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Rapid chloride penetrability test: a new look

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 33rd Annual General Conference of the Canadian Society for Civil Engineering
33e Congrès général annuel de la Société canadienne de génie civil

Toronto, Ontario, Canada

June 2-4, 2005 / 2-4 juin 2005

GC-186

RAPID CHLORIDE PENETRABILITY TEST: A NEW LOOK

M. T. Bassuoni, T. R. Greenough and M. L. Nehdi
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Western Ontario, London, On, Canada

ABSTRACT: The rapid chloride penetrability test (RCPT-ASTM C 1202) is commonly used to evaluate
the resistance of concrete to chloride ion ingress owing to its simplicity and rapidity. However, it has been
criticized for various shortcomings including its bias to supplementary cementitious materials (e.g. silica
fume) and against calcium nitrite corrosion inhibitors (CNI). This study attempts to enhance the reliability
of the ASTM C 1202 test by also measuring the depth of the chloride penetration front at the end of the
testing period to calculate a migration coefficient of chloride ions (D). Seventeen concrete mixtures with
water-to-cementitious materials ratio of 0.30, 0.45 and 0.60 were prepared incorporating selected
materials (silica fume and CNI) that have been known to cause misleading results for the RCPT test. The
effect of silica fume and CNI dosages on RCPT results were investigated and correlated to mercury
intrusion porosimetry (MIP) results. The study reveals that measuring the migrating chloride front in
concrete subsequent to the ASTM C 1202 test can eliminate the bias induced by electrolysis conductivity
resulting from silica fume and/or CNI, and thereby improve the test reliability.

1. INTRODUCTION

1.1. Overview

Corrosion of embedded reinforcement in concrete structures is a key durability issue. Corrosion related
costs are estimated to be in the range of 3 to 5% of the Gross National Product (GNP) in the US, Western
Europe and Japan, 25% of which can be ascribed to corrosion of steel reinforcement in concrete
structures (Scannell et al. 1996). It is well-established that chloride ions can destroy the passive layer
surrounding steel reinforcement provided by the high alkalinity of cement paste, thus activating
electrochemical corrosion (Bentur et al. 1998). Several approaches have been employed to minimize the
risk of corrosion of embedded reinforcing steel such as incorporating adequate dosages of supplementary
cementing materials (silica fume, fly ash, slag, etc.) and corrosion inhibiting admixtures in concrete
mixtures.

Silica fume possesses an ultra-fine particle size (around 0.1 µm) and exhibits an efficient ancillary
pozzolanic reaction resulting in a refined interfacial transitional zone (ITZ) between cement paste and
aggregates. It helps achieve a denser microstructure, reduced permeability and increased electrical
resistance (Gj∅rv 1995). Consequently, one of the most prominent applications of silica fume is in
corrosion protection of embedded steel reinforcement, where a dosage of 6 to 12% is recommended for
reinforced concrete structures subjected to chloride ions ingress (Whiting et al. 1989).

Corrosion inhibiting admixtures delay the onset of steel reinforcement corrosion and reduce deterioration
rates. There are different types of these admixtures based on their chemical and physical inhibition
mechanisms. Inorganic inhibitors, such as calcium nitrite-based inhibitors (CNI), block the corrosion

GC-186--1
reaction of chloride-ions by chemically reinforcing and stabilizing the passive protective film on the steel;
this ferric oxide film is a result of the high pH environment in concrete. The nitrite-ions cause the ferric
oxide layer to become more stable, thus shielding steel from direct contact with chloride ions (Berke and
Rosenberg 1989).

1.2. Rapid Chloride Penetrability Test (RCPT)

Several techniques have been employed, although some of which remain questionable, for the evaluation
and prediction of corrosion damage in reinforced concrete. These techniques include chemical analysis of
chlorides, rapid chloride penetrability test (RCPT), half-cell potential, ponding test, linear polarization,
resistivity, and radiography (Broomfield 1997). The RCPT is commonly used to evaluate the resistance of
concrete to chloride ion ingress implied by electrical conductivity. In the mid 1970s, because of the
extensive use of de-icing salts, the Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) was interested in evaluating
the ingress of chloride ions in the concrete cover towards steel reinforcement. Thereby, the Construction
Technology Laboratories of Skokie, Illinois had been assigned the task of developing an instrument that
gives a rapid indication for the resistance of concrete to the infiltration of chlorides. The original concept of
the RCPT depended on ionic mobility. Chloride ions are forced into concrete through the induction of an
external direct voltage on the concrete surface, and ionic mobility was calculated by:

x dE
[1] µ=
t dx

where: µ = Ionic mobility (cm2/V.s)

x = Distance (cm)
t = Time (s)
dE
= Electric field strength (V/cm)
dx
The results of this applied voltage method complied well with results of long-term immersion tests such as
the 90-day ponding test (AASHTO T 259) (Whiting et al. 1987). In a preliminary phase, it was concluded
that applying 80 V DC for 8 hours was effective in differentiating between low and high chloride ion
penetrability concrete. High currents and high temperatures accompanied extremely permeable samples,
and vise versa for low permeability samples (Whiting et al. 1992). In 1981, a final laboratory version of the
test was developed to indicate the chloride permeability class of concrete. In this test, a cylindrical plain
concrete specimen of approximately 100 mm in diameter and 50 mm in thickness is placed across 3%
sodium chloride and 0.3 N sodium hydroxide solutions for 6 hours, while applying 60 V DC. The samples
are preconditioned under vacuum for three hours and submerged in water for 18 hours for full saturation
before testing. The output of this apparatus is the total integrated current over time or charges passed in
Coulombs (Whiting et al. 1992). The test method was issued under AASHTO T 277-83 including a table
for determining the chloride permeability class (negligible, very low, low, moderate and high). This table
was prepared based on cores from slabs provided by the FHWA without considering the effect of cement
type, aggregate type, and density. Thus, it was recommended that users may construct their own tables
based on local materials tested by the RCPT (Whiting et al. 1987). In 1991, the RCPT was issued under
the ASTM C 1202, without major deviations from the AASHTO version (Whiting et al. 1992).

The RCPT spread widely since 1986 accompanying the extensive use of silica fume, particularly in bridge
overlays. Also, many concrete mixture design specifications use the RCPT passing charge levels of
concrete as a durability indicator (Whiting et al. 1992). However, the RCPT has been criticized for various
shortcomings including its bias to supplementary cementing materials such as silica fume and against CNI
(Hooton et al. 1997). Therefore, several researchers (Stanish et al. 2004, Shi 2004) questioned the
reliability and suitability of this test method to assess chloride ions penetrability into concrete. It was
suggested to adopt an alternative rapid migration test (RMT) developed by Tang and Nilsson (Tang et al.
1992) and issued under NT BUILD 492 (Nordic Standards).

GC-186--2
Basically, the RMT is similar to the RCPT in the sense that chloride ions are forced to migrate in concrete
by applying a strong electrical field (Tang et al. 1992). Under a specific direct voltage, a concrete disk of
100 mm in diameter and 50 mm in thickness is placed across 10% sodium chloride and 0.3 N sodium
hydroxide solutions for a certain time duration depending on the initial current. At the end of testing, the
specimen is axially split and sprayed with a silver nitrate solution to determine an average chloride
penetration depth from which a diffusion coefficient is calculated (Tang 1996). Contrary to RCPT results,
RMT results are insensitive to pore solution conductivity and less vulnerable to testing variations (Stanish
et al. 2004).

Due to the widespread use of the RCPT in North American laboratories, this study aims at enhancing the
reliability of this test method by obtaining an additional measurement (chloride penetration depth), which
better correlates to physical characteristics of the pore structure and in turn chloride penetrability. Hence,
the reliability of the RCPT could be improved by relying on multiple measurements that indicate both
permeability and conductivity.

2. EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAM

2.1. Materials

Seventeen concrete mixtures with water-to-cementitious materials ratio (w/cm) of 0.30, 0.45 and 0.60
were prepared incorporating selected materials that have been known to cause misleading RCPT results.
The mixtures were divided into two groups: the first group incorporated CSA Type 10 (ASTM Type I)
ordinary portland cement (OPC) and silica fume with and without CNI. The second group involved only
OPC with and without CNI.

Ordinary portland cement with a specific gravity of 3.17 and a specific surface area (Blaine Fineness) of
412 m2/kg was used. Densified silica fume with an average particle size of 0.1 µm, a specific surface area
of 19530 m2/kg and a specific gravity of 2.12 was used at 8% of the total cementitious content (400 kg/m3).
Natural siliceous sand was used with a fineness modulus of 2.80, a saturated surface dry specific gravity
of 2.65 and absorption of 1.5%. Crushed stone with a maximum nominal size of 19 mm, a saturated
surface dry specific gravity of 2.68 and absorption of 0.8% was used. An ASTM C 494 Type F high-range
water reducing admixture was used, and the dosage was adjusted to maintain a slump range of 160 to
190 mm. An inorganic corrosion inhibitor based on 30% solution of calcium nitrite (CNI) with a density of
1.26 kg/l was used at three dosages of 10, 20 and 30 l/m3.

