because P can be written as 2 eEy m p= (S) —_fim__ 2 (2-6) +46 : eEy = ra BSE) ten, P can also be calculated from P = < yi-i> Bmw? (eEo/m)* = (yor a/2) = —— SS: (a2) rat hs 4 Pat 5.205 Let us write the solutions of the wave equation in the form A = Ageliot-*) where k = 2% and A is the wavelength in the medium. If n' = n+ix, then 2x, o (Qo is the wavelength in vacuum) and the equation becomes A = Age** exp(i(wt,-Kx)) 2x ro A = Age®* cos(wt-kx) This represents a plane wave whose amplitude diminishes as it propagates to the right (provided x’ < 0). when w! = ix, then similarly ke where x’ = Ip because one 1 -xt 2 (90° lo-e°*!- cos?( 90° - p) lb ‘Po Jge7*' sin? p. () The multiple reflections are shown below. Transmis- To(t9} |} 911-9) sion gives a factor (1 - p ) while reflections give fac- tors of p. Thus the transmitted intensity assuming 9*(1-9) To incoheren light is (1p)? Jo + (1- p)? plo + (1- p)? p* lot... = (1-p)?fo(1 +p? + p*+p° +...) = (1-p). fe te 9)? 3°(1-9)"To a Pr bese bit. (1-9)'To ete.226 5.214 5.215 5.216 (>) When there is absorption, we pick up a factor o = e~*4 in each traversal of the plate. Thus we get (1-p?oly+(1-p)o' p?hh+(1-p)o°p*h+... = (1-p)oh(1+0'p?+0% p+...) igen ey e We have uae %4 (1-py mae %* (1-p) where p is the reflectivity; see previous problem, multiple reflection have been ignored. Thus Bee gxla-4) a in{ TET 8035 em! or = - 035 cm. X a-& On each surface we pick up a factor (1 - p) from reflection and a factor e~*! due to absorption in each plate. Thus t= (1-p)M en eX! 1) G-o)* -1 Thus x= qq7mot 0.034 cm”. Apart from the factor (1p) on each end face of the plate, we shall get a factor due to absorptions. This factor can be calculated by assuming the plate to consist of a large number of very thin slab within each of which the absorption coefficient can be assumed to be constant. Thus we shall get a product like en XUdE gon (sedeyds gan(ee2de)de This product is nothing but -fxtnax 2 Sx * Now x(0) = x1, X(/) = Xo and variation with x is linear so x(x) = %4+7 (10-%1) Thus the factor becomes 1 “Sf [ar Foanma ax Foyer)! e5.217 5.218 5.219 227 The spectral density of the incident beam (i.e. intensity of the components Whose wave length lies in the interval A & 44d) is ty M-wy The absorption factor for this component is tae x}! dd, yshsh e and the transmission factor due to reflection at the surface is (1-p )*. Thus the intensity of the transmitted beam is alee oF ey f dhe | saree eee ge loge eee |i cientat) em! em! C- ete oe FE | eO2- a) = (1-0 Ph de Ga-x)'me At the wavelength Ao, the absorption coefficient vanishes and loss in transmission is entirely due to reflection. This factor is the same at all wavelengths and therefore cancels out in calculating the pass band and we need not worry about it. Now Tp = (transmissivity at A = Ap) = (1-p)* T = transmissivity at 2 = (1-p )*e7* (44 The edges of the passband are Ay + 4x and at the edge ‘Ah Zo eol®) Thus R- (m3}/=4 or An = 2%V aa("a) We have to derive the law of decrease of intensity in ai absorbing medium taking in to account the natural geometrical fall-off (inverse sequare law) as well as absorption. Consider a thin spherical shell of thickness dt and internal radius x. Let I(x) and I(x+dx) be the intersities at the inner and outer surfaces of this shell. Then 4m I(x) e7%* = 4n(xedx)I (x+dx) Except for the factor e~*** this is the usual equation. We rewrite this as XI (x) = I(x4+dx)(x+dx)P(14+xdx)228 5.220 5.221 5.222 5.223 7 (ape (2 42xdx)(1+xdx) ai) or oF txe T+ 2x] = 0 Hence (21) 44 (21) =0 dx so YI =Ce** where C is a constant of integration. In our case we apply this equation for as xs b For xs a the usual inverse square law gives ® T(a) = (9) 4na? Hence c= pew P o-u(b-a) and I(b) = en XC 4n0° This does not take into account reflections. When we do that we get oD -x(b-a 1(b) = Ta pyrer) 1 The transmission factor is e~"* and so the intensity will decrease end = eF6*3%01 . 58.4 timestimes (we have used u =(u/p)x~p and used the known value of density of lead). We require ep dos = ar dar Bee Bar or | ppoden = || pardas Pr» Par 20 x 113 x dpy = 348 x 2-7 x 26 dp, = 03mm229 5.6 OPTICS OF MOVING SOURCES 5.224 In the Fizean experiment, light disappears when the wheel rotates to bring a tooth in the position formerly occupied by a gap in the time taken by light to go from the wheel to the mirror and back. Thusdistance travelled = 21 Suppose the m' tooth after the gap has come in place of the latter. Then time taken = 2lm=1) +1 in the first case 5.225 5.226 Then o 2zm 2m+l in the second case = ——1— 22m zm m) = 21z(m-m) = 3024x108 m/sec ‘When v < _ Obs. From these we get AR d=2R= (as cw/n = 297% 10" km a 3 ne (a) Ov/dny = 29x10 kg We define the frame S (the lab frame) by the condition of the problem. In this frame the mirror is moving with velocity v (along say x axis) towards left and light of frequency @ is approaching it from the left. We introduce the frame S.' whose axes are parallel to those of S but which is moving with velocity v along x axis towards left (so that the mirror is at rest in S'). In S' the frequency of the incident light is a lawWeles 1 ON T-we In S.' the reflected light still has frequency « but it is now moving towards left. When we transform back to S this reflected light has the frequency5.230 5.231 §.232 231 os a( In the nonrelativistic limit From the previous problem, the beat frequency is clearly Av = w2% = 2v/(c/vp) = 2v/ry 10*? Hence v= daray = 2 xsocm/see = 900 km/bour From the invariance of phase under Lorentz transformations we get ot-kx = a't'-Kkx' Here w = ck. The primed coordinates refer to the frame S’ which is moving to the right with velocity v Then x’ = y(x-vr) , vx t= (33) where y= (vi-w7ry" Substituting and equating the coefficients of t & x l+v/e @ = yal syky = 0 PAS l+v/e Vi-v7/e? From the previous problem using kayak ak ¢ we get Thus MAN _ S6a- 43d 9a, N40? 564? 4 434? or v/e =232 5.233. As in the previous problem 5.233 5.235 236 vex co 2an? Ay oy x so v= eS = 71x 10k m/s (i We go to the frame in which the observer is at rest. In this frame the velocity of the source of light is, by relativistic velocity addition fournula, When this source emits light of proper frequency op, the frequency recorded by observer will be VV 124s ve vi O- MN Teve Tine Note that «

02-7 direction while the remaining stars are spread out. The three dimensional distribution can also be found out from the three dimensional generalization of the formula in the previous problems. The field induced by a charged particle moving with velocity V excites the atoms of the medium turning them into sources of light waves. Let us consider two arbitrary points A and B along the path of the particle. The light waves emitted from these points when the particle passes them reach the point P simultaneously and reinforce each other provided they are in phase which is the case is general if the time taken by the light wave to propagate from the point A to the point C is equal to that taken by the particle to fly over the distance AB. Hence we obtain v cos 0 = y;5.244 5.245 237 where v = © is the phase velocity of light. It is evident that the radiation is possible only if V>v i.e. when the velocity of the particle exceeds the phase velocity of light in the mediuin. We must have iGuiigineens via Vela Hexl0'm/s or Tere For electrons this means a K.E. greater than C= mc (ri = 0511 | —————-- 1] using m,c? = 0-511 MeV = 0-144 MeV eee if (is) For protons with m,c? = 938 MeV T, = 938 ————eEEE 1 | = 264MeV = 0-264 GeV ( Also Trun = 29-6 MeV = mc? 1 . | (#5) Then mc? = 105-3MeV. This is very nearly the mass of means. v Fi O=— ‘rom cos ¥ we get V = vsecO ae Vv cog = 8208 _ e030" 2/V3 4 Gmee n 15 O/2ie a ya: Thus for electorns T, = 0511 1] = osu | V a -| = 0-289 MeV Generally238 5.7 THERMAL RADIATION. QUANTUM NATURE OF LIGHT 5.246 (a) The most probable radiation frequency iw», is the frequency for which 3 fu - 30°F (w/T)+ FF (w/T) =0 The maximum frequency is the root other than w@ = 0 of this equation. It is o = -3LF(w/T) F (o/T) OF y= Xo T where Xo is the solution of the transcendental equation 3F (x9) +x F'(x%) = 0 (b) The maximum spectral density is the density corresponding to most probable frequency. It is (ty max = 29F (29) T? & T? where Xp is defined above. (©) The radiosity is M, = af **($)«0 =r ee art 5.247 For the first black body b Oooh = jh b b Then mda xt Ad = a H T, 2 OT, 7a1kK see 2" 5 bet An Z+an qT, 5.248 From the radiosity we get the temperature of the black body. It is vs vs M, sisietonig edieste take tissue este e luctcteeegee ga ° 5-67 x 10 Hence the wavelength corresponding to the maximum emissive capacity of the body is pe eae ree an = 3 Fo yep oH 34x 10-4em = 34am (Note that 3-0 W/cm? = 3-0 x 10‘ W/m?) 5.249 The black body temperature of the sun may be taken as To = —°__ « 6042 0-48 x 105.250 5.251 239 Thus the radiosity is Myo = 567 x 107 (6042 )* = 0-7555 x 10° W/m? Energy lost by sun is 4x (695 x 10" x 0-7555 x 10° = 45855 x 10° watt This corresponds to a mass loss of 45855 x 10°% 9x 10% The sun loses 1 % of its mass in 1.97 x 10 x 107? 51x 10° kg/sec = 5-1 x 10° kg/sec sec m 1:22 x 101" years. For an ideal gas p = nk Twhere n = number density of the particles and k = fis Boltzman vA constant. In a fully ionized hydrogen plasma, both H ions (protons) and electrons contribute to pressure but since the mass of electrons is quite small (~ m,/1836), only protons contribute to mass density. Thus oe my and p- Nomet where mj = m, is the proton or hydrogen mass. Equating this to thermal radiation pressure 2pRp_u_ Me 4 _ AoT* Nig oo ea aoe 3, _3epR_ | 3cpR tt TU -JoN,m," oM where c= 2Nq my = molecular weight of hydrogen = 2x 107*kg. w Thus Ts (sir) = 189% 107K oM In time df after the instant ¢ when the temperature of the ball is 7, it loses n@oT*dt Joules of energy. As a result its temperature falls by - dT and nd?oT‘dt= -2a°pcaT where p = density of copper, C = its sp.heat240 5.252 Thus arn 0a ta Cedf _dT_ Cod 3 a = 1. -1) = 2-94 hours. 2 : co T* wom "~) fe te Taking account of cosine low of emission we write for the energy radiated per second by the hole in cavity # 1 as dI(Q) = Acos0dQ where A is an constant, dQ is an element of solid angle around some direciton defined by the symbol Q . Integrating over the whole forward hemisphere we get wd T= Af cos02nsinod0 = xA ° 2 We find A by equating this to the quantity 0 T;'- aa o is stefan-Boltzman constant and d is the diameter of th hole. Then Ae fod? nt Now energy reaching 2 from 1 is (cos @ = 1) 1 orl ag 24, where AQ = ae is the solid angle subtended by the hole of 2 at 1. {We are assuming d<<1so AQ = area of hole / (distance )’ }. This must equal oTind?/4 which is the energy emitted by 2. Thus equating 1 iaa4 nd? 4nd? ace lagyn ee targa or h-eT%1V z Substituting we get Ty = 0:380kK = 380K.241 5.253 (a) The total internal energy of the cavity is u- 42ry aU) _ 160,73 Hence cas 57 =e py (37), c = 16x 5-67 x 10° 3x 10° a. 2:6.x 5-67 “3 x 10°x 107? Joule/ °K nJ/K = 3.024nI/K (>) From first law TdS = dU+spav = vaU+UdvetaV (° 2 5) =vau+ Pav ie ise = SS vrdT+Sordv so dS= © M2 yr247e 82 ey v7) He gs = BS y73 2 bo,» 1.008 /K nce Aa 3cv . 5.254 We are given u(@,T) = Aw exp(-a0/T) du _(3 (a) Then cele u=0 3T _ 6000 se ope ad miecamniy ean (b) We determine the spectral distribution in wavelength. -G(A,T)dd = u(o,T)do But centage a Clete geste Crt ce an o o so dn=-Sdw,do=-Gar ow ® (we have put a minus sign before dA to subsume just this fact dd is -ve where da is +ve.)242 x coc ctA ac’ 14,7) « Gal $7) oA (-5$) This is maximum when ou alee ao: Hes -[sheee c 2 or dy SG AREA} ttm 5.255 From Planek’s formula ho’ 1 Ya @ 23 holt 4 (a) Ina range hw <> T (bigh frequency or low temperature) : to no aT ot so e*T >>1 ho = and Uy = aoe x 5.256 We write uydw = ii,dv where w= 2xv ~ _ 2uh(2uv) 1 Then OSS uy 3 githve e Also -i(A,T)dX=u,dw where = ae do = -23£ dn x . - 2nc GA, T)= oe «(2S 7) _2nc(2nc) _* 1 162 ch 1 | wed orth _y ~ 9S G2 HHART_|243 5.257 We write the required power in terms of the radiosity by considering Snly the energy radiated in the given range. Then from the previous problem AP = Sim, T)AX avon Ad 1 ete MELT] But dn T = b so AR 1 Using the data 2nch _ 2nx3x10°x105x0"* = oo 49643 kb 1:38 x 10°? x 2-9 x 1073 1 -3 piscinsly ~ 70310 and AP = 0312 W/cm” 5.258 (a) From the curve of the function y (x) we see that y = 0-5 when x = 1-41 0-29 Thus Aa 41x 5755 om = 1405 um. (b) At 5000 K . 9 10-$ m = 058 nm So the visible range (0-40 to 0-70) 1m corresponds to a range (0°69 to 1-31) of x. From the curve y(069) = 0-07 y(131) = 0-44 so the fraction is 0-37 (©) The value of x corresponding to 0-76 are x, = 0-76 | 222 . 0-786 at 3000K 03 x = 076 / 979 - 1.31 at 5000K 05244 The requisite fraction is then a B)L(B) len Py TT 1-y ratio of __ ratio of the total power fraction of required wavelengths in the radiated power 5.259 We use the formula ¢ = Aw Then the number of photons in the spectral interval (@, @ +d ) is u(o, T)do a 1 n(@)do= HO. T 23 Foy using n(@)do = -f(A)dd ane)ane d ea pane (2xc) 1 Wein! e2theMT_y 8x dr VE gixbeneT we get ddR(X) = »( dn 5.260 (a) The mean density of the flow of photons at a distance r is P 2mhe __ PR = 5 2 oar x 8rhcr 10 x 589 x 107* m ie arneatagc eid 8 x? x 1-054 x 1074 x 108 x 4 = 10 x 589 Bx x 1-054 x 12 = 59x10 cm=?5"* x 10 cm~*5"* {b) If (7) is the mean concentration (number per unit volume) of photons at a distance r form the source, then, since all photons are moving outwards with a velocity c, there is an outward flux of cn which is balanced by the flux from the source. In steady state, the two are equal and so5.261 5.262 245 _ | PR te sehen 6 : 2 VJ Pir 2hn "Qn 1 6x 10° " 2x 1-054 x 107 *4 x 107 x 10° 10° , / 5:89 = Wf 289 _ 397 Gx V saog 7 887 metre The statement made in the question is not always correct. However it is correct in certai cases, for example, when light is incident on a perfect reflector or perfect absorber. Consider the former case. If light is incident at an angle @ and reflected at the angle @, then momentum transfered by each photon is 2 cos 0 If there are n(v)dv photons in frequency interval (v,v+dv), then total momentum transfered is J2ncecosoav 0 619 20, = —cos 6 = The mean pressure

is related to the force Fexerted by the beam by

xtt . P a The force F equals momentum transfered per second. This is (assuming that photons, not reflected, are absorbed) E E E 20771 0) = Cte) ‘The first term is the momentum transfered on reflection (see problem (261); the second-on absorption. 4(1+p)E

= nd?cv Substituting the values we get

