shelf, over ocean floor = zero visibility 4, Oceanic Zone - Lies above the continental shelf 5. Vertical Zones - divide the ocean based on depth, beginning at sea level to the deepest point of the ocean a. Epipelagic Zone/Sunlight Zone (0-200m) - seals, sea turtles, sea lions, rays, sharks b. Mesopelagic Zone/Twilight Zone (200-1000m) - plants, lily fish, octopus, squid c. Bathypelagic Zone/Midnight Zone (1000-4000m) - animals lack eyes: viperfish, anglerfish, striped eel, tripod fish d. Abyssopelagic/Abyss (4000-6000m) —deep sea, invertebrates: blind shrimps, small squids, hagfish e. Hadalpelagic Zone/Trenches (6000-bottom) - deepest, sea cucumber, tube worms OCEAN CURRENTS © Factors: Earth's rotation, wind, temperature, salinity differences, gravitation of the moon, © Flow under the surface of ocean & hidden from immediate detection = submarine rivers 7 HYDROLOGICAL PROCESSES 1, Melting - Solid to Liquid 2. Evaporation - Liquid to Gas 4, Freezing - Liquid to Solid 5, Sublimation - Solid to Gas (Moth Balls & Dry Ice) 6. Condensation - Gas to Liquid Transpiration - plants lose water out of their leaves, gives evaporation a bit of a hand in getting the water vapor back up into the air Condensation - temperature of the glass is cold enough to cool down the water vapor in the surrounding air, so it turns from gas to liquid Precipitation - occurs when so much water has condensed that the air cannot hold it anymore, a form of water that falls (Rain, Snow, Sleet. Hail] IMPORTANT ROLES * Moderate Climate © Heat Transfer © Organisms need water to transport nutrients & waste © Water is essential in many of Earth's processes (mineral formation, erosion, weathering) INTERACTIONS © ATMOSPHERE - evaporation & precipitation, energy is exchanged, a8 gaseous envelope that surrounds the earth & constitutes the transition between it & the vacuum of space © BIOSPHERE - transport of nutrients & waste products in organisms, life zone of earth, all living organisms, all organic matter not yet decomposed © GEOSPHERE - Earth’s surface & interior, water is the primary agent for chemical & mechanical breakdown of rock (weathering), to form loose rock fragments & soil, & sculpts the surface of the Earth ENSO (EL NINO - SOUTHERN OSCILLATION) © Christ Child © Waters began warming towards the end of November & early December © Strong warming brings abundant rains to the region HYDROMETEOROLOGICAL PHENOMENA, HAZARDS & OTHER WEATHER MIXED-UPS * Northeast Monsoon (Amihan) - cold wind usually coming from China & Siberia (Nov-Feb) * Southwest Monsoon (Habagat) - wind from Australia that flows in a southwest direction going towards the equator (May-Oct) 4.) BIOSPHERE © Contains entirely Earth's living things © "zone of life” © coined by Geologist Edward Suess (1875) BIOMES world's major communities classified according to the predominant vegetation & characterized by adaptations of organisms to a particular climate MAJOR BIOMES: 1, Aquatic - freshwater (ponds, lakes, rivers) & marine (ocean, estuaries) biomes 2. Forest - tropical, temperate & boreal forests, taiga 3, Desert - low rainfall (<50 cm/yn), have specialized vegetation & animals 4, Tundra - coldest biome, low biotic diversity & simple vegetation structure FLOW OF MATTER NITROGEN CYCLE - Nitrogen comprises 78% of the atmosphere= cannot be used directly by the majority of living things unless it undergoes fixation by: © 1. specialized organisms or industrial processes. Fixation - nitrogen must be incorporated ina chemical compound that can be9 utilized by animals & plants, requires energy © 2.lonizing phenomena (cosmic radiation & lightning) © 3.Marine organisms © 4,Terrestrial microorganisms Nitrification - the process by which ammonia or ammonium is oxidized into nitrates Denitrification - Denitrifying bacteria (anaerobic conditions) attack nitrates to obtain oxygen as a source of energy & release gaseous nitrogen. Nitrogen Fixation - controls quantities of nitrogen available for all the other Processes 1. Electrical Discharges (electrical storms) - formation of small amounts of nitrogen oxides from molecular nitrogen 2. Biological Processes - limited to a small percentage of living systems Groups of microorganisms 1. Acetobacter aceti (alkaline soil) 2. Clostridium pasteurianum (acid soils) © Legumes - Earth's greatest natural source of fixed nitrogen Rhizobium invades the roots of legumes, facilitating the formation of root swellings=Nodules Effect of human activities: a. Nitrate poisoning (lakes, streams, rivers) © nitrogen from fertilizers washed away —> nitrate = poisonous & hazard to health b, Depletion of dissolved oxygen in the water © Eutrophication-oxygen content in a body of water is reduced due to the growth of algae. Nitrates “enrich” the water, causing algal bloom. EXOGENOUS PROCESS © “Exo” means outside Erosion © Degradation — Weathering © Disintegration and decomposition of rocks * no transportation involved Types of Weathering 1. Physical/Mechanical 2. Chemical © Oxidation © Carbonation © Hydration 3. Biological - usually done by plants, humans, and animals © Degradation — Mass Wasting - the movement of soil, sand, and rocks down a slope due to gravity © Aggradation — Deposition - sediments, soils and rocks are added to a landform ENDOGENOUS PROCESS© large-scale landform building and transforming processes Types of Igneous Processes © Volcanism — the eruption of magma onto the surface of the Earth © Folding — two forces push towards each other from opposite sides ©. Large Scale © Small Scale © Tectonic Processes © Faulting = 3 Types of Fault © Normal © Reverse © strike-slip © Oblique Geological Hazards and Mitigation 1. Earthquakes © The PH isin the Pacific Ring of Fire + there is an aftershock because the lands/plates are not fitted together yet/ 2. Landslides 3. Volcanic Eruptions 4, Tsunamis Why is the Geologic Time Scale important? The Earth is approximately 4.68 years old © Rocks record geological and evolutionary changes throughout Earth's history 10 Uniformitarianism ‘Amajor assumption in Geology events in the past occurred the same way that they are occurring today © Examples: © Weathering / Erosion Deposition Volcanism Plate Tectonics Geologic Dating ‘Two Types of Dating: 1. Absolute (know dates) © determines the specific age of the fossil © radiometric 2. Relative (Know Order of Events But Not Dates) © used to determine if one thing is younger or older than another © Eg. superposition index fossils, correlation of rock layers © Principles of Relative Dating (by Nicolas Steno) © Original Horizontality - the horizontal pattern of rocks and soils © Superposition - youngest to top, oldest on bottom © Cross-cutting Relationship - the one that always cuts is always the youngest 3. Inclusion Absolute Dating: Radiometric © Radioactive decay (half-life)11 © occurs when the nuclei of unstable atoms break down, changing the original atoms into atoms of another element. © Different substances have different half-ife’s Examples: uranium 238 and Carbon 14 Absolute Dating — Fossils © True Fossil © fossils of the actual animal or animal part © formed when the tissues of animals didn't decay over the years © commonly found in ice, tar (natural asphalt) and amber (tree resin) © Mold Fossil © hollow impressions of living thing in a rock © formed when sediments fill the inside or outside © Cast Fossil © created when minerals and sediments enter a cavity or mold (sometimes from a mold fossil) and harden, creating a cast. © Trace Fossils or Ichnofossils ©. impressions of rocks that showed imprints, Where Fossils occur? © Almost exclusively in Sedimentary Rocks © The heat of melting of metamorphism would destroy