Parjit Nair Geography Notes Perspectives in Human Geography PDF

Prajit Nair
IAS Rank 87
PERSPECTIVES IN HUMAN GEOGRAPHY - THE

MOST HATED TOPIC IN GEOGRAPHY OPTIONAL :)
GEOGRAPHY NOTES
2017
1. Perspectives in Human Geography Handwritten Notes …. Page 2

2. Old Notes from Same topic ( easy to understand ) – Page 88
3. Notes on other topic
a) Regional Geo Selected Topic ….Page 118
b) Environmental Geo Topics… Page 128
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11_1/41'1vkA LL6-HAcxWA_CO-1 tAIDA-1.0 e
tuaw-aAA tate-v.-AA-0
tvalati on of
awl et- v;11tt3e

kome- st./1- 1 eAkkaik
Vlaa;
separake _ _ _ —
C
tcloAttis
s, Ia\ •-tp uwLc€pE .4 enalicad tucceefivn
Itae be come() ultii

cat -ttutatua0 e —3- <mad
ttolve tai ta•0131; OkAz
, ears
1.c w)k- -tau Gurctiote --->- asp

22
00 beii eV 4.c1 sit mos; ve_ 5 0 ti tki ta keuf e .--ItuAr
- it ;s batted -kko
totti-kil0tAl 40 4W uubtutak e_
', 0,,fri, tkh 0 v. 0- place, edaOA
cailw-al
of vist.tuxtd I 0.4.44 cap e

43 car i ch CaA-Avs' 5 '1 d co.
thub)
' cow ep5- is
totiv12)
'or tdo rti Os —0. )pciepemotem. ce
aEii incOaA40
&t3e.. cud n cAtoAesi
nalure_ 0V
sotitua
tr:i ru3 04 matured diav 10:itlA

rep rea Q./A.8 a
eV 4vAsivronwada..1 Gigs( 1.44 vim

!atti4tasis - et -45ut cosier*
akt

SECAILtrRI 2A11,$ 23
— re4 ets 4o decline 'in cip vt4°mute relidi on 'in -go fl4e o rue ple
Chl/C;S
I) deuelopond- of rafionalki
sit eate_ eukd 4 er_lkan lom

04
took ecrAl- divelef bits OA-
Jtr
1 0 co-thutlf
ke tuthlicwi
se_ 0( 'non o +Lei L4; ( Yeti& ow3
.eorecia-Uli 1rthtat0-u-b
1,1) rithiA cUetice
4-eclA voi neAcito; 1‘

}INV tee ds u.i.e re
4e_e_kv-Cdeni
rc tO et TIOSAre
redueivi be/ieC \i
R1 3e vc no-Scw °the°
e-Qta ap partthth
-talc em r4J *ale- aP Para*Aa fila" C4e
4A.aci;o5A-n
edavatiov% cod tu el fare

V) Spread 4h.mi dU UQQSI-
/ flaw 54Aucii oc ctitscOdo n
-4WAMAQ-0 0-1 se curcutimilon

4-raumAitt4
taktatuoe , rketzwall
u-kbew:i 6o.60
otweicpwaut- netve-f 'tee crr-
o)
- WirTERNS
leo& oc se cal
'PeuelLT coLai-li; ea --> tA:tt
revels tott_itteAn Etsto pa

Mod elate_
u.s.1)ain eiree0 cetilleZUL8"
ru.to-1 relAtflOn

24
low 1-1p
- I W0201- Ati q
--4 tit wit MI& on
to Lust-1i CO
nitkaii to tuki-riea
okittt-stk&Es
trspech
it) tltsJLjtlOfl mat ( or fel:ten wLaAAn of setuku-'13ation
emnturakce.. 4 ir6vWnaJsw, bee' tisieuA
'Form ot- retton Kan uAvi tylone ettale
'Jut-real seaticalictlion
11) CPI obaCreasii
bw. err cao +Ku_
42tc • .M, *-4 TV Ve a tuisskottriea
Istami
r oatiaholi al at, spread of tell5;on

kliOnS 25
uabaral atai tukuAom
- cuituroi reit0ns retell 40 ay. anct. over LWAI OA, rays
rnod be deaf; Pea
VAUal- tauwaA& vox; 44 -Fro-u4 ptate

- Lulbure Nati &Auto) taLPS
011 o n renuia SliagRaa--COMPA121---(dati v cuicti) ìn lu 11u nn

pi cut .
otuaparion awl tth or3 cut;saiivn 04- crate
red; tune. etre

1.01Mt ;utporl-au.4- taikt.tr oJ
AMA. ;tS amworplkic atiutto catocybate CM

1.) Poputoil on real o ns - population
%upwind' ale 0- or- 014-and taudo cape
Mit *Delincolion is booed or% cuAd Ley csAup o t; n ,
— rad-ft
brti, deo* &Ltd raft gpalthern iferuoi
OtuAtOSOIA0 coAol 'patterue of Wink; on niald ubo
be delioeded •
lorr axe& .
10 LaNituale refilon - aiJneo.flon of -Ka boots of 03 Remo-
utAl u-o lewd k-kr-9e_

w ree GAM
itka-CrO tkaao coLAA
toe ad) ootte
cuikWoJ p onoaca'iii e4 01/4 LOW-Ati
.40 exaval n Owsl )0+erpref
nO$ 0 n or arta •
R2A.191 auo re6i ow)
.:144 n irotival matured "-ion s

▪ rumuziAi
'Po re t — mAws4
IV)
at nut; o n vette
mud UV F-0-/ eLuptuu LAJuLtof

nC wok gfreanuil, Ataki‘'D'r
v) 'FLonowi(.
teslooal tuatkod •
cocci refrcruxt.to bray.- Wale
eta-Kew-tic a_tsv;fZe5
latukicti
rtatu:abi Gad kr
sena Go w3efo-1 to o I for
Testi) I e reeouxtes cuAd e-teusaic ctititrea

Impia taco* 0 n
cria „.c-or ref on.

26
vi) 14ctitu al teaotuce_ redorts
vu) an-am el° sil

'00 4t...uktuiti tee
.
,„) ,..0.3k,acti
x) ,v./Jr& redon
tot t pttxpose '•1 rstu-pasekt
vo-uicti uyAatottl- oho se
Rotft on is a
'gad tuip *on MA_O-41 -V‘Itittre
ltiltatSCUAL4 1
oir 4.0-ta .
errolx 3a.tiots VII aj
l twd, sot; o --e-teuxou_tk
0. lou 1 ,tor rteuma
WACI rat
rti .
4- & tousu_tly tuo
I tatradlOn
el:100-40- leltut43
as ttopesud-- of

WefittitgliV5 tenee101131 Glare"
27
MA) $, ltri4t4
CAA area rjicf or um) cl ota 1 1- liacc1 beat n-Kkt
itrfl Crt
Pat)
Mo 44AD 4i-akkuu.kork nmpil

- rth ea 4,0- NI-
preoo-tri- -14 me;
ku trItuAtts gJt 3 cJt tulft4 40_ roalarul a
wad \wvoIv&o oU
amol L1110)134 emprko
- eacrotea bErl1c juktuLl
itakkauls II Isi-Ecl
w4M .4-tube accord:al 'to wid vl eusTeAds

tom two 'te1
ki•orti cod
r rtt
Pettht-
.t)
I vy true ;n
tLIA,z
'94errel ov,o14
con Lem eti
cLcur,l 1yr41)ace t4 le_oroz cal Peul-ors In
?died
e hi Ulla Wei
ottautpl#_ tety-w-t- o tor-kr
alACI4 CA-Pe
CIV:04
loud-) cat e
Of path SI
'Orb 40 etOUtifnitt4 Pt)
113 ea
rucklon
,o-0- cuAti
1 p re.
reloittcamo4 1,21-cu eesA
ic erskLb fiK1A
tah-; on of r 40 A-L0 tavAs

otifiaut-urni axtom .1 raiyhl , CAI
mku•Aksa-o-ua t PeE
ui
rr
+A vA e
Creerkp
testi-ors 1)s*IA ruvi ca1

eeraftU cal
vault]
-Ft/at e_buti e_ rk tio &re_ 0)4

0,4u1 witur&l

28
tonietuiporoli G, eirtfui
yukulko of spoSIct) &Iffy-re-W-10os a-- pla.01,4,8,,o,
atcd c ao.t, cci GI 9
lertrui oat Da..3sacie. et- firo e

becemAto IA) sit 1-; cat 1 ‘.1
OGG Lai ve eta umai- It

Wutha9
he#1.1 -FIVJ 1 On
0V040A1
?II tan WPPOil ig4t4" .

29
Cofritibunor. 4 WavAWL:it awl Witt
Alex oad eA von 414-tw,botstt-

4!on
40re0 vuest e duals
Po44-m- a .wadeAn
letol
iy.oraumtaini work _ pab ligUa el j(tti..4
produced -No
Co vrtri ;mai° n -b cieorftuj

n tuuthi Iotau1,
tot.ticaulor 4o minim, brain-Ina P-u-oluledile-
42.010,11 cio.kablocri eco-lom , Sufi ol oft3 •

1
WA speerf; c
thaiYaSeul gout tate . lta
& WAD
461/40001 0.
4 41Aed 40
lemstubs
*lea; ve_ \n couli l'ai
u.tode* ri ao a. ollsd pline_ clinke d . to

-Poltur of rearti
4-tia eos-Wh t41t-4-ose amd at.o.aApcuas'i1

544.14./ 4
noku-re o.o ov4 0ly2 csk-lAi ; Ki-trreitheLl

cutoole mut 0.P
CLIAA tarit-;e61 04441.
°Nail of p isi -hoz Qrneari. 0 .02, n 6 plea

fir* 194-attar Iv cAlchlt
o , let eAtte "
& 11W rave-
-WO- wake I err141
4d& il-uAmbo 10- INN)
a t corceni -lo
.0 Prinz; rile of oalizaiktir
spoil cal atral e cl rtatiew-emet
u LoA-upla oi-
-t2, r&i- obsce-wed
au^ pro meted lo ei,epia!m el-tsar
MA efo-.44& vArteice cukol
teoh 0-JACI itafer-caffenolkAA t e .
end0.1 OThea 'mit' oyAre
a enPtui %i to kl LI, kiu..“-do 01 ak

® ?e, n dple
'to woe 4-tu_ ‘oostiion at& or-teAkt 0c_
sour vi tio-
tuscotte to:14-k o,
1:4Amunk.k.w.o, ciy‘ Q0.4444
4 exre4+nal
MAJ. Teat‘11.44 *of- fiovonal -4tA.Ur
40 Lam nu Oni
s4)114.211o1)
40 W ..de otakt_
clad post; ve • 1?,a,
Mettiod tom QuxpeCi cal
io einth4olon wA4 Sok.t,t1- tor tAi
ama anal; Inset
c€01&to n
.petjuat 4 vret entk; smr,-, cal 1P-08 cif LLI •
kt oioo ed ao

30
Cox I RI tier
a;)44 ) \ • i ucbolak
. totauxcler 4 t ru-odern 994afk1
vac wxuAwArd work -i-cl bolde ,
Tioxil; shed at
conl-ri 1/44ion •lo leortoj

told a fl TM 40.4.vAalati on 4-or
T-rd lcuc.cle la at"
* -Hair
reform.) 9 eclairuAl
o-t-- a war ceriee_
-kke a-tr.-Ill
oic -like arta tiondel thicti

pre/Jou-141 a totivTlek Saute.
cal a.voi able etnfo rwicki; or) GM e_tharl cnrct

'ro corixircklki
4-tsqk a *co rotten 1.4-11 strAutiis
WAD rent
)-11 °neer a- rtenai appro ach h
rirf Lu:.
Vid e_ bad' S -tor -truoyk3 3 cLuAeLl
3t. E-Moczcie am'id ned Pr°
cuos at ittecal leer ki
eattiiCal 40A ce
ci) nee) ve cl a)) am
9/441
CCM P).BATIVE ASSESSMENT
%wk. vir.xed a cit....A tclAL., tate, 't cut rei) 0 n co, cud
re11
Ti a°
eLual ...wall ;yawed ace serual ec vaLLAA 0.) tO eil
yaril- crook
Acti- start:A-Loki VA to .
az 44.a putiskali will yo n 'whit-
4944 aucplco.613ecl Cal eAAA-pefA cod off to etva
vit. -a- viS leau ai vs ref arm) Oki (Late tuAl
Nluo-kbowk: r cull:1yd dual; tru cutc_cl gam) kiccoi3 sicritomlic lurk/
0.0 a. toicA t.&sSo 64^1 rel• Dad rorf

31
c4..„ di of nconiL
neool 4or Amuk.a. ao a.
vkier Ri-reo sed
wthiseat ?Imo 1
•par4s1 0 rd a to toupeinad -1-tm
witole ,
•-;ractj-ho,uzi 4A`Lur (Dun, Aviola

lati;
boi-tk sub:1g, stud
,vokfik,
•61
h
Paola- kL413 'ONCLIA0V-e_ CLP PrDCLth •
won clektdive n cLPPNCLUA '

lk; tr.

• "Mipplrflr "MIFIMIIMPIPpArd almelr r • 1'1' NT •
32
I •
I.
II

1-11.wkou-i &tic G,tortpt..3 33
auk fo apoul-4 61R cute( po614vist41

- dem tiopea
tuAtaau Gimp' 444.4 r nonwative.-apath0148

lo-uarclo
tokole pofltti9M i4 aR
- ned er/
CatUAkel 7arucik31vi
lei 40 0
tHCTOR I CAL Df--ve_upPri
uted -lei vv. 11

I FCcuut ?wad eel L-0 r I-
Sktens. on tawAtudi R . litirkskor r e (A%)
1-0-6 ona,6443 y;-h4 --Nam
Idea of 4, prthetkOi tou.oS-1-

tuz
to.....imv-a 54k ato4ncukt- -Haw e
r-temak scmor, It
rorew4 Kit* 14 )
'Po vals
1--) `11- acto rokod
C reW-orce a
41 no a reaci;on
dive/Aped)
TA EA-1'11116i
auaares-e4s a)A-Gt tAL LIA AS VA =Lehi
rolf 40 Iken 1u-twatA
ce/u1reLl cuko1 acEve
14-1WACVA ti eat ; V‘I I

to wo 9.u.o ntoS cukti
Wiwi:3m
rattciakidtillp ati+tk ta statical cpprcXYdA

excltimezi vutut -raittre
- 'ottiv prat e21 g
- siu_b) e awe of proaciA
or )tete..A preiatrre tuaclef-Orma)1 4- -kit et;-,

ve
@Au\ ton ruutkal plAramp‘uv.ca -Runt Via F Egital c ea •
41toi- wintek be) laQM A.p rove

'is 0SP- totkukti
1.4
.114441 ountA a 041tor 4-kama etueo
Vona 11
of- 444iir
C.'n-uxuo1-cuAt co
.• 4or reCLOVA
ir
tx ?Act WA1

34
44-0-thi taw^ 'Mel on" k U4'4e4g4coci
A cc 0 rctivi
bctcknumc1 Teeple
sojo wit; 4-coiowo amd utikanki
sw-Koctelocri
Cr\< satles4-eakcOUaMU1
lttrik; PC0:10"
DiSUAA S On
in) ObV.AMOSOn
I toe wrtet eAAC e
eoretputical wie)*190o n
ao -rani al i1/49 Fitume_4
Tustm curtired

35
tv3i-tA 130.taAA to-o_Li sim

catAA-par; s; on
05; w.:1 a0
CE,uare oJAA r n armed; ve ro ion fiaAAa
tAwAA,am ai- i+5
widar react;oyi 4a "osi fivisv.t °Ad RR

Mex 4- Is
4ar 1.4UAAACLIV1 Geo caul

bakb1/4 axe -wart 4o °areal- r›araildiAn
eaort e ea OA ol-tar
4/aol t cuAot 4&A 40 eimapire

4-401AA u chuar
. be414 04
e1)1114.t1likA 4leb
WAX' eh 'In beketili °Wart& Vtli

OAA1V Lai
s .4o.raudt& backdoor
bekkaw;auskan s m
'AO MA-CikVe. tip:La pm •
Is 14)6 Nsw 'imp) red

V*I.tavl auali som
eta4u.re LA ok olitma 4-n tau° Frtak-

s KovA-04-uo6 c
1142.1muA twat; tsm
azkol kuunriel
vtoad
Tt`"1 slikeuv) Laiiswi
etud V)e..rk eu ea " 0.1
)0694-epl^:4
lAwAkwit c.94 c_
ie_e tarkiccd ,AALA-VO tua

0.0
-14.ADAA clif•PeracCea
fitore ILL; co:t t; ea
a_ a OA &rum
"e)I)

36

37
;
Lay ad)
ncov; &l teric
-
J
ono roCavi 40 Beiv:u.s10 tij tai ut-s

ate& t ;GA-LOW-
91lS oPtl -Kan 4o2116:11 'In ra-t ctovi
Ykclimcwe !A4-1-kt ettio{1.4
ahtliAtet4.) ve am_a pro co c.s tkal ctiv tom cJA

roil nes Attu cu-da
Evatuosv e
.94-tu aunt,
Tuts') cal ot Kati ve

yealLi41
4. 4
poi' CI s I cle_aceswi
s. on mut ; dectEltian
tescubi *ea
q10v; QR
Bekaa/1ov tedium
- no lco.wetAA tore& kuwaJA Lope ck
wiwestsalls clAavieaa -e4 klAkinaws
roecko-404t, 410054 x;ble
Oa i; UMAVQXSQJ
40 make r tc.Lore cc:4904;c ti aurae!)
- vanclet ate) -tutor; ea
Wivasited 0 si-FiVisiM
b04&4
att1tA0 40 sake
IA.o.mktuAlMio eta
bo+c, ti;t4; sed rir's
boo s ? wad o -so ei.4.144-4 es
cilecti4k evk
rrol
st;1 oxi 4; en
maker .1 &Lodi swt 94-o ip 061;v; s
- tudi ke R \
elto:Ar Student
vA3 v Os
IAS Rank
- 4-alcv) 87 Prajit
',Lao Nair Geography
DC tOUAAk ctu.d | Offline
tAALtAk"Aa Notes
ey.A101; ortS
of ForumIAS
rad ot lee MP
ehauleuxatisrn 38
. come cto o.In3 cite cal -turn .tn tutimzuel evrey
col amcl ae cision - nkal4 cto mita;oil

aufknalyotot e o
ractRonstil p bettueen wv:un 0).441 vuthire
*ASTOR I GM- 'DEVELOPMENT
oad j5coRon ropty,orplui vol