2.2. Procedure

Constituent materials were mixed in a mechanical mixer in accordance with the ASTM C 192 standard
procedure. Table 1 shows the proportions of the tested mixtures. All specimens were demolded at 24
hours and moist cured at 23 °C and >95% RH for 27 days.

Concrete disks of 100 mm in diameter and 50 mm in thickness were sliced from the top portion of 100 mm
× 200 mm cylinders for the RCPT, simulating a concrete cover above the steel rebars level. Three
replicates were prepared for each mixture. Preconditioning of samples was done according to the ASTM C
1202 standard procedure. While the anolyte solution (NaOH) concentration was kept at 0.3 N as per the
ASTM C 1202 guidelines, the concentration of the catholyte solution (NaCl) was raised to 10% complying
with the RMT standard procedure (NT BUILD 492) to increase the likelihood of a visible chloride front.

According to the ASTM C 1202, a 60 V DC is applied for 6 hours or until high temperature of solutions is
observed. Comparatively, 6 hours is the minimum stated duration in the NT BUILD 492 Appendix 2
method, but at a low voltage of 10 V DC. The NT BUILD 492 varies the test duration with the induced
voltage based on the measured initial current. In this study, it was decided that applying 60 V DC for 6
hours would limit the test variables and abide by the ASTM C 1202 procedures. At the end of testing, the
specimens were axially split and sprayed with 0.1 M silver nitrate solution forming a white precipitate of
silver chloride after about 15 minutes. The chloride penetration depth for each specimen was determined

GC-186--3
by averaging the depth of the precipitate at a minimum of five different locations across the width of the
sample.

Table 1. Proportions of concrete mixtures (per cubic meter of concrete).

Mix ID Cement Silica w/cm Fine Coarse CNI
Content Fume Aggregate (kg) Aggregate (l)
(kg) (kg) (kg)
OPC-1 400 - 0.30 800 1150 -
OPC-2 400 - 0.45 740 1050 -
OPC-3 400 - 0.60 685 950 -
OPC-4 400 - 0.30 750 1150 20
OPC-5 400 - 0.45 695 1050 20
OPC-5A 400 - 0.45 720 1050 10
OPC-5B 400 - 0.45 670 1050 30
OPC-6 400 - 0.60 635 950 20
SF-1 368 32 0.30 790 1150 -
SF-2 368 32 0.45 730 1050 -
SF-2A 384 16 0.45 740 1050 -
SF-3 368 32 0.60 675 950 -
SF-4 368 32 0.30 740 1150 20
SF-5 368 32 0.45 680 1050 20
SF-5A 368 32 0.45 710 1050 10
SF-5B 368 32 0.45 650 1050 30
SF-6 368 32 0.60 620 950 20

For the mercury intrusion porosimetry (MIP) testing, small cores were carefully drilled out, to minimize
coarse aggregates inclusion, from the top portion of 100 mm × 200 mm cylinders in order to determine the
pore size distribution for the tested mixtures at 28 days. For each mixture, at least 5 samples were tested
to obtain statically representative average results with a standard deviation of less than ± 15% (Kumar et
al. 2003). Preconditioning of samples was done by oven drying at 60 ± 5 °C until a constant weight to
reduce the potential of drying shrinkage cracks associated with higher temperatures. The apparatus had a
pressure range from sub-ambient to 207 MPa. By assuming a cylindrical geometry of pores, a mercury
contact angle of 140° and surface tension of 0.484 N/m, the high pressure limit (207 MPa) yields a pore
radius of 3.6 nm, implying intrusion of all capillary pores since the smallest size of capillary pores reported
in literature is 5 nm (Kumar et al. 2003). Most of the gel pores cannot be intruded under such a pressure;
however, such pores have little, if any, contribution to mass transport mechanisms in concrete.

3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

3.1. Rapid Chloride Penetrability Test (RCPT)

The RCPT results at 28 days, shown in Figure 1, were adjusted according to the standard sample
diameter (95 mm) as per the ASTM C 1202 guidelines. The test continued for 6 hours or until solutions
reached the high temperature of 80 °C that was defined as an upper limit to avoid damage of cell

GC-186--4
compartments. Figure 1 shows that the ultimate recorded passing charges ranged from 1088 to 8662
Coulombs, which correspond to low and high chloride penetrability, respectively, according to the ASTM C
1202. However, the catholyte (NaCl solution) used herein had 10% concentration compared to a standard
concentration of 3%, which makes the ASTM C 1202 classes inapplicable to permeability categorization of
the tested specimens.