= 483 atmosphere.246 5.263 The momentum transfered to the plate is E a a ==(1- in 8 1 - 6 =a p){sin ® i-cos 6 7} t 6 (momentum transfered + zp {-2c0s 0; } x6) on absorption ) i (momentum transtered on reflection ) = E(1-p)sinoj-£(1 +P) cos 0f (7) Its magnitude is EV (1-p)sin?0+(1+p)?cos?6 = Ev 1+ 9° +2 pcos 20 Substitution gives 35 n N.s as the answer. 5.264 Suppose the mirror has a surtace area A. The incident bean then has a cross section of A cos @ and the incident energy is [A cos @: Then the momentum : ‘o transfered per second (= Force ) is from the last problem Z| 14s 8, + pcos 0} 4748088 ¢ _ aye? The normal pressure is then p = £( 1+p) cos’ (jis the unit vector 1” to the plane mirror.) 9 , Putting in the values 6 = SH 8d = 06 nNem~? 5.265 We consider a strip defined by the angular range (0,0+d0). From the previous problem the normal pressure exerted on this strip is 8 21 cos? c This pressure gives rise to a force whose resultant, by symmetry is in the direction of the incident light. Thus 2 Pa Z oe 0-cos 0-2R*sinOd0 = nR?>—247 Putting in the values ~4.0-70 x 104 F = xx25x 107° ————-N = 0:183 4N 3x10 5.266 Consider a ring of radius x on the plate. The normal pressure on this ring is, by problem (264), 2 P © 4n(x +R?) PR? Tae (aR? The toa force is then + cos? 0 2 s aR Pot aa edx i 2me (x +n7R?)P* Rien) = PR? f dy Ze ¥ Ea wR _ PR? a P 2e ly qi R*(1+4n7) ocean ) 5.267 (a) In the reference frame fixed to the mirror, the frequency of the photon is, by the Doppler shift formula = 1+B Vi-p o-oo =o]. 1-8 (see Eqn. (5.6b) of the book.) In this frame momentum imparted to the mirrot is 2n@ _ 2ho,/1+B genre 1-B’ (©) In the K frame, the incident particle carries a momentum of #@/c and retums with momentum hol+p c¢ 1-B (see problem 229). The momentum imparted to the mirror, then, has the magnitude Awl1+B.,]_ 24@ 1 c |1-B cura248 5.268 5.269 When light falls on a small mirror and is reflected by it, the mirror recoils. The energy of recoil is obtained from the incident beam photon and the frequency of reflected photons is less than the frequency of the incident photons. This shift of frequency can however be neglected in calculating quantities related to recoil (to a first approximation.) Thus, the momentum acquired by the mirror as a result of the laser pulse is ap) = 22 |? -P, | = Or assuming p? = 0, we get a) 22k [Fr] =" Hence the kinetic energy of the mirror oie 2m me’ Suppose the mirror is deflected by an angle 6. Then by conservation of energy “a: Ee final PE. = mgl(1-cos 0) = Initial KE. = <> me 2E7 e or mgl2sin? = = —, . 2 . mc or ae (me) 75 er Using the dias in © = 4377x107? 2° 4075x3x10°V98x 1 This gives @ = 0:502 degrees . We shall only consider stars which are not too compact so that the gravitational field at their surface is weak : 1M OR We shail also clarify the problem by making clear the meaning of the (slightly changed) notation. << Suppose the photon is emitted by some atom whose total rclativistic energies (including the rest mass) are E, & E, with E, 1 transition. On the surface of the star, the energies have the values5.270 5.271 249 ; Ey yM M. Ey rae -#(1-35] By 0 Bi(1- Thus, from #w = E',-E'z we get M. feet s =(-2) Here w is the frequency of the photon emitted in the transition 2—> 1 when the atom is on the surface of the star. In shows that the frequency of spectral lines emitted by atoms on the surface of some star is less than the frequency of lines emitted by atoms here on earth (where the gravitational effect is quite small). Finally soy @ “~ 2 The answer given in the book is incorrect in general though it agrees with the above result for WM coi, oR The general formula is 2 7 ae Thus Now An-= 2ah Hence are We have as in the above problem 2 xh CLey On the other hand, from Bragg’s law 2dsina=kN=d since k = 1 when @ takes its smallest value. mhe _ * edsina = 30-974kV ~ 31kV.250 $.272 5.273 5.274 The wavelength of X- rays is the least when all the KLE. of the electrons approaching the anticathode is converted into the energy of X- rays. But the KE. of electron is (mc? = rest mass energy of electrons-= 0-511 MeV) Qahc Thus ae 1 Qahe _2xh 1 e or ae = 2h) hy ee VAe ve 2xh 1 = 2-70 pm. = ee = me(y-1)'"" aa The work function of zinc is A = 3-74romane = 3-74 x 1-602 x 10~ Joule The threshold wavelength for photoelectric effect is given by 2nhe 2ahe |, % or No = ZERS W 331-6 0m A The maximum velocity of photoelectrons liberated by light of wavelength A is given by 1 iz hh 5 So Vac = WV ( *| = 655 x 10° m/s From the last equation of the previous problem, we find > MViag = 2a Thus or5.275 5.276 5.277 5.278 251 2.(m_1)/ and ie (E-u}/or-» w-> 2mhe _ 2xhe da Se As = oe = 188 eV = do hy Wel i When light of sufficiently short wavelength falls on the ball, photoelectrons are ejected and the copper ball gains positive change. The charged ball tends to resist further emission of electrons by attracting them. When the copper ball has enough charge even the most energetic electrons are unable to leave it. We can calculate this final maximum potential of the copper ball. It is obviously equal in magnitude (in volt) to the maximum KE of electrons (in electron volts) initially emitted, Hence 2mhe Pons * pe ~ Ace = 8:86 - 4-47 = 4:39 volts ca is the work function of copper.) ‘We write E = a(1+coswt) cos wot a 4.608 wot + F [cos (oy-@ 4+ c05( ay +0)¢] It is obvious that light has three frequencies and the maximum K.E. of photo electrons ejected is h(@+@)- Ar; where A,; = 2:39 eV. Substituting we get 0-37eV. ‘Suppose N photons fall on the photocell per sec. Then the power incident is 2mhe an This will give rise to a photocurrent of w2nhe J which means that w2ahe.y en electrons have been emitted. Thus the number of photoelectrons produced by each photon is ipa ne ieee ere A simple application of Einstein’s equation 2mhe x Fm Vea = AY hv = ae282 5.279 gives incorrect result in this case because the photoelectrons emitted by the Cesium electrode are retarded by the small electric field that exists between the cesium electrode and the Copper electrode even in the absence of external emf. This small electric field is caused by the contact potential difference whose magnitude equals the difference of work functions 2a = Agy) volts . Its physical origin is explained below. The maximum velocity of the photoelectrons reaching the copper electrode is then 1 1 2ahe ZV = 7MVG- (Ay Aes) = SOS how Here vo is the maximum velocity of the photoelectrons immediately after emission. Putting the values we get, on using A,, = 4-47eV, A = 022m, Vm = 6-41 x 10° m/s The origin of contact potential difference is the following. Inside the metals free electrons can be thought of as a Fermi gas which occupy energy levels upto a maximum called the Fermi energy Ep . The work function A measures the depth of the Fermi level. / Outside : f A 7 i 4 ve 1 Ie, | 3 Inside metal When two metals 1 & 2 are in contact, electrons flow from one to the other till their Fermi levels are the same. This requires the appearance of contact potential difference of A; -Ay between the two metals externally. The maximum KE. of the photoelectrons emitted by the Zn cathode is 2ahe tea, On calculating this comes out to be 0-993 eV ~ 10 eV Since an external decelerating voltage of 1-5 V is required to cancel this current, we infer that a contact potential difference of 15 -1-0 = 05 V exists in the circuit whose polarity is opposite of the decelerating voltage. Enax5.280 5.281 5.282 253 The unit of fis Joule-sec. Since m c” is the rest mass energy, —"' has the dimension of time me and multiplying by ¢ we get a quantity a = en whose dimension is length. This quantity is called reduced compton wavelength. 2nh |. (The name compton wavelength is traditionally reserved for ‘We consider the collision in the rest frame of the initial electron. Then the reaction is +e (rest ) —> e (moving ) Energy momentum conservation gives hotme = meV 1-6" no, _mocB_ Gia where « is the angular frequency of the photon. Eliminating Aw we get me = metB «me YEE vi-p This gives B = 0 which implies ho = 0. But a zero energy photon means no photon. (2) Compton scattering is the scattering of light by free electrons. (The free electrons are the electrons whose binding is much smaller than the typical energy transfer to the electrons). For this reason the increase in wavelength A 2 is independent of the nature of the scattered substance. (b) This is because the effective number of free electrons increases in both cases. With in- creasing angle of scattering, the energy transfered to electrons increases. With diminishing atomic number of the substance the binding energy of the electrons decreases. The presence of a non-displaced component in the scattered radiation is due to scattering from strongy bound (inner) electrons as well as nuclei. For scattering by these the atom essentially recoils as a whole and there is very little energy transfer. ©)254 5.283 5.284 5.285 Let do = wavelength of the incident radiation. Then wavelength of the radiation scattened at ®, = 60° Dy = Ag +20, (1-008 8,) where %, = 2. and similarly dy = Wg + 20k, (1- cos 82) From the data 6, = 60°, @, = 120° and wane Thus (n= 1) do = 2, [ 1 - 608 Gn (1-008 64) = 2h, [1-n+1 0080) ~c0s@] ‘1,08 8; ~ cos Oy Hence ro = aan, TOS -1 a jn? . tn wf: asi 6,/2 The expression Xo given in the book contains misprints. = 121pm. The wave lengths of the photon has increased by a fraction 1 so its final wavelength is dy = (24m) ey ho and its energy is inn The KE. of the compton electron is the energy lost by the photon and is gee gg 1+ 1+ (@) From the Compton formula NM = 2k, (1-cos90) +r 1 2mC 2nc h Thus o! = = ea Where 2m Rem To: Substituting the values. we get w! = 2:24 x 10” rad/sec (b) The kinetic energy of the scattered electron (in the frame in which the initial electron was stationary) is simply T=ho-ho’2mhe x 4rack, "X(A+2a%,) 255 2nhe +20, 2ahc/r Trn2nn, ~ 99°KV 5.286 The wave length of the incident photon is Then the wavelength of the final photon is Be PEE 12 nk,(1-cos 8) and the energy of the final oe is i 2xhe ho ho! = Ine ed =o + 2H, (1-cos 0) “18a. cos @) - ie = 1442kV 1+2(5 ma) sa"C072) 5.287 We use the equation 4 = = 22%. Pee, Then from Compton formula Bah DER on B (10050) P P % 5-142 sin?or2 tan 20 me(1 1 Hence sin? = (7 ;] = me -p' 2pp' or sin? of melp-p) . 2 2pP Substituting from the data sin - Vnclep=e) 2ep-ep This gives 0 = 120-2 degrees . -\ / O-51i (1-02 - 0-255 ) 2x 1:02 x 0-255256 5.288 From the Compton formula ee roe BBCi - ~ cos 0) From conservation of energy 2xhe 2ahe | 2ahe see perrae +T= peak eee o x 2h ~ 008 8) or ——sin’ > . 4h 28 moon 2 ae me om 2} or introducing ap = 2nhc/dy 2sin?@/2 | _T (_1_ me 1 2 Hence (i) oat 28 28 (28 fees emiae sin? 5 ho” me meT | me 28 a “(Vv me AO me* Tsin® 0/2 mc*/sin” 0/2 or GL dee HeEEEEEE EEE EEEEESEEEEEEEEEEEE \act2mes 2m -1 Tint 2 z/ 2me = FV 142M 4 z *Tsin? 0/2 * Substituting we get thay = 0677MeV257 5.289 We see from the previous problem that the electron gains the maximum K.E. when the photon is scattered backwards @ = 180°. Then meth Vi. ame 7 Hence he rae. at[Vi nz, Substituting the values we get do = 3695 pm. @ 5.290 Refer to the diagram. Energy momentum conservation gives hol hol 2g 008 8 = pos p (E,P) Ae sin = psing gy hotme = ho’ +E hw 0 where E? = c*p?+ mc. we see 1 hoi! ag aie ysine e = O-«' cos 0 Ase ioe + 2sin?®S where Aha N-A = 20d, (1- 0088) = 4nd sin? 2sin $ cos $ Hence oo 7 4/ Ax AR AA of te But re 4am. | dam 2am) ake V 47) 4h, a . me AR cA 1. us a. - 1+ 22h 1420258 5.291 5.292 By head on collision we understand that the electron moves on in the direction of the incident photon after the collision and the photon is scaltered backwards. Then, let us write ho = nme ho’ some (E,p) = (emc?,umc) of the electron. Then by energy momentum conservation (cancelling factors of mc” and mc ) 1+yH = oO+e n=Bb-o ea ley? So eliminating o & € Lene -nepeV a or (142y-p) = V plot Squaring (142n)?-2 (1420) #1 4n+4y = 2n(1+2n) _ 2nU+n) or 4 1+2n Thus the momentum of the Compton electron is eeu (1an)me ae auc ie2qe Now in a magnetic field p=Bep me ‘Thus p= 2n(t+n)/ (sam ze. Substituting the values p = 3-412cm. This is the inverse of usual compton scattering. When we write down the energy-momentum conservation equation for this process we find that they are the same for the inverse process as they arc for the usual process. If follows that the formula for compton shift is applicable \, : except that the energy (frequexcy) of the photon is \ increased on scattering and the wavelength is shifted downward, With this understanding, we write Ad h ee = 2x TC 008 8) Too? F_) gin? ® 2 2 = 4a sin? = 121 pm YevetsPART SIX ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR PHYSICS In this chapter the formulas in the book are given in the CGS units. Since most students are familar only with MKS units, we shall do the problems in MKS units. However, where needed, we shall also write the formulas in the Gaussian units. 6.1 SCATTERING OF PARTICLES. RUTHERFORD-BOHR ATOM 6.1 The Thomson model consists of a uniformly charged nucleus in which the electrons are at rest at certain equilibrium points (the plum in the pudding model). For the hydrogen nucleus the charge on the nucleus is +¢ while the charge on the electron is -e. The electron by symmetry must be at the centre of the nuclear charge where the potential (from problem (3.38a)) is . {—L\3¢ 0" | axe, |2R where R is the radius of the nucleur charge distribution. The potential energy of the electron is -eqo and since the electron is at rest, this is also the total energy. To ionize such an electron will require an energy of E = € % ; 1_\3e From this we find 8- (ana) 38 In Gaussian system the factor is missing. Tre Putting the values we get R = 0:159nm. Light is emitted when the electron vibrates. If we displace the electron slightly inside the nucleus by giving it a push r in some radial direction and an energy 8 E of oscillation then since the potential at a distance r in the nucleus is cyan (asa) ( Senta a - (ae) i 27 2R?) . the total energy of the nucleus becomes 2 2 zn? 1 )\e(3-za3) = -eq+dE Treo |R|2~2R? ery 1 e 3 or dE = hme *(aane)an” 2 This is the energy of a harmonic oscillator whose frequency is : w= ( 1 ) €260 6.2 63 The vibrating electron emits radiation of frequency @ whose wavelength is ri 2ze 2 25 EV mR? (4x0)? In Gaussian units the factor (41 9)” is missing. Putting the values we get A = 0:237m. Equation (6.1a) of the book reads in MKS units nd tan 0/2 = (#2) / 207 %% )\ cot 0/2 Thus be (22) 2T For @ particle q = 2e, for gold q = 79e (In Gaussian units there is no factor Ge ) . ) Substituting we get b = 0-731 pm. (a) In the Pb case we shall ignore the recoil of the nucleus both because Pb is quite heavy (Ap, = 208 = 52x Ay,) as well as because Pb in not free. Then for a head on collision, at the distance of closest approach, the KLE. of the — particle must become zero (because i — particle will turn back at this point). Then 2% e? (455) Fain (No (4x9) in Gaussian units.). Thus putting the values Tain = 0591 pm. 0) Here we have to take account of the fact that part of the energy is spent in the recoil of Li nucleus. Suppose x, = coordinate of the a ~ particle from some arbitrary point on the ine joining it to the Li nucleus, x, = coordinate of the Li nucleus with respect to the same point. Then we have the energy momentum equations 2x32 Lat ey — 23 mit 7™4* Grep)insml ”? 2 my iy + mgiy = Vm T Here m, = mass of He** nucleus, m, = mass of Li nucleus. Eliminating x, loo Lips 6e Tm ym ty (Vem -mA) + are yom)6.4 261 We complete the square on the right hand side and rewrite the above equation as 2 T= say [¥m (mm) n-V g, Vem T my +m be Fo fssssnon(0(@sesnsinas (4x) [x1 - x2 For the least distance of apporach, the second term on the right must be greatest which implies that the first term must vanish. 6e my Thus lai-tlae* TagyF (1 lee Using Te = 5 and other values we get 121-2 |min = 034 pm . (In Gaussian units the factor 4 x €o is absent). We shall ignore the recoil of Hg nucleus. (a) Let A be the point of closest approach to the centre C,AC = raiq . At A the motion is instantaneously circular because the radial velocity vanishes. Then if vo is the speed of the particle at A, the following equa- tions hold 12, 2% @ T= 5+ ate a MVoTmin = V2mT b (2 mvp Ae °) Pmin (4 €) Pin Cc (This is Newton’s law. Here p = Ppjg is the radius of curvature of the path at A and p is minimum at A by symmetry.) Finally we have Eqn. (6.1 a) in the form ZmRe o 5 Cane)2T 2 @ 2 27h? 1 & e From (2) and (3) oe (dae) 4% 306 a Pain ™ Taney) DFO 3° with 2, = 2, 22 = 80 we get Pmin = 0-231 pm.262 (b) From (2) and (4) we write 2% & coto/2 (4xe)VimT vo” Substituting in (1) = im vo+V2mT votan 0/2 soving tro we set w= VZE(we2-un 8) 1 CA Ge hen Tain ea To" Caneg)27 . 0 4 8 sec 5 - tan 5 “ame of a 8 ~ Gaayytr m2 ( seg +005) Ame 8 = Chae iF (1 tem] = 0557 pm. 6.5 By momentum conservation ete nee Pe PRo- P+ B (proton) (Au) (proton) (Au) Thus the momentum transfered té the gold nucleus is clearly Ao BB =P Although the momentum transfered to the Au nucleus is “~ not ‘small, the energy associated with this recoil is quite J 0 4 small and its effect back on the motion of the proton can a be neglected to a first approximation. Then AP « V2mT(1-cos0)i V2mT sino; Here ? is the unit vector in the direction of the incident proton and j is normal to it on the side on which it is scattered. Thus |AP| ~ 2V2mT sin ze (4ne))26T 1981 2V amr (1-252) ] 6.6 The proton moving by the electron first accelerates and then decelerates and it not easy to calculate the energy lost by the proton so energy conservation does not do the trick. Rather Or using tan 0/2 = for the proton we get6.7 263 we must directly calculate the momentum acquire by the electron. By symmetry that momentum is along OA and its magnitude is Pru f nat where F is the component along OA of the force on electron. Thus 2 1 PB -f ee an 2 yee Vea +r vt_A ~2b. Jf dz 4meqv (847)? ', Evaluate the integral by substituting ! x= bund ‘y 22 ” (Axe) vb" 4 my € "Cane. TR (4x) Tb’ m, Then P, Then In Gaussian units there is no factor (4 7 ¢9)”. Substituting the values we get T, = 382eV. See the diagram on the next page. In the region where potential is nonzero, the kinetic energy of the particle is, by energy conservation, T+ Up and the momentum of the particle has the magnitude V2 m (T+ Uy) . On the boundary the force is radial, so the tangential component of the momentum does not change : V2mT sina = V2m(T+Up) sing Vt «i sin sosing = V Foz sina = U where n = V1 ara « We also have 0 = 2(a-9) Therefore sin = sin (a-@) = sin a.cos @ ~ cos a sin p264 68 = V # -sin?a - cosa : ( ae) = sina. cosp— or (“ase ) aie or BSBA +cosa) = n?