I. kw&
Fiieclr;c1) Patzet lo-li no ui olpeA+
1 el 64 par_A
.for
Sappreosi on 4, w.freoauitli two st-
s debatten t Iowan oat- 44awle
EIlste keaus P-enui &kepi t lel rk --littni
aumaiifoSve
lupporten VossiloU is pi, si I col retoluEon
Rev olution .Cor beharil ow-Athol
Concept
Ilormairive 1 Mahal
- 0 bled, ve M ap
Rea.); Ss_
.‘N /
4e4oKs
i
_ chat tour) con t el+ et ' ral4onalili of- newt
vweva Ye" outlet 4-c. si; %mall

coKoi ci ei co
- totkoi ot en-s
afttal t objetfive
1,1ev J-0.1 / semcw; mart/
eaao-ontuu-LE eta ro p Kau}
o-AALI
"*-Arai eYpreIO
mop owe 40 oat-turd ev.vironbitkutt
kaAre ditaU 1-1 ot- thosott-eA

rOmmtuf- 4e
444-uo tansia e.As
0145., rormedive reA spective‘,

Trociu oc ( vaiuu CrIAAA
tnetactl fro_unewe

39
— is Ltictutf)v e
BeArcuri extr S '7v4u-dive
itrALLake; g 16e,trojnour
*a* ow, It actun&tL1
ourArorouthea '1%49 eo
C) -HALL-e_ coei sfs Lieu); Na-Ve
wao.ovad
reveal e wail eLLol read
elute_ oxi
sfrarl rela-Ficwei:4 r be-fweem
0
toorl el be-haul tar.th

40Ler,

frosA re notate's-Pm 41
.oventraLl-- 4t&t Seeko 40 •InTALIAAAC e ifis, pot; t; cal

- Errol ronmeuhditrys (wool-ea co. &0Mi
o mkt +0 p ro-le mitt& repots-tree.

b, 1 1 o bbjin ad!. viEvA awl ectutalion
? ro ce
/two e unrie.rno .
p
re-leo 40 poll); cedocprersAion 4 mow - coliiron nAvita_t tU&$oAiu
_ n ego- bad; crami
vAkkon wALuirti oil track; on
relat-to -fo arou3,1 cutrarerverc
trarmarn trreatiMA •
090 ov 14g tell& ov-tu'r p
co
62
book S'Oeu.4c i)T:nkr rum; s-Le dIfl
latikti b.rkors
)trafl al 1 Lrapi raMo n &raw
TiovE To le
CA ) (940)
P rnui &teem peace
Deaf Spills Early, Dal
4, .\ /
tWore -ab ,
89 inel of cream Mr
tick (leilo)
&min %%cc
Vivo Akol
ordure Igurf le be
couarokel
chat -to rah's - - rusittrer vlco- rociltor;PIE A U r-f
or 0A-0-41 vuovetwais
seureti ao "mot;O0t'O
6ree_upaate
- Gawk 'Lb Oa acre
rout et- to-LW-lotto rcrutfil ;row

- -nape xtuvereavst5 eflL4d tor
‘to‘c1aitrh;t4 alltaCISAAt h oAAcl

betui
iaIt1
milord ill
°Ina
1 4cr ccol-alwabie riluvicarama
(fees ,tuLuti afou{K
appiwornutulatiwAlto
4echnocesdnc.
e VOCC4in;G
44 Glotal kuel
LAIC onferemte.o
410-yeam T-rtkA YIWOAk I CI1-2-
is+ cM Carrectinte o
C t -rEc 197i-
il'CC I gra
00 igen—
L BD
iltamA501 eauvak; on

42
A+ no-4;o nAl
tun,' dui tki-latiatuAck
cuiplco M o v av.tavk v v AK=1r
V‘pilko Mc vtweut
th.cui 4-KclalCUA
ltcu matt
Yailui Movemailc
WI-
-
uiI ale:1m I- Inuii fe sui4,1
OrcuAttkormarclOkaanThv.0 veo.•
I•eji &Skye. ecpreZ on
Sr Mkt 14T I)
-->
uoisitA Att EPA PINS

flq14.4) IAT @ s

43
_ recto& ClA4KUA te
- rd kag oF 1044/ CV-4Ln
eau I ro nwau-1- guAlu-14 be prerk &eel T-i-o.u-1 I01vt4 Fu_l csv4ea

rektS 40 0. ton cvn *a+
turraam.
n& be
re cea.i- tolAt en) -toy &ALA KA/L4.1- Eu4 e
4-rtke.a btcxscthj ao ea be-end
et4-cuLtj Ot MACOAA - voitue relabIo nbl;Ap

twa-
Sam zcaute
Mao 'An hatr4,001 Moro an atactrtier

IA) 44o nctio-t- naktre
- ywattseA) ao - uottfratk)
6-10.1-u-re (h:thise -
Lin41s 40 EtoiL/411
Rennaliscunte IR
%i4j tS fll
NAN SA-TORE
I 4/
Er4V Ro OMEN TA-LIMI
11/4
C100-askci-lo
mom 0.0 CleteANimed de.keild.4 ni sw)
nabae &aictrtin Tod tor
(eV. rev olak-ron) (berrayi 4 eau; )
Envi ronmvaro
Tedwoceakrit
E co cet.thi G
I
n3€weu1oa Ptc co wed on;st
coyvnwlwA.hts
Co; cuN Ichs

44
P.

45
Inclumen on PoiatioH on 'Dis.4r;bufr4on
towau...-4 , po I fluke' kiS+orlitai

variale -µted- InOitcle6 Sod al,
ftuemees
Astchrs cit uaU ot.a pard-S PLP1
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47
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48
oc- p op ulatio n inual vi Ili ix clAami p ea maw? auk
uI 1413racO 0n — ntove_rneul-
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real d <ma

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52
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b€1 Y\ 'ntAp&b 4Le-volIA
c)(114 yizi etbr
Wed-we_ v_pLuoli
ecti cate,re,idi n Mai feet

p Ks-Fa , ocp
PeA
di-LI_ 40 I.
etw s-19;irti coLL0,1-45
t p ded cktthxpwt&L&kal pro remea
vaL* reEf, o f-
ere; xf-vAt e o t coA.ApuLcz
0
oAtut.0-- eco-m•cfruki eo, 1)6 vui
•
-1-1•40 oaLLudri
-feu-- ce re_ areaz •

i) tax); sec/ n a
of- ore«) oti exorkki alrl n,

rota lemito
For Gage-obl w4&t
-11 okot T O-cal-kti 00<alea

A-twre_ stiso-te 1k Oro/ viiv4
bci-we_ea nil OW)
lox-FWD' o rn ens- tird< en) CAA&
n Lef IP CA-COAeled
tomo eau e ponce." h of-

641 Scha.ef-e-r- -litroui Lek kik S
chostemit u) Oa
w•49- SI 9 r-14-4 auxt-
7ut4oisk1el n 11r3.
IAS Rank
aftA 87 Prajit
ExceapNair Geography
ono-Ci Notes | Offline Student of ForumIAS
syn 'In Ge1caf1443
62
GT eorptoifl Htunam G
eel raflui
Nilcol
1st s+orlosi Greeko
ntre 14 rued mil .

ReCOKM
Woke cu9,tka3ea tAsu4&cw1/4. 01/44-re ck

ikero &Huta am.ot
- asmoutal S -for clickoiv nt

othAkokolori waitto , ludsisolcti
cukstai ratconesson clutil
'tio vo.k,ceno 04
Ic
▪ ast-4444:cia noktsral tausus cv
pat,s; it vise
a.oiste o4 scituti trecl6on.

co; 4-ts a tale
0=0- u9vkais4i on s
lead 4tusAA4e2veis ,,, id)

isiene J ytotl-
..tikocia 4 nrsi-tkrt4
wool owoi esaks-rd yistAms imiuteak

chaii
1; w,)i-e.D1 in 44 me
csbssui- Lusbukow, aftwei nakoi'r
rail z0.8
tkusat reAnke +o tiv..fes4aida1 o• robaist rattar
sad ware aska
IA/4i Goal Voirts
-1-kam ceads1 •
rn 0440 cultic& al Malbi
cc
V
rosikalll oak-teal- knoviesiso rico eat
vote," Cflostoko) "01 raven •
bes o.Y:A
egy1analert] stosl
*set-LIAO alit-41mm
Ck1214-0-
• yot 071- oAatewas
eti
A 16w .
W-CuO
P Lit; cal adrapki
I wouxusal v—u-
i; • 0Abo dk
Masts4 deA von
On
'Datum' - I cid eactosol s
posi- Its-0 tstaoe ist •
eustkaal on rOW rampul
-fc
mi.i
Timsns , lewd( , Jck-F.Fertor, ,
voepvem
blotobk n04-euAcep
rocluth c4 e ar+tes tar fa_ce
04 segest "n -441
Sew.ple
cs; %Attie aux/ skosr t0v1/40-1 14 com
esskp luso\ 3111 ink of
44tif•al n
ccw.pe_ betAhs1 imaroln et a v; rilativo‘ s •
tims tn. tool euguirotsvtoustai

taw o I coat) Fr; wan lj
111 Q QS mum
aor ci- cukci euTtki6101 lyt1sko-1

63
om b oo -42.1144Asats
T- e plated eAk‘pStadgiC IAAAMACLIA
Lux.; n
akt ' I amd&atpe

04-
token' 04- tuum.aion

v7 Kai de Laid mkt -bunt e_cl 99tcoui
4,
(auk; iski; on
etaAip OAAJ30-044-1-4AMAt
ko ; rte
e
tuthurciA tua.014(cap e
°LI jakka nouts o4
oA
ao tueakmasea of
koLri clutt rtueltal rrarwi
oast -1-10 ctel-eAvulli)Sik curkun1-
Fattouters of- kumitatvx 32yr-rig-I toa/3 4o

'Raz; c 114losopti 4
yva.kacti natal; atistA;if) uLtt'A ct,k eacl^ 0ç -+Lt

et/fa/all 81/4 a MOM - ta-re
rttfeinclo itr ark -Rut aktc•

4.40 iS
In en aractuj tilcta Cbtifj

r eo es:ad\
2aol c (;84A
04- acd-o-re--
QUADRA/ Is ark 44 cal cuut 0 Ital
ICA sto6 cal ttuktLaP "'" t 4Lir

cuto.ii sua 1s ittt refroWL o-r
disc; plinc
Tkij 4-W-0 are 4Wapciretmttl 4)4- LIJAAVI

64
HISTORICAL DEVELDPMENT
444 codury )
Hentetta T. kola vrctoi Rlekolel
ISIttei Wart, —
of HileHaue exteptonolism HoxfsLowne
chorptl
, ND
Strobo Speck/4r ,; ;D) oitriori
ta- booke IbrevisiS loucIston-
F4ifio4vdi kwelele
Carl laile^
cr,eaw:cili sato°

65
erl; visrn
Co m -IS
colobiishecl
b1 'Are
rom asAtki
-tattoo-4 a e tot; rhs4
awls_ - lard eLA U31043 t
rded:"" o-cLd
rejection of cal
ruse
i Ve
recalij totkicsk
to 0 leCill
Sittal
411 eb
In
9ecroui
klukuscolb GreL MOM Salop I
W-na aunt) bc1
eless th-.4) wax' -
Auluisie co mit /I ento. art! e
Nif ::••F ca.J__343,0,4-1 ve

lost To/Ism
FrA14 vi sr., ii4; vim.) iteuotostion
excoAcIeA
von ii-tuALI:oldt- -Fred
Richaxel
uriskon,e sone tier
•
etweLaped ac eaTeAked pas; CI vIsm Virct
ob sewat4 on
ob' ethsnu1j
ity
1.e
ctu,ct reti-Pc_ctiIon
'veulo 1OffL&Igr °CAN/Wm

0f1 To 44 LA %vo dev ekoped
(41-mr tit,
44,t bete; I ot I' eat) wneol.
coAketuoi on
i-e
e ne teat ari ver4 ea
LAIC, al or
o bse-orcLeo n
owfo.ft cal
y;enna eJ rat utua

6-1-1 snA Lacto etweiteed 111
(IR •
I eA \n-ftwaikt eel

66
Fred Kurt so,oefer
ExcepFronalism 1,1 ineoraptuj

Mrs park
uusb ei or - emllusai ascii c
4r €9J •Herev hioion
Io• tiaua-c'
no o•ppli talon a- w2 ret, so leortiAl
ado
he ccL4cI 44^-0-1"
-ID
me thew, cal tv.oeukvil sailor
reclaiuni lett a .p
et eatiirtiv e
moituDa
oA•ct fc•Lus
xi eat; uoe o4 3wrp19
OP
scheteCar -Po cuoed
,I
"spaii cd samet 4or 3 eorelA/1
I) e woe d 4t...1— -4)0%1
, lot , sr:low, lost - "0211
t .7 „cord
coot-nil tic n
eAufltaked macith ow)
N.
vuocittyl tcitikt-4-1c
&torwi
role wttd.:4
Oeud exi
4; s Apimie
0:JO 4oLuncta4Zon of 6,R
excepkOfl&ft tom
cte-el ILDLL•t0-A•

Cocational 4-0154 veo lay Pel•oi 9,081 67
o-t eoaroptAj4dck totube/3 ou 410 s pa-Ral antuAlebutui-

- °AA epproaan
Its tut-414001T iS spa-Rai atA•tce. •

t humme..mo, . uoaaJ
4 locajoetal OMdJSi3 Loaf)

tnitn ablecnve
°Ad 44u-0rim v.A114. pro cluck; ve

cuiate ()nu DJ (301 , %Amadei t.
bongin9
Tower
ems) WD kit 4.14.m..“-cun
0.A.V meal iacvS , 4tAtor; eo
4ort&a1oJOfl
be,)„,stilt 00A awl hour p eciol e at; I
idtam,1/40-4A
rortil
reosulte.0
4tu'Ar
twilAl OA un dew') Ike +to appro atta •

okilo sop et- Tow, viiim
baoed oik +tut_
-
attaur-tuts ounol
.rdectliT-Icittloe ok -Rum to oF
Conceuktateo om
-We GO s pli vie)) etudatebil Ye re.valuti on .
I \ uicet1 40
so s 0-nst
predo tuts th-(91cpoe et3 sr94/u-Qtrti

,20.4)ex.16 sw, ) 14-
— Wed o4n
tun -For t+ctas -Ka2 cd -tonu

-kat
at vs CiCbit9 cal- ed 4LtA eauee ot I oax.Pt oncd

no.bt
rrtuas
; -Auk IRS-Os
s 4tuuctu &tort) kl
.91 s book- La to_t; a-I
leornefric 4-mai-ft o 0)9)10110

wio &ea&
‘01 &pp est) e
kAAAAnam eoaraf •
ordeA DA ? aid seAuo 1 vt
© Ha , load+ on
tuck a -Co cue needed :

appro at* 'au-it-Lk coincemircd-ezi em
'0 -to Mop E a. e/rtemA
a 0401 e cuss ei-41-t4 le
icoAervuo cmkel floe t, to caim.A;b1
rAom cund auaii racka.a.a.1-

. eutptel wnatts aa 4.0 wAdaukkuAø
ret.a.ti atAct•Ckp

68
make ?re se- Oat eakesas (r.A.Likcallaliav)

;ma_ cumuilitafive
ICO -k°
I etc:L.4101W order.
cloth'
I66 .ale a 4t.th s or) "Tkto regca/ cmarap

0 al liaA tale.
s -Pat scoAn c e e.c 0 eca;
skkled •-s1/4al- 39 rtipsui
ts, 4u1s Ike
ad DM4 w‘aktuakak; ta.1
taoCI tfs 'AØ Vi-etk;
at Ai btkO
'0 also
0.L1A.;th spo-ficd eliku-so-t-

of eummovalt s
'm14x Lvite -Crow 41eid
Siry%L___j______
b4A-W ea 3ettrptAArS
40 c.kne 'iMerretai4ovitaAp
Wao 1 vitcluced • Led
Eta to autiest3 4.3
',n 196os cw..a tagqo s
reeewd st'A eut;
wka
Kw fl edo of %Folio) attoAkart- •
WIId emu-ow-it
9erftel
0.1-Lar tkolars
tilo rr; 1, Cox , Co, Warvesi , OA.orlei
'0,At-taolAted ileum:5k; c •-lrckdi i; oop of cuAA

c0 040 tartcolti
book , tAx, SpakicA4 lau:A VOl On at o USA] ht Card

iv, hls
41 34
vvoi6 skfs 5e sr al; cti ;alerack; 0 vs @ RA; vilA.k.w.kkn co*
ftopi e ge etc It
h r i vti I-e1a-I-4 at); v:1-3 1%40 p re) lel 4 41 -- - — +IAA_ WM-W-

cool so
A auk- sot.'A dij 11 siTI ii 1 ti all Ice 4toAm plcue fo place
patvero o Ioc_a istwa cuAcA„

bt cata o preoLiciaiole , orie4
Cr;ik.i
'yr et %to rowed; ve Eugal; sun

bet's ef -WAY
bctoed trOA YkAl *LI( VA
nor Kkallve. skol tkt "
irktovj woo id lead
yot14; ve
Ot ekes:tom imal(11 ro cum •

reflect- -akk l
re edil
stol-
19c real vuorld •

concealed uso.i.fil wet F; ga
+km \ O UCLA 0 rde),
itict-F let auwAr9-ea
ew +AP 8-rowAril
tki -WU Sod
aF cap! taticim

69
D Vet proc1tzthon cuAIA -Kt t-WA-A-041.1
ant 40 to caCtokkal cwaJtls 14uxe 13
0/4-ers -eAck 4- vac:WM-A afiy$044 •
ireat- people co clots on map , sel-0-4-wites C t9-VL or
V.LUAthe.11 '0% CM tivkai4 cm •
I wrd- -FresAA ‘m,1 --t ct6es

twAmam rpm)
srubv1-amitoltij ckaAl ea nakutt
Luba (Dula be uaeot

pro tecturea
ow tipped twat; 0-3 ona

70

0%04 I &tit VS gO‘
gali
inet t Uttar, 71
— cli daafon Luca ral s eol bi Benikora vareialoa t ;r1 VOIA teattal
OCI GIVla atka ClithrtuSette-A. .