The type of cementitious materials had a pronounced effect on the passing charges for mixtures prepared
with and without CNI. For example, Figure 1 shows that recorded passing charges for silica fume mixtures
without CNI (SF-1, SF-2 and SF-3) had about 60% lower passing charges than that of the corresponding
OPC mixtures (OPC-1, OPC-2, OPC-3) at similar w/cm. Moreover, by comparing passing charges for
mixtures SF-3 prepared with 8% silica fume at w/cm of 0.6 and those for mixture SF-2A prepared with 4%
silica fume at w/cm of 0.45, it is shown that increasing the silica fume dosage reduced passing charges
despite the increase in w/cm. Since this is believed to be due to a reduction of pore solution conductance
induced by silica fume, the RCPT has been criticized for its bias to pozzolanic additives.

The impact of CNI addition on RCPT results is presented in Figure 1. It was observed that OPC and silica
fume mixtures prepared with w/cm of 0.45 and 0.60 and incorporating CNI experienced high temperature
rise, which affected the recorded results. All OPC and silica fume mixtures incorporating CNI had higher
passing charges than that of corresponding mixtures without CNI at similar w/cm. Interestingly, mixtures
OPC 5 and SF 5 prepared with 20 l/m3 of CNI at w/cm of 0.45 had the highest passing charges within the
OPC and silica fume mixtures, respectively. CNI adversely affects the electrical conductance of concrete
(Ozyildirim 1994), but it seems that there is a pessimum CNI and cementitious materials combination
depending on the w/cm. The distortion of RCPT results in the presence of CNI is already recognized in the
ASTM procedure, which indicates the unsuitability of the method for concrete mixtures incorporating CNI.

10000
OPC Mixtures SF Mixtures
9000

8000
Passing Charges (Coulombs)

7000

6000

5000

4000

3000

2000

1000

0
OPC OPC OPC OPC OPC OPC OPC OPC SF SF SF SF SF SF SF SF SF
1 2 3 4 5 5A 5B 6 1 2 2A 3 4 5 5A 5B 6

Figure 1. RCPT recorded results.

GC-186--5
3.2. Penetration Depth of Chlorides

At the end of the RCPT, the average penetration depth of chloride ions was determined, from which
chloride diffusion coefficients (migration coefficients) due to non-steady-state migration were calculated
(Table 2). The average penetration depth ranged from 4.95 to 42.23 mm, corresponding to migration
coefficients (D) ranging from 4.31 to 73.56×10-12 m2/s, which were calculated by (NT BUILD 492. 1999):

0.0239(273 + T ) L  (273 + T ) Lxd 


[2] D=  xd − 0.0238 
(V − 2)t  V −2 

where, D = Non-steady-state migration coefficient (×10-12 m2/s)

V = Applied voltage (V)
T = Average value of initial and final temperatures in the anolyte solution (°C)
L = Thickness of the specimen (mm)
xd = Average value of penetration depth (mm)
t = Time (h)

Table 2. Chloride penetrability results.

Mix ID Test Penetration Migration
Duration Depth Coefficient
(h) (mm) (×10-12 m2/s)
OPC-1 6.0 8 7.24
OPC-2 6.0 24 23.80
OPC-3 5.5 45 52.23
OPC-4 6.0 5 4.42
OPC-5 6.0 45 47.87
OPC-5A 6.0 39 40.96
OPC-5B 4.0 35 54.33
OPC-6 3.7 42 73.56
SF-1 6.0 5 4.46
SF-2 6.0 14 13.52
SF-2A 6.0 21 20.70
SF-3 6.0 26 25.86
SF-4 6.0 5 4.31
SF-5 6.0 17 17.29
SF-5A 6.0 21 20.47
SF-5B 6.0 28 28.80
SF-6 6.0 34 35.15

From Table 2, the impact of the w/cm on D abided by the well-documented trend without irregularities. For
all the OPC and silica fume mixtures prepared with and without CNI, D decreased with the reduction of
w/cm because of the denser microstructure. By comparing results for the silica fume mixtures and the
corresponding ones for OPC mixtures at similar w/cm, the addition of silica fume had a pronounced effect
on reducing D (an average of 43% reduction) due to the pozzolanic and filler effect that produce denser

GC-186--6
microstructure, and refined ITZ (Gj∅rv 1995). Evidence of the silica fume effect on microstructure is
depicted in Figure 2, which illustrates the chloride front for mixtures SF-2A and SF-2 tested under similar
conditions. At w/cm of 0.45, the increase of the silica fume dosage from 4 to 8% reduced the average
chloride penetration depth from 20.88 to 14.20 mm (32% reduction). It is worth noting that by visually
inspecting chloride fronts on split samples, reasonable qualitative assessment of chloride penetrability in
concrete can be obtained without conductivity biases induced by pore solution conductivity.