-sin?a sino or msin? 2cot?a+2nsin2cota+1 = n®cos?® 2 2 2 neos® or cola = 2 nsin& 2 nsin& ; 2 Hence sina = V 2 8 14n?-2nc0s 5 Finally, the impact parameter is 8 nRsin> V 1+n?-2n005% It is implied that the ball is toc heavy to recoil. b= Rsina = (@) The trajectory of the particle is symmetrical about the radius vector through the point of impact. It is clear from the diagram that Gita gene 2. xia Also b= (Rer)sing = (R+r)eos 2. () With b defined above, the fraction of particles scattered between @ and 0 +d 0 (or the probability of the a is 2nbdbl | Fsinoao x(R+ry (©) This is265 6.9 From the formula (6.1 b) of the book 2 Ta = “(az ar sin > We have put q, = 2e, q = Z e here. Also n = no. of Pt nuclei in the foil per unit area Na 1 _ Na pt 7 ae ater eee the foil "0 of nuclei per unit mass Using the values Ap, = 195, p = 21-5 x 10° kg/m? Na = 6-023 x 10% /kilo mole we get n= 6641 x 10” per m? ds, Also dQ=-—* = 10-?Sr r Substituting we get en = 3:36 x 1075 6.10 A scattered flux density of J (perticles per unit area per second) equals J/ 4;= r?, partictes r scattered per unit time per steradian in the given direction. Let n = concentration of the gold nuclei in the foil. Then and the number of Au nuclei per unit area of the foil is nd where d = thickness of the foil Then from Eqn. (6.1 b) (note that n> nd here) 2 Ze 48 Pj=dN~= nal caneyaT| cosec* 5 Here / is the number of a - particles falling on the foil per second 2,2 Hence a= 4TeZ int 0/2 Zé 4ne using Z = 79, Ag, = 197, p = 19:3x 10°kg/m? Ny = 6-023 x 10° /kilo mole and other data from the problem we get 1-47 4m266 6.11 From the formula (6.1 b) of the book, we find AN _ to Zo Nag” My Zi But since the foils have the same mass thickness (= pd), we have men Aas Tag Ap see the problem (6.9). Hence A, Substituting Z,y = 47, Agg = 108, Ap, = 195 and y = 1°52 we get Zp, = 7786 ~ 78 6.12 (a) From Eqn. (6.1 b) we get 2 dl 2 F aN «hee m( Zé eeeane Aa \(4%e0)2T) sin*0/2 (we have used dQ = 2xsin0d0 and N = [pI ) From the data 40-2 = 2 radian Also Z,, = 79, Ag, = 197. Putting the values we get aN = 163 x 10° (b) This number is piaeae 849 pdNy Zé maid wa) «to Ra) (canna) of ar 2 The integral is dx _1f-1 % [tly in 2 ia 2 Thus N(0) = xnal Gee] free? where 7 is the concentration of nuclei in the foil. (” = p.Ni/Aq,) Substitution gives N(Q) = 20210"6.13 6.14 6.15 267 The requisite probability can be written easily by analogy with (b) of the previous problem. Itis x 2 pe ME nal Zé Jo cos 0/2d0 It (4xe9)2mv sia’ 2 The integral is unity. Thus 2 P= xnd|/—22__, (4x09) mv Substitution gives using. N, . nw NA 105 x 10? 6.023 x10 | ee Any 108 Because of the cosec dependence of the scattering, the number of particles (or fraction) scattered through @ . (mZi+mZ2) Here m; (2) is the number of Z, (Cu) nuclei per cm? of the foil and Z; (Zp) is the atomic number of Z, (Cu). Now pan, edNa m = $4207, m= 1, 2 = 03 Here M,, M; are the mass numbers of Z, and Cu. Then, substituting the values Z, = 30, Z) = 29, M, = 65:4, Mz = 635, we get AN 143 x 107?268 6.16 From the Rutherford scattering formula 2 do ( Ze ) 1 d (4xe)2T) 540 2 2 do« Ze 2nsinOde (4x e)2T 40 sin’ > 2 2 Gale 08 0/240 (4xe9)T sin? 0/2 Then integrating from 8 = 09 to 0 = x we get the required cross section 2 ( Ze ) cos 0/240 Ao= Ed — (4xe9)T sin? 2 2 2 6, = (aa) cot. For U nucleus Z = 92 and we get on putting the values Ao = 737b = 0-737kb. (1b = 1 bam = 10 m’). 6.17 (a) From the previous formula 2 Ze 8 Ao (atene) cots Ze a aga 2 \ AG or Substituting the values with Z = 79 we get (8) = 90°) T = 0903 MeV (b) The differential scattering cross section is ao 49 aQ C cosec 8 where Ao(O>O) = 4xCcot > Thus from the given data C= eu b = 39-79 b/sr 4x6.18 6.19 269 do . So aq? = 60°) = 39:79 x 16 b/sr = 0-637 kb/sr. The formula in MKS units is dE | woe dt 6nxe For an electron performing (linear) harmonic vibrations wis in some definite directions with Wy = -wx say. dE wee!» dt 6xc If the radiation loss is small (i.e. if w is not too large), then the motion of the electron is always close to simple harmonic with slowly decreasing amplitude. Then we can write Thus Ee ; moa and xX = acoswmt and average the above equation ignoring the variation of a in any cycle. Thus we get the equation, on using <1? > = 50 dE wot, wew ee dt” 6c 2 ~6xme 1 oe since E = yma a for a harmonic oscillator. This equation integrates to E=£E,e "7 where T = 6xmc/ew' Wp. It is then seen that energy decreases 1) times in 6xme 2 wo Ho to = Tiny = Inn = 14-7ns. Moving around the nucleus, the electron radiates and its energy decreases. This means that the electron gets nearer the nucleus. By the statement of the problem we can assume that the electron is always moving in a circular orbit and the radial acceleration by Newton's law is 2 é (4xe)mP directed inwards. Thus dE__we® i Se __t, dt 6c (4ne9 mr270 On the other hand in a circular orbit 7 = Cane) or Hoe Ber Faery Pay Pamerey orf (4ne9)2r° 4 (Axe) 6xemr dr Hoe are dt” ~ (Ane) ance so or Integrating Hoe" 497 egcm? Per- and the radius falls to zero in 4x ecm nh fy et ce, = 131 ps. Hoe 6.20 In a circular orbit we have the following formula mv? Ze rT (4me)P mvr= nh Ze ane ’* Canegyah = wh(4ne9) eee : HaeiuseZ es The energy E is En = 5" Ger 2 Zé m__ (Zé 4me} 28 ne | 47e and the circular frequency of this orbit is as o-- (des fase 7 Ww Ane 2 a-m( Zé ) [ate 4ne On the other hand the frequency @ of the light emitted when the electron makes a transition n+1—>nis ou (2) m 1 4neo) 2% |r? (n+1)*271 Thus the inequality Oy > O> Oy 41 will result if vat 1), ia w 2 (n41)) (n+1?P Or multiplying by 2? (n+ 1)? we have to prove 2 2 (tty Lanst)> z n+1 This can be written as 1 1 1 n+2+ oe tle Hey This is obvious because — i + — <-H since n 21 ria | For large On Onset so = *1 and we may say 2 —>1 nd n We have the following equation (we ignore reduced mass effects) 2 mY kr mvr=nh so my =Vmkr te and reV4 Vmk and ve Vaavmk | m The energy levels are E,= dmvis de? ~imhVmek 1, 0h 2 2 Vmk m my & m272 6.22 The basic equations have been derived in the problem (6.20). We rewrite them here and determine the the required values. 2 @ n= __ zo 1 for H, 2-2 for Het m(Ze/4n&) Thus rn = 528pm, for Hatom 1, = 264pm, for He* ion sreenniZ (Ame) h v, = 2-191 x 10°m/s for H atom vy = 4382 x 10° m/s for He* ion mane m(Zey T=smvi = Gea Dente (aes ON T = 13-65 eV for H atom T = 546 eV for He* ion In both cases E,= T because E,= -~E and E= ~T (Recall that for coulomb force V=-27) (c) The ionization potential @; is given by eg = Ey so @; = 13°65 volts for H atom 9; = 546 volts for He* ion £, = - 2S ev tor The energy levels are E, = - “3° eV for H atom and E, = ~ 48 ev for Het ion n Thus 9, = 1365 1 vot = 10-23 volts for H atom @, = 4x 10-23 = 409 volts for He* ion ‘The wavelength of the resonance line (an! = 2>n = 1) is given by 2Qnhe_ 136 136 ary saaeecanrguatanrymel2 10-23 eV for H atom so A = 121-2 nm for H atom For He* ion he whe = 30-3nm.6.23 6.24 6.25 273 This has been calculated before in problem (6.20). It is m(Ze/Aneoy o- a = 2-08 x 10° rad/sec n An electron moving in a circle with a time period T constitutes a current e I-F and forms a current loop of area xr’. This is equivalent to magnetic moment, ex? _ evr peInr = T > on using v = 2%7/T. Thus _emvr neh ea o mane for the n orbit. (In Gaussian units My = neh/2 mc) We see that e Mn = 55g Mn where M, = nh = mv is the angular momentum Mn _e Thus M7 Om cu 9-27 x 1077 Am? Mit ay 7 Me (In CGS units py = py = 9:27 x 1077! exg/gauss) ‘The revolving electron is equivalent to a circular current pak e ev T 2nr/v 2nr The magnetic induction _ Hol _ Mev eee . é (axe) yh =o an Lyme! 256 x eg? Substitution gives B = 12:56 T at the centre. (In Gaussian units me" B= MS = 1256kG. ch274 6.26 6.27 From the general formula for the transition n, —> 7, a gna on elae) where Ey = 1365 eV. Then (1) Lyman, m, = 1, m = 2,3. Thus hoz 38 y = 10-238 eV This corresponds to = 2ach = O121pm and Lyman lines have }< 0-121 ym with the series limit at -0909 pm (2) Balmer: m = 2, 1 = 3,4, ho eu(§ 3) = Sey 1876 eV This corresponds to d= 065 pm and Balmer series has A < 0-65 4m with the series limit at A = 0-363 pm. (3) Paschen: ny = 3, m = 4,5,... 11 7 hoz Ey 3-76) = Fu = 016635 ev This corresponds to A = 1-869 um with the series limit at 4 = 0-818 4m o1mm YZ visible | foum The Balmer line of wavelength 486-1 nm is due to the transition 4 —> 2 while the Balmer line of wavelingth 410-2 nm is due to the transition 6 —> 2. The line whose wave number corresponds to the difference in wave numbers of these two lines is due to the transition 6 —» 4, That line belongs to the Brackett series. The wavelength of this line is 1 dude te "5 tae 2627 ym at oh275 6.28 The energies are ‘They correspond to wavelengths 654-2nm, 484-6nm and 433 nm The n™ line of the Balmer series has the energy 1 i: F( 4 (n+2y ) For n = 19, we get the wavelength 366-7450 nm For n = 20 we get the wavelength 366: 4470 nm To resolve these lines we require a resolving power of w » , 3666 OK (0298 R = 123x10° 6.29 For the Balmer series ho, =4R ( where #R = Ey = 13-65 eV. Thus 2nhc 11 neem 2nhe 2nhe 1 i or - =hRi > dna a (3 ini) = nr 2Eth 0 AR for noo W(n+1) 1 Thus Cone eee a n de hen xew OA” ARH” XR On the other hand for just resolution in a diffraction grating 1 or hee i Lig le an RN RG = ygkh = zqasin® = x sind 3 Sexe Hence sin@ = TR Substitution gives @ = 59-4°,276 6.30 6.31 6.32 6.33 If all wavelengths are four times shorter but otherwise similar to the hydrogen atom spectrum then the energy levels of the given atom must be four times greater. —— z, « AEH 5 E, compared to E, = ~—# for hydrogen atom. Therefore the spectrum is that of He’ ion cs (z= 2). Because of cascading all possible transitions are seen. Thus we look for the number of ways in which we can select upper and lower levels. The number of ways we can do this is dn(n-1) where the factor ; takes account of the fact that the photon emission always arises from upper —> lower transition. These are the Lyman lines hoe = i-7] are oatatie For n= 2 we get A= 121-1nm For n= 3 we get d= 102-2nm For n= 4 we get h = 96-9 nm For n=5 we get d = 94-64nm For n= 6 we get A = 93-45 nm Thus at the level of accuracy of our calculation, there are four lines 121-1nm, 102-2nm, 96-9nm and 94-64nm. If the wavelengths are 41, Az then the total energy of the excited start must be zach Zech E, = E+ 25% y he 4E, But £, = -4E, and E, = -—" where we are ignoring reduced mass effects. ” 4E, Then 4Ey = i Bach, 2 es - 1 Substituting the values we get Wn 23 which we take to mean n = 5. (The result is sensitive to the values of the various quantities and small differences get multiplied because difference of two large quantities is involved : En = —_+n meh/i 1 a Pi]6.34 6.35 6.36 277 For the longest wavelength (first) line of the Balmer series we have on using the generalized Balmer formula 1 w= 2R(> (* 2nc 8nxce the result = —2Re__ | Sue ie (ee) 22k 4 176 xe Th AD = AiBame - » tbe en 1 Balmar ~ At Lyman ane so R= AIRS. 9.07% 10" secm? an From the formula of the previous problem an = 16ze 152°R or ze\ / 176 xc 1SRAR Substitution of A = 59:3nm and R and the previous problem gives Z = 3 This identifies the ion as Li* We start from the generalized Balmer formula 11 o = R2(5-= (F-) Here m=ne+1jnt+2,...0 The interval between extreme lines of this series (series 7) is : ) = R2/(n+1)? do ade arcs iw Hence do278 6.37 6.38 6.39 Then the wavelength will be 2 Va ) 2ne _ 2xe (2 ao ~? oO, Ao azV BR -1 do Substitution (with the value of R from problem 6.34 which is also the correct value determined directly) gives Me dy = 0-468 pm. For the third line of of Balmer series 11), Upp © Re(3 #] 100 F 2 2c 200xc chee = ze moze Substitution gives Z = 2. Hence the binding energy of the electron in the ground state of this ion is Hence Ae Ey = 4Ey = 4% 1365 = 546eV The ion is He’. To remove one electron requires 24-6 eV. The ion that is left is He* which in its ground start has a binding energy of 4E,, = 4#R. The complete binding energy of both electrons is then E = E+4hR Substitution gives E=7910V By conservation of energy 1 2 _ ake gmv? = 222e eg, where E, = 4%R is the binding energy of the electron in the ground state of He*. (Recoil of He** nucleus is neglected). Then Substitution gives Vv = 2:25 x 10° m/s6.40 279 Photon can be emitted in H- H collision only if one of the H is excited to an n = 2 state which then dexcites to n = 1 state by emitting a photon. Let v, and v2 be the velocities of the two Hydrogen atoms after the collision and M their masses. Then, energy momentum conservation Mv,+Mv, = V2MT (in the frame of the stationary H atom) iuvi+iovds3ar =T 3. : grr =oa(1- 2 Eliminating v2 Left V ar -w em =T ) is the excitation energy of the n = 2 state from the ground state. 1 2 27 2T| 3 or Laster aT v2 |,3an 7 1 27 13 u(o-3 |.gredaner ly 2r Bare or u{v-t | | tee af For minimum T, the square on the left should vanish. Thus T = Snr = 20-4eV In the rest frame of the original excited nucleus we have the equations O = py + Diz Sar = cl] Byl+py/2M (ime is the energy available in n = 2 —> =1 transition corresponding to the first Lyman line.) 3RRM . 2 Then Pit 2M c py - 0 or (py+Mcy =O 3aRM Veer? . 3hR 34R Py = -Mct Mees OKRM ~Mesme(1+ 2075) ) 0) Here f pax Qarp=2nnh on Fe 242 1 Hence E,=— "ome 2 i Lyle. (c) By energy conservation am*tz%* E so p=V2mE-max Then f pax -§ Vine-ma? dx V2E a -2Vma J V 22-2 ax VE a ‘ ” eae fvFFa-ef cos’ 0d 0 =e ~x/2 ma « x - $f (1+00s20)d0 = oF. 2 Thus f vax = 2Vma-2E ban VB =2xnh Hence E,=nhV =. (b) It is requined to find the energy levels of the circular orbait for the rotential U(r) = -F282 In a circular orbit, the particle only has tangential velocity and the quantization condition reads f pdx =mv2nr=2xnh so mvr =M=nh The energy of the particle is E- nahi 2mPor Equilibrium requires that the energy as a function of r be minimum. Thus ro we ma 2 ma: Hence i: : 2k 6.46 The total energy of the H-atom in an arbitrary frame is i i é 2 uv -—_—_*“___ E im¥ +9Me - GEE Here V; = rf, Vz = 73, 77 & ry are the coordinates of the electron and protons. ‘We define =» mm+M7 ‘Mie Pen 7 7 mV, +MV; ia - nM v2 I-14 > > MS or Y= Ve ET FT mi Vo = V- a m+M~ ae 2 1 1 mM» _é nd t == Veo Ve and we ge En (mM) TY deer In the frame V = 0, this reduces to the energy of a particle of mass _ mM. Be n+M wt is called the reduced mass. Then283 ' m m Since 7 = m(1-™ " we” ( Mt ) M these values differ by J7-(w 054%) from the values obtained without considering nuclear motion. (M = 1837m) 6.47 The difference between the binding energies is AE, = E,(D)-Ey(H) 4 4 aotm o* ae 14% 14s Substitution gives AE, = 3-7 meV. For the first line of the Lyman series i 2ahe 11 3 me wna( Et) «Zan or N= Hence = ih (where A, is the wavelength of the first line of Lyman series without considering nuclear motion). Substitution gives (see 6.21 for A,) using 4, = 121 nm Ah = 33pm284 6.48 (a) In the mesonic system, the reduced mass of the system is related to the masses of the meson (7m, ) and proton (m,) by cele ig be Soe 7 18604m, Then, 2 separation between the particles in the ground state = 4 B 1 n ett 186 me = 0-284 pm 4 E, (meson) = a = 186 x 13-65 eV = 254keV 8xhe da (Hydrogen) eer e 186 ead (on using A, (Hydrogen ) = 121 nm). (b) In the positronium me Me Helm a 2: Thus separation between the particles is the ground state 2 ~24 = 105-8 me pm m 2 Ey( positronium ) = 3-355 = dR) = 68eV 41 (positronium ) = 22; (Hydrogen) = 0-243 nm,6.2 WAVE PROPERTIES OF PARTICLES. 