vat e.44 go NA.03 YZ130:1 4W--0 %Won
anal GI to 3 rag Lui

ii4aloactl 6toraply
• 344.01fit I o seeko 4v 641 4030u-a n dii

un-mun ed 4ornao A t;On
vat; Duo nasalen cl1/4
concepts nteal t al; oi
twu nci1eO cwd
are_ *mini sepcuateld **yr, oauxal varkati
u.ft wen -Pc si -Haat; on 'In 01/4

a tear floras 0:- • d eats
. dealt to-004% on e o r
OWil 41.A-Ar pcu--44 altar I o cetl i 4-3". Facts on oG norm-hi ,

atilt rorMAIAAk *Lull .
twanom
-fate old .
wr am; ciaaan ess
'fall Ter-krnaaw-ce. ti n
• 'is reid cuole_cl aa easrof imi

l or ref,Duo .
ulna I e tun rl cl an
a oath wit-K4 -tto _
' Deals tt:1+1-1 tAlZiCiMIL 0-tial0 IA 5 g riall0-h-;'ge4
ct w:u t •
40 csirnt 'In twat raraplati
)vi)Vai . ca444 mil-
u,dtJAj rtaivAd-ad 2....CL
L.1____11"
-r0nnntøbon 4 Ivo +tato; 5
latlps in
tuf•tlemsfood -liLrsi1/4
v.jk& Wad
te-rtaclaared d ea -
wad
n &ins taw& .
waves; *al- 4 .14,a, cwil'i I-

taditekkati • kao mal
on -t-ro•oa on;vrti
rxrcuos '‘ w)o•-03-1
a yorcr color tei-tuti to
tatt searcla -for at
tc:k oaacea D,
oiasl sional c Eton offs alb a; Olive

Lap/ ors al inrc .1,., ofpnoad a
ki ams)
,,,,,St "In ap proach 1 lolned 1 atelfiv knito

eff
von 4-1-tuabo kik . A-cc/it-4i 4 14-mm41201M;
)4j -frketamclok
3i clu24010j Taper Welted Sat-
ptamaonaelact --Has& eAel%4 +D3 04A-04
\ nterrelcd;on sia; p oc
&Alt threll• 4-ut
ratapll
In cun ona. •
4lj
need r CA.03
!4e cusekta rd
1 "pal ghaod
4
Atooal.A on ?will art
are
cliestH
(Pad:Kolar) C Cueattal)
cuthrt,641 0C (344,14,0 veciaaaH c teort

e ham/eel 'on

72
seireks et! 1-tte ot) at° fowl Go
- Carl qi kVer
nalurei raw Ka& '&t a La-kale , 0.11'in
need -kr a si-Liztl at- tads.
-lufz. "1 du-ketd- Ttu44 '

orchA it) ware-W-4
cosh-01i %1 fer rti oral &pp roa Oa-

be4vt eel \n
mai; t rep reoeukt-E1 on

Diodr
Otanimovi l dad Sekittl•

-re
Riolti-Tte—
t: .4%
- CoeVia)aikns me) WI Cioni ev of- r ;onertsel
wam4 esldAwI
-rouneltd
thet . 3(03.
a,milord oweSi (rot) altinca
ere4
- etfil/
Iri
41.6,4 lit* eA video de thbleone fiarThikorn e
atiy-r o C iew) is
.ij 4,
it 1 I
raised - ib-
0004001 t t t t
t
4hAwbobil- Schaefer
talaclAncni a trdroctikred cydekvath't o &vital locadional Dewent u_fini len
—firs
atja?!S ;A:col
h
creettel chub/ 40 t4p144.04

ri
ciweloyeAnd- tnefreoiact; c
turT li
titwer kprroacho 40 Kkee44e_ 6+4
0 'keno, kritti•sdl
- Loh; 41109
g) P1/41
,0049e.tr
bspd- 0_ ruts_
entld DLLOCA; 01
(.110reretil
berd alba; eon cud -bye' tr
dA.OrOkOal
4-0-Atxreo
caufixd reialor-s1A1 ps bettetoAA 4
‘11‘ W-J14^-i 4
-It amok.e.hschowkot +Low-
of Cat! 0 • catuA
a) Iamd scat,e
g caul)),
73
Con elution
mad,* di w1 /4-emo anal Kof gtaj runt,bc.t• o•t- 40p) s

'is
ratafk l oct-
caw approarkdo
cvAct reelowl
a 'In
rorosi
,j
jM 4 us,USI NO 0 /1 a- nai-V-r-CI-4 scleace4 , so a al SU ein ten
cun_S nut-4-ktm..0.1;t s
CE4.U-411; \ €
ottAA-zuts •
'in wleicJA MAj
o• 'Peuue,u1-
1,11:1).4.04 cyc lepr-oui

eicLiAs4
to
cum ,c11 rerri

101_
o4 %osi L' %en]

'td € a ot traSI Kuzum
col 6 s
bekt., dab p GT+ easik eh's+
S fejAcul &tore./
k•-j tatit•elorreur ttekeAync,,A
ifinl r* yaed
ci-ppro c•i& oc efrnet
cosi id) oaraptAlc
ko-v1 /41- 424)tt ^-

cri tave
bac;IC) kt ca'A wri
ouspicukavcF loalcsa )cu-o-to‘erie•
Ana) •(40-talict-Ek on
cior wre_ 01- tleal-Skorneli

74

75
f*pitaJ IllneorObi VS 14tAms•av Cflorptui
Vara. t1/2 had role in s•i-otit iiAts
- ist 0.0„.461 b9 Gireelco clifiAt*OlAt
Fieratecto re avore twat/ 40 rtutsi cal troaraplai
4 era do-Itto cud Swako aoplkaol3ecl tuvatak
- cu.kda,a4adal kM'S -tot althalo NJ 1
incltaceial et4 Imovitori nai-eto kid stroloal

1n co at Inc:Jura, patuomokkon
tu.bRiacto at n akar& acieAt ces aka 10

et. 14- po#5115Ve to woe -Wu.
wataetue. sciattlR "vac) c-1.1 on .

elAnto- aoactual s L.414t.. a tante.
ssal-e.ad 4tu.4m.otismo vat' 1.041/

. %AA-Lodz nctkrAnd st.;•Akte
so el al av.4 ackkasaA /Amt.° tack •

40
tu,mcnk an" KiisoF be. aj4-e.01 in -121•4se

9 ewacal on abau.1-
amst whkai relate 40 tilatex.kaat o•r• pr abialai; •I•J I-attar

aucl tface
ract; tally ai Rereak 'for
co-LW:31 . o nAkWocto I oal cal
er,coo.nal KlA "en 9e°8-114741
04- 44•4 i OAO etd lvcar*
belnhara vatr...4A CNO-rey4t,J)) vieta
n tAls 6 0t- &wLAaih sysibki &wad

r; blkstkv.
otev74;0.1ans&cto
16c0 .
terpti saw) easpliatMed ofi'm hk-oult rerf

? tudii cal aidu:sio vaj WADI
o car reosiai ttjs ecl
Lao)
• hunto.KLIA You)- Crijaked oaf kola; 3ecl T.tkd • eo •
&Scuts(
kiestm oltk von Vrssaa)o 1at
etuommal S on ca-A coped- \
)arsain - taid
I grip otaioe
lt&tvaspitaol on "taca 9erkl
P°m"
TE
Jakrenon, 1'41 l I Vt. •
1<oeppe)A , ni) avS, iv"(
14o4oble natant co
s 41-tc Trootac1- oc earites sac hire
* Sew.ple seaed
tAl maLte 0../Ad wawa.- to.Athi fi ova
ekup ru3 roI e
9f 4.0.01:10 n
eawe beemd mord \ 04 cJv'%oJoc •

-1-tAu
W0.0 iyik WUXI; 11 tom a-100d tal IAA cu•AA tom stkustoi
'The Geneow tthoo
°ape ct- wad eta.pl&ovS1 ec.1 • ptuel cal L9torpui.

, - 76
Gth0 t..514,tt d ved incl-ro.p(Al CLO Ck h raiA OA oc

Tta Covel 4- i etaptims
vAitici cuaa& u.1141.4 devifiorpkOktil , pall-0191, ktri10191 pad 14,14“Cbt .

scime. k
woo b ocattoe '1 n 'im:4-R ai st-ar e-1-- ctuhttop ituwA- , rritui

ioctior (Limp kozis
r_a
+euA 1-eetckars
e tuito kad ataloati krittrowAsi •
tab
latko U.Ded CO1Ae de BuRonit 'Jen

1110.11r-C1 1.1.1)4t% le.fW 1-
cm 1.1a/MIAAA riri.p1A1
Eau-pkaa
0.4 CW C1-11QAAA- UAL° br.1
R; a wimp 0 uruS oterei
ern -ttAk tcw,as Lap e
VIALVLACUA
ac -.0-1-MADALFS
?fated evApItati) CM
. ukci n 'Feb vre
14_ 4kt ' I cuuds.tepe •
vl clial 4f_ leblatata tuktaled taux9i 4 tun lotto-Pul •
4.
cowl; bid; cm
etums..43 04_ ?kr;tat) PAAAMCW in "At
,„, ;,,ufortaaase
r e-
uaL4lat0.1 cuAchtetpe
OA ottiatta now-ts
LIG tuo.o_kneasei or Vitt; ciai ej
"rift"'
koxl cluar
aAkci deka tylvt'A curvAut
4ottowell olowmaim rortplA-ii wa-0 4o

Utak WI et
r.etti; ; v‘ tuba e_ctelk oF4u,e

mom - notkotre wakttati
42thakiti
4wo iS eufeindetAl- on 4tut
tal ettarnui waa clatiFij

la4 r eizu-th 'in
ga& c
ai n awn On
arli Fla) out lo cal
otklAolo to/IS
0.r• non tad tbintiop 4to

data um ;s 4taa
p tin e
Ti0 +two are -i-Lo earthato e+ toott=in Wait

77
As er ckarcl H-or}l‘ko rne ,
thv\ôt 3-eorfAui Mc) Turi cal cad Intum,a44 WUt KALI* e

1-t
4Le %Tot of 444 LJLOTk ;1 I Dal cai •
Ttui-e4ore , 4-tti 61 vi Sion wit /4.Lecai yuwAaAA 'Ts +etc Lastoe oc
leoaropi
6toeimpLui
(norm) fri-ucui
ifiuncuA etaranaj
114ÌSI
61E0
FRP MAO " car
Peockei
egamA
1NTE GIRO E Al'?. wleA Rickard 12 1 mei

2kanki
Pitetakvel4 hub of
(Rn E c Nero) NMI
atuabdel- Ctrel laualt)
auyikt1 enr
EmPrtirsi wet) BUT Pocsibi Yi AO At lablackt
:Rase! (setugut
MEivif-D - BIL Pto

• I ME .1P_ '•-ml - U• _• •11 -FP _••-= II • • I I
78
14
f- 4
I'LIC4 I I
t-
t' 11113 1
ill 4
I 1•, ,
- I 11

79
boweem P-mAch .04 Conral tv(11 9,71
Vic
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o_AA i sotropic 9-5-14ett?

- cks.scpAke 6 spa ce an e4 is.d2
bs i4 OW) , C-kki-43
o b \ec+ive ;fliorPre-ket.'°
eata..te -for nor tireiiVe qA.A
geoirapki t.ci. reaSii4A .
n,
80J-A ea oAA i dk all &Rd 4:k.1-u-0-1A0

?hoots ert Revolufion 92
CItllco- IMO
*for riAno-14 o+ &aka ,
- thatrofreri Lea
cowl) Vi aceetAnicv-ums etakaro-1 -lend-end to awl deviation vw-44-tocl
wdiktot
(Intsg- 106g) joie cwattlidt
cui,c) %(ave°
cl
_ erstuteison terreLo40V, tQ9tQAtiOY
- tkar40S on isto.00-y wool OS
atol ci oGg-
,20,0teals toe 04 n earea v1/41.1844b0401 antabei
011 tts
&ski al o tion4 bati or) tint te3J+emankis •
teeinnictpit 10-44€6
let4 C CI I etti2)
am.c1 Cn% bane el om
plAI toi Wormed; o SAd-tnivn (G11
- eta/Om:4.01s on oleperci
ynakinovnoi-lcal 0,4Ael t4eikts-14 co.) onwnatts& •
tetkini (Iwo OJACI tow-puler -aided coa*0810ftm3.

ain
?floe..-14Y uoe 04 rew.then_
on QspvtccU obse.wo_44 own OAAct 0-Al2 t-eas vehi °Joie •

cuer3
re_cistell a- oaf) -cads o- rno-AAatie_oJole na".^4-bef, 04-

edbung 0)446 tuLtP
has •
&t&W1Ak1Ofl clo..40. P_C ea& cOt 4or
€.044 matIon •intex4olat4on cokol
-rem-etas:4s re •
watii t ti eteetowit
rot. 4 04 oo
se -tor wt....tutted are free af ao to •

etkodels
cal , seteati•Rt ce.4,4 watt** oto10,51 oaJ bao e.
ticen4 kRi° Eleo8ta4tu1 a. t. o
sooinck red-uted -40 spate Te.otn eh-9
wiekty %of Cu.& acceOsio le 0.Aal vole_ 4-o curploin mom - etuAr wisuk. eetam,g,A6t4 p
eowexi cal a- e,,coLustto wo moilve aoiOWQ

topyieuxic atfrIvikij aetitiOn- nicsicln3 *roan&
haat bear4A3 on pal
etc .
nen:Ana u,k4 i 3olio n *4- nzootaceo
100.6 cm) Meentutak) g 1V5I1CIAS ( ttlj so )
et- slain 4-0•FrenIvle L404- atuastiwci
hate oseer5
u•DII SW)
la We ol-is as.awakion 04 +axle") ,
0n moil on611 vets , \# pro 40-I1 SW) •
7 alio) col eo 4o cAso so
e:49 mom. eta t ctsay‘o_t rejzon.
AA WC, r LaAmil
wto.AAA
sa &AS k too, camnol- 62 -to rwalctk;0( e n fictitOUL crf
?tot. ns 1-•tn Stamm)
runo3-180-1:14V1%
- dame- 04- CVOS-
komi I deo. a int:Wen:An 1.-tointun octb-keo eo 4or torociAj ‘rno.an - enAAron "twat- ref-
IAS Rank
Ilkespite oa owdsdon 87 Prajit
g tormnissi o ,Nair
.KA1.13 Geography Notes | Offline
wad ti Aswanaked ItseerafStudent of ForumIAS
t..;u0 itAsot -for 0. Job,
4.4 me 6w,ct IS kw9t144 tee pouzi ble 40 r at vet ettl- 044.0e of 044644 of €09 ra-914-11 •
VA t-1 TOM V E Af'PR0At.4 / F+4moactittodelo4i
93
ct. roodion to ws,,,A; 4-calve_ -(2A/01W-ion
ciAmie n
4-e thritiI cip-to o-re ‘4.04- t.ap 0 rkuo-1- •
COI
_ acv ot.otea data, Tsk-akib-1;ts cl rnaline IlecS1
13eketin owl ti.rn Patti cLli rn 1-kkA

A44-4-tiStri
' Welk:we Approack
ethou;°totaliSrn
419-4A" pcAw\Oj n 1t1 6030 vios .
- conc rpl- VA79MPH a.t. pas',
wi444 Kuottel cum* 4O-oor; ea
0 reAuit ckfi4intithS4eit liOrl 4,
- we-Upped ado
nledr1441.1S“C.
s ccieA.A.1;44c o oral yr au, .
Bozic •212- Yr WA alikkays models

.r,1-1
Clia
9O. fl sok korkion
e" • Joao daily work 40
t-400061 Joe° voi deo- &m Crow)
1;-4€
- Fari
co IAA will
Vai-oo cispe,Ark 0n L44,5 -4-i el ri
Sot; a)
.10-031 C.0 CS
CLAM. 1
i vi LtAiwoldn lealraptvd
- contep4 aa pg,sc,U..etOli cal
vas, cu rk3 reiagonolAp
&ion - mak v cot% came l ,-,
rose 1 Ve
fq4: takel ote
'al belAau i ow&
emifir OnyiAnikt
Viol per4 'en to 6 ti n
dAausuceed by
kj 04 moo.
center- 04. rocr-i on
%AA") ?Ltd ¶I&LoS in a lees.

4-> Ine &A-LA-died swectisIA- -Casm ars wpm.° abit:ined one citsp
One. Cx-Of 'in I- ears.

ornet-I m€0
beucuil owl •
E.4o..44 skical vtLodi ets Lan eel 4* ey*lal n
MA
aikiironvutui Lista an er,„; yap dal c.ion- yr% 03;1 A.3

de4in e ct,91-41ve_
I ctk eat teruc_44.vu2 In ail 6 si o rocki .
ce ctco&tkakkorio 4‘4-03" Uk\WVX
TAA4.AP Aaôun cl-taaj
?Tote ssuoi ex planaki or o 4- kA.A.48•1/4aAA a vi
€A04-0-mth n
13ehau; u-hotki ,s-t sei
oth o Li 4-44 0+ ditch&

E-%MJ rovmAa& Ittata
ron buys} RIMOU-Ace
tor 4=1 ve Env') r owimw-t-

s, Co.! E. Imp ro
,
sujojeccive ektuts; r WILAt
prti-o-cti etwito v-vomukt-
9 etc6ed ern @Ala° eAmu to'n Winft
etataa;r40 ?cl. en te o4 beincuil mu, el approack -

1/4*.cCi nil o F-
4Le w ad people behswe i S Ill S.( afea by ',IA...Ay untexo4-a
ei-wIroyirtiswi- ‘i vi *4-1-4 rik 444.01 l i ve
env; ro nntakat coy nition a.A.,x) be hail au), on )1,kinna3 ail reta4 ed •

RSski-La 94
0 MAW cm i ‘..1- s 'Icienti 4-'1 al° ‘e , ron vuuti-ea
e}-i-1/41 ; macjea 4-ta4r cam be a_ c 0 nsif t- 42 t3
l'Ael:LOUNS '
exis+ ore-ii tetra? on st,24 I) 13 ekto e eiA r•e-veoLled 'i male.° &AAA_ reji
2.) Them
world betkow;ste,
tosn;4-1ve v_ vvoi romcuukt-
ronw C YU-Wit hl
paceived vou2A/A-al
ai44ek0AAA ad-ors perceive cti eAsAA-t mote VA
NA9 eo bao@ci °Tom eull-Loa ti.J4I-0 -1-ra_oli en1

-
e sear& -Co tat) ed on inefra •••\ clAtaJo 41AQUA hAL ronIAAAAA•k• •
trnil ron mud I matie 13e_lnoaii ow)
c Gm/ euSoinal t4ocJeJ et- 14M- Ev•v; To nwaut ROO; °mkt' p
cijadsm
S4eoud ot tow-AAA AA ••••;14-1 or soo ek-9 , batty otaeinsA-- 1111111111FictivW Ito I
Ckyte NADOn co.AAryak be VAC ci 4o 4ort...w.101-e lcu4 S •
con( etr1- ocwvaz 41-60.m. Oki Lk° I peg •-i r SA- clioiNe eippipnctio,
*search on 'nasty; duals vne fauotanit 1 0.1401- eaopemeive
- cri - cise d o 0.01 VI 0115 o4- motatnoU -1W-101.9 40 t Lt ed-dad u.atuour dliro r-1-; on .
e- 8a15 b &we em 4040eii awol prac-14

kbc•
,,14.c„34010, beiguA owl a•I leOcero_pki-i iS

ie towlketuuks ant bia.tu-o clA)l°alto
psi lAv si- or; ev-baHowa
vuo to tun accepied

