A SEMINAR REPORT ON

“UNDERWATER CONSTRUCTION”

SUBMITTED BY

GAJULA PAVAN
ROLL NO:- 1603058

UNDER THE GUIDANCE OF

Prof.SS CHOUDARY

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY PATNA

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Preface
I have made this report file on the topic WATER POLLUTION ; I have tried my best to elucidate
all the relevant detail to the topic to be included in the report. While in the beginning I have tried
to give a general view about this topic. My efforts and wholehearted co-corporation of my mates
have ended on a successful note. I express my sincere gratitude to S.S. Choudhary sir, for
assisting me throughout the preparation of this topic. I thank him for providing me the
reinforcement, confidence and most importantly the track for the topic whenever I needed it.

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 Acknowledgement
I would like to thank respected Dr. S.S. Choudhary sir for giving me such a wonderful
opportunity to expand my knowledge for my own branch and giving me guidelines to present a
seminar report. It helped me a lot to realize of what we study for. Secondly, I would like to thank
my parents who patiently helped me as i went through my work and helped to modify and
eliminate some of the irrelevant or un-necessary stuffs. Thirdly, I would like to thank my friends
who helped me to make my work more organized and wellstacked till the end. Next, I would
thank Microsoft for developing such a wonderful tool like MS Word. It helped my work a lot to
remain error-free. Last but clearly not the least, I would thank The Almighty for giving me
strength to complete my report on time.

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 CONTENTS

1. INTRODUCTION

2. CAISSON CONSTRUCTION
2.1 INTRODUCTION
2.2 TYPES OF CAISSONS
2.2.1 BOX CAISSONS
2.2.2 OPEN CAISSONS
2.2.3 PNEUMATIC CAISSONS
2.2.4 SUCTION CAISSONS

3. COFFERDAM CONSTRUCTION
3.1 INTRODUCTION
3.2 TYPES OF COFFERDAMS
1.2.1 DIKES
1.2.2 SINGLE WALL COFFERDAMS
1.2.3 DOUBLE WALL COFFERDAMS
1.2.4 CELLULAR COFFERDAMS
1.2.5 ROCK-FILLED CRIB COFFERDAMS
1.2.6 CONCRETE COFFERDAMS
1.2.7 SUSPENDED COFFERDAMS

4. UNDERWATER CONCRETING
4.1 INTRODUCTION
4.2 CONCRETE PLACEMENT
4.3 UNDERWATER CONCRETE PLACEMENT METHODS

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 4.3.1 TREMIE METHOD
4.3.2 PUMP METHOD
4.3.3 TOGGLE BAGS
4.3.4 BAGWORK

5. A CASE STUDY ON BRIDGE FOUNDATION

6. CONCLUSION

REFERENCE

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 1. INTRODUCTION

Underwater concrete construction is a critical component of the entire project. It is

technically demanding, usually on the critical path of the project. It is technically demanding,
usually on the critical path of the project schedule, and involves complex construction logistics.
Therefore, its significance in the project far beyond the concreting operations themselves, in
essence, underwater concrete can be constructed with the same degree of reliability as above-
water construction. But if it is not carried out properly, with the proper concrete mixture and
placement procedure, underwater concrete construction can result in a major cost and schedule
overrun. This is the area where sound design and competent construction planning can achieve a
meaningful reduction in risk and cost.

For those used to concreting on dry land, concreting under water presents various challenges.
Transporting, compacting, quality control, finishing and accuracy must all be carried out
successfully in this different, and often difficult, environment. There are, however, many
common aspects, chief of which is that air is not required for the setting and hardening of
concrete – it sets and hardens just as well, and often even better, under water – but it must be
fluid enough to flow into position and be self compacting as conventional vibration is not
practicable under water.