6.49 6.51 SCHRODINGER EQUATION The kinetic energy is nonrelativistic in all three cases. Now 2mh | _2nh P 2mT using T = 1602 x 10-7 Joules, we get de = 1226 pm dy = 2-86 pm ~ 0, dw = 0-185 pm. (where we have used a mass number of 238 for the U nucleus). A= 2xh _ _2xh P 2mT From i = aa avn? 20H? 2me xe aL ut 3 oe Thus h-T = 2x ( sl Substitution gives AT = 451eV = 0-451 keV. We shall use My ~ 2M,. The CM is moving with velocity voM,T Tee 2t Ve with respect to the Lab frame. In the CM frame the age of neutron is tay -VeV2t V2t .V2t.2 peecee Mm, ~ YOM, M, 3 Qah __3mxh Miv'n V2M,T and Nee Substitution gives X/, = 8-6 pm Since the momenta are equal in the CM frame the de Broglie wavelengths will also be equal. If we do not assume Mz ~ 2M, we shall get 2xh(1+M,/M,) 2 2M,T286 6.52 If py, py are the momenta of the two particles then their momenta in the CM frame will be + (pi -p3)/2 as the particle are identical. Hence their de Broglie wavelength will be es LiR-l Vahok e 2 .2he Vi Viaje 8 (because py 1 p>) 2 6.53 In thermodynamic equilibrium, Maxwell’s velocity distribution law holds : dN(v) = ®(v)dv = Avee™Y ET dy © (v) is maximum when oe 2_mv ®'(v) = O(v) [e-F| 0. The difines the most probable velocity. Ye 2 Va The de Broglie wavelength of H molecules with the most probable velocity is = 2Kh | _2xh ™Vo = V2mkT Substituting the appropriate value especially a m = my, = 2myz, T = 300K, we get X= 126 pm 6.54 To find the most probable de Broglie wavelength of a gas in thermodynamic equilibrium we determine the distribution is 4 corresponding to Maxwellian velocity distribution. It is given by w(h)dd = -@(v)dv (where — sign takes account of the fact that 4 decreaes as v increases). Now 2nh 2nh ie - 2xh m mh dv = -2%4 ay me Thus W(A) = saveranzet| x)287 2 2nh ~4 a] ( = Const -274e79" 20 "mkT where a This is maximum when Vi) =0 = 900/055 or dye = Va/2 = xh | VmkT Using the result of the previous problem it is 126 Yor = = pm = 89-1 pm. wo v2 6.55 For a relativistic particle T+mc = total energy = V c2p? +m? ct Squaring VT(T+2mc) =cp Hence ieee em Came VI(T+2mc*) . 2xh V anr(s+ | 2me If we use nonrclativistic formula, hag = 22h 2mT so AR. Mark | 7 a dye 4m? “a If T/2me2<<1, we can write (1+ —> «1-4, 2me* 4me Thus 7 S28 i he ror is less than A A For electron the error is not more than 1 % if6.56 6.57 T s 4x0511 x 01 MeV = 20-4keV For a proton, the error is not more than 1 % if T s 4x 938 x 0-01 MeV oat: T s 375 MeV. The de Broglie wavelength is 2xh MoV _ 2ah ape v = 1-v7/e' Vi-vy? and the Compton wavelength is dan = 2nh Ne ge The two are equal if B= V1-§?, where p =~ 1 or fa. The corresponding kinetic energy is 7 = ee mgd = (VE -1) mye V1-p7 ‘Here mg is th rest mass of the particle (here an electron). For relativistic electrons, the formula for the short wavelength limit of X- rays will be aE ome Ss ee 2h or (Seren) = Pam? or (Fr) (Here) 7 rr mh Hence Rao Aa] V4 2B» 3:29pm6.58 6.59 6.60 289 The first minimum in a Fraunhofer diffraction is given by (b is the width of the slit) bsin® =A Here ee se V 24(42 1 +( ) ae Thus n= BAX, 22h 4xhl 6 so v = ARAL 2202 108 m/s From the Young slit formula In 1 2xh Ax A, 122k _ a 4 Vimev Substitution gives Ax = 490um. From Bragg’s law, for the first case : 2xh 2dsin® = md = ny ———— V2meVo where my is an unknown integer. For the next higher voltage 2xh 2dsin® = (1 +1)—224 V2menVo 1 Thus vn or Or 7% = Z vn-1 Going back we get 24? La) 1. 0150 kev V0" omed'sin?® (va-1) Note :- In the Bragg’s formula, 0 is the glancing angle and not the angle of incidence. We have obtained correct result by taking 0 to be the glancing angle. If @ is the angle of incidence, then the glancing angle will be 90 - 0. Then the final answer will be smaller by a factor Zgui tan? = 5.290 6.61 6.62 6.63 Path difference is d+ dco 0=2d cos”, Thus for reflection maximum of the k” order 2dcos?® = ka = k-25A 2 2mT Hence d = BB sec? amt? Substitution with k = 4 gives d = 0-232nm Sce the analogous problem with X- rays (5.156) The glancing angle is obtained from D tan26 = 21 where D = diameter of the ring, | = distance from the foil to the screen. Then for the third order Bragg reflection 2dsin@ = kX = k2EA,(k = 3) V2mT Thus d= 24k _ . 92320m VimrTsin® Inside the metal, there is a negative potential energy of - e V; . (This potential energy prevents electrons from leaking out and can be measured in photoelectric effect etc.) An clectron whose KE. is eV outside the metal will find its KE. increased to e( V+ V;) in the metal. Then (a) de Broglie wavelength in the metal Ae er 2xh V2me(V+V;) Also de Broglie wavelength in vacuum 2xh V2mVe do Vv vi Hence refractive index n= =~ = V 1+7 he v V 1 ~ ne 1+ =105 “he Substituting we get6.64 6.65 6.66 291 ts (1+? or Vis n(24+n)V ae eV sgaesessidseeeet Vi n(2+n) For n= 1% = 001 v we get > 2 50 The energy inside the well is all kinetic if energy is measured from the value inside. We require aera QmE i Eo EW 2,0. 2ml The Bohr condition f vax = § 22% ax = 2200 For the case when A is constant (for example in circular orbits) this means 2ur=nk Here r is the radius of the circular orbit. From the uncertainty principle (Eqn. (6.2b)) AxAp, >% h Thus Ap, = mAv, > 5 or an > aS For an electron this means an uncertainty in velocity of 116 m/s if Ax = 10°°m = 1pm For a proton = 63 cm/s For a ball Av, = 1x 107 cm/s292 6.67 6.68 6.69 6.70 6.71 As in the previous problem Av § 2% 2 146% :10' m/s ml The actual velocity v, has been calculated in problem 6.21. It is vy = 2:21 x 10° m/s Thus Av _ v, (They are of the same order of magnitude) IeAx = d/2n = 22h. 1 kL > mv Thus Av> av Thus Av is of the same order as v. Initial uncertainty Av S a . With this incertainty the wave train will spread out to a distance 111 long in time 2 want] Be aE ce, = 86x10" sec. _ 10” * sec. Clearly Ax = J so apie Now p, 2 Ap, and so The momentum the electron is Ap, = V2mT Uncertainty in its momentum is Ap, = h/Ax =h/I Hence relative uncertainty ADs Ay Ps IV2mT ui Substitution gives AY LAP 2975x1075 » 1074 cn of6.72 6.73 6.74 293 By uncertainty principle, the uncertainty in momentum t ap > For the ground state, we expect Ap _p so a E_—, 2mi? The force excerted on the wall can be obtained most simply from 2 r--29_*% at mp? We write | P~ AP ay ~ ie. all four quantities are of the same order of magnitude, Then 2 n? k Ew + dere <-Vmkx| +nV me 2 ale ) Thus we get an equilibrium situation (E = minimum) when h xexm= Ve Vmk and then E+E _1V = -no m Quantum mechanics gives Ey =ho/2 Hence we write r Ar, p_Ap _W/Ar Then Hence reg + = 53 pth for the equilibrium state. : and then B= - 7S 0-136. 2H294 6.75 Suppose the width of the slit (its extension along the y- axis) is 6. Then each electron has 6.76 an uncertainty Ay _ . This translates to an uncertainty Ap, _%h/8. We must therefore have Py > hid. For the image, brodening has two sources. ‘We write A(8 ) = 5+A' (5) where A’ is the width caused by the spreading of electrons due to their transverse momentum. ‘We have Thus For large 8, A(5) _ 5 and quantum effect is unimportant. For small 5, quantum effects are 3-V¥ % mv as we see by completing the square. Substitution gives 8 = 1025 x 1075 m = 0-01 mm large. But A(8) is minimum when The Schrodinger equation in one dimension for a free particle is at Im ox we write y (x,t) = @ (x) x(t). Then indy, Bide. x dt” 2mQ dy E, say Then x00) wom (474) . .V2mE (2) _ exp] ix E must be real and positive if ¢ (x) is to be bounded everywhere. Then (x,t) = Const cxn(5(V2mE x-Er)) This particular solution describes plane waves.205 6.77 We look for the solution of Schrodinger eqn. with -E ft ey,oszs! a The boundary condition of impenetrable walls means W(x) = 0 forx = 0 and x= 1 (as w(x) = 0 forx <0 and x >/,) The solution of (1) is V2mE V2mE , t V(2) = Asin 2 x4 Boos Then y(0)=0=B=0 (1) = 0 = Asin~ 3mE 0 A#050 V2mE yan h Hence Beas 2mI Thus the ground state wave function is w(x) = Asin ‘We evaluate A by nomalization 1 « roa f sin? 2X dx oat f sintoao = a1.% 0 0 2 Ts av? Finally, the probability P for the particle to lie in i sxs 2h is 23 ie 21) 20 git pep(fexe¥) = 3f at as 203 2nd - 2f sin?0d0 = 1f (1- 00s 20)d0 x x 3 36.78 Here -£ sxs ©. again we have p(x) = Boos 2 —* +A sin Then the boundary condition v(= 2) =0 2mEl . V2mEL gives B cos SE s Asin ST = 0 There are two cases. V2mE! x (1) A= 0, SS = nxed gives even solution. Here VimE =(2n+1) mh rn nd E, = (2n+1 a nm (2a ieee : 2 xx Welz) = VF cos (2m41) n= 0,1,2,3,... This solution is even under x > - x. @) B=0, VomEl an, n= 1,2 oh : +2, w E, = (2nnf in = (ney Imi aaX | n =1,2,... This solution is odd. 6.79 The wave function is given in 6.77. We see that 1 i oe nx Svc ve (x)dx -ife ‘ n ZX ay EE sin a297 1 1 ee ae ~7f [owta-™) jon ens (nen! AX de 1 sin(n+n') 2 1 | sin(n-n')xx/l “1 x mx | (nen) % (m+n) 7 7 lo If n= n’, this is zero as n and n' are integers. 6.80 We have found that ww fee mila Let N(E) = number of states upto E, This number is n. The number of states upto E+dE isN(E+dE) = N(E)+dN(E). Then dN(E) = 1 and dN(E)_ 1 dE AE where AE = difference in energies between the n™ & (n+1)" level = esto gt = BOE aa? 7 2H tn, (neglecting 1 << n) -28.V 2m VE x2 a aN(E)_ 1 dE "xh For the given case this gives we) = 0-816 x 10’ levels per eV 6.81 (a) Here the schrodinger equation is 2 a 0 as €,, €—> 0 Thus (22). -(B)_ ew acere fc} me: So (3?) is continuous at x = O (the point where U(x) has a finite jump discontinuity.) (a) Starting from the Schrodinger equation in the regions I & I fy, 2mE eo x ind () ae ow Py 2mE(Uy-E) : oe 0 xin Q where Up> E> 0, we easily derive the solutions in I & II W, (x) = Asinkx +B cos kx @ Wy (x) = Ce%*+De“™* (4)301 pa 2mE ap 2m(Uo-E) where aan w The boundary conditions are Wo) =0 6) and V & (2) are continuous at x = J, and W must vanish at x = +0, Then wy, = Asin kx and W, = De“* so Asinkl = De~*! kAcoskl = -aDe~*! From this we get tank! = os a or sinkl = 2 kI/ VPP +e? went / V 2m Uo! ee = 2 kIVVP/2mUyl? © Plotting the left and right sides of this equation we can find the points at which the straight lines cross the sine curve. The roots of the equation corresponding to the eigen values of energy E; and found from the inter section points (k/);, for which tan (k/); <0 (ie. 2% & 4" and other even quadrants). It is seen that bound states do not always exist. For the first bound state to appear (refer to the line (b) above) (ED ime = 52 (b) Substituting, we get (PF Up)imia = ule as the condition for the appearance of the first bound state, The second bound state will appear when Ai is in the fourth quadrant. The magnitude of the slope of the straight line must then be less than 1 3n/2 Corresponding to (kDa min = = @% = @x2-0¥ For n bound states, it is easy to convince one self that the slope of the appropriate straight line (upper or lower) must be less than x (KD)n, min = (2n- 1) 5 Qn-1p rh Then (PUp)n min = an Do not forget to note that for large m both + and - signs in the Eq. (5) contribute to solutions. 2. 2 686 UI? = (32x) © wr (32) 242 2 3°) x and EI - (3) Im or kine It is easy to check that the condition of the boud state is satisfied. Also Uy al=V 2F (Up-E)I? -V ae ax Then from the previous problem D=Ae'sinkl =A By normalization 1 « T=A? fotecasf ° 1 ww BUD) gy303 2 =A7l5 0 ale 2)1f_sin2kl] 13x] | 2 o 2| 2k 2 eles ago lee2 eee V2 (1s 4 [3+sa] A a(t+s4) a 4-2 (+35) The probability of the particle to be located in the region x > 1 is 6.87 The Schrodinger equation is 2m Vys P(E-U(r))y =0 id/(pdy when w depends onr only, = Vy = na(?a) xtr) dw x _x If we put ye pata pod and vy = ©. Thus we get fy 2m Tet TEU) x = 0 The solution is % = Asinkr, rK (For r we The Schrédinger equation for the problem in Gaussian units 2 é +E]v-0 In MKS units we should read (€”/4.x€9) for e. (7) 2m Cal we put y= A. then xP Eto |x = 0 0) We are given that Kary =Ar(itarye% so X= A(1+2ar) e%-aAr(l+arje x" = @Ar(1tar)e"*"-2aA(1+2ar)e""+2aAe Substitution in (1) gives the condition o(reaP)-2a(142ar)+2as2P(Erse)x(14ar) = Equating thc coefficients of r’, r, and constant term to zero we get 2 2a-20+2"£ 29 @ acts 2 FE a= 0 Q) 2 2m 2 -d4aa+2 (E+ea) = 0 (4 a2 From (3) either a = 0, te 2m306 2 2 4 me’ nH 2 me In the first case a a Im % oe This state is the ground state. 2 In the second case a=a- orae a in? , me 1 me Eu- da=-— ee This state is one with n = 2 (2s). 6.92 We first find A by normalization @ () © 2 1 = fanarerrn Pdr= mA e* 2 dx = nA78 0 ° since the integral has the value 2. Thus Abed, or Ae The most probable distance rp, is that value of r . which P(r) =4xP|y(r)|72 = 27 a is maximum. This requires ? P(r) = 4] or-22] et 0 r= § [27-28] or renal. The coulomb force being given by - e7/r’, the mean value of its modulus is In MKS units we should read (€7/4 x €9) for e” 2 2 = faaPty crm fare -£ fretar--£ , an r nd n In MKS units we should read (7/4 x €9) for e”.307 6.93 We find A by normalization as above. We get 1 Van A= Then the electronic charge density is -29/n enh p=-elyl?=-e 2 a (7 3 The potential (7) due to this charge density is 1 7 A oe taf BB} er 4ne so at the origin p(0) = af CO) gartdr = He + err 0 od OF oo 0 $f retdx = - Ge Tren J (4xeo)n 6.94 (a) We start from the Schrodinger equation fe 2mce U(x)) y= 0 which we write as Wj" +, = 0, x<0 gu 2mE e and Wy" +a Wy = 0 x>0 2m a= Ge (EM) >0 It is convenient to look for solutions in the form yp =e +Re x <0 Wy = Ae! 4+ Be '** x30 nike In region (x <0), the amplitude of e'** is written as unity by convention. In II we expect only a transmitted wave to the right, B = 0 then. So Wy, = Ae'** x>0 The boundary conditions follow from the continuity of ¥ & ay atx = 0. 1+R=A iK(1-R) = iad 1-R_a@ k-a TR Riese Then308 The reflection coefficient is the absolute square of R = 2 k-a k+a r= (RP = (b) In this case E< Uy, a” = - 8? <0. Then Y; is unchanged in form but Wy = Ae P* + Beth* we must have B = 0 since otherwise y (x) will become unbounded as x > & . Finally Wy = Ae7** Inside the barrier, the particle then has a probability density equal to 2 28x [wep = 14 [e728 This decreases to A of its value in h 27 226 2V2m(Uy-E) 6.95 The formula is "a: D~cxp -2f V2m(V(x)-E) dx Here V(x,) = V(x,) = E and V(x)>E in the region x.>x>x. (a) For the problem, the integral is trivial D ~ exp [-% Vim) | (b) We can without loss of generality take x = 0 at the point the potential begins to climb. Then 0 x<0 U(x) = | U7 0 l 1 2 z Then D ~ exp “55 V 2m(Uo5-£) dx iz a % : = 2mU, E = exp -5V vt f vERm ax X= *309 2yf2mUy 2 = exp | -2 os Pectin x)? _ 4 of tm Al aN ah 1 ( ws) = exp al Fr o-E ey? 2m | 2 i 6.96 The potential is U(x) = wal 1- } The turning points are ee ene L Uy” V1 (E70) mmole f Velo dS a g 3 ' 1 m4) Up IVI-(E/Up) wen |-2 of vam Vi-E-S as : * = exp - vine f Vib-2 dx], x = VI- EM 0 The integral is Thus310 6.3 PROPERTIES OF ATOMS. SPECTRA 6.97 From ihe Rydberg formula we write ee nee (n+ 04) we use hR = 136 cV. Then for n = 2 state 539 = - 3S 2 0(5) state (2+ a9) Oy = - 0-41 for p state 136 354 = - (Qa, oy = - 0039 6.98 The energy of the 3p state must be - (Ep - ep) where ~ Ep is the energy of the 3 S state. Then aR Eo €9, = Aaa EES A so 1 6.99 For the first line of the sharp series (3 > 2P) in a Li atom 2xhe_ __#R_ | _#R m Gray (24a) For the short wave cut-off wave-length of the same series 2nhe aR Ev (240) From these two equations we get on subtraction AR 3409 = oy Buh “Vanean? A" Mo& Thus in the ground state, the binding energy of the electron is 2, E,= wun] (V Bam). sane ray 2mcAh6.100 6.101 6.102 311 The energy of the 3 S state is aR EGS) --—*2__.- 2030 C9 os0ay ° ‘The energy of a 2S state is E@s) = -—*8_.. _ sa9ev @-0-4iy The energy of a 2 P state is aR EQP)=-—*R ..