R •41)1( A 1.451-1 95
eatkivel •F0 j44-oi-ve reueluFlon wd pos'i v‘sre; utor;a1 view
d evetsped 'in lei los o. C.
cor lat; sod e..+9 11;41 Weir
bey»; ao a chi AA rip L.L6 WA:t n coniewforeol
.in pow( o4
m
, 4:try:Ica') 0.A.A.o.mds'ic •
coalerste d aro tuicl a belie
were
Fa
9&M04 etat-a
.•.; vto r vuo cie ao ei-c •
,
111111a •41-okei -ctoris aithuo-ic r#A,
si 0; acal issuto Lao-14 val-eci. tact' (W10-

cs sou:at/5
els? %a
s
uxur fakl fir el wa:
i+ifa
t
ttWV,04 CCUA biotite ) arc tai
...FOR*2 4Z1 c-c;
rICSIOy) av,04-
aeci SoeLcsA sc.( ewe
Disov:A
c14,0_ 40 VAna meakapj ekt...utui- a a.
?tette 1r:ti t \viwtoimii ,
eicy‘ov.4t) amd e,, 0,01 1V& uoe 0croocx4kcee %-acti cat se smkelaws
1 ,u4or 4ttem.a1 G 4LO Onallalea
-permed
0k Net , at Ow& um:4ve).01.11 -trac114iora.1 lesa taf ‘41
AssocA 0-+Ion at Roam& t.41
pra-ipode one ; Oar 'red rnieuerrai- Met

Roxilca) iotoma.‘ at °novae/
z<uaiko...140v1
1-7 cAorted 44A, 4wa cA:k rei 04 ,,,a016ka y19 pacers cc
1 sJou&er
reuoluYlonary le0-44:41,
tom4eutpotem ;SC sat; CL -Alke CattaiOS

l> popen hocci 40 aca dire eted
41S0r1l4A:MOAIOVI tag) +
- rillSt110-Valde VWLiAk clottctli

te00WW-e0
tone 4or vaimbertviof' = 'Es %dears
Loa ca releuo4Ace of -HAD oiled pk ne

brie; , tact), tollym woo a eimte4 4er
v.\
objecinvo tap% ka-ti tamar \

_ye mopeds
ocpcAe.
vsaacaive r ol u.Mon 0444 poc.1-cril‘rn.
v6Vi8vt4- tveakwnset.
SO CI CAA prOkIketAA0 •
re).) (Pal o Muni cinaul ea wed, Sa Lai' ova 40
- e reccnbe le so tiel-13
on -4re e , peace4tA4 aMct €M.3OdOle
_ d_untor uth ecuuti , 00.0(I
, »calor& cMcj.aAricfl1
wzialnkoi perci-UCrer roc; sr() , ',weer; olic
telionall en esp.& .
rei,cuo via
*Nip r 144co.1 floe or
ItedelbAteerA soktir;OW5 VleAlkel
+0
costae -}akeAA t44, 4 larked -We
otc9
solve or 0.cirtreSS 41/412 t0-11-046 •
gad-kali& ukA eLLO appeared n ¶ qq 2_ 444 er Pro*- Peel- etossea 3s

96
earls pro parer...A- were ?Orr r opo 1- kin coma E ;see Re elm°
0,c1.,u °car eo rermanal 01- Oate 00,4 ns repla.cenauw-l- V Pt U.A.40.X5 01-

irdlv <Late CO-IA SAO kW') SO CA Ca 0 -J e,- co; 4-twuk e,c4en,aj pr;vate prait or Linke.
a la:in04- be btArea.u.craui - conanch'is+ believed -I-kat 44-.24j stifled uotki suAo

s+tibtkl-i on ar- reaotacea
arid beieued 'Intelraked (*.bowl raster Scam. 6.1 v; sty) n o4 oiociAA
Peter ICropo4-k; n
acLvQC okct celkernati ye cow;4-al is
- believed -kAak Ludise14-is 01-1..0 0 gar 40 4-1-0 wel4axe a4 o-kiners -l4Ae
o wiA3 I0&441 b eta at) at- so c.i a.1 I .
- 11.‘aleul n•f-l.u.einced
swi -for 4-0 &Veil rl severe usrvacti-;-Cioari 1e 40

4-i sed cap;
etenty.ic cliopax24:‘t -n-tot are_afe-wo saw vai 04 tza&n so .
on, freely or dec)si ciao would be di-0 exaud ead-uj

in 4tuiir
4)4 e etc o
mode ciraasrot level 4:41c:193 '110-1-o ansi./..ix+
4-tAt pvis-p‘e

impERIM.-191 m417 GIEONCIAPHY 97
bkoe o 'do tullioric awe( &kb rtti n 0140 n
/ettp10.1 4QX 4-00 oi tU&Iø1UP u-ou'atuj bc-44-w-eA4
taccu-in &ovo-peki kJ um •
Per etki-rucki evonoviud to.k. ?ave.; 41
- wen ceiw3 detect 0-4 10-4421•9 reopeauzi bie
ik &WI bald •
in
kr% s Yr, , n Ludt c# - cLW4W
0s 44cAcopakA i slAocl orAncrl-
- Sty; eo c:14
peNA retakkLuottlp
4(,t.t 3"4 wor , reae -
70/MPS 'Bias& C 4 go)

4-1_11
Ltetherfl ELIcAnce c eisat9 id-emupew.
at9t/Qd -Nat- cetAAPQtAilOVIOLI
I VV4)1.71 Car Yr
IS GuAdexp‘tnned bj weal ern e_...4nocci ewe
ta. a0Setled Lkteni rn
twod el 0c- E_,,ousAre ctA4 QL/3-11-3-114
4wtA-J-1:‘ QQA/J-ri
He Set/QUA/4 Oti4A
-'""n-0 Ceki-X-r;C t/A-Ockai •
11111k5e4-41T iL - e
CLCIMetakC3C1 CLAA-C I
0,2AfetcLe
no-1, on o-t r F.. wr
(..b arc) aeal 1.444- -44..t
WIONNIMMIliktc_e

14 UMW SM 98
atuaspect cult 40 sup thieGet,w,h0.10y)
' oit vim d ett cpaHoi ccievve dui doped
dwa44a cuka,vb40-4; ve n?if ol ui-to .

4 c- otiterrn'ini sm
h umfa, -1-s °Necked leo rvieb reduce& pen le +0
Tin Ctitalcvlaki CS
opposod %nod Os (*warped b
IA cl-c•
utahm-bar, dens cia.1-o, n evkalion , mop& , rap
14-wincai.&44 app ro GUM wag crc#acto 0 Calea
term lkirdencuA.ISiric o3tD.plkAj ' rsi- toed bl tutioA in IA G.
-RA-t peeple g Cot -Ha pea& 1.

This alley-Wed 40 etwetop 300yrapLuy 'a tli& r.øe b
numewlsin t con v *ion +al- men wAti tarOTTIOA- cam beck &prov 44.4 c4reumnS4ctuctt
Cl- -Hasa- Uve kJ -14.4nkiin9 and n ably *or -RwAxsebJeo , by exercissmy 44•Wr Cited i•ij tor
reaoco •
- 4-r e caed Irciptui at ex soda) scl tin te
ke c9QAASAJ
cvAct a tkive role 40 CL1A- InAventun
- ve ciaand el kumAcw1 0.0_0Jr; v;43
InAfinntun -feeto n3 s 0.0 ;We 40al arck) ‘;•ce. , buumAtun Cu-uturen.0 c., elm
o d& cunt! ous v ct,b-uo •
be wAcletc,lood ki9 eca•a4in vl -Rut

40 4tudix4 , kUNIACkAn wt.°rtd CDAA
VcCI n3
to-VrtAhal bacic9ros.saCA 4-u4 p etsple•
sot) al (I) Ski -ROA o a.AACI
ea ouAcon cw,o( t4A:o
U3to Ntal.“10 ethri 0- wvAALLAA WA I; (01-1cal
cocioJ
\ %Ameba\ vekvzol•
_
124 War,CIA
ziecci captners 1:PDO LI)
M 1134 1j3 k° 3
10;w reb‘a vas ,
- 4 t11 vi \theta cki
01,44- pal Os tijo cunion o veuy g cloub}t or kehav;I:a0

trik44,40con - elf CUtA n
Aida. 4-tank pee rno-s frl +0 conceal ex • income

s• deitiamicakm
Lit& 1114 trewit dzi - 4 tretm 41rOon above 3 sk en.
LE R
laramke 2i ectap ki cal InvecciZ 6054 o n ICtikTCP
+0 cr-oirra-phers
tiEn1554, Tway ewpiore ci ve 4-1AtimAeo oev4„kal yaemlai-
stv0n3 rt>91‘; stmoe.

Cn tolrap }Amp.° I toile - peopl e. emu^ evi:Ort01.5%**‘$) A re
of 1 cleat °beta- .34.-ei r spoce.
7eeel ino-ut& 00ed raPit
2 , -Tern Rini 0 0( PIa te Clop° pki lick) /
3. CxeoJ3fl3 cwuci Vr\v ac
. v \ cuiLd 1,Gonovvi:i
Sion
cloduLeuatAtt, reveal
tical activi H tO 04.4
ouvansx Tarn 4v4 to lo wvallekcitvAti tau easrptA
ltufrv0A0L cv,u-ate imps .

cips.JA‘43
99
owsl aµ....v.maYtcal
ÌLS Li-o - precise
0 10vArolc ol v Eel •
Okomce at ai-LAJoie.ti; amd reoectrcheAs •Pe eGise s
2,) amiS 6aped on VIIJA14..4; reosardet cow, roue* be 0_,Zvtkocut •

a4I10,
OveAeimiikadk s o-t rola ef crAa-tafi.1 volikta aa.4
it
VAereto re OA 44-I calil40 mac exial n real;
LA) meksvocto I 4 calui obsuost ,
Is 9 ft.410 Pt I
91+143:)T9 C4

to ELFA-R E aFo6dzAP4V
100
- app roa OA 41, tkAAMAWA gen grape-9 *id ciattelses %use; on et_
O-ke 'Is kJ-v:31.4n ao w elfeure le-ere4

ItejEt___
si„,,uxyk i-; +0_,Ave revol Lai ow) tALAA'i cm
from" 4w ,- - , r,-n-ct; on +0
‘7 e-wAnd ! scuso
-, r, surt.i.; a eukui es-wet-ma oo ;AAA sou: al
/\ *sae-Ira be
ttudd IM .
Laimun ectp,' *171-4.4 , pitAkAistv , d ti.le boo k
- neuetopea in
Sod al Weil-be:0i In yi.A u.
10_44#44_•I- i
- kr-c0rd:01 -I-0 Crr;r1-ii ,

topic 40
figtfiti tut 'in
a w et Po-re so e:t ely ic one 11 h to-14 On OW pesple
mut 4ta-ti r I) col c ne ecto •
u-s-kaA0 4te0-40 k e_gukai

u-14.41 cr41J, t9p po r-FskAA:di /
0, coo, ell 0-0 &he
ail e2 1)S-1 eve cl
v etm9 le a-,
am_ct tonse sp11./24 on et
kew kaa
ecliAJal tIl
aeLst retire cited •
d9ed 0-0 Qt SYn 441) an 4-t4z bail) s o4

to &Aar e vrate be-
rate
4:1011
1
pt,S tome
aoleotai-e_d 14:t r/04 JAtt-ctcj, tvitsii-tA evAti ty2A -UN); het 1n WWI Q. en
w.f.-re 0.89) ts-Ci

rykaeso askAkarcri-te xnc
s+,zej-e d 4o vocoutte
Sccuncternav) Ca1/40.-+A eo 418 nooki o n 0f um] Tare r9lOfl
mo-cs CJAd rozearcin porn •
bti nit A-Lto aivLa COAhOLOLO,

Su_bseekp.a/Atly adissfeci
LAAAAATI <2.6 •
n eveiej3 coAct aLueler a
p reosE , roacln s poyu-to_N
Crik4 c-icrns ct cti f421 Lull- 4-ao k •

910 WI ny at Lod Raze r-elion s is
- at/more-anon 0n-01 I n Lorne
1,,,Lise Do e , 4 d-Lico-t4 On el.AACJ Ns C-0-Patt
n4co;h4-e. r4 I i Ake otaka on Inooli-44
-
.1 C 1.u'\ oval tab! e
place. 1-o place,
CT-LCNIA
people 40 pectle )
- ot010; AA on at welt-az 4- vaM eo
CL44 t-OsA0-1-z3 4-0 tgankri
reef,o n -i-o r423(10n
s40.1i S Jr; coilj .
ue aisproctetin ;n u.0.4 OA t0 tea ult- °API be_ -I- coi-ect
cici4teth klfri
wet-Fare avp t patina sc 60i orders Is d_141-; wiz

ctureitAsc't 3

l- 0 CietiOtAAL Art/AV/Si s — AA (AS' baoe el
101
an 1, c) 3,41v;ser se> Oaf esti
et& t e
- cowne 'An leo 9 racti In fa TO -6 0 , preoeuke di rel.
skin. .144af iv e reu ok ail on .
tiru-rte tatAAA e Wad
- baoed on 04 'cicxePu'l 04. 1,004Visr) ot
" " So sat bsast.s\ eta of
il2c-Clv e - seertwu_late
laq--
a u,,,:A vebal to_Lp s ) v‘ swam" 1 et:way---j
44.4.01-1 ea eu l rte. prottuanit pcuar)
mom, C atcwrai-e r.a.ielli so-flan , %Loads is
la) ourramee www..1 ot plAiti,u, wsti-i-on .
-... 10tW3 e on &yeti-
NPOUCLE 4t) eui-peAlc ai 0 eves 4.4.4.tore14cal si-a..hernaufs.
- accord°
lo.Akittkasje toy s4-ac/-1 at spoil 0-1

Sko n81 1 actit mated 4-or u..0C of m
khoemue
form -> i40.33ea tAA4 book ' Loci:AA-lanai Artraids; s n Cr/cola:40miis /- 6c)
CNA-ex)
horynai-ive epoi-tono e 4tuA sod ell
-d.OQo we% Jake_ o.-1-0 tem.°, deka: on *e
Laws iror vw-dct# ett w;.444 of- 1 ocakiorkoi cw-0-3-11 V.& sided AL; 11 Al becalm e
pf 0 4-:1-0-k) le 1,1,0J4 ho-I be so ei a.4 accep Solt

u.atair tte YkC) %MA. CAL1-44
exQ 4thnie oF fedi v e recoi akion

Mw c,i44 cjsvn 0E- local; o not). evw:alits
1-1thr. ct4d&rn c.
belay; ewi in • i•Wie Loci •
act/ e kainekaAn
it in 0 reb Ano r !no; ve qp.tthi ova 44&M ell
4-ta real world.
ad els eaueloped totkreat towcie,e;-14 GO
„pi Anil tat ao
()rays of capi sal bl scow, a emaarace 40
encotOtair4&ASod al
004 ru.1 se praWs.
eau Elora ve o. 'intotAApiew pi aunt

4, Hod es co
rtetal lex el -a, 34,0_44 cd dekejs) 0A:twee
(A 1.4.4-0
ThWA r es tiedaok
Initra.afaukvace
I 0 cofli etpat; awed (tau) cl-tp emcbm ito
FOUAO iitecfr cl
I) +o &Lee- a. eyeterltaa approa cia
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ass e ot uomh-ovasj et reb;onal CAkd tittsleknkokit P40-j s co-1

do() tuktiod +0
amok kwAta.u. evirapluj •
fuackl on lo tag° n o r 41-um.0-; onoi teller

cl maxi-to; (cubit)
et relief, col , la4nol uoe, cluo+v, , +ram° pa
uki; 'Fed b3 •finLc.12,0y; v•t piaci u_kett,',,,9 400 e_.+Lver pakt

*tee_ paltWIbutika_ rea
et &AA ecovuDY-4:1C aicd Sod, Di tug-tom
4-100- 0.1.4.‘o %Lax& -tiseut etj- 44,113- v wad ?taco

4ktA_C_I-10110-11 tOCaj-j on& wo °LAI
&la o xi" bta_ua ot plate OW 0-A4 -t-rowl '

b
r9;00s
A-CW-6210e 40 4014-0u)vrt et- tsL4-'ti4oroi
tiltAnD YuLte"
coPzes.1 rtioi-ovtsikips f2.1- be.4-weem co-41)10_4e awl kit ott.010,4muetua
con Tie etioLs anAOIk Ø&SAAMIVWA&& cii- di 44 excl.&

at- GAM VITA( e taAti CO-AA13
p tat 422C •
wi-odeS aXiLowo or Kaki 40tS wined° +o_ct bd OC1eI4CO , So 0-1 ataLp.S. or
11080w& tut km-own ao -formal r iovAS •

. 4-3
tet.k.www-a 1p1ck
or tkApro 614.4(AAA- too eft cab cowl& vik to -tom ' a
4uinc12"3" aft cusocs ettfinicion , alimses+ LA.)04 40 40 rmed re4ons-
pukp s e e4 -cm 01-ional oc&4Or is ise E.