The caissons and cofferdams are the techniques used for the construction of underwater
structures. A caisson is a retaining, watertight structure used, for example, to work on the
foundations of a bridge pier, for the construction of a concrete dam, or for the repair of ships.
Caissons are sunk through ground or water to exclude water and semi-fluid material during the
process of excavation of foundations and which subsequently becomes an integral part of the
substructure. A cofferdam is an enclosure within a water environment constructed to allow water
to be displaced by air for the purpose of creating a dry work environment. Commonly used for

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oil rig construction and repair, bridge and dam work, the cofferdam is usually a welded steel
structure that is temporary, typically dismantled after work is completed. Its components consist
of sheet piles, wales, and cross brace

2. CAISSONS

2.1 INTRODUCTION

The caisson method is one method of producing deep foundations, i.e the load exerted by
the building structure is transferred to firm, deeper strata. Caisson foundation is most commonly
used underwater for a bridge, but sometimes used in building construction Caissons are normally
made of reinforced concrete, various cross sections being possible, depending on the
requirements. These are constructed such that the water can be pumped out, keeping the working
environment dry. It is a large hollow structure that is sunk down through the earth by workers
excavating from inside it, ultimately it becomes a permanent part of the pier. The outer walls of
large caissons should be at least 1m thick, and the caissons should have horizontal and vertical
stiffening walls. A round hole is dug or bored to a stable layer of earth and temporarily supported
by a steel shell, then filled with concrete poured around a cage of reinforcing bars.

Uses of caissons:
1) To reach the hard bearing stratum for transferring the load coming on supports for bridge
piers and building columns.
2) To serve as an imperious core wall of earth dams, when placed adjacent to each other.
3) To provide an access to a deep shaft or a tunnel.
4) To provide an enclosure below water level for installing machinery, pump, etc.

Materials used for the construction of caissons:

The common materials which are usually employed for the construction of a caisson are as
follows,
1) Cast-iron
2) Reinforced cement concrete
3) Steel

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 4) Timber
The cast-iron is suitable for caissons of open-well type. New segments of cast-iron are
bolted as the caisson sinks. This material is unsuitable for pneumatic caissons as there is risk of
failure due to tension developed by the compressed air. The cost also works out to be more in
relation to the steel or R.C.C.
The reinforced cement concrete is suitable for caisson shoes. This material has more weight
and therefore it creates difficulties in handling and floating the caisson in the early stage of
construction. It therefore becomes economical to construct a steel caisson with concrete filling.
The steel is found to be the most suitable material for the construction of a caisson. It is
usually in the form of a double skin of steel plating and the hollow space is then filled with
cement concrete.
The timber was used as a material for the construction of a caisson in the early stages of
development of a caisson. But this material is now practically not adopted mainly because of its
bulk and risk of fire.

2.2 TYPES OF CAISSONS

All caissons feature the shape of a tube, often with a cylindrical contour but it may also be
rectangular, elliptical, or some other form. Some caissons are open at both ends, some are open
only at the top, and some are open only at the bottom. It depends on the way each type of caisson
is to be used.
The four main types of caisson are,
1. Box caisson
2. Open caisson
3. Pneumatic caisson
4. Suction caisson:

2.2.1 BOX CAISSON

This method is applied mainly in underwater tunneling, harbor, foundation for bridge pier
constructions. Box caissons are prefabricated concrete boxes of various shape and comprise
hollow bodies with water-tight floors and walls. After manufacture , they are launched, towed to

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the place where they are to be built in, sunk to the sea bed or river bed, which has been prepared
accordingly, and finally ballasted. In this process, individual construction elements usually have
to be connected and sealed off from each other. One problem with box caissons is that hollow
concrete structures float and so they must be ballasted or anchored to prevent this until they can
be filled with concrete. Adjustable anchoring systems combined with a GPS survey allow
engineers to position a box caisson with pinpoint accuracy. Elaborate anchoring systems may be
required in tidal zone.

2.2.2 OPEN CAISSON

The structure is open at the top and is manufactured wholly or partially at ground level.
In that phase it rests on the shoe, the making of which requires special care and experience. The
sinking process begins with the step-by-step removal of material inside structure under
atmospheric pressure. First, above groundwater level, the material is excavated then, below
ground water level, it is dredged. Interior and exterior groundwater levels must always be the
same to prevent piping and to prevent material being sucked in from the outside as a result.
Friction between the structure and the surrounding soil is minimized by a gap around the
structure filled with bentonite. As a rules it is 5 to 10cm wide and is produced automatically as
the shoe projects beyond the outer wall of the caisson. Since the friction forces increase with
increasing depth, the weight must be raised by additional loads.
When the final depth is reached, an under water concrete floor is built in to facilitate
subsequent pumping of the interior, attention always being paid to safety against uplift. Open
caissons used in soft grounds or high water tables, where open trench excavations are
impractical, can also be used to install deep manholes, pump stations and reception/launch pits
for micro tuunelling.