-355ev on-- oe : We sce that E(2S)2P and 2P->2S. Direct 3S —» 2S transition is forbidden by selection rules. The wavelengths are determined by E)-E, = AE = 2ahe Substitution gives 2 = 0816 pm(3S—>2P) and 2 = 0674um(2P>25) The splitting of the Na lines is due to the fine structure splitting of 3 p lines (The 3 s state is nearly single except for possible hyperfine effects.) The splitting of the 3 p level then equals the energy difference 2mhe _2nhe _ 2nhe(M-M) | 2ehcAd AE = : pitts ™ Es Aim v Here Ad = wavelength difference & 2 = average wavelength. Substitution gives AE = 20meV The sharp series arise from the transitions ns —> m p. The $ lines are unsplit so the splitting is due entirely to the p level. The frequency difference between sequent lines is 4B and is the same for all lines of the sharp series. It is 1 (2whe 2mhe)_ 2ncAh h ( Dae ) “Wk Evaluation gives 1-645 x 10 rad/s312 6.103 6.104 6.105 ‘We shall ignore hyperfine interaction. The state with principal quantum number n = 3 has orbital angular momentum quantum number 1 = 0,1,2 The levels with these terms are 35,3P,3.D. The total angular momentum is obtained by combining spin and angular momentum. For a single electron this leads to 1, J=5 ifL=0 i: sheets JuL- 5 ad Lee if L«0 We then get the final designations 381, 3P1, 3 P32, 3Dsr, 3Dsp- 2 2 The rule is that if J”= L°+5” then J takes the values |L-S| to L+s in step of 1. Thus : (@) The values are 1, 2, 3, 4,5 (b) The values are 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5,6 nie 5 Bee ee eer (©) The values are >, 5,545, For the state 4p, L = 1,5 = 3 (since 25+1 = 4). For the state Sd, L = 2,5 =2. The possible values of J are 531 Jigs ge g for ap J: 4,3,2,1,0 for Sd The value of the magnitude of angular momentum is VJ (J+1) . Substitution gives the values 4P: a/i.3 _#V3 3.5 _nVI5 LA (Cab ioe ary Avi) cen and aVi.2 Ws 5D:0,4#V2,nV6,HV12,#V206.106 6.107 6.108 6.109 313 (@) For the Na atoms the valence electron has principal quantem number n = 4, and the possible values of orbital angular momentum are J = 0, 1, 2, 3 80 Imac = 3. The state is 2F, maximum value of J is 2, 2 Thus the state with maximum angular momentum will be Fan For this state Mog = V2.3 eS (©) For the atom with electronic configuration 1 s? 2 p 3 d . There are two inequivalent valence electrons. The total orbital angular moments will be 1, 2, 3 so we pick J = 3. The total spin angular momentum will be s = 0,1 so we pick up s = 1. Finally J will be 2, 3, 4 so we pick up 4. Thus maximum angular momentum state is 3 Fs For this state Manx =#V4xS = 2NVS. For the f state L = 3, For the d state L = 2. Now if the state has spin s the possible angular momentum are |L-S| wL+s The number of J angular momentiim values is 2S+1 if Lz S and 2L +1 if L S = 3 corresponding to 2 ae Mie V2.2 22 Maximum orbital angular momentum —> corresponding to M,=h Maximum total angular momentum corresponding to In vector model or in magnitude squared L(L41)¥# = J(J41)#+S8(S+1)¥ 27S” om I (S41)4S(S4+1)-L(L+1) Th J,S) 5 sso . cos (&I, 5) 2VT(J+1) VS(S41) Substitution gives "Piz is allowed 3p, — 5, not allowed 3F, —> *P, is not allowed (AL = 2) ‘Fin —> “Ds is allowed For a 3d state of a Li atom, S = + because there is only one electron and L = 2. The total degeneracy is -g = (2L4+1)(254+1) = 5x2 = 10. The states are 7D, and "Ds and we check that z gn 4+6= (2322) +(2*5+1] The state with greatest possible total angular momentum are For a ?P state Judea Fi tS Its degeneracy is 4. For a 3D state J=14+2 =3 ie. °D; Its degeneracy is 2x3+1 = 7 ee For a ‘F state 5 z Its degeneracy is 2xFe41 = 10.316 6117 6.118 6.119 The degeneracy is 2 +1. So we must have J = 3. From L = 3S, we see that S must be an integer since L is integral and S can be either integral or half integral. If S=0 then L=0 but this ~—is_—consistent’ 3=s with © J. = 3. For Sz2,Lz26 and then J« 3. Thus the state is °F, ‘The order of filling is K, L, M shells, then 4s”, 3d'° then 4 p®, The electronic configuration of the clement will be 157257283 573 p°4s?3.d 4p? (There must be three 4p electrons) The number of electrons is Z = 33 and the element is As. (The 3d subshell must be filled before 4p fills up.) (a) when the partially filled shell contains three p electrons, the total spin S must equal Ss i or 3. The state $= Stas maximum spin and is totally symmetric under ex- change of spin lables. By Pauli’s exclusion principle this implies that the angular part of the wavefunction must be totally anti symmetric. Since the angular part of the wave function a p electron is vector 7, the total wavefunction of three p clectrons is the totally antisymmetric combination of 7;, 73, and 73. The only such combination is aa 1 #2 3 it: (ax75) = | y2 9s 43 This combination is a scalar and hence has L = 0. The spectral term of the ground state is then 4s, since J = 3. 3 2 3 (b) We can think of four p electrons as consisting of a full p shell with two p holes. The state of maximum spin S is then S = 1. By Pauli’s principle the orbital angular momen- tum part must be antisymmetric and can only have the form ones xl where 7], 7 are the coordinates of holes. The result is harder to see if we do not use the concept of holes. Four p electrons can have S = 0, 1, 2 but the S = 2 state is totally symmetric. The corresponding angular wavefunction must be totally antisymmetric, But this is impossible : there is no quantity which is amtisymmetric in four vectors. Thus the maximum allowed S is S = 1. We can construct such a state by coupling the spins of electrons 1 & 2 to S = 1 and of electrons 3 & 4 to S = 1 and then coupling the resultant spin states to S = 1. Such a state is symmetric under the exchange of spins of 1 & 2nd 3 and 4 but antisymmetric under the simultaneous exchange of (1, 2) & (3, 4). the con-317 jugate angular wavefunction must be antisymmetric under the exchange of (1, 2) and under the exchange of (3, 4) by Pauli principle. It must also be antisymmetric under the simultaneous exchange of (1, 2) and (3, 4). (This is because two exchanges of electrons are involved.) The required angular wavefunction then has the form (Fx 47) and is a vector, L = 1. Thus, using also the fact that the shell is more than half full, we find the spectral term 3P, (J =L45S). 6.120 (a) The maximum spin angular momentum of three electrons can be S = 3 . This state is totally symmetric and hence the conjugate angular wavefunction must be antisymmetric By Pauli’s exclusion principle the totally antisymmetric state must have different magnetic quantum numbers. It is easy to see that for d electrons the maximum value of the magnetic quantum number for orbital angular momentum |M,,| = 3 (fom 2 + 1 + 0). Higher values violate Pauli’s principle. Thus the state of highest orbital angular momentum con- sistent with Pauli’s principle is L = The state of the atom is then ‘F, where J = L-S by Hund’s rule. Thus we get 4 Fs The magnitude of the angular momentum is (b) Seven d electrons mean three holes. Then S dans = 3 as before. But J=L+Se< Soy Hund’s rule for more than half filled shell. Thus the state is “Fon Total angular momentum has the magnitude V2.8 kya aVeR 23 vu. 6.121 (a) 3F, : The maximum value of spin is S = 1 here. This means there are 2 electrons. L = 3 so s and p electrons are ruled out. Thus the simplest possibility is d electrons. This is the correct choice for if we were considering f electrons, the maximum value of L allowed by Pauli principle will be L = 5 (maximum value of the magnitude of magnetic quantum number will be 3+2 = 5.) Thus the atom has two d electrons in the unfilled shell. ©) Pyro Hoe L=1,s=4 and r=3318 6.122 6.123 6.124 © @ 0) Since J = L +S, Hund’s rule implies the shell is more than half full. This means one electron less than a full shell. On the basis of hole picture it is easy to see that we have Pp electrons. Thus the atom has 5 p electrons. “Ss Here S = 5, L = 0. We either have five electrons or five holes. The angular part is antisymmetric. For five d electrons, the maximum value of the quantum number consistent with Pauli exclusion principle is (2+1+0-1-2) = 0 so L = 0. For f or g electrons L > 0 whether the shell has five electrons or five holes. Thus the atom has five d electrons. If S = 1 is the maximum spin then there must be two electrons (If there are two holes then the shell will be more than half full.). This means that there are 6 electrons in the full shell so it is a p shell. By Paul’s principle the only antisymmetric combination of two electrons has L = 1 Also J = L~-S as the shell is less than half full. Thus the term is >Pp S= 3 means either 3 electrons or 3 holes. As the shell is more than half full the former possibility is ruled out. Thus we must have seven d electrons. Then as in problem 6.120 we get the term ‘Fy With three electrons S = 3 and the spin part is totally symmetric. It is given that the basic term has L = 3soL = 3 is the state of highest orbital angular momentum. This is not possible with p electron so we must have d electrons for which L = 3 for 3 electrons. For three f,g electrons L > 3. Thus we have 3 d electrons. Then as in (6.120) the ground state is *, 2 We have Sd electrons in the only unfilled shell. Then S = g - Maximum value of L consistent with Pauli’s principle is L = 0. Then J = Ba 2 So by Lande’s formula Thus w= gVI(+1) by = The ground state is Ss.6.125 6.126 6.127 6.128 319 By Boltzmann formula Na _ 82 ,-aeKr M & Here AE = energy difference between n = 1 and n = 2 states - 36(1-§ eV = 10-22eV 1 = 2 and gp = 8 (counting 2s & 2P states.) Thus Na gg win xtee 0 Ase e300 9.75 19-17 NM “Explicit “yw New Pe AEVET 1 plicitly mene ne MT AE, me AR(1-4 M ‘ n for the nth excited state because the degeneracy of the state with principal quantum number nis 2n’. We have NL & jshonr = & -2eheabr No 8 8 Here g = degeneracy ofthe 3P sate = 6, go = degeneracy of the 35 state = 2 and 2 = wavelength of the 3P—> 35 line (4° = energy difference between 3P & 35 levels. Substitution gives N43 x1074 No Let T = mean life time of the excited atoms. Then the number of excited atoms will decrease with time as e~“7. In time ¢ the atom travels a distance vi so f = 4. Thus the number of excited atoms in a beam that has traversed a distance / has decreased by -Wr e ‘The intensity of the.line is proportional to the number of excited atoms in the. beam. Thus ed oe eet 2 129107 second. a ving As a result of the lighting by the mercury lamp a number of afoms are pumped to the excited state. In equilibrium the number of such atoms is N. Since the mean life time of the atom is T, the number decaying per unit time is® — . Since a photon of energy 2 © results from 2xhe N cach decay, the total radiated power will be —S"* . This must equal P. Thus 2xhe | Pth ° nape] PARE. PER. 67x10320 6.129 6.130 6.131 The number of excited atoms per unit volume of the gas in 2P state is Nw n 82 g-2#heART Here g, = degeneracy of the 2p state = 6, g, = degeneacy of the 2s state = 2 and 2 = wavelength of the resonant line 2p —> 2s. The rate of decay of these atoms is x per sec. per unit volume. Since cach such atom emits light of wavelength A, we must have L2mhe | 8 ,-2enener _ p aay Thus t Peeves acute = 65-4x 10" s = 65-4 ns (a) We know that PH = Ay PE! Bos te we, ro fart ES Ty Pit 1 Thus pee eee PR ehOAT_y For the transition 2? > 1S ho = Sar and Py eeeeee we get otal canary Px substitution gives 7 x 1078 (b) The two rates becorne equal when e***T = 2 or T= (ho/kin2) = 171x10°K Because of the resonant nature of the processes we can ignore nonresonant processes. We also ignore spontancous mission since it does not contribute to the absorption coefficient and is a small term if the beam is intense enough. Suppose / is the intensity of the beam at some point. The decrease in the value of this intensity on passing through the layer of the substance of thickness dx is equal to ~dI = XIdx = (MBi2-NeBo.)(F}ro de Here N, = No. of atoms in lower level Na = No of atoms in the upper level per unit volume. Bip, Bo; are Einstein coefficients and J, = energy density in the beam, c = velocity of light.6.132 6.133 A factor A @ arises because each transition result in a loss or gain of energy 4 @ n NyB. a v= Byng( 1M) oe 81.Biz = 8 Bn 80 ae Bi No re mBa(1-B) N, By Boltzman factor M2, 82 .-hokT Mo & When hw >>kT we can put N, = No the total number of atoms per unit volume. Then kom (1-etO*) where x» = 22K, Byz is the absorption coefficient for T—> 0. A short lived state of mean life T has an uncertainty in energy of AE _ % which is transmitted to the photon it emits as natural broadening. Then 2 Qnct ear = E50 Ang = The Doppler broadening on the other hand arises from the thermal motion of radiating atoms. The effect is non-relativistic and the maximum broadening can be written as Aver 2 2p = 2Ye ¢ X Adpege | 4% Vert Thus eee = A Substitution gives using Vp = 24T = 157m/s, A dpe 1 3 ptt = 12x10 Note :- Our formula is an order of magnitude estimate. From Moseley’s law OK, = 3R(z-1 ¥ anata . *.° Ray Dx(Cu) 25)? 0a, er“ (a) ~ Thus322 6.134 6.135 6.136 Substitution gives dx (Cu) = 153-9 pm (a) From Moseley’s law 3 Om = ZR(Z- oF Qac_8xc_ 1 or aap erates ox, OK, 3R (Z-0) We shall take o = 1. For Aluminium (Z = 13) Ag (AL) = 843-2 pm and for cobalt (Z = 27) Ax, (Co) = 179-6 pm (b) This difference is nearly equal to the energy of the K, line which by Moscley’s law is equal to (Z = 23 for vanadium) AE = hog = 3x 13-62 x 22 x 22 = 4:94 keV We calculate the Z values corresponding to the given wavelengths using Moseley’s law. See problem (134). Substitution gives that Z = 23 corresponding to A = 250 pm and Z = 27 corresponding toh = 179 pm ‘There are thus three clements in a row between those whose wavelengths of K, lines are equal to 250 pm and 179 pm. From Moseley’s law 7 Buc 1 de (N) = See where Z = 28 for Ni. Substitution gives Ag, (Ni) = 1665 pm Now the short wave cut of off the continuous spectrum must be more energetic (smaller wavelength) otherwise K,, lines will not emerge. Then since AA = Ax, - Ao = 84pm we get do = 825 pm This corresponds to a voltage of Substitution gives V = 15-0kV6.137 6.138 6.139 6.140 323 Since the short wavelength cut off of the continuous spectrum is do = 0:50 nm the voltage applied must be | V = ae = 248kV since this is greater than the excitation potential of the K series of the characteristic spectrum (which is only 1-56 kV ) the latter will be observed. Suppose Xo = wavelength of the characteristic X-ray line. Then using the formula for short wavelength limit of continuous radiation 2xhe eve, 1 2ahe “7 ne “eva ( 7) peed 7 2nhe i mh on eV, at Using also Moseley’s law, we get oy 8x n-1 at Zait 3Rh =14+2 3aR = 29, The difference in frequencies of the K and L Continium absorption edges is equal, according to the Bohr picture, to the frequency of the K, line (see the diagram below). Thus by Moseley’s formule 3 Aw =GR(Z-1) edge + 440 or gait 3R =22 The metal is titanium. From the diagram above we see that the binding energy E, of a K electron is the sum of the energy of a Kg line and the energy corresponding to the L edge of absorption spectrum Ee zane +2aR(ziy For vanadium Z = 23 and the energy of K, line of vanadium has been calculated in problem 134 (b). Using 2mHe ost keV for y= 24nm we get Ey = 5-46 keV324 6.141 By Moseley’s law ho= ee Ex-E, = 3hR (2-1) where - Ex is the energy of the K electron and ~E; of the L electron. Also the energy of the line corresponding to the short wave cut off of the K series is Ep = 2khe | _2xhe ge he, 2ehe R-AX” 2me 4a © a _ the TAA” {_@AR 2m 2me ho ho Hence Ep = 2 -now 124% pete 2ne wan Substitution gives for titanium (Z = 22) @ = 685 x10" s~! and hence E, = 0-47keV ion of Zn is ho= Far(e-1y where Z = atomic number of Zinc = 30. The binding energy of the K electrons in iron is obtained from the wavelength of K absorption edge as Ex = 22h c/hx 6.142 The energy of the K, radi Hence by Einstein equation 2xhe 3 2 T= eR (Z-1) beeehge Substitution gives T = 1-463 keV This corresponds to a velocity of the photo electrons of v = 227% 10° m/s 6.143 From the Lande formula J(J+1)+S8(S+1)-L(L+1) 25 (Jd) galt (a) For S states L = 0. This implies J = S. Then, if S #0 g=2 (For singlet states g is not defined if L = 0)) 6.144 (a) (>) © @ © 6.145 (8) o) For singlet states, J = L eee J+1)-L(L+1 ae 8 27 (J+1) 6 x i Fr Here $= 3,1 =3,7= 5 3, 35 een 38-48 2 geist 4+ nts -2 2x3 3 4 ee 1 ‘Din: Here Saab n2,785 Baty eaudetere SF, Here S=2,L=3,J=2 6+6-12 | 2x6 g=l+ Sp, Here S=2,L=1,J=1 2+6- 2x2 2 galt 3p, . For states'with J = 0, L =S the g gactor is indeterminate. For the IF state S = 0,L=3=J Hence w= V3x4 py = 2V3 bp For the “Dy state S = 4, L -2,5=3 153 4 guilt ce Hence us fy 1574 Uy = 2yi5 wx 2V 2 oy. 3256.146 6.147 6.148 (©) We have 4 L(J+1)+2-6 3 2I(J+1) or $5 (741) = (5 +1)-4 