4.4,osi3 &truck-0,
st 0 AA ce 43-v.Ak Des of a
tenni 44j u_s;JAA:1 n& tp ce •
co noun s c/o s4-4.401-1 o4 p koLmayLikv‘o csIL cs+ in a toillon et- pig ce
CU.A.4 4-1.41:kr Kies, cl.speLcbzwe o €0-0A 0-1-tke4-,

4orw,, thrick ate
.16 -1Lat va),:vtor pi yeti t+ csuu-bs on, w; +A
Ba-Oic plAA I o so pu-43
smAjt-t-ar W lnAACt uoe , s 041 cysts. 1st-

et-ma 10-4"-; 4-or VIA 1.0i 1 rea thsts
yuLoot e cc-jf cer •
0, we ck 0.1 wcLJ , -sturias °f-

Act tosi\t:110-m cued, ;so! s MPaOLAJCI n
.k les/ e 4{.routjt. & 44--cuLoper1 rvil-work.

id-elate or t,k4.
unk- eta gitsmc e r 4-; vLo
0r In S4-4keii o f-
Y1/4A nn t-t-Ov..4 ere es cs,1 watt t
auskel -14A-40 e S wictme co cod
4,thin di ncti r9`son

112
es"paii.jak 4tonso tor., ,
uM-In Hen of ct/ to .4; i-a.4;ve. 4e dm/6 e
s•AA.touj o•F 4-o wecti 1-413. 4-vat of
'tor+ken B-V- Ime vs' r1/41
aipato tfrA
4-ust1-1 on a) to co.1;0 tko //apt -I-Lott-ore -kw 4usio an w '14a0.1.44i ‘Litck
_kotgore,
i 4kAz ott thi1em./.3 aka torale..4 ill° 8-1 calt •
0.A.MOUA-1-4 C
p0 P‘ t • now-en OfcQpl-&at@ et /x.0d c42t as° 1•64.u-i PA t& Q.
44-ctp •
Ixdokxili axt tto4 wu./A-tteditj tokAintta ti-ori
o %le 't 4-k0 011 tij d

vv>100-CI 3v; K, ces.t./2, ea -to e.t/I si- aun
r abluAst s et ex`pesv e •Fris-tAk 4-u-D
-t-o rod.% s sLboroanci&e cal- of 4440 64-tter
04-wer
-tor 044/3 /44 , mid Ptak ter ektveArS b Cane&
Ift&CiAi
betial C_ °Lai +USfrttik e 4- 4-IA4 sul4co-it1

Le4CMY1
k&uQ cou..ute et v, cisuut&ci e 40 se/o r of kali CALI 4-4.:1

4c-kk eiieta:I-IOU-Li 4.4

44 um A44 DE vE LoPm ENT ISM
113
WAN& is 441.0no a "to elorasat-
o 0y a, , ,,, 4.; 00 , ktaincevals
- ?races et toinkt!fini pe.op14:o claoitea , ),7uktsuchni AtAlir oppor4i.-al4 c 4
unc. ia aus,;cee ..frowt. 0-
Tht.o4 4.,..aptakfaukw4-- coati coveki ni 4to fau mar or ki
ta..) •free_d_suit .
sowael ?curl cal tan; rouatatar 40 eta-usu.:4c , cod al cua.01 pot;44
ettuelormagt-
.4.4.642k &dila-IC:Pah 0.ofett- ot- twaAam
‘intAsoc; 1 --itu2 milt t0 FtsizAelo eiso:icte ic 44t.
SO_O-Out, illumask "Peueicewoul-

11.0)4J ammo 4 ktcati, ,
- T Ili! MI ram.Sub tekakAl; to baae-ci ou auve ram'ce 'in 4t
tau-tation oske at c es -fo re0aukteo •

1k0}- 0- tecuuthni earno 4roak 1 Is
&Lore beta,' o 40 I 4
iteada Is are baotot ea 0,
14e swettenatui-.
oirecto a ltwAAAAA
r&cord ln -44.0
11
expecituAti 0J- lb; r44.
_ i S4 teams 40 &nth-% lktetk:14 'Is
ents 415 lettaialale.
Acta 1;4nail rate cLuel -kw arcs& eAkingamso- rui4 0 ref reatAAJ- acc
4o reescknee, 1 s. bukt asial el \P‘ 4exha4 ot- rack/Ike: vi power 0 b. US eickta_so)

A-etees
DI tmOneiskaa ot_tiOA nmaiths. 't tw-aktuk c6211-9*-4-bsh

vex a vicleasje eyf 1/3. 44-1AAAAAAA &to elaiwandui- ant tS
Ea clA etineuxua'ion 'rt
wait 4E4 0_1 of 44,4 tmars guitA 8 pvid 40 cat thu.oe tiins "InkoW).
ItSk 4-40 kolke44 tett able- miza4-11 112 • Be tattoo 't4 eszo viol- cal au-krill a-baut
‘Ineldre 4 Nbil ktc

Failataxi eanstanAkI- tlakb tat, - u.t- tlaAv attaiea WD 'n 1140 • OW),unf_O
*DR cuithwatj nnte Ictcto
HUMAN Kinn ltioEx

&Merl 4o 4491
Vuam.o.1.4- eitutl.cp"Anth-
;ado( nteamshgto -4-tto zettorttali
- nom- ncetkut- mectaiat •
m-e_aataia are- 4-0 LLCM inio a trot till

tuxtui 4i1 ait, up •
Pro4a.16 oT
Iiiesaaj rttle
imp • ot peofie ‘014.4, c1-0 Kt& have arcens
40 chain wale'
tiAACIAA totirk-
- 14.0 or wwal cualtem aa-to are
- vuot rojectia / +Lk/2w_ HD 1

01'•
at& o-ttakOte pi awe o
cu- ea4HI) 1 a rt, I 8:vieo
kr-lane/SoIA 0.1 Cap-Cu 00-0

ciae, cxx_0( Toik e_o_p; .‘tsA.t ot-t Kok etireclUi vetatexl
44 ousa
- SAwagui- tstuAxtri so have tia,u2 baler 4440
tAsierhaist,
-I-nsun 1.4 °Au
teledi vehj roarer ea.00-ri truaktel
rots n-fri eo eau, Inc can\ C-; eel otko
0% q c+
Ikr"
e < o ,eg
l'Atotitwo
Low

1401.444 DtvEtoPNEN4 IN it/DIA
114
vetba of 0‘ c cc+ buil a 14 nclo ko-rw4 ert oared ustuAkr, utcou-si
- uli4AA a couApsWie
.
rnecitia tuicana dap 'fierm-OASE
1-4,000/0j4oriS inaLlt be-124A 0crowd about -Ka el-pproaca 04 twit mo 'indica-fors
—some
-lo cal-wiz:Ore liAttlic•
Lack 04, sed4;41 v4ii .to 140.01-103-1 -Pcsoars, Ike ttLcuicbaJ4on, inufeCiali tam &J Kw :1 iaJ-I a.
la_ck-orsIce IALumaut. qui-a vIv tall on Sc •
0 _wawa,
cot•upos4e_ nolo(
0 Ii-It expethwtel @
auctrior —> meaAA of sc./Avail 4- mix skect Ora
iii) ln cOttit TeA caf;Ett CntA peA ,w; tc4 CP P P US 1)
Ivy:Um %VA
i3157
tWA
14AttIt2

115
NA 044a 4cfr.,Ls

116

117
Ca" "Pt of Pedorl
- c4f14cWi 47D def-i re l'atarui
-1-kat OmmAl ea *In e_ etAmi4xace

ricualc tefl-
PevelorisAY LoncepE
Ho tclAluber
temharcl VareAA isleyavicks }ha/Abaci-E.
Carl a Soutar
I romorieu..1 10-14 Can Rift eir
%/la& de lablarle e
Rititfoha
plAilosoptticaJ co ricep‘ ole Pried relor

Focouo on hoard')
refined center E
at peon
mist roce etti
okkreosert oAAd eohakiliti4ed
cAuctii reLlion 04
41A-GLI
veil ton •
Veu-evt; uo 4orvv.cLthj , but fie co_Feto avote

— Idea ol rti n sto-rtS
wii14 cocJA.o on Teti; on

C+rcLbt akrole &teary
book Geb clips' cove,
in pre - lit;sPonc period
c4-Rd 44.44_ rid; culcus of +Lt place

&e pk j wait)
— gar em:4 us° -saki
' rt ofl cpwl si a kw I del; n

ol- toe -1-to Luo ref
(lid
-1-10 *Axil of plkia0 yintbuk oistel

etrh
e si tie -rot‘cseci en vuothod

mai;0 tAo
Yt1g'Iv rr
4 oleocAlA pi-ion tt
retationsWps +tut reiji on .

12; cfrtioTem --* sec', d one c-i-skdAj
SLLir he a wol- tICODO relt Cn relet-H DNS ar e

(PIA
40 be m-tteclea •

118
- 440.0.40161- , miler
cal sk•claj
pL44IosOVWJ back rata(' 1A1
oct_cu-eoseol
sty\ e.440.1-4_ oua_0( retmai

owowi ,0U0-@09 •34-
careoiee)
sfuoli oS
cv.o o-F 9 eodrorAlcod
sekhed
fedi0 crAAAAlic
- 014e Sekkuker
al I cro met of- redi on

a a okt eoseol
sl-tkali 0.c I amststace or ( amoleA thief+ lamole

Creo(trool s
on laud
0.5 V16101 f .669moiiM4
olef-inecl la A.k do c_ aff2
Ws of- !ton 't s a, toncroe reel')

;aeo
40 -4-tuae
2 cil-ff exeui- ro ea-0:ivis
del-II/4a beumot_arl taitti OA kov)

Lariti as.
Ar cil xi; m-t- +24-1-40ri
of CIACttrickeAlfSIC *al- a e41; v, ea \&

s Otne WIA;f1D rIA:A il
of- enkr4(& wirfue.v.)- thbui

Sowe moped- or /20-eo-1-
areod corm et* on 6-e • no boumamoi)
bovikS OF (AAA cepE of- retr

-4-tone_ 'idQat) becoAve
6044
outhl -I-tAt !tato- woo

Tomer coil-eel apec,rel-e / SPeLik- tml
comer oF ruklc_ rotor /-1-k-vAA0k roe vi
aditaaj a_citi-tteSed Ciaci eal-a-bli 04-g-Ci

110 1 0 til-
CILZ sr:few e of- ti cm •

f
Carl tasta
omotscape o0Aol ccrccçk 4okuosol F-ed±ovi

reFin ecl tomer+ 0(
i ri 4-0 na.4-uko‘i laaoleco-pe

add eel Ltwottopt /c.A.LItiA
es
Tl %Jon 119
0 &attic Reiton VS aic Redo()
at tfi vest 1-1 0, be) 1.so n

Iwo rots
GIVALAI c Reen
_ 1E Is tedion wirtitauk kfirl;fe

rakCert-
ay • to; nceal keep ) ckenal-- iton
&Ad de rneuks
°Ansi 444-11 o-re no Li

- Geinajc reers o-(e. 4-1AtAAA0t; e- teens
4-et-ti Iv rt-i Lo:441A (AO-in:le bo wtelcuuj

uortitwawo
SF citic 'Region
w-to) eiren,aut +
Ret LW414 ctet-in
conlidustsa sflki4 a d e_f; y-6 4e areal Ce Feat

teceseuj
.0f,,s TiiileA, 14 ebIlleA aAnal, retioua wind QA e

WI 5401;03-U1
(Lure vuog-1A3 +La So 44 hi ie ec4c ton

letrui
new- co rt cepl- +tut Idecta Allcirew-
cit._ jI4e
retotAts
err- cc-141042A
wcate, He,bext-son
2) Corctete er
cukol 41414 ate
reff n -14•ad- kafre d 04 n;ie b0,-"Ad0f1
G vita()1"-1"/A
lw-wkw-A- ?au, V-1on 0444
40 oka-le, be caw) e al-
no* Came4&cLID1e
de i.; r ; 4-i MI art cealea LOY)Wit retfi()Y1

5ubieck; ve 1AA.AAAADAA
h a.ve hemii.C;able bevactioui witts a. ottc4nite

414e_ re8i rgn vaao+
(.014911-F •
I 4c) 40 rite (cum 4 poli-H cal r edion ao urn czete redion •
arinfied ottolutvi e_ bo.Arks u•Crit4

Rethe 3 eorafil 4404-
i 1-- tuco
u;v4tAas•Lka vwav....4.1-4 n ral ea GA te1wa4A1- 40 lcodraptiical M-tkcli
cuAd -1-1a 4-roct4;orto-A fo cal bo-LuADtcsai bat) eal r€& on

120
in Saclo4te44 WY) Ce.p)- of- La,d3C1iF

f
concrete teens un-re- •419 tied
44,10- CI 4th
beeoao e_ scinIckte-A awl) k i3ed d wattuol it4 4 fail 1
ccocture pc cal
non- vvcateclaJ copeck-1 I; e re-it cm ,
4V-111;b1 on
44A, of redo w) .
b&u.t.kao-ri eo , e Lowskui
.41pe ot- on Shaie

144-0Ye- paiXJ-IJAr
. Eveai-vxdbi benuNke
+I\to cilwakt 't heti

Lab.u.k. 3 errui
sci Qw es Tatacki6 m -
!t\
o eckkve lor
Or ceffertiocets:d tOrnt'n 0110.):141

- nteAncd -for moirli
3) forn,
Q0 fRed:100
{,dd4oru-QA node
tA) c(AJAC110Y1 CO DY
TI
OCLD-I
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rt043,1 R e 64on - one ni-
Tkri
c)
4 4Ltt 4-encujoki s.
Carla nne_can
Gil
wt... clei Is otit-3;cle 3 u-lojec ve Terceri""
() 1E- ll cuic obieaive redior
awl usaose 1) b rel QA otAkci cor eai er-teut- .15 14

4 vu.ah&
twcksan sot) jectivil ,

a de.M.Aned 11
+kat exict ') hereof clAdle), Kth

I cautet be 0\ refer
cu+;•Pci (WI tocco'rructv d li Q. kum.A0-. "once() L

'‘ tm_poced owccl
a3 . c.m.81-0--n °fru),iS ne4u-kQd , J hia-k-kema ;s ; u./..roseA -
MI pa-A-vial I-len , nec easecr; I I cum& exisi- u.....1 4-k o, (avAjji A 0_600
ole..4) 14.41i e ktAl relict tks ;c1 eo4-41 io 9 ettkg-V

OE PIAUI Ea CSIS 4-ked-
42.A rel euo Fore

kt‘tr-e cavtno be Hie
r cd-o.r Q_
e -tecare_catune ra; nC-eLIJ ,

Ok nakurell nen stuaitt a
s , vej etoti On , Wat12-4 , red t-

121
redAon , t&4SASakflrS roll, on Wane

torcito /1'1 culturat rer , rai n
rot- naktrarrl redion

-Run cove
Ireton com./A etiao cuoi Q.DE 0. r ton arkAgici nod 'In

A roi-u-val
0 tweaks • Loa; e kt.tro are 0.1kurs

ekcIAA.6ior o. IA" "A-0 41
4o1-0-1
v‘ keremk- r I- t7C- fled-Lure stLou-t-d- 0-b°

bel; e.v e mat& az
Loko
40 ncrhual retail .
ke %1 vi Club\ v
relon .1165 fo W41 DC-

Aec vied ruku_socl
A- • I-1eA behhon
1^-; 5 nts '‘ ltke victkuaI

AO ri to brk&a.v% Marl
ye lota 4-tko.9-
I curd-scope .
Carl 0. Sanix)1 1 outfit-Lai
Suck r el; oma are cukairro 4o
ti-I-1-‘; toads cowl-, ati e

-Ito concap of-
curokape • TtAs 0.5 ako
4-okrri re/irma
.1-sure Core d.6;ne_ -44-or —r 0C
Sao F
a•Cascrl rlorl
arks
frucws 0A44 42.wi%Von vw_u.1-
s6 ace 0C
ok crayi aic
cierrspki
eorcirui
rut; cal v s ltuAttam,
cicaWfotwi
011;k441-At

"
122
Ti
UI
U.

froa 4-eirs amcl Bo yaci as; es 123
FQoTfliER 8 0 upi otrRN
a iire rcbical4,11 tAAi DC

at- cuter o f- 43/4A: • -IE- 'Is
- m eaum area It)-1 ni
,01;44
1 cal LuAll-
TOO-kat iku; - FL is a
Di ff crevice 81 vein bl kri
t-u*t roea-tarj sod 0 -annoy,: - pati41csd uwAAAA 41i

ckarorker; th`c Of-
has reactke 0, reia-1-4v e dere e 01
tett; o n Thar kerl cal) Sence_ of I aw
IrJ
awl Is wourked hj rreAfkkc e
Iwatt-4-hi
0.c
- inner 01-ie.t.a-ea an yr, , n are cre ai-ed

- 0-ta-e4 Q eakl-e J3 I ves )vd-treof 04
SMd rualokrialed crtiale •

rau-121 Er rsnaki, on Tier oak 44,-a,v.
o core areg. •
rc preoemt CrT-
pre seAkce_ of Leedes4-1ewhAtktj6J
Is a e.parai;fc&rjor be_caute
Or break/4e
- s OM iutel-tattl
cif reark
neer; cks -Pi- et wto ve:imuk1
s Iktble 4-0 be vi-errote
rocto a cA Oki 414-WA OAA-Ck FV -QU euLt-

om-d
4-kr titike
VLF 0-ra kr
Ore %oral rCdruir
-ItUAi Off_ WA Cab It_ 044.011 /4 Ore_

tomAX Yak le 0.MA Cgt
- 4-tuAd ate
ueu 40-va_po rani
T etvw_cuneul- 4 fain-I-ea
-}rual cue co-4446 al

a rGO-coral

124
of 1 ti feAn Dna/ Boazia.r1 nt'i to
aos14-7 caSon
ors s ?Fie km oil

21 EARLIE&
a)
!•44-i f-ki
1E3 PWCEtiT Cla)FltrION
-1=1)
a) 14 rp ttol D91CO
'Pow 'itei
tt.sicaJ
c - nu:irked same_ ‘,rQAA.:Abi tut- TAAtitic_al ea-kbre
on r....va
pcit 1; e for, I ake_ a •
Ma uf4la-10
mcanto —> OAAA lholl
Anoka --b. mile awl ibma exkFina
VIP-Are/ Frawt ama cpcin
1;i Lu.a4- tree ie_ natkocl

Vaal' tali On 14611
d1444uu..1- 4o olobtattae
PRD Bi-EmS; • Mouvotair eteot *i% rail on
cam obi &raft- cocio - etc
.-bi-euxo vent va cu.ka 'adult; ba•ah
become_ Trrsua
River
Rio GroAxcle_ •-•), Mexico aa US)
orinoco veme3axi_a_ °mai col °tuba
MeAconi --> tacit cuAl Thaallcumt
Pt-Marta-6 o wo-11-,eol s tkalto rnn clple
Lake
Lake tea S 4-ainte Gievmsaxitu&tt W it3QdDAAJ
Lake_ Victor; a --Ns Tag1/4 3a31'i , \.eeittia iLdam-ack

125
n) Gunnel/4 c - booed wpo
Sat; 4-tude o lake-tale

0 nn ea of
44kCLE 1S talon rwt
0 Mkt tu&ttra31 tki- line
I Li le Mack wad oxaaclik
mg' ush «AAA c.c.-twit
Ettift-- coAti sarisuA

9.1.°14
taturra Oaf./ erui c)

otaJ , Isu&tIc , telAci Gus c;iitt; 0 n
- bond upon
frl uuk-u-ral I tveult cape

sul c94k4.u- ex4erick
or
- - Wu) -I I
be-Am/dim; eio 4Euro-ream covatri et) lost
beats of I e•
Onalin
- oti-F&Lab do °lawn-its& • tow le_aei, fo -Ported
tAAA Pli,r1 rti0

w-t-c4or of
1,04 e a. x of feLtkon
w) cow.? lex Bovadari a v1")"
ex uS cowada bOWAtt-aili
b) ekt_d4c cL&oM41ta4on
0.4,4 toaHeoui n 1936
ibarEsIA-orn e , 3oW
r&AtUfl stAlp bebtu eeei

belief +kat s Oral
- bac)e on
xtleAno-FI One) aacl Calko-t-al I cut& stave
— Vow fro
CNA/ dui YVI;i-ed b ehre se-01424(.0)A-
ditUA-OrCaYed
Poke c tub-
of. mu area •
tY) a,/. d ifltnAta

Mar IiPc1
be cafrize oat ta1Psettp.u4
-two e. aft “t111-1-U1
eai imbed ,bo bovmekuri

seal•P-Anktub
i* tin COM P0.1 beg/ad os9 bortueun

IAS Rank 87 Prajit Nair Geography
-EX • \Notes | Offline Student of ForumIAS
enact& gukcl Peak .
126
dem_arcal ad =Ad ola; LA-4-i fed offer s elt144..aud-

gulsea -
64-
Eeka.blitsim-d- uaiisraLuj ckuttopeet it on
srufb todo u*-44 04 3/44 lion
halo - Taki 0044

9.
RuoN; - U-14-ral ne
&lamed-eel taiVukaiii oluidopod radion S

110 Sapdiakt osed
1,0.w-cern 4tui
buk- EPA148 ti-bseetku
4aUsay- east/0-4;A ttrakiwe ell v ;Ion

do rtoF
al) te-aaefire, -huce_ lin es
- 4tuoc edv; de OM afi-e_a. t4-1.-w citu._ -to

10 elynoecipp-At
a}jcewa of or prev2AALe
pit ckli barri et •
oupextd.t uf o spnxc41 at or Treoeka_e_
04- Truiel_al Irsiet t
„aw yrotiated VI ADgltAkka-0-9
fvoiation of Bownd oil ea
itnes b teficunii 0 Yl lbotAactail
ccuafri eOwolvecl
-no boum_clatieo
- area_ n Fl
ex Mr slum awl Bib hid Ct
rnowalet:/naan felon
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127
Problems of Deforestation and Conservation Measures ctg"

Deforestation, clearance or clearing is the removal of a forest or stand of trees clearewe
where the land is thereafter converted to a non-forest use.
Examples of deforestation include conversion of forestland to farms, ranches, or _non -caveat- usoe.
urban use.
3o -.)-forsols
6.7 /l-pre/4.04k About 30% of Earth's land surface is covered by forests.