2.2.3 PNEUMATIC CAISSON

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 A caisson closed at the top and open at the bottom is a pneumatic caisson. This type of
caisson generally is used in underwater construction projects. It can be used only if air is pumped
in to produce a pressure greater than water pressure outside. Workers entering a pneumatic
caisson must first pass through an intermediate chamber that allows their bodies to adjust from
normal atmospheric pressure to the higher pressure within the caisson or vice versa. Pneumatic
caissons can not be used at a depth of more than 120 ft (36.6 m). Beyond that point the air
pressure needed inside the caisson to keep out water is too great for the human body to
withstand.

As with the open caisson, the structure is manufactured wholly or partially( at least the
working chamber and part of the vertical walls) at ground level. Material is excavated in the
working chamber, the groundwater being kept out with compressed air. Due to the constant shear
failure below the shoe- as a consequence of the gradual material removal- the structure sinks in
to the ground slowly under its own weight.

As with the open caisson, this process may be accelerated by friction minimizing
measures and additional loads. The vertical walls are concreted up to the desired height during
the sinking process. As soon as the final depth is reached, the working chamber is filled with
concrete.

Advantages of pneumatic caisson:

2. The soil condition in the working chamber may be checked constantly.

3. The construction work is not hampered by groundwater rushing in.
4. The floor of the structure may be built in the dry.

Disadvantages of pneumatic caisson:

1. working in compressed air may leads to caisson disease.

2. locking in and out of material and equipment is a tedious process.

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2.2.4 SUCTION CAISSON
As offshore exploration and development of oil fields reach water depths of 1,000 to
3,000 m, novel methods of anchoring production platforms become attractive due to cost savings
associated with installation. Surface production systems that are viable in these water depths
include Tension Leg Platforms (TLP), spar platforms, and laterally moored ship-shaped and
semi-submersible vessels. Possible anchor systems for TLP and spar platforms include the
traditional driven piles, drag anchors and suction caissons.

Suction caissons become better alternatives to driven piles in deepwater because of

technical challenges and costs associated with the installation equipment. In addition, suction
caissons also provide a greater resistance to lateral loads than driven piles because of the
larger diameters typically used.

Initial penetration of the suction caisson into the seabed occurs due to the self weight.
Field observations have shown that the initial penetration of the pile in to ocean sediments under
self-weight is substantial enough to develop an adequate seal to facilitate suction installation .
subsequent penetration is by the suction created by pumping water out from the inside of the
caisson( fig 2.5 ). A submersible pump attached to the top of the sealed caisson applies suction
pressure. By evacuating water from the inside, a pressure differential is created. The limiting
value of this pressure differential, such that cavitation does not occur, is the sum of the
atmospheric pressure and hydrostatic pressure outside the caisson. In very deep waters, large
penetration or suction pressures can be created, which is only limited by the capacity of the
pump. Once the required depth are reached, the pumps can be disconnected and retrieved.

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 Fig 2.5 Installation Sequence Of Suction Caissons (a) Touchdown Phase (b) Penetration
Due To Self Weight/Ballast (c) Water Pumped Out To Create Suction Penetration

Advantages of caisson foundation:

1. Economic.
2. Minimizes pile cap needs.
3. Slightly less noise and reduced vibrations.
4. Easily adaptable to varying site conditions.
5. High axial and lateral loading capacity.
6. Minimal handling equipment is required for placement of reinforcing cage.
7. Placement is sometimes possible in types of soil that a driven pile could not penetrate.

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 3. COFFERDAMS

3.1 INTRODUCTION

“A cofferdam is a temporary structure designed to keep water and/or soil out of the
excavation in which a bridge pier or other structure is built”. The cofferdam may or may not be
pumped out completely dry. Cofferdams may be installed by driving sheet piles around a
designated area or by submerging a pre-fabricated structure made of concrete, steel, or
combination of concrete and steel. Cofferdams may even be formed by using inflatable rubber
bags to surround a site, fabricated boxes to attach to existing structures, or, in the case of large
dewatered areas, perimeter rock dikes or sand-filled structures. Now a days cofferdam will be
fabricated steel structure hoisted in to place by a derrick barge powered by electricity, or a
precast concrete structure floated in to place and set on bottom.

Following are some of the points which should be remembered in connection with the
construction of cofferdams.