or J(J+1) =12 >I =3 4 8 Hence B= =V12 py = — py. 2 v3: The expression for the projection of the magnetic moment is Wz = BM) Be where my is the projection of Jon the Z-axis. Maximum value of the my is J. Thus 4 Since J = 2, we get g = 2. Now es J(J+1)+S(S+1)-L(L+1) 2I(J+1) ae 6+ S(S+1 =6 pa? 2x6 S(S+1 Slt Hence S(S+1)=12 of S=3 Thus Mg =24V3x4 = 2V3h The angle between the angular momentum vector and the field direction is the least when the angular mommentumh projection is maximum i.e. J. Thus Th = VI(J+1) hoos 30° J v3 = J+i 7 2 Hence J=3 3x441x2-2x3 8 4 Then Bo peaek 2 | a and we Avaxa ba = Fabs. For a state with n = 3, / = 2. Thus the state with maximum angular momentum is 2 Ds6.149 6.150 6.151 327 5 7 1-3 a Sede dn3 203 en grit 2xdxt 2*2 3543-24 1 6 = 1-354 1+t- 8, Hence a 3 V5%y Ms To get the greatest possible angular momentum we must have S = Spar = 1 L = Lyx = 14+2 = 3 andJ = L+S=4 AxS#1x2-3x4 105 Then gril 2x4x5 407 4 and w= Svan Since 4 = 0 we must have either J= 0 or g = 0. But J = 0 is incompatible with L = Zand § = 2. Hence g = 0. Thus teiied: T(J41)+5x5-2%3 Codi DI) or -3(J+1) - ¥-6 - -3 Hence ge} From M=’VJ+1 =V2h we find J = 1. From the zero value of the magnetic moment we find g=0 1x 2L(L+1)+2x3 © 1+ 2x1x2 ° EE) +8 | 12 =L(L+1) or 1 0 or Hence L = 3. The state is 5F,.328 6.152 6.153 If M is the total angular momentum vector of the atom then there is a magnetic moment ing “ Bn = 8 Ha Mh associated with it; here g is the Lande factor. In a magnetic field of induction B, an energy H = -gp,M-Bh is associated with it. This interaction term corresponds to a presession of the angular momentum vector because if leads to an equation of motion of the angular momentum vector of the form dM _= iM xm ~ EB where g - Se Using Gaussian unit expression of tg Hg = 0-927 x 10” erg/gauss, B = 10° gauss th = 1-054 x 10~” erg sec and for the P37 state oo ses oo fe aH5 3 2x 5x5 and Q = 1:17x 10" rad/s ela The same formula is valid in MKS units also But y= 0:927 x 1077 Am’, B= 10~"T and ‘= 1-054 x 10” * Joule sec. The answer is the same. The force on an atom with magnetic moment ji"in a magnetic field of induction B is given by > >> F=(p-V)B In the present case, the maximum force arise when jis along the axis or close to it. aB Then Fz = (Wz max Here (tz )max = 8 bgJ- The Lande factor g is for 7Py/. Persea | 2ho2eee ei gies 3/2 ee: 1 1 and J= 5 80 (He max = 3 HB The magnetic field is given by ee 2Ixr an (PaPy?6.154 6.155 329 aR Ho. z or az an" ‘aR, Yo 31x (Gz) ave Thus Thus the maximum force is pa ty ted a anyer Substitution gives (using data in MKS units) F = 41x10°7N ‘The magnetic field at a distance r from a long current carrying wire is mostly tangential and given by The force on a magnetic dipole of moment ji’due to this magnetic field is also tangential and has a magnitude (BV) By This force is nonvanishing only when the component of along 7‘non zero. Then F a Ho 27 Tb gp le ~ —ba e Now the maximum value of p, = £ [y. Thus the force is Foag * Meee = 297x10-N In the homogeneous magnetic field the atom experinces a force aB Fu gsussz Depending on the sign of J, this can be either upward or downward. Suppose the latter is true. The atom then traverses first along a parabola inside the field and, once outside, in a straight line. The total distance between extreme lines on the screen will be 2 | ah) 4.8 2(:) 43y/ eee Here my is the mass of the vanadium atom. (The first term is the displacement within the field and the second term is the displacement due to the transverse velocity acquired in the magnetic field). aB 6 = 2gJua5F te--Lpa—--- lb —- Thus using $ myv? = T330 we get oD inepenaee2 1 Oseenen! 8 OZ gusJh(h+2h) For vanadium atom in the ground state ‘F;,.. 3x5 3x5 Paar n 3x4 oes 4 J- 3, using other data, and substituting gait =1+ ap. 1 we get oz 7 145% 10" G/em This value differs from the answer given in the book by almost a factor of 10°. For neutral atoms in ster Gerlach experiments, the value T = 22MeV is much too large. A more appropriate value will be T = 22 meV icc. 10° times smaller. Then one gets the right answer. 6.156 (a) The term 3Pp does not split in weak magnetic field as it has zero total angular momentum. (®) The term 7Fs will split into 2 xe 1 = 6 sublevels. The shift in cach sublevel is given by AE = -gpgMzB where My = -J(J-1), .., J and g is the Landi factor 5x7, 1x3 aerigetseee @iececces irateseanaee goo ae eenO & 5x7 7 "7 2x28 (©) In this case for the *D,, term 2x3 3x5 4 4 ww 4 3 tt5=24 ax ; 4 Thus the energy differences vanish and the level does not split. 2x3 geit 1-1=0 6.157 (a) For the ‘D, term 2x3+0-2x3 gl Sana} and AE = - 1g M,B My = ~ 2,-1,0,+1,+2. Thus the splitting is dE = 458 Substitution gives 8E = 579 weV331 3 4x541x2-3x4 105 (0) For the 3F, term g = 1+ Betas rg tT and A= -5uBM, where ime -4 to +4. Thus 6158 @) ) @ ) bE= S upBx8 = 1038 (= 2g up) Substitution gives 8 = 1447 peV The term 'P, splits into 3 lines with Mz = * 1, 0 in accordance with the formula AE = ~gupBMz 1x2+0-1x2 where grist e The term ‘Sy does not split in weak magnetic field. Thus the transitions between 4p, & 1Sq will result in 3 lines ie. a normal Zeeman triplet. The term Ds,» will split ot in 6 terms in accordance with the formula AE = -gugMz Mz = 5,23, 24, and SxT+1x3-4x2x3 6 Cinta 2x5x7 nS Ther term 7P3,> will also split into 4 lines in accordance with the above formula with 3 Mz = 25 edand ga 1¢3kStix3-4x 1x2 _ Gicea:Ditecectae ite 2x3x5 i Par It is seen that the Z eeman splitting is auomalous as g factors are different. *D, > *Pp The term *D, splits into 3 levels (g = 5/2) The term 3Py does not split. Thus the Zeeman spectrum is normal. For the Sis term gw 14 S262 x 3-627 2x5x6 36-42 itsstieG mite pete 6 ~ 10 10332 6.159 6.160 6.161 6.162 For the “H, term 4x5+2x3-5x6 _ 1 4 26230 i 2x 4x5 10 ‘We see that the splitting in the two levels given by AE = - g Ug BM; is the same though the number of levels is different (11 and 9). It is then easy to see that only the lines with following energies occur grit Hwy, hw + gugB. The Zeeman pattern is normal For a singlet termS = 0,L=J,g=1 Then the total splitting is SE = 2 ugB Substitution gives J=3( = 5E/2p,B) The term is 1F3. As the spectral line is caused by transition between singlet terms, the Zeeman effect will be nomnal (since g = 1 for both terms). The energy difference between extreme components of the line will be 2 1g B.This must equal lee = 2nhcAr x Pu 2 Bp BY Thus an- BO = 35pm. From the previous problem, if the components are A, A * AX, then A Qwhe AK” wyBR x For resolution —— s an R= Bx O%f the instrument. 2nhe 2nhe ieeeresareres ial at B Thus wpe sR fF BROS Hence the minimum megnetic induction is 2xhe Bais = Sg 7 ARG = O4T The *Po term does not split. The *D, term splits into 3 lines corresponding to the shift. AE = ~gugBM, with Mz = 2 1,0. The interval between neighbouring components is then given by RA = gupB purse Hence —_— & BpNow for the *D, term 4 Le2s1x 2x1x2 Substitution gives B = 3.00 kG. = 0.3 T. geal 6.163 (a) For the 7P3, term and the energy of the 7P,,> sublevels will be 4 E(Mz) = Eo- 5g B Mz ; Thus, between neighbouring sublevels. 4 SE(7Py2) = 5 HeB For the ?P,/» terms and the separation between the two sublevels into which the 2P,/» term will split is BEC Pin) = 298 The ratio of the two splittings is 2: 1. (>) The interval between neighbouring Zeeman sublevels of the *Py/2 term is Supp. The energy separation between D, and D3 lines is 2 + = A 4d (this is the natural separation of the ?P them) 4 2ahcAr Thus pieB = AN ae p= Sehean ugh n Substitution gives B = 5:46kG334 6.164 For the 7P,/ level g = 4/3 (sce above) and the energies of sublevels are hep 4 : EB! = E'y- Fab M's Sued 3» * 3 for the four sublevels For the 75, level, g = 2 (since L = 0) and 2 where M'z = E = Ey-2ugB Mz where M=+ 2 Permitted transitions must have AM, = 0,21 Thus only the following transitions occur 3,1 Dee, Aw = UsB/h = 3-96 x 10” rad/s -3/2->-1/2 tii F faite J ug B/h = 13210" rad/s eee ara, 1 1 Pee B 7 do= 25 2? . 66x10" nd/s oe z 3335 6.165 The difference arises because of different selection rules in the two cases. In (1) the line is emitted perpendicular to the field. The selection rules are then AM; = 0,21 In (2) the light is emitted along the direction of the field. Then the selection rules are AM, = #1 AM; = 0 is forbidden. (a) In the transition Ps. —> 75,2 This has been considered above. In (1) we get all the six lines shown in the problem above - 5 is forbidden. In (2) the line corresponding to 3- 5 and ~ Then we get four lines ©) *P, 5, For the 3P, level, g = 1422 3¢ix2—1x2 | 2x2x3 so the energies of the sublevels are : Hae E (Mz) = Eo-F0sBM 3 2 where Mz=+2,21,0 For the 3S, line, g = 2 and the energies of the sublevels are E(Mz) = Eo-2 3B Mz where Mz = = 1, 0. The lines are AM; = My-Mz=+1 : -2->-1,-1->0 and 071 AM, =0-1->-1,00,1>1 AM; =1,2>1,1-0,0-1 Alll energy differences are unequal because the two g values are unequal. There are then nine lines if viewed along (1) and Six lines if viewed along (2). 6.166 For the two levels B= Fo- 8 'sMigB Ey = Ey-g pM, B and hence the shift of the component is the value of 5B : so S>[eM2- 8M] subject to the selection rule AM, = 0, + 1. For *D;336 32 272 2>1 1-2 171 170 3x44+1x2-2x3 8 Be a axd oar”) For 5p), wp 2XS41K2-1x2 3 8 2x2x3 2 weBl 4 3 Thus Awo= * $Me 5M| For the different transition we have the following table Mz8'-Mzg upB om1 ~LupB 070 7/6 Wp B om-1 -5/3 ppB -170 -1/6 tp B ~1>-1 4/3 u,B -17-2—- -27-1 > 27-25 -37-2> There are 15 lines in all. The lines farthest out are 1—> 2 and -1—>-2. The splitting between them is the total splitting. It is ho- B upBr Substitution gives Aw = 7-8 x 10" rad/sec . " wa 3 -ZheB 0 3/2upB -4/3 ugB 1/6 wpB 5/3 UgB -7/6 gB 1/3 yB ~-pgB6.4 MOLECULES AND CRYSTALS 6.167 6.168 6.169 6.170 In the first excited rotational level J = 1 wot so Ey = 1x29 = F107 classically Thus o-v24 2_mé md _ a Now Ta imf = SE4e mS whére m is the mass of the mole cub and 7; is the distance of the atom from the axis. Thus w= AYE 56x 10" rad/s mé The axis of rotation passes through the centre of mass of the HCI molecule. The distances of the two atoms from the centre of mass are eancli emai Ce Pee A ero Thus J = moment of inertia about the axis 4 my Mc = dmudiy+ mad = HME The energy difference ‘between two neighbouring levels whose quantum numbers are J&I-1is vr Ie SP 2) = 786 meV Hence J = 3 and the levels have quantum numbers 2 & 3. The angular momentum is V27E = M Now Te ad (m = mass of Oz molecule) = 1-9584 x 10- gm c? So M = 368x107” erg sec. = 349% (This corresponds to J = 3) w From Ey = 37(J+1) and the selection rule AJ = 1 or J—>J~1 for a pure rotational spectrum we get o(gs-1) = Be Thus transition lines are equispaced in frequency Aw = 4.6.171 6.172 6.173 In the case of CH molecule aus 40 2 T= By 193 x 107 gm om Also p= eth ge n+ my so d = 1117x107%cm = 111-7pm If the vibrational frequency is «wp the excitation energy of the first vibrational level will be ‘tay. Thus if there are J rotational levels contained in the band between the ground state and the first vibrational excitation, then I(J+1)# 20 where as stated in the problem we have ignored any coupling between the two. For HF molecule hig = my mp Ie @ = 1336 x 10-4 gm cm? my + mp 210» m For J = 14,J(J+1) = 210. For J = 13,J(J+1) = 182, Thus there lie 13 levels between the ground state and the first vibrational excitation. 2100 ot a We Bel 21a nh 2 Then J(J4#1) = = 197-4 We proceed as above. Calculating = 1118 L 2 Taking the square root we get J ~ 33. Now this must equal J(J+1) = (r+ From the formula 2 Jee = E weget J(J+1) = 21E/# 2 1 1 2I1E _ fred) 3 mE 1 1, 21E Hence J=-3+V Ge se whiting Jere -54V 4 + Beene)1,2,,27 vi 21E we find l= at pE+ig AE - ap 2 1,27 AE = 4 oF | e -1 *ar wo Vi2ts AE ‘The quantity a is ze For large E it is pa | aaa dE 2WE 2 T= m&/2 = 757x 107% gm cm’ For an iodine molecule Thus for J = 10 aN T L aE "Wame ae Eycre1) mind Substitution gives an FE 7 104x 10° levels per eV 6.174 For the first rotational level Kr # Ene = 255 = 7 and for the first vibrational level E,y, =hw Ew | lo Thus = ne Here w = frequency of vibration. Now mm, Tepe = m, +m340 6.175 6.176 (a) For H; molecule I = 4:58 x 10~“! gm cm? and & = 36 (&) For HI molecule, T= 42.47% 10-“ gm cm? and & = 175 (©) For J, molecule I = 757x10-*¥ gm cm? and & = 2872 The energy of the molecule in the first rotational level will be & M The tatio of the number of molecules at the first excited vibrational Jevel to the a of molecules at the first excited rotational level is -RevkT —_+_,______ (74 1)je IGT Ly-toer, Fer | 1 o-no-28yer 3 3 where B=n21 For the hydrogen molecule J = imu = 458 x 107“! gm cm? Substitution gives 3-04 x 10-* By definition a BE, Rektt 36 Le = ee -— ot > exp (-E,/kT) > Pa pee “Bly+l2yho gL ape Seema a etpre__t op ~~ aR [-3 pho p- m (1-6) ho jhot eh okT6.177 6.178 341 Thus for one gm mole of diatomic gas Cc, =N Viva or (47-1) where R = Nk is the gas constant. he In the present case ET 7 2.7088 and Cy, = 056R In the rotation vibration band the main transition is due to change in vibrational quantum number v —> v~ 1. Together with this rotational quantum number may change. The “Zeroeth line” 0-0 is forbidden in this case so the neighbouring lines arise due to 1-*0 or 0-1 in the rotational quantum number. Now w Ex E,+ 5, I(I+1) ¥ Thus he = hay+55(# 2) 2h _ 2h Hence do =2t, . ee ae so a-V 2 Substitution gives d = 0-128 nm. If Ap = wavelength of the red satellite and Ay = wavelength of the violet satellite 2mhe = 2ahe | then ho de do Qahe _2nhe and 2 a +ho Substitution gives de = 4243 nm dy = 386-8 nm The two formulas can be combined to give 2nc do Qnc— —hye Fo —— 0 lone ie342 6.179 6.180 6.181 As in the previous problem o- ne( ieee ) = TEOR-Y) 1.368 10" rad/s Bye Rady The force constant x is defined by x= po where 4 = reduced mass of the S) molecule. Substitution gives x = 501N/em The violet satellite arises from the transition 1 —> 0 in the vibrational state of the scattering molecule while the red satellite arises from the transition 0 —> 1. The intensities of these two transitions are in the ratio of initial populations of the two states i.e. in the ratio -hakT e Thus ee eT FORT. 0.067 If the temperature is doubled, the rato increases to 0-259, an increase of 3-9 times. (a) CO,(0-C-0) The molecule has 9 degrees of freedom 3 for each atom. This means that it can have up to nine frequencies. 3 degrees of freedom correspond to rigid translation, the frequency associated with this is zero as the potential energy of the system can not change under rigid translation. The PE. will not change under rotations about axes passing through the C-atom and perpendicular to the O - C - O line. Thus there can be at most four non zero frequencies. We must look for modes different from the above. One mode is O—_-Y—_o :Wy mane Another mode is O—_Y—O: Wo ‘These are the only collinear modes. A third mode is doubly degenerate: W3: (vibration in & 1 to the plane of paper). (0) Cply(H-C-C-H) There are 4x 3-3-2 = 7 different vibrations. There are three collinear modes.343 ‘Two other doubly degenerate frequencies are 4 WS: together with their counterparts in the plane L” to the paper. 6.182 Suppose the string is stretched along the x axis from x = 0 to x = / with the end points fixed. Suppose y(x,t) is the transverse displacement of the element at x at time #. Then (x,t) obeys #y yay ae axe We look for a stationary wave solution of this equation y(x,t) = Asin Ox sin (wed) where A & 8 are constants.. In this from y = 0 at x = 0. The further condition yO axel implies at =Nx, N>0 or N=—o mv Nis the number of modes of frequency < w. Thus an-+4do xv344 6.183 6.184 Let &(x,y,1) be the displacement of the element at (x,y) at time 1. Then it obeys the equation 2 2 2 8. (Fh, 8 ar ax ay where B= 0 atx=0,x=/,y=0 and yal ‘We look for a solution in the form § = Asink, xsink,ysin(wt+5) Then o = v?(h +8) nx ma Beg Oo we write this as l 2 Wm? = xv Here n,m>0. Each pair (n,m) determines a mode, The total mumber of modes whose frequency is < is the area of the quadrant of a circle of radius fe ie. 2 x(lo /- ile: 2 2nv? where S = 1” is the area of the membrane. Then dN= odo = zodw. 2nv For transverse vibrations of a 3-dimensional continuum (in the form of a cube say) we have the equation arta Bal VE dive =0 or Here & = E(x, y,z,¢). We look for solutions in the form £7 = Asin yx, sin ky y , sin kya, sin(ot+d) This requires w? = v?