Tropical rainforests is where the most concentrated deforestation occurs.
2-3 knt beiweemBetween 2000 and 2012, 2.3 million square kilometres (890,000 square miles) of
nno -12 forests around the earth were cut down. As a result of deforestation, only 6.2 million
square kilometres (2.4 million square miles) remain of the original 16 million square
kilometres (6 million square miles) of forest that formerly covered the earth.
Deforestation causes extinction, changes to climatic conditions, desertification, and

IMPACTS on
displacement of populations as observed by current conditions and in the past
*Biosplute. through the fossil record. More than half of all plant and land animal species in the
world live in tropical forests.
*Ittrosplan
Deforested regions typically incur significant adverse soil erosion and frequently
Edelfttic degrade into wasteland
m-vacsirlAin The removal of trees without sufficient reforestation has resulted in damage to
habitat, biodiversity loss and aridity.
44.u4&ahko
In temperate mesic climates, natural regeneration of forest stands often will not
occur in the absence of disturbance, whether natural or anthropogenic. Furthermore,
biodiversity after regeneration harvest often mimics that found after natural
disturbance, including biodiversity loss after naturally occurring rainforest
destruction.
More than half of all plant and land animal species in the world live in tropical
forests
CAUSES: 4-vt4Fcet
9.11DsZstence According to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)
-few rnInj secretariat, the overwhelming direct cause of deforestation is agriculture.
Subsistence farming is responsible for 48% of deforestation; commercial agriculture
cornmeAdal is responsible for 32% of deforestation; logging is responsible for 14% of
deforestation and fuel wood removals make up 5% of deforestation.
Other causes of contemporary deforestation may include corruption of government
11 -
41 institutions, the inequitable distribution of wealth and power, population growth
.14,4,1 ulood - and overpopulation, and urbanization. Globalization is often viewed as another root
cause of deforestation, though there are cases in which the impacts of globalization
(new flows of labor, capital, commodities, and ideas) have promoted localized forest
recovery.
Some commentators have noted a shift in the drivers of deforestation over the past
30 years. Whereas deforestation was primarily driven by subsistence activities and
government-sponsored development projects like transmigration in countries like
Indonesia and colonization in Latin America, India, Java, and so on, during late 19th
century and the earlier half of the 20th century. By the 1990s the majority of
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IAS Rankw;i3
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Prajit Nair- Geography
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Notes | Offline Student of ForumIAS
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128
•
deforestation was caused by industrial factors, including extractive industries,

large-scale cattle ranching, and extensive agriculture.
The degradation of forest ecosystems has also been traced to economic incentives
that make forest conversion appear more profitable than forest conservation.
-* Brazil - cattle sector, soy, palm oil; Deforestation of the Amazon rainforest can be
attributed to many different factors at local, national, and international levels. The
rainforest is seen as a resource for cattle pasture, valuable hardwoods, housing
space, farming space (especially for soybeans), road works (such as highways and
smaller roads) and medicines.
South-East Asia - palm oil cultivation
* India - colonization
Mexico - avocado cultivation
Overall, a mix of local, national and global causes
EFFECTS:
1)Atmospheric
Deforestation is ongoing and is shaping climate and geography.
-61H Cns Deforestation is a contributor to global warming, and is often cited as one of the
almost is% NA major causes of the enhanced greenhouse effect. Tropical deforestation is
IPCc responsible for approximately 15% of world greenhouse gas emissions. According to
Aropical arena the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change deforestation, mainly irapical
areas, could account for up to one-third of total anthropogenic carbon dioxide
y 113 rd (02.
emissions.
Carbon sink& Reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation (REDD) in developing
countries has emerged as a new potential to complement ongoing climate policies.
- ion:kyr) 01 The idea consists in providing financial compensations for the reduction of
greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from deforestation and forest degradation.
at F-.0-141"
2)Hydrological
The water cycle is also affected by deforestation. Trees extract groundwater through
-eict
±_• rast°P.
Inti
l" their roots and release it into the atmosphere. When part of a forest is removed, the
trees no longer transpire this water, resulting in a much drier climate. Deforestation
air molSture reduces the content of water in the soil and groundwater as well as atmospheric
&I mois+uxe moisture. The dry soil leads to lower water intake for the trees to extract.
Deforestation reduces soil cohesion, so that erosion, flooding and landslides ensue.
_ rujAchuatei
Shrinking forest cover lessens the landscape's capacity to intercept, retain and
transpire precipitation. Instead of trapping precipitation, which then percolates to
- ruin Pic
groundwater systems, deforested areas become sources of surface water runoff,
toW.13.
107)
which moves much faster than subsurface flows. Forests return most of the water
4400CLO that falls as precipitation to the atmosphere by transpiration. In contrast, when an
area is deforested, almost all precipitation is lost as run-off. That quicker transport of
surface water can translate into flash flooding and more localized floods than would
occur with the forest cover. Deforestation also contributes to decreased
evapotranspiration, which lessens atmospheric moisture which in some cases affects
precipitation levels downwind from the deforested area, as water is not recycled to
downwind forests, but is lost in runoff and returns directly to the oceans.

129
As a result, the presence or absence of trees can change the quantity of water on the
surface, in the soil or groundwater, or in the atmosphere. This in turn changes
erosion rates and the availability of water for either ecosystem functions or human
services.
The forest may have little impact on flooding in the case of large rainfall events,
TRF '30". Treat, which overwhelm the storage capacity of forest soil if the soils are at or close to
GoofeA saturation.
Tropical rainforests produce about 30% of our planet's fresh water.
3)Soil
Undisturbed forests have a very low rate of soil loss (erosion), approximately 2
metric tons per square kilometer (6 short tons per square mile). Deforestation
.eAOCI on
generally increases rates of soil loss, by increasing the amount of runoff and reducing
the protettion of the soil from tree litter.
China's Loess Plateau was cleared of forest millennia ago. Since then it has been
Loess Pkdeau eroding, creating dramatic incised valleys, and providing the sediment that gives the
Yellow River its yellow color and that causes the flooding of the river in the lower
RiveA reaches (hence the river's nickname 'China's sorrow').
Tree roots bind soil together, and if the soil is sufficiently shallow they act to keep
Chcuattal mil nth the soil in place by also binding with underlying bedrock. Tree removal on steep
slopes with shallow soil thus increases the risk of landslides, which can threaten
people living nearby.
lnierril t r&makt4)
14)Biodiversity
Deforestation on a human scale results in decline in biodiversity, and on a natural
44,:toceneps;1 global scale is known to cause the extinction of many species. The removal or
destruction of areas of forest cover has resulted in a degraded environment with
reduced biodiversity. Forests support biodiversity, providing habitat for wildlife;
tovalCibdol
moreover, forests foster medicinal conservation. With forest biotopes being
lit I cone irreplaceable source of new drugs (such as taxol), deforestation can destroy genetic
variations (such as crop resistance) irretrievably.
-Voxol
Removal or destruction of significant areas of forest cover has resulted in a degraded
— GefixeSt. loss environment with reduced biodiversity.
Tropical rainforest deforestation is contributing to the ongoing Holocene mass
extinction.
5)Economic Impact .6— cl3D reporkr

S.Itlb• Damage to forests and other aspects of nature could halve living standards for the
world's poor and reduce global GDP by about 7% by 2050, a report concluded at the
oLnr
Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) meeting in Bonn.
rect.fligthed
Historically, utilization of forest products, including timber and fuel wood, has played
61.
1!_t_21 1.1 a key role in human societies, comparable to the roles of water and cultivable land.
7oso Today, developed countries continue to utilize timber for building houses, and wood
pulp for paper. In developing countries almost three billion people rely on wood for
heating and cooking.

130
REDD tu-ret3 "9

wP-115-
0-1ccce CdP -13
zeo9
CONSERVATION MEASURES
1)Reducing Deforestation
Main international organizations including the United Nations and the World Bank,
have begun to develop programs aimed at curbing deforestation.Deforestation
accounts for emissions equivalent to the transport sector. Deforestation and forest
14-29% degradation account for 17-29% of global greenhouse gas emissions, the reduction
of which is estimated to be one of the most cost-efficient climate change mitigation
618('S
strategies. Regeneration of forest on degraded or deforested lands can remove CO2
0.4.41,6slovt from the atmosphere through the build-up of biomass, making forest lands a sink of
greenhouse gases. The REDD+ mechanism addresses both issues of emission
reduction and enhanced removal of greenhouse gases. The blanket term Reducing
Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDO) describes the sorts of
programs, which use direct monetary or other incentives to encourage developing
countries to limit and/or roll back deforestation. Funding has been an issue, but at
the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) Conference of the
Parties-1S (COP-1S) in Copenhagen in December 2009, an accord was reached with a
collective commitment by developed countries for new and additional resources,
including forestry and investments through international institutions, that will
approach USD 30 billion for the period 2010-2012.
United Nations Programme on Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest
Degradation (or UN-REDD Programme) is a collaborative programme of the Food and
Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), the United Nations
Development Programme (UNDP) and the United Nations Environment Programme
(UNEP), created in 2008 in response to the UN:C DC
EC sions on the
Ddeci__w Bo
izsaD Action Plan
li t
and REDO at COP-13.
w.qc;w9 de4-oculatior,
clelorekal Qb &thawed raw-oval 4
REDD+ -to FAO UNPP + WIEP
refers to "reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation in
developing countries, and the role of conservation, sustainable management of
-÷ part 04 '42
forests, and enhancement of forest carbon stocks in developing countries"
Essentially involves creating value for forests and incentivizing developing countries
to maintain their forests.
Main elements of REDD+:
(a) Reducing emissions from deforestation;
Itectatel inv°
(b) Reducing emissions from forest degradation;l m"9" b“4"b to Qatplutle
cumetacrini twaii-/roll back
(c) Conservation of forest carbon stocks;
(d) Sustainable management of forests; e eta° reoittli on
(e) Enhancement of forest carbon stocks.
Within its remit, REDD+ has the potential to simultaneously contribute to climate
chami_s niti ation and poyertv alleviation, whilst also conserving biodiversity and
sustaining vital ecosystem services. It is a framework through which developing
countries are rewarded financially for any emissions reductions achieved associated
with a decrease in the conversion of forests to alternate land uses.
REDO provides a unique opportunity to achieve large-scale emissions reductions at
comparatively low abatement costs. By economically valuing the role forest
‘inceu.ke 4or &vet*/
IAS Rank 87 Prajit Nair Geography Notes

4 | Offline Student of ForumIAS
131
ecosystems play in carbon capture and storage, it allows intact forests to compete
with historically more lucrative, alternate land uses resulting in their destruction
2)Farming
New methods are being developed to farm more intensively, such as high-yield
Move -ion ankh hybrid crops, greenhouse, autonomous building gardens, and hydroponics. These
ickave.. 40.th4x1 methods are often dependent on chemical inputs to maintain necessary yields. In
cyclic agriculture, cattle are grazed on farm land that is resting and rejuvenating.
Cyclic agriculture actually increases the fertility of the soil. Intensive farming can also
—Ferroacuthire decrease soil nutrients by consuming at an accelerated rate the trace minerals
— tudeuoyanics needed for crop growth.[citation needed]The most promising approach, however, is
the concept of food forests in permaculture, which consists of agroforestal systems
carefully designed to mimic natural forests, with an emphasis on plant and animal
species of interest for food, timber and other uses. These systems have low
dependence on fossil fuels and agro-chemicals, are highly self-maintaining, highly
productive, and with strong positive impact on soil and water quality, and
biodiversity.
3)Forest Management
In 16th-century Germany, landowners also developed silviculture to deal with the
problem of deforestation. However, these policies tend to be limited to
_ s;lv; culture
environments with good rainfall, no dry season and very young soils (through
— volcanism or glaciation). This is because on older and less fertile soils trees grow too
slowly for silviculture to be economic, whilst in areas with a strong dry season there
biot.1413.r 40 is always a risk of forest fires destroying a tree crop before it matures. In the areas
trectie terra where "slash-and-burn" is practiced, switching to "slash-and-char" would prevent
the rapid deforestation and subsequent degradation of soils. The biochar thus
into-
created, given back to the soil, is not only a durable carbon sequestration method,
but it also is an extremely beneficial amendment to the soil. Mixed with biomass it
brings the creation of terra preta one of the richest soils on the planet and the only
one known to regenerate itself.
4)Sustainable Practices
Using fuel from bamboo rather than wood results in cleaner burning, and since
(.4.axj bausboo
bamboo matures much faster than wood, deforestation is reduced as supply can be
41.t.e1soori,
replenished faster.
l'aPeA Certification, as provided by global certification systems such as Programme for the
_ calikalier Endorsement of Forest Certification and Forest Stewardship Council, contributes to
tackling deforestation by creating market demand for timber from sustainably
managed forests.
Example in India - Bamboo Wooden Laminates, Eco-mark scheme
5)Reforestation
In many parts of the world, especially in East Asian countries, reforestation and
afforestation are increasing the area of forested lands. The amount of woodland has
increased in 22 of the world's 50 most forested nations. Asia as a whole gained 1
million hectares of forest between 2000 and 2005. Tropical forest in El Salvador

132
expanded more than 20% between 1992 and 2001. Based on these trends, one study
projects that global forest will increase by 10%—an area the size of India—by 2050.
Example in India - Eco-Development Forces
6)Forest Plantations
To meet the world's demand for wood, it has been suggested by forestry writers
Botkins and Sedjo that high-yielding forest plantations are suitable. It has been
40 vAPPLAt tuDoci
calculated that plantations yielding 10 cubic meters per hectare annually could
supply all the timber required for international trade on 5% of the world's existing
ttegte rthetrion
forestland. By contrast, natural forests produce about 1-2 cubic meters per hectare;
therefore, 5-10 times more forestland would be required to meet demand. Forester
Chad Oliver has suggested a forest mosaic with high-yield forest lands interspersed
with conservation land.
In the country of Senegal, on the western coast of Africa, a movement headed by
youths has helped to plant over 6 million mangrove trees. The trees will protect local
villages from storm damages and will provide a habitat for local wildlife. The project
started in 2008, and already the Senegalese government has been asked to establish
rules and regulations that would protect the new mangrove forests.

133
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Environmental Degradation, Managem e ent andConservati:
"urta" ua 117
Environmental degradation is the deterioration of the environment through
depletion of resources such as air, water and soil; the destruction of ecosystems and
the extinction of wildlife.
It is defined as any change or disturbance to the environment perceived to be
deleterious or undesirable.
As indicated by thell=PAT equationl

environmental impact (I) or degradation is caused by the combination of
an already very large and increasing human population(P),
continually increasing economic growth or per capita affluence(A), and
the application of resource depleting and polluting technology (T).
The United Nation's International Strategy for Disaster Reduction defines

environmental degradation as:
ms- "The reduction of the capacity of the environment to meet social and ecological
J 4° objectives, and needs"
sojo- tap]
needs Causes of Environmental Degradation
1. Land Disturbance: —00 eslinckinn
Invasive species
Urbanization, growth of sprawl
Mining
2. Pagion: akohtution
Air
Water
Land
Noise
3. Over o ulation: 0U1V00 clAplefion

More strain on resources
More demand for food, clothing and shelter
More space required for growing
4. Land n;Oted
Scarification the land
Pollution of air and groundwater
5. Deforestation: —.0 rAxed —b max *,nkpack

Deforestation is the cutting down of trees to make way for more homes and
industries. Rapid growth in population and urban sprawl are two of the major causes
of deforestation. Apart from that, use of forest land for agriculture, animal grazing,
harvest for fuel wood and logging are some of the other causes of deforestation.
Deforestation contributes to global warming as decreased forest size puts carbon
back into the environment.

134
6: Natual_Causes:
Things like avalanches, quakes, tidal waves, storms, and wildfires can totally crush
nearby animal and plant groups to the point where they can no longer survive in
those areas. This can either come to fruition through physical demolition as the
result of a specific disaster, or by the long term degradation of assets by the
presentation of an obtrusive foreign species to the environment. The latter
frequently happens after tidal waves, when reptiles and bugs are washed ashore.
Environmental changes are based onimanv factorslincluding:

-Urbanization - increased impact on all resources(land, water, air)
Population growth - increased demand on sustainability
-Economic growth - increased demand on resources, breaching of ecological carrying
capacity, violation of environmental equilibrium
-Intensification of agriculture - agricultural runoff, soil salinity, invasive species,
reduction in biodiversity
Increase in energy use - mining, acid rains
Increase in transportation - GHG emission, fragmentation of habitats
The degradation impacts our wildlife, plants, animals and micro-organisms.