• Cofferdams are temporary enclosures to keep out water and soil so as to permit dewatering
and construction of the permanent facility (structure) in the dry.

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• A cofferdam involves the interaction of the structure, soil, and water. The loads imposed
include the hydrostatic forces of the water, as well as the dynamic forces due to currents and
waves.

• In construction of cofferdams maintaining close tolerances is difficult since cofferdams are

usually constructed offshore and sometimes under severe weather conditions. Under these
circumstances, significant deformations of cofferdam elements may happen during the course of
construction, and therefore it may be necessary to deviate from the design dimensions in order to
complete the project according to plan.

• The loads imposed on the cofferdam structure by construction equipment and operations must
be considered, both during installation of the cofferdam and during construction of the structure
itself.

• Removal of the cofferdam must be planned and executed with the same degree of care as its
installation, on a stage-by-stage basis. The effect of the removal on the permanent structure must
also be considered. For this reason, sheet piles extending below the permanent structure are often
cut off and left in place, since their removal may damage the foundation soils adjacent to the
structure.

• In cofferdam construction, safety is a paramount concern, since workers will be exposed to the
hazard of flooding and collapse.

• Safety requires that every cofferdam and every part thereof shall be of suitable design and
construction, of suitable and sound material and of sufficient strength and capacity for the
purpose for which it is used, proper construction, verification that the structure is being
constructed as planned, monitoring the behavior of the cofferdam and surrounding area,
provision of adequate access, light and ventilation, and attention to safe practices on the part of
all workers and supervisors, and shall be properly maintained.

3.2 TYPES OF COFFERDAM

Following are the most common types of cofferdams:
1. Dikes

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 2. Single wall cofferdams
3. Double wall cofferdams
4. Cellular cofferdams
5. Rock-filled crib cofferdams
6. Concrete cofferdams
7. Suspended cofferdams

4.2.1 DIKES

A dike is an embankment of some material. The materials commonly employed for the
construction of a dike are earth, rock and sand-bags. The dikes are generally employed for a
short duration, particularly to enable the construction of a more durable cofferdam behind them.

4.2.2 SINGLE WALL COFFERDAMS

This type of cofferdam is suitable when available working space is limited and the area
to be enclosed is small. A single row of piles is used on either side of the cofferdam.

4.2.3 DOUBLE WALL COFFERDAMS

When the area to be enclosed is large, it becomes essential to provide the double wall
construction so as to give stability to the cofferdam.

4.2.4 CELLULAR COFFERDAMS

The cellular cofferdam is made of steel sheet piles and this type of cofferdam is proved
successful in dewatering large areas.

4.2.5 ROCK-FILLED CRIB COFFERDAMS

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 A rock-filled crib cofferdam consists of timber cribs. A crib is a box or a cell open at the
bottom and it essentially consists of a framework of horizontal timbers laid in alternate courses.
The pockets thus formed are then filled with rock or gravel or earth to give stability to the crib
against overturning and sliding.

4.2.6 CONCRETE COFFERDAMS

These are actually small concrete dams and they have been used economically on many
jobs. The framework usually consists of pre-cast R.C.C. piles and sheets. The pre-cast R.C.C.
sheet piles are provided with suitable edges and they are driven in a similar manner to steel sheet
piles. The design of different units should be properly made. The main disadvantage of a
concrete cofferdam is that it is costly. But when it is to be incorporated as part of a permanent
structure, it proves to be economical.

4.2.7 SUSPENDED COFFERDAMS

Sometimes, a cofferdam is designed in such a way that a single unit of it is used several
times. The cofferdam as such is lifted, floated and placed in another position as soon as its
purpose is served. Such cofferdams are also known as the movable cofferdams.

4.3 COMPONENTS OF COFFERDAM

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 Fig 3.1: Components Of Cofferdam

3.3.1 SHEET PILING

Sheet piling is a manufactured construction product with a mechanical connection

“interlock” at both ends of the section. These mechanical connections interlock with one another
to form a continuous wall of sheeting. Sheet pile applications are typically designed to create a
rigid barrier for earth and water, while resisting the lateral pressures of those bending forces. The
shape or geometry of a section lends to the structural strength. In addition, the soil in which the
section is driven has numerous mechanical properties that can affect the performance.

3.3.2 BRACING FRAME

These are structural members used for the lateral stability of cofferdam. These are made
up of steel or wood.