(K+B+K) From the boundary condition that € = 0 for x= 0,x= I,y= 0,y= 1,a~ 0, a= J, we get me pm mm not nS 8 where m; m,, ns are nonzero positive integers. 2 [o ‘We then get ny +n) +13 = (:*)345 Each triplet (,, m2, 3) determines a possible mode and the number of such modes whose frequency < w is the volume of the all positive octant of a sphere of radius a . Considering also the fact that the subsidiary condition div & = 0 implies two independent values of A'for each choice of the wave vector (k,, ky, ks) we find 3 3 14x (lo Vo’ N(@) = a +(3) 22 ie 2 Thus dn = YS do. wy 6.185 To determine the Debye temperature we cut off the high frequency modes in such a way as to get the total number of modes correctly. (a) Ina linear crystal with 7! atoms, the number of modes of transverse vibrations in any given plane cannot exceed 7g, Then “ 1 1 min ae f de> gem The cut off frequency 0 is related to the Debye temperature @ by hwy = kO Thus e- (i)=™* (b) In a square lattice, the number of modes of transverse oscillations cannot exceed 1S. Thus a S f Ss 2 mS = odw = on oa anv? or © = Foes (](VFam )v (©) Ina cubic crystal, the maximum number of transverse waves must he 279 V (two for each atom). Thus % Vv 2 2mV=a zz do= . te Fal On 3ee Thus 8 = (f+ (6am)346 6.186 6.187 We proceed as in the previous example. The total number of modes must be 3 19 v (total transverse and one longitudinal per atom). On the other hand the number of transverse modes per unit frequency interval is given by 2 dN = Vd wv while the number of longitudinal modes ner unit frequency tnterval is given by Vor 20 vi The total number per unit frequency interval is Vo?/2 1 dN= Z+G|do 2 (a a dni. do If the high frequency cut off is at a» = ke. the total number of modes will be 3 V (2: :1)\(k9' 3mV = 4+5)(S 7 zz(ara) a) Here mo is the number of iron atoms per unit volume. Thus 1A h 2 etd © = L182 n, sta zien) +) 3 For iron MeN, my = Na tow = density, M = atomic weight of iron Ny = Avogadro number). p y, gl la 8 My = 8-389 x 10” per ce Substituting the data we get © = 4691K We apply the same formula but assume vj = v,. Then ° = by (622m)? or v= £0 / [a(6x7m)'] For Al ty = eM 6-023 x 10” per c.c6.188 347 Thus v = 339km/s. The tabulated values are vy = 6-3 km/s and v, = 31km/s. In the Debye approximation the number of modes per unit frequency interval is given by dn = dw 0s os*2 nv h But ee = xMVv Thus aN = do, 0s 0s amv xv The energy per mode is - Shor see Then the total interval energy of the chain is a 1 Lf trace 0 any e/t ho Ih 2 f28- n 1 LS xia Foye rov) + Ing k 2 (ny) 4 0 e/r a tok We put I71gk = R for 1 mole of the chain. o/r 1 (1) fxax Then U=RO a(3) se 0 Hence the molar heat capacity is by differentiation e/r a E xdx O/T c= (A) =n OSs when T>>0,C,*R. 1348 6.189 6.190 6.191 If the chain has N atoms, we can assume atom number 0 and N+ 1 held ficed. Then the displacement of the n" atom has the form a A (sin'%-na)sinor Here k = ca . Allowed frequencies then have the form ka 2 © = Omgy Sin In our form only +ve k values are allowed. The number of modes in a wave number range dk is oe Lak hak, “xdo? But do- 8 accu tab Hence do eV oF dk ~ 2% Om So an = 24__do__ na 2 2 max ~ © (b) The total number of modes is J do 2h x L nef 2% = ELS, na na 2 a ° Onax i.e. the number of atoms in the chain. Molar zero point energy is 2R ©. The zero point energy per gm of copper is ae Te Mex is the atomic weight of the copper. Substitution gives 48-6 J/gm . (a) By Dulong and Petit’s law, the classical heat capacity is 3 R = 24-94 J/K - mole. Thus ic = = 06014 Ca From the graph we see that this c T value of Z=— comesponds to & = 029 65 Hence e-= 029 7 224K(b) 22-4 3/mole-K comesponds to 735 = 0-898. From the graph this comesponds to T oe 250 Ew 065. This gives © = 22 ~ 395K Then 80 K corresponds to z = 0208 The corresponding value fe is 0-42. Hence C = 105 J/mole-K. a (©) We calculate © from the datum that = = 0-75 at T= 125K. cl The x-coordinate corresponding to 0-75 is 0-40. Hence 2s, © = Gg 7 315K Now kO = hope So Onsx = 4:09 x 10"? rad/sec 6.192 We use the formula (6.44) or eves edx U=9RO (a) fe 0 1 edx| (Ty zy f zs =9RO|=+ f S| -[5 aa ed earls) (6) Je ° or In the limit T << @, the third term in the bracket is exponentially small together with its derivatives. Then we can drop the last term au aul Ty [ 2dx Thus Cy= (55) = (SS) = 36R (= v> (57), (a), (6) Now from the table in the book fx a alse 06.193 6.195 120° (Ty 5s \e Note :- Call the 3" term in the bracket above - U3, Then ‘ T) x -22 vs (8) S sates ad on a 2sin > 1 U;3s 20(6) eer Thus Cys The maximum value of is a finite +ve quantity Cp for 0< x <™, Thus dU, we sce that Us is exponentially small as T—* 0. So is 7". At low temperatures C « T*. This is also a test of the “lowness” of the temperature We see that 13 Ch Ty 30 ) = 14982 # 15 = 7 = 59 Thus T? law is obeyed and T,, T, can we regarded low. 6.194 The total zero point energy of 1 mole of the solid is oR ©. Dividing this by the number of modes 3N we get the average zero point energy per mode. It is 3 gk. In the Debye model aN, = Ao’, 0sm@s0, 3 Then 3N ~ fan, 7 Age. (Total no. of modes is 3N) 0 Thus ao Om351 we get dw ignoring zero point energy 1 a vdx = Whe, | Fatt" or 0 1 xdx -9r0 | ~*~, 0 -ha,/k elt y 3 Thus ae = —*— for 0sxs1 8 x eeolr_y 2 For T= 0/2, this is GE for oF Plotting then we get the figures given in the answer. 6.196 The maximum energy of the phonon is hy = KO = 28-4 meV On substituting © = 330K. To get the corresponding value of the maximum momentum we must know the dispersion relation @ = w(K). For small (&) we know w = v|k] where v is velocity of sound in the crystal. For an order of magnitude estimate we continue to use this result for high | k]. Then we estimate v from the values of the modulus of elasticity and density v VE p We write E_100GPa, p = 89x 10° kg/m* Then v 3x10? m/s - ot Hence AK loa ~ aoe 15x10" gmems~! 6.197 (a) From the formula ; the maximum value E,y, of E is determined in terms of n by dn-=352 Fo V2 m*? 2 ne EVdE rn 0 V2 m*? ee 2 p32 3 Fras or Ee = (ey Grn) mx ~ 2m # fe Tmeorn? (b) Mean KE. is_ oe ae ~ fean/ fan o s, 0 Faux ‘ose 2 = ] ~feras/ force 208 / 20a - bee 4 i 6.198 The fraction is En Foe n ~ fora] f erae- 1-273? = 0-646 or 646% r 0 7am 6.199 We calculate the concentration m of electron in the Na metal from Mase as Exax = Ep = 35, On) we get from Ey = 3-07eV n = 2-447 x 10 per c.c. From this we get the number of electrons per one Na atom as nM PN, where p = density of Na, M = molar weight in gm of Na, N, = Avogadro number we get 0-963 elecrons per one Na atom.353 6.200 The mean KE. of electrons in a Fermi gas is 25, . This must equal 3k T. Thus 2Ep er ‘We calculate E, first. For Cu Na _ PNA 22 "ip" Me” 8-442 x 10” per c.c. Then Ep = 701 eV and T = 3:25x10°K 6.201 We write the expression for the number of electrons as ” VV2m™? pinge Hence if AE is the spacing between neighbouring levels near the Fermi level we must have 2=¥ nee TEAR (2. on the RHS is to take care of both spins f electrons). Thus V2 PW? AE= Vm Ey n But Ez? = 3x n)'? ut FP Spe 2. So 4E= pelea mV(30n) Substituting the data we get AE = 1:79x 10" eV 6.202 (a) From van EV dE dn(E)= we get on using E = im, dn(E) = dn(v) ” 3 an(v) = ee Wy mvdy = feevtav ww yz wh This holds for Ovp.354 6.203 6.204 6.205 (b) Mean velocity is ae: ae - fea] fra - ave 0 0 avs 3 eG. Using the formula of the previous section dn(v)= aa dv We put mv = 2am, where A = de Broglie wavelength mdv= ~28han Taking account of the fact that 4 decreases when v increases we write (2x dr =. ox dn(h) = —da(v) = . dh cs) (v) = Sas From the kinetic theory of gasses we know -2u P"3V Here U is the total interval energy of the gas. This result is applicable to Fermi gas also Now at T= 0 U = Uy =N = nV : oe 4 7 a 5nxgbp = sn Ep we 2 ow B ey nw? Substituting the values we get = 492 x 10° atmos From Richardson’s equation [= aTte-**T where A is the work function in eV. When T increases by AT, / increases to (1 + 9) J. Then2 r T+h oF aE] 4 tens (BeAr) eter an ; can AT Expanding and neglecting higher powers of we get AT A nn 2s GAT Thus Awer(1Z_2 AT Substituting we get A =4:48 eV 6.206 outside > inside inside Vo The potential energy inside the metal is - Up for the electron and it related to the work function A by Uy = Ep+A If Tis the K.E. of electrons outside the metal, its K.E. inside the metal will be (E + Up). On entering the metal electron connot experience any tangential force so the tangential component of momentum is unchanged. Then VimT sina = V2m(T+Up) sin B Hence spigeuiaerssssettieaoe n by definition of refractive index. sin B T inition cl z In sodium with one free electron per Na atom n = 254% 10™ per c.c. Ep = 3-15¢eV A = 2-27eV (from table) Up = 5-420V n= 102356 6.207 6.208 6.209 In a pure (intrinsic) semiconductor the conductivity is related to the temperature by the following formula very closely : o= Oy cance where Ae is the energy gap between the top of valence band and the bottom of conduction band; it is also the minimum energy required for the formation of electron-hole pair. The increases with temperature and we have Ae(t_ 4) 27,7, or Inn = AeT,-T, Deak atts 2kT1 Tp Hence Ae Thoth, hh Substitution gives Ae = 0333 eV = Ena The photoelectric threshold determines the band gap Ae by 2nhe Aes —— Ah On the other hand the temperature coefficient of resistance is defined by (p is resistivity) -ide ld O- aT = Gpinp = -Gphno where o is the conductivity. But Ae Ino = Inoo- 345 Ae he “1 Then aie -- = -0047K 2kT? kT? hy frinsic i.e. it is due At high temperatures (small values of 7~*) most of the conductivity i to the transition of electrons from the upper levels of the valance band into the lower levels of conduction vands. For this we can apply approximately the formula E, o = ovexn(-375] E, or Ino =In %- se From this we get the band gap Aino 4(/T) E,=2-2k6.210 387 The slope must be calculated at small é. Evaluation gives - ans Gj) z At low temperatures (high values of 5 the conductance is mostly due to impurities. If Ey = 7000K Hence E, = 121eV is the ionization energy of donor levels then we can write the approximate formula (valid at low temperature) piiety Eo o! = oo exp[- 577 So Ey = -2eT Alng’ The slope must be calculated at low temperafures. Evaluation gives the slope —Alno’ 2 000K aelitiese T Then Ep __ 0-057 eV We write the conductivity of the sample as. 6 = 0; +0, where 9; = intrinsic conductivity and o, is the photo conductivity. At ¢ = 0, assuming saturation we have — = 146, or Oo, = —- Dirsrs Perse pee Time ¢ after light source is switched off Ie we have because of recombination of electron and holes in the sample o = 0;+0, e'7 where T = mean lifetime of electrons and holes. Thus Let ° e New p P2(p - Pr) or Pi_P | P2p~ pv P1(P-P2) P2(p- Pi) Hence Tet/in / (etezey 2) Substitution gives T = 9-87ms _ 0:01 sec358 6.211 6.212 We shall ignore minority carriers. Drifting holes experience a sideways force in the magnetic field and react by setting up a Hall electric field E, to counterbalance it. Thus Vi v,B = Ey = If the concentration of carriers is n then je = ney, de . Jz Vy _ jghB fence Se ek . : Vv. Also using int OB, = Ex/0 = 5 we get aes 8 eplVy Substituting the data (note that in MKS units B = 5-0kG = 057) p = 25x 107? ohm-m we get n = 499x107! m-3 = 4-99 x 10" per cm? Me Vand | Val Also the mobility is Bo ap’v nav Substitution gives Up = 0-05 m?/V -s ® ee” <_ Vie If an electric field E, is present in a sample containing equal amounts of both electrons and holes, the two drift in opposite directions. In the presence of a magnetic field B, = B they set up Hall voltages in opposite directions.6.213 359 The net Hall electric field is given by Ey = (vp-v)B = (uu) EB E, 1 But > = — Hence E77 up = ua] = bm = 5 Substitution gives | ug - up| = 0-2 m2/volt - sec Ey When the sample contains unequal number of carriers of both types whose mobilities are different, static equilibrium (i.e. no transverse movement of either electron or holes) is impossible in a magnetic field. The transverse electric field acts differently on electrons and holes. If the E, that is set up is as shown, the net Lorentz force per unit charge (effective transverse electric field) on electrons is and on holes E,+viB (we are assuming B = B,). There is then a transverse drift of electrons and holes and the net transverse current must vanish in equilibrium. Using mobility Up N,€ (E, ~ up E,B) +N, e up (E,+us£,B) = 0 Neug? -Nuj? or E, == Neu + Ny up On the other hand Je = (NU + Ny up EE Thus, the Hall coefficient is Ey _ 1 Neue? -Nauo Rye =e JeBo oe (N, We see that Ry = 0 when360 6.5 RADIOACTIVITY 6.214 6.215 6.216 6.217 (a) The probability of survival (i.e. not decaying) in time ¢ is e~™'. Hence the probability of decay is 1-e7** (b) The probability that the particle decays in time de around time ¢ is the difference eo eM oT ene MEL AS Qe May Therefore the mean life time is oa cag Aone taped te fire arf fre dt= 1 fre ax/ fe dx= 5 0 0 0 0 ‘We calculate first n= 2 2 9722x107? per day Tir Hence fraction decaying ina month == 1-e"** = 0-253 Here No « oft x 6-023 x 10% = 251 x 10% Also a = 22. 0.04621 per hour Nr So the number of B rays emitted in one hour is, No(1-e7*) = 1:13 x 10% If No is the number of radionuclei present initially, then Ny = No(t-e"**) nN, = No(-e7**) where 1 = 2-66 and f = 34. Then 1-e7* Noe or none a t-e Substituting the values 166 = 266e"*-e° * we Put e7“* = x. Then 2 -266x+1-66 = 0 (2 -1)x- 1:66 (x-1) = 06.218 6.219 6.220 6.221 or (e-1) 7 +x-166) = 0 Now xelsox+x-166 = 0 xe -1+V1+4x1-66 2 Negative sign has to be rejected as x>0. Thus x = 0-882 This gives t= Prd = 15-9 sec. If the half-life is T days at~* te za m3s or T- Zin? = 5:30 days. ‘The activity is proportional to the number of parent nuclei (assuming that the daughter is not radioactive). In half its half-life period, the number of parent nucli decreases by a factor ae So activity decreases to e = 460 particles per minute. 2 If the decay constant (in (hour)"*) is 2, then the activity after one hour will decrease by @ factor e~*. Hence a 096 = e7 or d= 141 x 1075 The mean life time is 24-5 hour 1 = 0-0408 per hour Here No = x55 x 6-023 x 10 = 2531 x 107 The activity is A = 124x104 dis/sec . Then n= 4 x 490x107! per sec. No Hence the half life is Tis m2 = 4-49 x 10° years ‘ i z362 6.222 6.223 6.224 6.225 In old wooden atoms the number of C™* nuclei steadily decreases because of radioactive decay. (In live trees biological processes keep replenishing C’* nuclei maintaining a balance. This balance starts getting disrupted as soon as the tree is felled.) ie If Ty is the half life of C then @ "7s = 5 In5/3 In2 Hence t=Ny = 4105 years ~ 4:1 x 10° years ‘What this implies is that in the time since the ore was formed, Th U* nuclei have remained undecayed. Thus =-7,—bL ae faim Substituting T, = 45x 10° years, y = 28 2 we get f = 1-98 x 10° years. The specific activity of Na”* is Na. Naln2 M ” MT, 2 Here M= molar weight of N24 = 24gm, N, is Avogadro number & T, is the half-life of z = 3:22 x 10" dis/(gm.sec) Na. Similarly the specific activity of U™* is 6023 x 10% x In2 235 x 10° x 365 x 86400 = 0-793 x 10° dis/(gm-s) Let V = volume of blood in the body of the human being. Then the total activity of the blood is A’ V. Assuming all this activity is due to the injected Na™ and taking account of the decay of this radionuclide, we get VA' = Ae™™ Now a = 2 perhour, ais howe Atte - > Thus vn Agra _ 20x10) 1-029 6 2 5.95 litte a (16/60)6.226 6.227 363 ‘We see that Specific activity of the sample ot 1 MoM Here M and M’ are the masses of Co™ and Co™ in the sample. Now activity of M gm of Co* {Activity of M gm of Co®™ in the sample} My 6. 3 In2 5g % 6023 x 10° x 775 86400 = 1168 x 10°°M dis/sec Thus from the problem M. 12 iow" 2:2 «10° 1-168 x 10% M. “3 : MaM 1-88 x 10 ie. 0-188 % or Suppose N,, N2 are the initial number of component nuclei whose decay constants are Mae (ia (hour) ) Then the activity at any instant is A =A eM +e! The activity so defined is in units dis/hour. We assume that data In A given is of its natural logarithm. The daughter nuclei are assumed nonradioactive. We see from the data that at large t the change in In A per hour of elapsed time is constant and equal to - 0-07. Thus Ae = 0-07 per hour ‘We can then see that the best fit to data is obtained by AQ) = 511079! 