The various ways in which it affects these organisms are:
Impht./ 1310SMERE
Habitat Fragmentation - Habitat fragmentation carries long term environmental
impacts, some of which can destroy entire ecosystems. Examples include roads
which may cut through forests or even trails which wind through prairies. The
largest of these consequences are initially felt by specific plant and animal
communities, most of which are specialized for their bio-region or require large
areas of land to retain a healthy genetic heritage.
Aggressive Plant Life - A more critical result of habitat fragmentation is land

disturbance. Many weedy plant species, such as garlic mustard and purple
loosestrife, are both opportunistic and invasive. A breach in the habitat gives 0. coda Ludariniti
them an opportunity to take hold. These aggressive plants can take over an euckoo
environment displacing the native flora. The result is habitat with a single
wart-lake coral
dominant plant which doesn't provide adequate food resources for all the
wildlife.
Redured Biodiversity - due to mono-culture, invasive species; also disturbed

food chain
Altered environment - due to pollutants, increased temperatures(Climate

Change)
Impacts of Environmental Degradation:

Some residing in third-world countries are highly effected by the degradation.
These effects are:
Illnesses
Death in children

135
Death in adults
Poverty - In many countries in Africa, crop harvests are falling as
consumption increases. People are finding less nutritious food to eat. One
argument held is that while fields in wealthier nations are used to grow
crops for biofuel, poorer countries, especially those around the Equator, are
vulnerable to weather changes, water shortages, and urbanization. All of
these factors are increasing the health and lives of thousands. Some
scientists and environmentalists are asking that non-food items and
agriculture waste be used as alternative fuel for vehicles instead.
Effects of Environmental Degradationfon all countries)

Impact on Human Health: Human health might be at the receiving end as a result
of the environmental degradation. Areas exposed to toxic air pollutants can cause
respiratory problems like pneumonia and asthma. Millions of people are known to
have died of due to indirect effects of air pollution. When factories produce harmful
chemicals and toxic waste into bodies of water, humans suffer. Pesticides and
fertilizers can also get into a region's water system and pollute it. Drinking water is
contaminated.
Loss of Biodiversity: Biodiversity is important for maintaining balance of the

ecosystem in the form of combating pollution, restoring nutrients, protecting water
sources and stabilizing climate. Deforestation, global warming, overpopulation and
pollution are few of the major causes for loss of biodiversity.
Ozone Layer Depletion: Ozone layer is responsible for protecting earth from
harmful ultraviolet rays. The presence of chlorofluorocarbons, hydro
chlorofluorocarbons in the atmosphere is causing the ozone layer to deplete. As it
will deplete, it will emit harmful radiations back to the earth.
Economic Impact: The huge cost that a country may have to borne due to
environmental degradation can have big economic impact in terms of restoration of
green cover, Cleaning up of landfills and protection of endangered species. The
economic impact can also be in terms of loss of tourism industry.
Efforts to counteract this problem include environmental protection and

environmental resources management.
How to Stop Degradation:

There are ways which you can help to decrease degradation in our environment.
Answering within the framework of I-PAT equation.
For reducing population impact
Redt ire pnverty
Control population_growth in developing countries by educating masses
Educating public regarding environmentally safe practices
For reducing level of consumption (FOCUS ON CONSERVATION) rectum “Rwace

Reduce, Reuse, Recycle of resources 31ts

136
Conserving water through rainwater harvesting, water-use efficiency, water

budget, pricing water use
Mitigation of air pollution and climate change
Shifting to environmentally safer alternatives(non-conventional energy,
marine agriculture, marine fishery)
For reducing impact on environment (FOCUS ON MANAGEMENT) rveuite. poItutIon

Reduce pollution and set stringent norms for pollution via effective
legislation
Scientific disposal of waste with focus on recycling and reducing
degradation
Legislation that emphasizes extended producer responsibility
Shifting to organic farming practices, permaculture, sustainable practices
Reducing migration and growth of urban sprawl
Effective initiatives to plan urbanization sustainably
Emphasis on EIA in all human activities
Success of efforts in reducing environment impact = (conservation efforts) x

(management efforts)
Measuring environmental degradation

to measure environmental degradation on the basis of some selected indicators by
the application of a simple multivariate technique known as
Principal Component Analysis. For this purpose the study considered six variables,
namely,
%tele) tommfongui-
-"t DP per capita
Attars --fuel consumption
--total fertility rate
--water supply
----sanitation, and
-electricity.
However, because of unavailability of data, the variables such as technology relating

to environment, waste disposal, air pollution, women/gender issues relating to
environment, corruption, democracy etc. could not be considered.
The results show that principal components explain aboui of the variations in
the level of environmental degradation.

137
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Environmental Management --> tuidtesses Ms4-etie cn -t oliteulthion --) dtpletion cs-m° "Slat' al-t°
It is a process/method of planning and decision-making to achieve sustainable 2.rla S4-ay.
development. dsolnelion
coe.no re.2.044xe. • It is a process of allocating resources for optimal use so as to meet the
uotexifitals compulsions of human need on sustainable basis.
It is a process that is undertaken as an inter-disriplinary exercise with
involvement of professionals from social sciences, natural sciences, law ,design
along with developing and working institutions that implement, monitor and
audit the development programmes and policy
Less about environment and more about development that is inclusive of

environment concern because environment is deciding and determining factor in
development
Foals of Environmental Management

? wad • Preventing environmental problems and resolving them
• Establishing limits
• Identifying threats and opportunities
;cteu.01
• Improving quality of life
;wino. , • Incorporating environmentally sound technologies and development planning
-tech +iptam-mol and execution
• Establishing and nurturing institutions that support environmental research,
monitoring and management
Principles guiding environmental management'

Precautionary Principle - In order to protect the environment, a concept which
includes peoples' ways of life and the integrity of their communities, the
precautionary approach shall be applied. Where there are threats or potential
threats of serious social impact, lack of full certainty about those threats should
not be used as a reason for approving the planned intervention or not requiring
the implementation of mitigation measures and stringent monitoring
Principle of Uncertainty - It must be recognized that our knowledge of the social
world and of social processes is incomplete and that social knowledge can never
be fully complete because the social environment and the processes affecting it
are changing constantly, and vary from place to place and over time
Principle of Intra-Generational Equity - The benefits from the range of planned
interventions should address the needs of all, and the social impacts should not
fall disproportionately on certain groups of the population, in particular children
and women, the disabled and the socially excluded, certain generations or
certain regions
Principle of Inter-Generational Equity - Development activities or planned
interventions should be managed so that the needs of the present generation
are met without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their
own needs.
Recognition and preservation of diversity - Communities and societies are not
homogeneous. They are demographically structured (age and gender), and they
IAS Rank 87 Prajit Nair Geography 5Notes | Offline Student of ForumIAS

138
comprise different groups with various value systems and different skills. Special
attention is needed to appreciate the existence of the social diversity that exists
within communities and to understand what the unique requirements of special
groups may be. Care must be taken to ensure that planned interventions do not
lead to a loss of social diversity in a community or a diminishing of social
cohesion.
Internalization of costs - The full social and ecological costs of a planned
intervention should be internalized through the use of economic and other
instruments, that is, these costs should be considered as part of the costs of the
intervention, and no intervention should be approved or regarded as
cost-effective if it achieves this by the creation of hidden costs to current or
future generations or the environment.
Polluter-pays principle - The full cost of avoiding or compensating for social
impacts should be borne by the proponent of the planned intervention.
Principle of prevention - It is generally preferable and cheaper in the long run to
prevent negative social impacts and ecological damage from happening than
having to restore or rectify damage after the event.
Principle of common but differentiated responsibilities
Principle of non-discrimination
Principle of subsidiarity - Decision making power should be decentralized, with
accountable decisions being made as close to an individual citizen as possible. In
the context of SIA, this means decisions about the approval of planned
interventions, or conditions under which they might operate, should be taken as
close to the affected people as possible, with local people having an input into
the approval and management processes
Scales and levels of operation

Identifying resources
Suggesting usage
Evaluating technologies
Actual implementation and monitoring of plant policy
Post-project evaluation
Tools of environmental management

EIA
Environmental Management System - enables a firm/company to manage its
environmental affairs in a planned and systematic way and thus identifying ways
of improving its environmental performance that most benefit its business
c co NOV performance. This section focuses on the requirements of two EMS schemes:
PAS ISO 14001, the international environmental management system standard
FMA-S and
EMAS, the European Community's Eco-Management and Audit Scheme
Environmental Audit - is a tool for checking whether a firm or an organization is
doing what it should be doing. For instance a legislative compliance audit checks
that those activities of the firm covered by environmental legislation (i.e. what it
is doing) actually comply with that legislation (i.e. what it should be doing). An
environmental audit will tell a firm or an organization whether its waste

139
management practices conform with the industry sector best practice guidelines
it has committed itself to following (i.e. what it should be doing).
Environmental Indicators - Environmental indicators allow a firm to measure
both its environmental performance and its efforts to improve its performance.
Indicators can be used within an environmental management system to check
that a firm has met the targets it is required to set for itself, but can equally well
be used in firms that have not developed an EMS.
Eco-balance - A company eco-balance records the various raw materials, energy,
resources, products and wastes entering, held within and leaving a company
over a specified period of time. In other words, it provides a record of a
company's physical inputs, stock and outputs. Once a company knows exactly
what is coming in and going out, it can begin to assess the particular
environmental impacts of those inputs and outputs. An eco-balance therefore
enables a firm to undertake the comprehensive environmental review of its
activities required by ISO 14001 and EMAS and to go on and set targets for
improving its environmental performance.
,Life-cycle Assessment - is a tool for identifying and assessing the various
environmental impacts associated with a particular product. LCA takes a "cradle
to grave" approach looking at the impacts of the product throughout its life
cycle i.e. from the raw materials acquisition (the "cradle") through its production
and use to its final disposal (the "grave"). LCA allows manufacturers to find ways
of cost-effectively reducing the environmental impact of a product over its
life-cycle and to support their claims about the environmental impact of their
products.
Environmental LabellingY- Environmental labeling schemes award an
environmental label to those products that are judged to be less harmful to the
environment than others within the same product group.
Environmental Reporting - Having undertaken various environmental
management initiatives to improve its environmental performance, a company
or an organization may wish to communicate the results of these initiatives to
the outside world. One way of doing this is by publishing an environmental
report. Issuing an environmental report can improve a firm's public image and
lead to improved relationships with stakeholders. To date, it is mainly large
companies that have issued such reports but small and medium scale companies
may also find environmental reporting a useful tool
Environmental Charters—There are a number of environmental charters and
guidelines to which a firm/company or an organization can subscribe in order to
demonstrate its commitment to responsible environmental management.
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Environmental Conservation
What is the definition of environmental conservation?
The protection, preservation, management, or restoration of natural environments
and the ecological communities that inhabit them. Conservation is generally held to
include the management of human use of natural resources for current public
benefit and sustainable social and economic utilization
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Environmental Hazards and Remedial Measures
An environmental hazard is a substance, state or event which has the potential to

threaten the surrounding natural environment and / or adversely affect people's
health. This term incorporates topics like pollution and natural disasters such as
storms and earthquakes.
Hazards can be categorized in three types:
Chemical
Physical
Biological
Chemical hazards pos;&-ie.kce x •Itnnu

They are defined in the Globally Harmonized System and in the European Union
chemical regulations. They are caused by chemical substances causing significant
damage to the environment. The label is particularly applicable towards substances
with aquatic toxicity. An example is zinc oxide, a common paint pigment, which is
extremely toxic to aquatic life.
Toxicity or other hazards do not imply an environmental hazard, because elimination

by sunlight (photolysis), water (hydrolysis) or organisms (biological elimination)
neutralizes many reactive or poisonous substances. Persistence towards these
elimination mechanisms combined with toxicity gives the substance the ability to do
damage in the long term. Also, the lack of immediate human toxicity does not mean
the substance is environmentally nonhazardous. For example, tanker truck-sized
spills of substances such as milk can cause a lot of damage in the local aquatic
ecosystems: the added biological oxygen demand causes rapid eutrophication,
leading to anoxic conditions in the water body.
Level of Hazard = (Persistence in environment) x (toxicity)
All hazards in this category are mainly anthropogenic although there exist a number
of natural carcinogens and chemical elements like radon and lead may turn up in
health-critical concentrations in the natural environment:
C. Anthrax
.> Antibiotic agents in animals destined for human consumption
C. Arsenic - a contaminant of fresh water sources (water wells)
C. Asbestos - carcinogenic
C. DDT
Carcinogens
C. Dioxins
C. Endocrine disruptors
Explosive material
Fungicides
+ Furans

144
Haloalkanes
g.'• Heavy metals
C• Herbicides
:• Hormones in animals destined for human consumption
Lead in paint
4. Marine debris
Mercury
Mutagens
Pesticides
C.. Polychlorinated biphenyls
C• Radon and other natural sources of radioactivity
:.• Soil pollution
Tobacco smoking
Toxic waste
Physical Hazards
Can be due to both anthropogenic as well as natural causes. The level of hazard
varies depending upon the following formulation
Level of Hazard = (difficulty in reducing/mitigating effects) x (size of area affected)
Cosmic rays
Drought
Earthquake
Electromagnetic fields
E-waste
Floods
Fog
Light pollution
Lighting
Lightning
Noise pollution
Quicksand
Ultraviolet light
Vibration
Wildfires
X-rays
Biological Hazards
Can be due to both anthropogenic as well as natural causes. The causes can
aggravate the natural causes. The level of hazard varies depending upon the
following formulation
Level of Hazard = (difficulty in controlling spread) x (mortality rate)

145
Allergies
Arbovirus
Avian influenza
Bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE)
Cholera
Ebola
Epidemics
Food poisoning
Malaria
Molds
Onchocerciasis (River blindness)
Pandemics
Pathogens
Pollen for allergic people
Rabies
Severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS)
Sick building syndrome

146
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Environmental Education
Four components:
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environmental science
Environmental education focuses on:
Engaging with citizens of all demographics too;

Thititically, ethically, and creatively when evaluating environmental
issues;
Make educated iudements about those environmental issues;
.
Developijcffls anc ceot to act independently and collectively to
sustain and enhance the environment; and,
To enhance their annreriation of the environment; resulting in positive
environmental behavioural change
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Environmental Policy &OS eta oveta-U
WHAT IS AN ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY?
An environmental policy is a document prepared by a company or an organization
which clearly sets out its overall aims and intentions with respect to the environment.
An environmental policy provides a sense of direction for a company and shows that
it is committed to managing its environmental affairs in a responsible way. The
policy should be endorsed by the company's senior management and should be
publicly available. It should be an integral part of the business strategy and be
compatible with company's other policies (e.g. on quality and on health and safety).
NEED TO FORMULATE AN ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY

There are a number of reasons for producing and formulating an environmental
policy:
Producing a policy is an important first step towards achieving effective
environmental management.
Setting out your aims and intentions with respect to the environment is an
important first step towards achieving effective environmental management.
Having done this, a company can then take the measures necessary to achieve
them. By taking appropriate measures i.e. by carrying out effective
environmental management, a company can gain the benefits that such
management brings.
An environmental policy provides important information to external

stakeholders on company's aims and intentions with respect to the environment.
Having an environmental policy can enhance company's reputation with
external stakeholders such as customers and the local community. It shows that
an organization have made a start on dealing with environmental performance.
However, to make sure a company's reputation isn't tarnished in any way, it is
important that all stakeholders see evidence that a company is taking action to
realize the aims and intentions set out in environmental policy

150
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Environmental Policy and Legislation

Environment refers to the physical ecosystems, but can also take into consideration
the social dimension (quality of life, health) and an economic dimension (resource
management, biodiversity)
Policy can be defined as a "course of action or principle adopted or proposed by a
government, party, business or individual".
Thus, environmental policy focuses on problems arising from human impact on the
environment, which retro-acts onto human society by having a (negative) impact on
human values such as good health or the 'clean and green' environment.
Environmental policy refers to the commitmgnt of an organization to the laws,

regulations, and other policy mechanisms concerning environmental issues.
These issues generally include:

air and water pollution
solid waste management
ecosystem management
maintenance of biodiversity
the protection of natural resources, wildlife and endangered species
preservation of these natural resources for future generations
policies concerning energy
regulation of toxic substances including pesticides and many types of industrial
waste
Relatively recently also attended to the communication of environmental issues
All are part of the topic of environmental policy. This policy can be deliberately taken
to direct and oversee human activities and thereby prevent harmful effects on the
biophysical environment and natural resources, as well as to make sure that changes
in the environment do not have harmful effects on humans.
HISTORY
The 1960s marked the beginning of modern environmental policy making. Although
mainstream America remained oblivious to environmental concerns, the stage had
been set for change by the publication of Rachel Carson's New York Times bestseller
Silent Spring in 1962. Earth Day founder Gaylord Nelson, then a U.S. Senator from
Wisconsin, after witnessing the ravages of the 1969 massive oil spill in Santa Barbara,
California. Administrator Ruckelshaus was confirmed by the Senate on December 2,
1970, which is the traditional date used as the birth of the agency. Five months
earlier, in July 1970, President Nixon had signed Reorganization Plan No. 3 calling for
the establishment of EPA in July 1970. At the time, Environmental Policy was a
bipartisan issue and the efforts of the United States of America helped spark
countries around the world to create environmental policies. During this period,
legislation was passed to regulate pollutants that go into the air, water tables, and
solid waste disposal. President Nixon signed the Clean Air Act in 1970 which set the
USA as one of the world leaders in environmental conservation.
In the European Union, the very first Environmental Action Programmed was
adopted by national government representatives in July 1973 during the first
meeting of the Council of Environmental Ministers.1151 Since then an increasingly

151
dense network of legislation has developed, which now extends to all areas of
environmental protection including air pollution control, water protection and waste
policy but also nature conservation and the control of chemicals, biotechnology and
other industrial risks. EU environmental policy has thus become a core area of
European politics.
Overall organizations are becoming more aware of their environmental risks and
performance requirements. In line with the ISO 14001 standard they are developing
environmental policies suitable for their organization.
Environmental Policy Instruments

Environmental policy instruments are tools used by governments to implement their
environmental policies. Governments may use a number of different types of
instruments. For example, economic incentives and market-based instruments such
as taxes and tax exemptions, tradable perenits, and fees can be very effective to
encourage compliance with environmental policy. Bilateral agreements between the
— carbon ere OS
government and private firms and commitments made by firms independent of
carbon 4" government requirement are examples of voluntary environmental measures.
— kro Another instrument is the implementation of greener public purchasing programs.
nen yow-ronufSeveral instruments are sometimes combined in a policy mix to address a certain
environmental problem. Since environmental issues have many aspects, several
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policy instruments may be needed to adequately address each one. Furthermore, a
combination of different policies may give firms greater flexibility in policy
compliance and reduce uncertainty as to the cost of such compliance.
Environmental Policy Integration

The concept of environmental policy integration (EPI) refers to the process of
integrating environmental objectives into non-environmental policy areas, such as
energy, agriculture and transport, rather than leaving them to be pursued solely
through purely environmental policy practices. This is oftentimes particularly
challenging because of the need to reconcile global objectives and international rules
with domestic needs and laws. EPI is widely recognized as one of the key elements of
sustainable development. More recently, the notion of 'climate policy integration',
also denoted as 'mainstreaming', has been applied to indicate the integration of
climate considerations (both mitigation and adaptation) into the normal (often
economically focused) activity of government.
India is one of the parties of the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) treaty.
Prior to the CBD, India had different laws to govern the environment. The Indian
Wildlife Protection Act 1972 protected the biodiversity. It was amended later
multiple times. The 1988 National Forest Policy had conservation as its fundamental
principle. In addition to these acts, the government passed the Environment
(Protection) Act 1986 and Foreign Trade (Development and Regulation) Act 1992 for
control of biodiversity.