3.3.3 CONCRETE SEAL

The typical cofferdam, such as a bridge pier, consists of sheet piles set around a bracing
frame and driven into the soil sufficiently far to develop vertical and lateral support and to cut off
the flow of soil and, in some cases the flow of water. The structure inside may be founded
directly on rock or firm soil or may require pile foundations. In the latter case, these generally

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extend well below the cofferdam. Inside excavation is usually done using clam shell buckets. In
order to dewater the cofferdam, the bottom must be stable and able to resist hydrostatic uplift.
Placement of an underwater concrete seal course is the fastest and most common method. An
underwater concrete seal course may then be placed prior to dewatering in order to seal off the
water, resist its pressure, and also to act as a slab to brace against the inward movement of the
sheet piles in order to mobilize their resistance to uplift under the hydrostatic pressure.

Advantages of Cofferdam:

Performing work over water has always been more difficult and costly than performing the
same work on land. And when the work is performed below water, the difficulties and cost
difference can increase geometrically with the depth at which the work is performed. The key to
performing marine construction work efficiently is to minimize work over water, and perform as
much of the work as possible on land. Below some of the advantages of cofferdams are listed.

1. Allow excavation and construction of structures in otherwise poor environment

2. Provides safe environment to work

3. Contractors typically have design responsibility

4. Steel sheet piles are easily installed and removed

5. Materials can typically be reused on other projects

Comparison between Cofferdam and caisson:

The main difference between a cofferdam and a caisson is that the former is a temporary
structure while the latter forms the part of the permanent work. Following factors are to be
considered while making a choice between cofferdam and caisson for a particular foundation
work.

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  A cofferdam becomes uneconomical in cases where the plan area of the foundation work
is small as compared to the depth of water. Under such circumstances, a caisson would
prove to be the most suitable.
 At places where the cofferdams cannot be dewatered successfully, the caissons are used.
This may be due to the following reasons:
a) Depth of water
b) Nature of soil to be penetrated and
c) Permeability of soil below foundation level
 The process of constructing a cofferdam is greatly simplified in cases of soils which
allow easily the driving of sheet piles. The caissons, on the other hand, are useful where
obstructions or boulders would prevent the successful driving of the sheet piles
 For heavy foundation works which are to be provided at a depth of about 12 meters to 15
meters below the level of standing water surface, the caissons would prove to be more
economical than the cofferdams.

4. UNDERWATER CONCRETING
4.1 INTRODUCTION

For in-the-wet construction of the navigation structure, underwater concrete construction

is a critical component of the entire project. It is technically demanding, usually on the critical

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path of the project. It is technically demanding, usually on the critical path of the project
schedule, and involves complex construction logistics. Therefore, its significance in the project
far beyond the concreting operations themselves, in essence, underwater concrete can be
constructed with the same degree of reliability as above-water construction. But if it is not
carried out properly, with the proper concrete mixture and placement procedure, underwater
concrete construction can result in a major cost and schedule overrun. This is the area where
sound design and competent construction planning can achieve a meaningful reduction in risk
and cost.

4.2 UNDERWATER CONCRETE PLACEMENT

The technical requirements for underwater concreting cover the areas of placement
method and technique, placement sequence, placement equipment layout, finishing, and
protection of concrete. Concrete placement planning should include the relevant subjects of
detail as well as the construction logistics( the relationship among various concreting operations
and their relationship with other construction operations)
The choice of a proper placement plan for a specific project has to be ultimately
determined by the site condition and engineering requirements, including the required in-place
concrete properties, volume and thickness of the concrete placement, water velocity during
concrete placement, presence of reinforcement or obstacles, availability of equipment, technical
feasibility, and cost.

4.3 UNDERWATER CONCRETE PLACEMENT METHODS

Following are the methods used for underwater concrete placement,

1. Tremie method
2. Pump method
3. Toggle bags
4. Bagwork

For the underwater construction of navigation structures, the tremie method is the only sound
method for placing high-quality underwater concrete. However, some contractors will request to

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use the pump method because it slightly reduces the labor cost. The following sections provide a
critical examination of these two methods. The other placement methods are not appropriate for
high-quality underwater concrete for major structures, although they may find application in
special cases.
For placement of underwater concrete, the tremie method and pump method function in
fundamentally different ways. Tremie placement deposits concrete solely by its own gravity in a
open system where as the pump method employs surges of pump pressure to deliver concrete in
a closed system. The technical difficulties and the inherent risk of failure with these two methods
are substantially different.