410-0079! [To get the fit we calculate A (()e°°’'. We see that it reaches the constant value 10-0 at t = 7,10, 14, 20 very nearly. This fixes the second term. The first term is then obtained by subtracting out the constant value 10-0 from each value of A ()e°°7' in the data for small t] Thus we get 2, = 0-66 per hour T, = 1-05 hour : 7, = 99 vou | half-lives ' M _ Side Ratio ™7 100%, 7 054 The answer given in the book is misleading.364 6.228 Production of the nucleus is governed by the equation aN AN g-aNn dt t Ls decay supply We see that N will approach a constant value £ . This can also be proved directly. Multiply by e* and write AN AON m ge™ Then 4 wer = ger or Ne! = £e*'+ const Att = 0 when the production is starteed, N = 0 o- £ + constant Hence Ne £a-e*') Now the activity is A=2N = g(1-e7*') From the problem This gives 1 = 0-463 so > iui i T A Algebraically f--pylm (: - ;] 6.229 (a) Suppose N; and Ny are the number of two radionuclides A; , Az at time t. Then aN; rok ® dN; Fit MM AH eN2 @ From (1) My, = Nye™! where No is the initial number of nuclides A, at time t = 0 From (2)(AN; (a+ ef = Nye ! or (ze) = const MMW gO." - since Ny =0 at t=0 AMio Constant N= io aM Thus Mtlenht "hem } (0) The activity of nuclide A, is XN . This is maximum when N; is maximum. That hap- aN; pens when —? = 0 a This requires dy etn = eM _ In Quy) or t, “Rk 6.230 (a) This case can be obtained from the previous one on putting he=h-e where ¢ is very small and letting ¢ —» 0 at the end. Then a N= MMe (ert ty e-M = Mite Mo or dropping the subscript 1 as the two values are equal Nz = Ny dte™ (b) This is maximum when aN, 1 Cdiaa era Ms 6.231 Here we have the equations aN, ook aN, aN, = SAM -agNy and P= MN From problem 229 Ny, = Nyen™! pee reeeeeaa N= (e er" ee a ) dN; 2, i Me Then Ns, Ma (eh! e-®!) dt Maa366 6.232 6.233 or Ny = since Ns = 0 initially Ny wa mae So Ny = 2s [gan my-dae™ | Mevw™’--em™ Sone gae seme ereneieistenigerettictect: | = ‘We have the chain ape _p__-+ pj” _9_-» pm A Ay Ay of the previous problem initially Nig = 0 602310 = 287% 10% 210 A month after preparation N, = 454 10% Np = 25210" using the results of the previous problem. Then Ap = ALN, = 0-725 x 10" dis/sec = AQN2 = 1-46 x 10" dis/sec (a) Ra has Z = 88, A = 226 After 5 a emission and 4 B (electron) emission A = 206 Z = 88+4-5x2 = 82 The product is *? Pb (b) We require -AZ=10=2n-m -AA = 32=nx4 Here n = no. of a emissions m = no. of B emissions Thus n=8,m=6367 6.234 The momentum of the particle is V2M,T . This is also the recoil momentum of the daughter nuclear in opposite direction. The recoil velocity of the daughter nucleus is V2M,T 2 Vf s Sean = 196 ™, = 339x 10° m/s of total energy. Here M, is the mass of the daughter nucleus. 6.235 The number of nuclei initially present is . 10 «6023 x 10 = 287% 10" In the mean life time of these nuclei the number decaying is the fraction 1 - 4.0632. Thus the energy released is 2:87 x 10" x 0-632 x 5-3 x 1602 x 10° 8 J.= 154MJ 6.236 We neglect all recoil effects. Then the following diagram gives the energy of the gamma ray P210 Excited state T 0.80Mey ' Ind state Po 1 KE. 7-0 MeV, the initial velocity is 6.237 (a) For an alpha particle with = 1-83 x 10° cm/sec Thus R = 602cm(b) Over the whole path the number of ion pairs is 7x:10° 3g 7 206 10° Over the first half of the path :- We write the formula for the mean path as Ra E>” where E is the initial energy. Thus if the energy of the c-particle after traversing the first half of the path is E, then RoE}? = ZRoES? o Eye 24, Hence number of ion pairs formed in the first half of the path length is Fo-Fy =) >, / sey 7-2 ) x 2:06 x 10° = 0-76 x 10° 6.238 In B- decay ZY Ase +O Q = (M,-M,-m.) 2 = [(M,+Zm,) ~My +Zmg+m,) 7 = (M,- Ma)? since M, , M, are the masses of the atoms. The binding energy of the electrons in ignored. In K capture ext X47 4+ Q = (My- My) CP +m? = (ME +Zm,2)— (My +(Z-1) m,2) = 2 (M,-M) In B* decay 2X47 Y* +e +O Then Q = (M,-M,-m)c = [M,+Zm,]c? - [M,+(Z-1)m,]c?-2m,c? = (Mp-Mz-2m,) 0? 6.239 The reaction is Be > BY 46° +4, For maximum KE. of electrons we can put the energy of ¥, to be zero. The atomic masses are Be'® = 10-016711 amu B” = 10-:016114 amu So the K.E. of electrons is (see previous problem) 597 x 107° amu x c? = 0-56 MeV6.240 6.241 369 The momentum of electrons with this K.E, is 0-941 ae and the recoil energy of the daughter is A 2 .« 2 £0940), O94 Mey = 472eV 2xMye ~ 2x 10x 938 The masses are Na™ = 24-0-00903 amu and Mg™ = 24 -0-01496 amu The reaction is Na™* —> Mg” +e" +¥, The maximum K.E. of electrons is 0-00593 x 93 MeV = 552 MeV Average KE. according to the problem is then $92 = 184MeV The initial number of Na” is 107? x ous 10 45110 The fraction decaying in a day is 1-(27 445 = 0-67 Hence the heat produced in a day is 0:67 x 2:51 x 109 x 1:84 x 1-602 x 107 Joul = 4:95 MJ We assume that the parent nucleus is at rest. Then since the daughter nucleus does not recoil, we have Pek ie. positron & v mometum are equal and opposite. On the other hand Vici p+ mic! +cp = Q = total energy released. (Here we have used the fact that energy of the neutrino is c|p,| = cp) Now Q = [( Mass of C! nucleus) - (Mass of B'nucteus) J c? = [ Mass of C! atom - Mass of B! atom -m, J c* = 0-00213 amu x c? - m, 7 = (0:00213 x 931 - 0511) MeV = 1-47MeV Then ep? + (0511)? = (1-47- cp)? = (1-47) -294cp+c7p* Thus cp = 0-646 MeV = energy of neutrino Also KE. of electron = 1-47 - 0-646 - 0'511 = 0:313 MeV6.242 6.243 6.244 The KE. of the positron is maximum when the energy of neutrino is zero. Since the recoil energy of the nucleus is quite small, it can be calculated by successive approximation. The reaction is N® CB rer tv,. The maximum energy available to the positron (including its rest energy) is (Mass of N™ nucleus - Mass of C” nucleus) = c? (Mass of N"? atom - Mass of C’? atom - m,) = 0:00239 c? - m, c? = (0-00239 x 931 - 0:511) MeV = 1-71MeV The momentum corresponding to this energy is 1-636 MeV/c. The recoil energy of the nucleus is then 2 2 ee 002 7 B= Fem saax oar 7 TEV = O11 kev on using Mc* = 13x 931 MeV The process is G+Be’—>Li'+v The energy available in the process is Q = c* (Mass of Be’ atom - Mass of Li’ atom) = 0:00092 x 931 MeV = 0:86 MeV The momentum of a K clectron is negligible. So in the rest frame of the Be” atom, most of the energy is taken by neutrino whose momentum is very nearly 0-86 MeV/c The momentum of the recoiling nucleus is equal and opposite. The velocity of recoil is O86 MeV/c _ 0:86 Ms, ex Toa 7 396% 10° cm/s In internal conversion, the total energy is used to knock out K electrons. The KE. of these electrons is energy available-B.E. of K electrons = (87-26) = 61keV The total energy including rest mass of electrons is 0-511 + 0-061 = 0:572McV The momentum corresponding to this total energy is V (0572)? - (0-511)? /c = 0257 MeV/c. 2 | 80 a The velocity is then Gp = ex qany = 0-4496.245 6.246 6.247 371 With recoil neglected, the y-quantrum will have 129 keV energy. To a first approximation, its momentrum will be 129 keV/c and the energy of recoil will be (0129)? -8 Tetorcoar MeV = 418x10-* Mev In the next approximation we therefore write E, = -129 - 8-2 x 107° MeV dE Therefore et = 363x10-’ E, For maximum (resonant) absorption, the absorbing nucleus must be moving with enough speed to cancel the momentum of the oncoming photon and have just right energy (€ = 129 keV ) available for transition to the excited state. cores! ~ <_ ) recoil ° Ey-éEs V energy=dEy e 2Mc the velocity of the nucleus is Since 8 E, = and momentum of the photon is © , these condition can be satisfied if £ Ha 7 jd 7 Sas = 0218k m/s Because of the gravitational shift the frequency of the gamma ray at the location of the absorber is increased by do _ gh oe For this to be compensated by the Doppler shift (assuming that resonant absorption is possible in the absence of gravitational field) we must have BAY ge ye BAL 6S ums ove ¢ The natural life time is rete 47x10" ev Thus the condition 8£,2 T implies £42 2. % oe te or hx SB. 464 mene Teg (h here is height of the place, not planck’s constant.)372 6.6 NUCLEAR REACTIONS 6.249 6.250 Initial momentum of the a particle is V2m Tq i (where 7 is a unit vector in the incident direction). Final momenta are respectively p, and py; . Conservation of momentum reads Bit+pi = V2mT, t Squaring Pat Piit 2 Pa Piicos@ = 2mT, (1) where @ is the angle between p, and py; . pete Pa 2m* 2M (m & M are respectively the masses of a particle and Li’ .) So T, Also by energy conservation A m Pat iP: = 2mT Q Substracting (2) from (1) we see that al (0 ~ji)Pat 2 Pa COs 9 =0 Thus if Pu #0 1(,_m ro ¥lt-Blnusco. Since pa, pz; are both positive number (being magnitudes of vectors) we must have -1s cosO<0 if m) The particle x must contain a proton in addition to the constituents of O'”, Thus the reaction is oO” (a.m F* (c) The particle x must carry nucleon number 4 and two units of +ve charge. Thus the particle must be x = a and the reaction is Na® (pa) Ne” (a) The particle x must carry mass number 37 and have one unit less of positive charge. Thus x = CI?” and the reaction is cl" (p,n)Ar"375 6.254 From the basic formula Ey = Zmy+(A-Z)m,-M We define Ag = my Lamu 4, = m,- Lamu A = M-Aamu Then clearly E, = ZAy+(A-Z)A,-A 6.255 The mass number of the given nucleus must be 3 3 2 / @) =8 Thus the nucleus is Be®, Then the binding energy is Ey = 4x 0-00867 + 4+ x 0-00783 - 0-00531 amu = 006069 amu = 565 MeV On using 1 amu = 931 MeV. 6.256 (a) Total binding energy of the O'* nucleus is Ey = 8 x 00867 + 8 x 00783 + 0-00509 amu = 0-13709 amu = 1276 MeV So BE. per nucleon is 7:98 Mev/nucleon (©) BE. of neutron in B “nucleus = BE. of B'-BE. of BY (since on removing a neutron from B™ we get B” ) = A,- Ap, + Ap, = 00867 ~ 00930 + -01294 = 001231 amu = 11-46 MeV BE. of ( an a-particle in BY) = BE. of B'-BE. of Li’ - BE. of a (since on removing an a from B’ we get Li’ ) = 45, +41, + 4a = - 0-00930 + 0-01601 + 0-00260 = 0-00931 amu = 8:67MeV (c) This energy is [BE. of O' + 4 (BE. of a particles)] = Ag+ 4Ag = 4x 0-00260 + 000509 = 0-01549 amu = 14-42 MeV376 6.257 6.258 6.259 6.260 6.261 B.E. of a neutron in B" - B.E. of a proton in B" = y= Ag! + Ag?) -(Ap- Ag" +5") = A,- A, + Api? Agi? = 0-00867 - 0-00783 + 0-01294 - 0-01354 = 0-00024 amu = 0:223 MeV The difference in binding energy is essentially due to the coulomb repulsion between the proton and the residual nucleus Be" which together constitute B'*, Required energy is simply the difference in total binding energies- = BE. of Ne®-2(BE. of He’)-BE. of C? = 20 eye -8 eg - 12 €¢ (€ is binding energy per unit nucleon.) Substitution gives 11-88 MeV. (@) We have for L® 413 MeV = 0-044361 amu = 3Ay+5A,-A Hence A = 3 x 0:00783 + 5 x 0-00867 - 0:09436 = 0-02248 amu (&) For c”” 10 x 6-04 = 60-4 MeV = 0-06488 amu = 6A, +44,-4 Hence A = 6 x 0:00783 + 4 x 0-00867 - 0:06488 = 0:01678 amu Hence the mass of C’® is 10-01678 amu Suppose M,, Mz, Mz, Mg are the rest masses of the nuclei A,, Az, A3 and A, perticipating in the reaction Ay +Ay Az +Ag+Q Here Q is the energy released. Then by conservation of energy. Q = (My +M;-My-M,) Now Myc? = & (Z,my+ (A, -Z)m,) - E; etc. and Z, +Z, = Z3+Z,(conservation of change) A, +Az = A3 +Ay (conservation of heavy particles) Hence OQ =(E;+£,) -(E, +E) (a the energy liberated in the fission of 1 kg of U* is 1000 x 6023 x 10° x 200 MeV = 8:21 x 10° KI The mass of coal with equivalent calorific value is 8:21 x 10° 30000 *8 = 2:74 x 10° kg6.262 6.263 6.264 6.265 377 (b) The required mass’is 30 x 10° x 4-1 x 10° 235 OO Oo * Fo keg = 149 200 x 1-602 x 10" ® x 6023 x 10 * 1000 re The reaction is (in effect). H+ > He +Q Then Q = 2Ay -bnd +O = 0:02820 - 0-00260 = 002560 amu = 23-8 MeV Hence the energy released in 1 gm of He’ is 6023 x10" 5.758 «1602107 Joule = 5-75 «10° KI This energy can be derived from 5 x 10° SBA ig = 19x 10' kg of Coal. The energy released in the reaction Lio +H’ > 2He! is Auf + Ay? - 2 Aye! = 001513 + 001410 - 2 x 0-00 260 amu = 002403 amu = 22:37 MeV (This result for change in B.E. is correct because the contribution of A, & Ay cancels out by conservation law for protons & neutrons.)- Energy per nucleon is then 2 = 2:796 MeV/nucleon . This should be compared with the value m = 0:85 MeV/nucleon ‘The energy of reaction Li'+p—2He is, 2x BE. of He’ -BE. of Li” = 84-7 €; = 8x 706 - 7x 5-60 = 173MeV The reaction is N'“ (a, p) 0". It is given that (in the Lab frame where N”* is at rest) T, = 4-0 MeV. The momentum of incident a particle is V2mgT, i= V2n,mTs t378 The momentum of outgoing proton is ¥2m, T, (cos 8 +sin 8 4) = V27, MoT, (cos 0 i+ sin 8 7) re ng = Ze ena where 1, = , w a J ----> and mp is the mass of O17, The momentum of O"” is (V2 ma mo Te - V2 np M9 T, cos 8) 4 = V2 nigh, T, sin 0 } By energy conservation (conservation of energy including rest mass energy and kinetic energy) Myc +Mgc+Ts = Myc? +T)+Myc? +| (oT Vay, cos 0) + ny Zpsin?O +n, T, sin? | Hence by definition of the Q of reaction Q = Myc? +Myc?-M, 0 - My? = Ty+MNaTa+ Np Tp- 2Vp Na Ta Ty * COS O- Ty = (1+n,) 7, + Ta ( - Na) -2Vn, Na TaT, cos @ = - 1:19 MeV 6.266 (a) The reaction is Li’ (p,m) Be’ and the energy of reaction is Q = (Mp? + Mi?) 0 +(M,-M, eo = (Ani, — Ane’)? + Ay Ay = [0-01601 + 0-00783 - 0-01693 - 0-00867] amu x c” = -164MeV (b) The reaction is Be° (n, y) Be. Mass of y is taken zero. Then Q.= (Mp? + M,-Mpe®) <7 = (se + by Age?) 7 = (001219 + 0-00867 - 0-:01354 ) ! amu i c2 = 6-81 MeV6.267 6.268 6.269 379 (©) The reaction is Li’ (a, n) B"°. The energy is Q = (A1;7+ Ba Ag Ag?) c? = (0-01601 + 0-00260 ~ 0-00867 - 01294) amu x c? = -2:79 MeV (d) The reaction is O18 (d, a) N**. The energy of reactio Q = (Ao! + Ay Ba - AN’ )c? = (~ 0-00509 + 0-01410 - 000260 - 0:00307) amu x c? = 3-11 MeV The reaction is B'° (not) Li’. The energy of the reaction is Q = (Ap*+A,-Ag- Ay;) = (0-01294 + 0-00867 - 0-00260 - 0:01601) amu x c? = 2-79 MeV Since the incident neutron is very slow and B"° is stationary, the final total momentum must also be zero. So the reaction products must emerge in opposite directions. If their speeds are, repectively, vq and Vj; then 4vg = 7My and 5 (4vd + 7vBs) x 1672.10" = 2-79 x 1-602. x 10° So peavl (1 +3] = 2-70 x 10" em?/s? or Vq = 9:27 x 10° m/s Then vii = 53x 10° m/s Q of this reaction (Li’ (p , n) Be’) was calculated in problem 266 (a). If is - 1-64 MeV. ‘We have by conservation of momentum and energy Pp, = Pae (Since initial Li and final neutron are both at rest) 2 Pp, Phe 1.64 2m,” 2mj PB Then aa, tae )- 164 2m, pe) Ppa Hence 7, = Pe = 1%164MeV = 191MeV 2m, 6 It is understood that Be’ is initially at rest. The moment of the outgoing neutron is V¥2m, 1, }. The momenturm of C”? is380 6.270 V2m,T i-V2m,T, } n n (V2i%mnmnS) Then by energy conservation a 2m, T+2m,T, vamgT 2 T+Q- T+ (m, is the mass of C’?) m,(T+Q)- maT Thus 7, = m+ My o+(1-38 (im, - mg) T+ me Q ™ The + My hy = 852MeV The Q value of the reaction Li’ (p , a) He’ is Q = (Aus + Ay 2 Anse!) c? = (0-01601 + .0-00783 - 0-00520) amu x c” = 001864 amu x c? = 17:35 MeV Since the direction of He* nuclei is symmetrical, their momenta must also be equal. Let T be the KE. of each He*. Then Pp 2VE mye T cos 2 (p, is the momentum of proton). Also 2 P; fe 4g e2Te Im, 12 ~ 27> T,+0 Pp % —-6-—-He* Excitation energy of He? is just the energy available in centre of mass. The velocity of the cente of mass is Vom, Ly [2 2%, m, +m, ~ 3 In the CM frame, the kinetic energy available is ime ~2m,) 2 a: 24/27, 1 14f/2T me tn(V%) tonlVE <2 2 m, 2 mM, 3 z The total energy available is then Q + — where A = c* x (0-00783 + 001410 - 0-01603) amu = 5-49 MeV Finally E = 6-49 MeV . The reaction is d+CB +N nan Maxima of yields determine the energy levels of N1°*. As in the previous problem the excitation energy is Fac = Q+Ex where Ex = available kinetic energy. This is found is as in the previous problem. The velocity of the centre of mass is v2 maT; mae V2n ema mg+m, = Mg+M, My