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National Environment Policy 2006
National Environment Policy 2006 is a response to India's national commitment to a
clean environment, mandated in the Constitution in Articles 48A and 51 A (g), (DPSP)
strengthened by judicial interpretation of Article 21.
It is recognized that the maintenance of the Healthy environment is not the
responsibility of the state alone. It is the responsibility of every Citizen and thus a
spirit of partnership is to be realized through the environment Management of the
country.
Key Environment Challenges:

The key environmental challenges that India faces are related to the nexus of
environmental degradation with poverty in its many dimensions, and economic
on_Lith.
Challenges are intrinsically connected with the state of environmental resources,
such as land, water, air, and their flora and fauna.
Drivers of Degradation:
Proximate drivers of environmental degradation are population growth,
inappropriate technology and consumption choices, and poverty, leading to changes
in relations between people and ecosystems, and development activities such as
intensive agriculture, polluting industry, and unplanned urbanization.
Other drivers of degradation are the lack of clarity or enforcement of rights of access
and use of environmental resources, policies which provide disincentives for
environmental conservation (and which may have origins in the fiscal regime),
market failures (which may be linked to shortcomings in the regulatory regimes), and
governance constraints.
Impact on Health
Poor environmental quality has adversely affected human health.
Environmental factors are estimated as being responsible in some cases for nearly 20
percent of the burden of disease in India, and a number of environment-health
factors are closely linked with dimensions of poverty (e.g. malnutrition, lack of
access to clean energy and water).
Interventions such as reducing indoor air pollution, protecting sources of safe
drinking water, protecting soil from contamination, improved sanitation measures,
and better public health governance, offer tremendous opportunities in reducing the
incidence of a number of critical health problems.
Objectives of the Policy

Conservation of Critical Environmental Resources
Intra-generational Equity: Livelihood Security for the Poor
Inter-generational Equity
Integration of Environmental Concerns in Economic and Social Development:
Efficiency in Environmental Resource Use
Environmental Governance
Enhancement of Resources for Environmental Conservation

153
•
Principles of National Environment Policy 2006

The Policy evolved from the recognition that only such development is sustainable,
which respects ecological constraints, and the imperatives of justice. The Objectives
stated above are to be realized through various strategic interventions by different
public authorities at Central, State, and Local Government levels. They would also be
the basis of diverse partnerships. The principles followed in the policy are:
Human Beings are at the Centre of Sustainable Development Concerns:
Right to development must be fulfilled so as to equitably meet developmental
and environmental needs of present and future generations.
In order to achieve sustainable development, environmental protection shall
constitute an integral part of the development process and cannot be
considered in isolation from it.
Where there are credible threats of serious or irreversible damage to key
environmental resources, lack of full scientific certainty shall not be used as a
reason for postponing cost-effective measures to prevent environmental
degradation.
In various public actions for environmental conservation, economic efficiency
would be sought to be realized
"Polluter Pays" principle:
Impacts of acts of production and consumption of one party may be visited on
third parties who do not have a direct economic nexus with the original act.
Such impacts are termed "externalities". The National Environment Policy
promotes the internalization of environmental costs, including through the use
of incentives based policy instruments, taking into account the approach that
the polluter should, in principle, bear the cost of pollution, with due regard to
the public interest, and without distorting international trade and investment.
The Doctrine of Public Trust
As per this doctrine, the State is not an absolute owner, but a trustee of all
natural resources, which are by nature meant for public use and enjoyment,
subject to reasonable conditions, necessary to protect the legitimate interest of
a large number of people, or for matters of strategic national interest.
Legislative Reforms
A judicious mix of civil and criminal processes and sanctions will be employed in the
legal regime for enforcement, through a review of the existing legislation. The policy
calls for identification of the emerging areas for new legislation, due to better
scientific understanding, economic and social development, and development of
multilateral environmental regimes, in line with the National Environment Policy. It
also calls for review the body of existing legislation in order to develop synergies
among relevant statutes and regulations.
Environment Impact Assessment

The policy focuses on encouraging the regulatory authorities, Central and State, to
institutionalize regional and cumulative environmental impact assessments (R/CEIAs)
to ensure that environmental concerns are identified and addressed at the planning
stage itself.

154
CRZ
The policy aims to revisit the Coastal Regulation Zone (CRZ) notifications to make the
approach to coastal environmental regulation more holistic, and thereby ensure
protection to coastal ecological systems, coastal waters, and the vulnerability of
some coastal areas to extreme natural events and potential sea level rise. In
pursuance with the Policy CRZ Notification 2011 was released recently.
The Problem of LMOs

LMO refers to the Living Modified Organisms. Living modified organisms (known as
LM05) result from modern biotechnology is broadly equivalent to genetically
modified organisms. The difference between an LMO and a GMO is that a Living
Modified Organism is capable of growing, and typically refers to agricultural crops.
Genetically Modified Organisms include both LMOs and organisms which are not
capable of growing, i.e. are dead. The National Environment Policy says that
Genetically Modified Organisms require evaluation of their potential benefits and
risks as part of relevant regulatory processes. The subset of LMOs, may, however,
owing to their potential for replication, involve environmental concerns in addition.
LMOs may pose significant risks to ecological resources, and perhaps, human and
animal health. In order to ensure that development of biotechnology does not lead
to unforeseen adverse impacts, the policy aims to review the regulatory processes
for LMOs so that all relevant scientific knowledge is taken into account, and
ecological, health, and economic concerns are adequately addressed.
ESZs
The Environmentally Sensitive Zones are the areas with identified environmental
resources having "Incomparable Values" which require special attention for their
conservation. In order to conserve and enhance these resources, without impeding
legitimate socio-economic development of these areas, the National Environment
policy aims to identify and give legal status to Environmentally Sensitive Zones in the
country having environmental entities with "Incomparable values" requiring special
conservation efforts. The policy also envisages formulating area development plans
for these zones on a scientific basis, with adequate participation by the local
communities.
Desert Habitats
The arid and semi-arid region of India covers 127.3 mha (38.8%) of India's
geographical area and spreads over 10 states. The Indian desert fauna is extremely
rich in species diversity of mammals and winter migratory birds. However the
pressures of a rapidly increasing population on the natural resource base necessitate
adoption of innovative and integrated measures for conservation of desert
ecosystems. The policy aims at measures such as Intensive water and moisture
conservation through practices based on traditional and science based knowledge,
and relying on traditional infrastructure.
Panchayats & Women Participation

The policy aims at working towards giving the legal recognition of the traditional
entitlements of forest dependent communities taking into consideration the

155
•
provisions of the (PESA). This would remedy a serious historical injustice, secure their
livelihoods, reduce possibilities of conflict with the Forest Departments, and provide
long-term incentives to these communities to conserve the forests.
Wild life
The policy aims to expand the Protected Area (PA) network of the country, including
Conservation and Community Reserves, to give fair representation to all
bio-geographic zones of the country. In doing so, develop norms for delineation of
PAs in terms of the Objectives and Principles of the National Environment Policy, in
particular, participation of local communities, concerned public agencies, and other
stakeholders, who have a direct and tangible stake in protection and conservation of
wildlife, to harmonize ecological and physical features with needs of socio-economic
development.
Wetlands
The Ramsar Convention defines wetlands as, 'areas of marsh, fen, peat land or water,
whether natural or artificial, permanent or temporary, with water that is static or
flowing, fresh, brackish or salt, including areas of marine water the depth of which at
low tide does not exceed six meters', thereby giving a wide scope to the term.
Wetlands are under threat from drainage and conversion for agriculture and human
settlements, besides pollution. The policy aims at setting up a legally enforceable
regulatory mechanism for identified valuable wetlands, to prevent their degradation
and enhance their conservation. Develop a national inventory of such wetlands.
National Forest Policy of India 1988

The main plank of the revised forest policy of 1988 is protection, conservation and
development of forests.
Its aims are:

Maintenance of environmental stability" through preservation and restoration of
ecological balance;
Conservation of natural heritage;
Checking soil erosion and denudation in catchment areas of rivers, lakes and
reservoirs;
Checking extension of sand dunes in desert areas of Rajasthan and along coastal
tracts;
Substantially increasing forest/tree cover through massive afforestation and social
forestry programmes;
Taking steps to meet requirements of fuel, wood, fodder, minor forest produce,
soil and timber of rural and tribal populations;
Increasing productivity of forests to meet the national needs;
Encouraging efficient utilization of forest produce and optimum substitution of
wood; and
Taking steps to create massive people's movement with involvement of women to
achieve the objectives and minimize pressure on existing forests.

156
Draft National Forest Policy

Notable Points:
The draft National Forest Policy (NFP) proposes the levy of a green tax for
facilitating ecologically responsible behaviour and supplementing financial
resources essential to address forestry woes. "The budget of the forestry sector
should be appropriately enhanced so that the objectives enshrined in this policy
can be achieved. Environmental cess, green tax, carbon tax may be levied on
certain products and services for facilitating ecologically responsible behaviour,
garnering citizen's contribution and supplementing financial resources," the
draft policy says.
The policy proposes to launch a new Community Forest Management Mission,
bringing government, community and private land under the new proposed
management system. It aims to bring one-third of the government-owned
forests under the Community Forest Management regime by the end of the next
decade. The policy recommends contracts between forest-dependent industries
and farmers to fix price and quantity to ensure supply for the wood industry.
The policy says, "Large-scale expansion of agro-forestry and farm forestry should
be encouraged through commensurate incentives and operational support
systems such as lowering the input costs and enabling access to reasonably
priced quality planting material."
The policy states that forest land diversion projects related to mining, quarrying,
construction of dams, roads and other linear infrastructure need to adopt
special caution. Use of state-of-the-art technology which causes minimum
pollution and damage should be promoted.
The policy states that a National Board of Forestry and State Boards of Forestry
are to be established to ensure monitoring of the spread of the forest areas and
management of forest cover.
It calls for developing "sound ecotourism models" with the focus on
conservation while supplementing the livelihood needs of local communities.
"Ensure that tourism is responsible, does not negatively impact wildlife and its
habitat and maximises the income of the local community," the policy says.
Climate change concerns should be effectively factored into all the forest and
wildlife areas management plans and community ecosystem management plans,
the policy states.
The draft policy indicates that CAMPA funds from diversion of forest land by
industry are to be used for purchasing wildlife corridors from people.
The policy also asks for management plans for city forests, parks, garden and
woodlands to nurture and sustain urban health, clean air and related benefits.

157
•
•
Policies to protect environment in India

*Environment Protection Act, 1986
*National Conservation Strategy and Policy Statement on Environment and
Development, 1992
*Policy Statement for the Abatement of Pollution, 1992
*National Environment Policy, 2006
*Vision Statement on Environment and Health
Legislations and Rules for the protection of environment in India

*Water pollution
*Air Pollution
*Land Degradation
*Environment Protection
*Wildlife
*Forest Conservation
*Biodiversity
*National Green Tribunal
*Animal Welfare

158
•

159
RELATED CONCEPTS
"Ecosystem", means a dynamic complex of plant, animal and micro-organism communities and their
non-living environment interacting as a functional unit".
The ecosystem aporoach is a strategy for the integrated management of land, water and living
resources that promotes conservation and sustainable use in an equitable way. Application of the
ecosystem approach will help to reach a balance of the three objectives of the Convention. It is based
on the application of appropriate scientific methodologies focused on levels of biological organization
which encompass the essential processes, functions and interactions among organisms and their
environment. It recognizes that humans, with their cultural diversity, are an integral component of
ecosystems.
Ecosystem Management
Ecosystem management is a process that aims to conserve major ecological services and restore
natural resources while meeting the socioeconomic, political and cultural and needs of current and
future generations. The principal objective of ecosystem management is the efficient maintenance
and ethical use of natural resources. It is a multifaceted and holistic approach which requires a
significant change in how the natural and human environments are identified.
The definitions of ecosystem management are typically vague. Several core principles define and
bound the concept and provide operational meaning:
ecosystem management reflects a stage in the continuing evolution of social values and
priorities; it is neither a beginning nor an end;
ecosystem management is place-based and the boundaries of the place must be clearly and
formally defined;
ecosystem management should maintain ecosystems in the appropriate condition to achieve

desired social benefits;
ecosystem management should take advantage of the ability of ecosystems to respond to a

variety of stress, natural and man-made, but all ecosystems have limited ability to accommodate
stress and maintain a desired state;
ecosystem management may or may not result in emphasis on biological diversity;
the term sustainability, if used at all in ecosystem management, should be clearly

defined—specifically, the time frame of concern, the benefits and costs of concern, and the
relative priority of the benefits and costs; and
scientific information is important for effective ecosystem management, but is only one element
in a decision-making process that is fundamentally one of public

160
Stakeholders are individuals or groups of people who are affected by environmental decisions and
actions, but they also may have power to influence theoutcomes.of environmental decisions relating
to ecosystem management. The complex nature of decisions made in ecosystem management, from
local to international scales, requires stakeholder participation from a diversity of knowledge,
perceptions and values of nature.Stakeholders will often have different interests in ecosystem
services. This means effective management of ecosystems requires a negotiation process that
develops mutual trust in issues of common interest with the objective of creating mutually beneficial
partnerships.
Several approaches to effective ecosystem management engage conservation efforts at both a local
or landscape level and involves:
adaptive management,
natural resource management,
strategic management, and
command and control management.
Adaptive management is based on the concept that predicting future influences/disturbance to an

ecosystem is limited and unclear. Therefore, the goal of adaptive management is to manage the
ecosystem so it maintains the greatest amount of ecological integrity, but also to utilize management
practices.that have the ability to change based on new experience and insights.
The term natural resource management is frequently used when dealing with a particular resource
for human use rather than managing the whole ecosystem. A main objective of natural resources
management is the sustainability for future generations, which appoints ecosystem managers to
balance natural resources exploitation and conservation over long-term timeframe. The balanced
relationship of each resource in an ecosystem is subject to change at different spatial and temporal
scales. Dimensions such as, watersheds, soils, flora and fauna, need to be considered individually and
on a landscape level. A variety of natural resources are utilized for food, medicine, energy and shelter.
The ecosystem management concept is based on the relationship between sustainable resource
maintenance and human demand for use of natural resources. Therefore, socio-economic factors
significantly affect natural resource management. The goal of a natural resource manager is to fulfill
the demand for a given resource without causing harm to the ecosystem, or jeopardizing the future of
the resource. Partnerships between ecosystem managers, natural resource managers and
stakeholders should be encouraged in order to promote a more sustainable use of limited natural
resources. •
Human populations have been increasing rapidly, introducing new stress to ecosystems, such as
climate change and influxes of invasive species. As a result, the demand for natural resources is
unpredictable. Although ecosystem changes may occur gradually, the cumulative changes can have
negative effects for humans and wildlife. Geographic Information Systems (GIS) and Remote Sensing
Applications can be used to monitor and evaluate natural resources by mapping them in local and
global scales. These tools will continue to be highly beneficial in natural resources management.

161
Strategic management encourages the establishment of goals that will benefit the ecosystem while
keeping socioeconomic and politically relevant issues in mind. Strategic management differs from
other types of ecosystem management because it keeps stakeholders involved and relies on their
input to develop the best management strategy for an ecosystem. Similarly to other modes of
ecosystem management, this method places a high level of importance on evaluating and reviewing
any changes, progress or negative impacts and prioritizes flexibility in adapting management
protocols as a result of new information.
Landscape level conservation is a method that considers wildlife needs at a broader landscape level
scale when implementing conservation initiatives. This approach to ecosystem management involves
the consideration of broad scale interconnected ecological systems that acknowledges the whole
scope of an environmental problem. In a human—dominated world, weighing the landscape
requirements of wildlife versus the needs of humans is a complicated matter.
Landscape level conservation is carried out in a number of ways. A wildlife corridor, for example, is a
connection between otherwise isolated habitat patches that are proposed as a solution to habitat
fragmentation. In some landscape level conservation approaches, a key species vulnerable to
landscape alteration is identified and its habitat requirements are assessed in order to identify the
best option for protecting their ecosystem. However, lining up the habitat requirements of numerous
species in an ecosystem can be difficult, which is why more comprehensive approaches to further
understand these variations have been considered in landscape level conservation.
Human-induced environmental degradation is an increasing problem globally, which is why landscape

level ecology plays an important role in ecosystem management. Traditional conservation methods
targeted at individual species need to be modified to include the maintenance of wildlife habitats
through consideration of both human-induced and natural environmental factors.
Command and control management utilizes a linear problem solving approach where a perceived
problem is solved through controlling devices such as laws, threats, contracts and/or agreements.
This top-down approach is used across many disciplines and works best with problems that are
relatively simple, well-defined and work in terms of cause and effect.The application of command and
control management has often attempted to control nature in order to improve product extractions,
establish predictability and reduce threats. Some obvious examples of command and control
management actions include: the use of herbicides and pesticides to safeguard crops in order to
harvest more product; the culling of predators in order to obtain larger, more reliable game species;
and the safeguarding of timber supply, by suppressing forest fires.
POSSIBLE ISSUES
-Ecosystems Management and aspects of human life
Human health
Food security
Famine

162
Migration
Tribals
Agriculture
Watershed
What is conservation of the ecosystem?
Conservation is the scientific study of the nature and of Earth's biodiversity with the aim of protecting
species, their habitats, and ecosystems from excessive rates of extinction and the erosion of biotic
interactions.
The main function of ecosystem conservation is protecting or restoring the structure, function and
species compilation within the system.

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Prajit Nair

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