4.3.1 TREMIE METHOD

The principle of this method is that concrete is poured down a pipe or tube from above
the surface and is forced into the mass of concrete already in place by the weight of concrete in
the tube. The tube is surmounted by a hopper (‘tremie’ in French) and the whole is suspended
from a staging or frame, mounted so that it can be moved vertically when held by a crane. As the
pour rises, sections of the tube can be removed to facilitate working. A convenient diameter for
the tube is 8 to 16 times the maximum aggregate size and 250 mm is a common diameter. Figure
shows a diagrammatical representation of a tremie.

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 Fig 4.1: Schematic Of A Tremie

Before starting the pour, a plug is inserted into the tube to stop the concrete and water
intermixing. This plug can be purpose-made (similar to a bath plug), a sponge rubber ball
or exfoliated vermiculite, which is the most common method in the UK.
At start-up the bottom of the tube should be on or very close to the sea or river bed,
sufficient to allow the water in the tube to escape and to force the first load of concrete to spread
out horizontally into a mound shape. The concrete pouring should be continuous with the bottom
of the tube always inside previously placed concrete. If this immersion depth, normally at least
0.5 m, is not sufficient, a breakthrough will occur and the pour will have to be abandoned for the
day. Any air that is in the concrete being placed will pass through the previously placed concrete
and bubble to the surface, disrupting the settled concrete as it goes.
The flow of concrete in the tube is governed by gravity and friction with the tube wall, so
the tremie has to be moved up and down to regulate the flow. A crane driver with a good ‘feel’
for this is useful. The tube should be restrained from lateral movement whilst placing concrete.

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The placed concrete spreads out horizontally on the bed in a circle, with the top of the pour
domed upwards.
Tremies are best used for thick pours of any area. For large area pours, multiple tremies
are used, spaced at about 4–6 m apart, depending on the flatness required for the top level. The
slope of the concrete surface from a tremie is likely to be in the range 1 in 9 for tremies close
together to 1 in 6 for those spaced far apart as the slope increases with distance from the pipe.
The concrete flow pattern is dependent upon the consistency of the concrete mixture and
the placement rate. In addition, the flow pattern is also affected by the thickness of the concrete
placement and the tremie embedment depth in concrete.

4.3.2 PUMP METHOD

Pump method is defined as pumping concrete directly into its final position, involving both
horizontal and vertical delivery of concrete in a closed system of discharge pipes. Pumping
concrete has the advantage of operational efficiency with potential savings of time and labor. In
recent years pump method has become increasingly popular for above-water structures due to the
advancement of pumping equipment and techniques. Pumping concrete directly under deep
water(>9m or 30ft in water depth) is a technically flawed procedure. Although pumping concrete
in shadow water is feasible, it still involves significant risks and potentially poor concrete
quality. For massive underwater concrete construction of navigation structures, the pump method
should be prohibited. However, the pump method is an excellent way to deliver concrete
horizontally to a tremie hopper. It is also an excellent way of placing grout or flowable sand
underwater.

Pumping the mass concrete directly down to the structures on the riverbed or seafloor has
several technical problems that will increase the risk of construction failure or poor concrete,
a) In tremie placement by gravity feed, the concrete flow rate can be controlled by the rate at
which concrete is fed in to the tremie. On the other hand, the pump system fully fills the
pumpline with concrete. For placement in deep water, the weight of concrete in the
pumpline is much greater than the hydrostatic head from the water and concrete outside
the pipe. Thus, the concrete exists the pipe at an uncontrollably high speed, causing

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 significant disturbance of already placed concrete and segregation of the concrete being
poured.

b) A pump system is closed to the atmosphere. When concrete is pumped down to deep
water, concrete may fall through and exit a pumpline at a rate faster than the pump output.
Thus, a vacuum will be created in the line. The vacuum pressure so created will suck away
the cement paste from aggregates, causing segregation and plugging of the line.

c) Pressure surges from the pump can cause disruption of the concrete flow and plugging of
the line.

d) A concrete mixture optimized for pumping may not be the optimum concrete mixture for
underwater applications.

e) Pumping in to confined space can potentially result in excessive pressures.

f) If the end of the pumpline is not adequately buried, excessive pump pressure surge can
kick the pumpline out of the in-place concrete, causing mixing of the concrete with water.

4.3.3 TOGGLE BAGS

Where small amounts of concrete are required, such as in repair work, the toggle bag is
ideal. The waterproof bag is filled in the dry with wet concrete and the mouth is closed with a tie
rope and toggle. At the placing location the concrete is squeezed out by a diver and rammed into
place. The use of a diver adds to the cost of the operation.

4.3.4 BAGWORK

The type of bags used here are normally made from an open-weave material such as
hessian. They should be half-filled with plastic concrete, sealed and then taken under water and

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placed by a diver. Partial filling allows them to be moulded into shape and gives them good
contact areas with adjacent bags. Grout from the mix seeps through the opentextured material
allowing bond to be established with adjacent bags. For additional stability the bags can be
spiked together with small-diameter reinforcing bars.
Divers prefer to handle bags of dry-mixed concrete and to grout up between bags.
However, this system places too great a responsibility on the diver. The dry mix concrete is never
fully wetted-out by water seeping in, the concrete cannot be fully compacted and contact
surfaces are minimal.
Diver-handled bags are usually of 10 to 20 litres capacity but 1 m3 bags can be placed
using a crane.

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 5. A CASE STUDY ON BRIDGE FOUNDATION

This section provides brief descriptions of the under concrete construction for Akashi
Kaikyo bridge.

o The Akashi Kaikyo Bridge also known as the Pearl Bridge, is the world's longest
suspension bridge (measured by the length of the center span of 1,991 metres). It
is located in Japan and was completed in 1998.
o The two main tower foundations of the Akashi Kaikyo bridge, Japan, are large
double-wall steel caissons filled with tremie concrete. The project required that a
large volume of tremie concrete be placed up to 57m below the water surface.
o The steel caisson is divided in to an inner core and 16 segments of the outer core.
While the tremie concrete in each segment of the outer core was placed at one
time, the concrete in the inner circle was placed in 11 lifts. Each lift was about 3
to 4m in thickness and 54m in diameter.
o Prior to the construction, extensive tests were conducted to select the tremie
concrete mixture. The concrete selected was self-leveling with a slump flow of
525mm. the concrete mixture selected was a ternary mixture with
cement:slag:flyash proportions of 20:60:20. In addition, a significant portion of
limestone powder was added to control the bleeding and improve the cohesion of
the mixture.
o All the tremie concrete was produced on a floating batch plant.
o The concrete materials required for one lift of concrete (about 9,000m 3) were
collected together on two material barges that were moored to each side of the
caisson.
o Each tremie placement was carried out continuosly day and night for 3days.
Each tremie pipe covered a 100-m2 area.
o The rate of placement in the inner circle was relatively slow at about 5 to 8cm/hr.
due to the fluid characteristics of the concrete, the slow placement rate was
necessary to prevent washout.

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o The construction joints between the lifts were prepared with underwater robots
and airlifting.
o A 3cm thick layer of antiwashout mortar was aced over the construction joint
prior to placing another lift of tremie concrete. The total of 50,000m 3 of concrete
was placed in the steel caisson.

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 6. CONCLUSION

 Cofferdams are temporary structures and used in cases where the plan area of foundation
is very large, depth of water is less and for the soft soils, where soils allow easy driving
of sheet piles.
 Caissons are permanent structures and becomes economical in cases where the plan area
of foundation is small, large depth of water and for loose soils.
 Suction caisson anchors are gaining considerable acceptance in the offshore industry. The
suction caisson is a highly versatile and efficient anchor concept that can be installed
easily as compared to driven piles, especially in deep waters. The installation procedure is
simple and requires no heavy lift vessel. The geometry to be used is dependent on the soil
type.
 At present, the tremie placement method is the standard way of placing high-quality
concrete underwater. The other placement method are not able to reliably place high-
quality underwater concrete for major structures, although they may find application in
special cases
 For massive underwater concrete construction of navigation structures, the pump method
should be prohibited.

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 REFERENCES

1. “Assessment of underwater concrete Technologies for in-the-wet

construction of navigation structures”- by Sam X. Yao, Dale E. Berner, Ben
C. Gerwick

2. “ Underwater concrete”- by Dr Jagadish R

3. “ Foundation engineering”- by R. B. Peck, W. E Hanson, T.H. Thornburn

4. “Concrete technology” – by M S Shetty`

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