Penetration Depth

(a) (b)

Figure 2. Forced chloride fronts migrating into concrete prepared with: (a) 8% and (b) 4%
silica fume at w/cm of 0.45.

The addition of CNI to OPC mixtures led to higher D by a factor of up to 2.28 compared to that of the
corresponding OPC mixtures without CNI, except for mixture OPC-4 prepared with low w/cm of 0.30. A
similar trend for the influence of CNI on increasing chloride penetration was reported in the literature
(Pfeifer et al. 1987, Nmai et al. 1999). Increasing the CNI dosage from 10 to 30 l/m3 for the OPC mixtures
led to a moderate linear increase in D. Similar to the trend observed for OPC mixtures, the effect of CNI
addition on chloride ions penetration in silica fume mixtures led to a higher D by a factor of up to 2.17
compared to that of the corresponding silica fume mixtures without CNI, except for mixture SF-4 prepared
with low w/c of 0.3. Li et al. (1999) reported a similar increase in chloride diffusivity for cement pastes
prepared with fly ash and silica fume due to CNI addition (15 and 20 l/m3). A non-linear increase of D with
increasing w/cm was observed at a constant CNI dosage of 20 l/m3. This behaviour may be attributed to
the set accelerating effect induced by CNI on cement hydration, which may increase at higher CNI
dosage, resulting in a relatively less tortuous pore microstructure. Contrary to the pessimum behaviour
obtained by the RCPT passing charges, combining a CNI dosage of 20 l/m3 and w/cm of 0.45 (mixtures
OPC-5 and SF-5) did not give the highest D within the OPC and silica fume mixtures, respectively.

The above discussion implies that migrating chloride fronts obtained from the RCPT can be correlated to
physical characteristics of pore structure and are not significantly affected by pore solution chemistry.
Hence, unlike the RCPT passing charges, penetration depths can give better representation of chloride
ions penetrability in concrete.

3.3. Mercury Intrusion Porosimetry (MIP)

The pore size distribution according to cumulative mercury intrusion for all tested mixtures is presented in
Fig. 3a-d. Depending on the mixture composition, the cumulative mercury intrusion ranged from 0.035 to
0.098 cc/g. Figures 3a-d are in agreement with the chloride ions penetration depth measurements in the

GC-186--7
sense that a reduction of w/cm led to a decrease in cumulative mercury intrusion for the OPC and silica
fume mixtures.

In most cases, the pore size distribution of the silica fume mixtures was shifted to smaller pore sizes below
0.1 µm compared to that of the corresponding OPC mixtures, demonstrating the significant effect of silica
fume on pore size refinement. Interestingly, the pore size distribution of OPC mixtures prepared with CNI
at w/cm of 0.45 (OPC-5, OPC-5A, and OPC-5B) was slightly shifted to smaller pore sizes below 0.1 µm
compared to that of the corresponding silica fume mixtures (SF-5, SF-5A and SF-5B). Nonetheless, all
silica fume mixtures had lower cumulative intrusion than that of the corresponding OPC mixtures. This
suggests that the interaction between silica fume and CNI had a limited effect on total porosity.

0.12 0.12
OPC 1 OPC 4
OPC 2 OPC 5
0.1 0.1
Cumulative Intrusion (cc/g)

Cumulative Intrusion (cc/g)

OPC 3 OPC 5A
OPC 5B
0.08 0.08
OPC 6

0.06 0.06

0.04 0.04

0.02 0.02

0 0
0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000
µm)
Pore Diameter (µ µ)
Pore Diameter (mµ

(a) (b)

0.12 0.12
SF 1
SF 2 SF 4
0.1 0.1 SF 5
Cumulative Intrusion (cc/g)

SF 2A
SF 5A
Cumulative Intrusion (cc/g)

SF 3
0.08 SF 5B
0.08
SF 6

0.06 0.06

0.04 0.04

0.02 0.02

0 0
0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000
µ)
Pore Diameter (mµ µ)
Pore Diameter (mµ

(c) (d)

Figure 3. Pore size distribution of tested mixtures at 28 days: (a) OPC mixtures without CNI, (b) OPC
mixtures with CNI, (c) Silica fume mixtures without CNI, (d) Silica fume mixtures with CNI.

Unlike for the RCPT passing charge measurements, it seems that CNI addition affected the cumulative
mercury intrusion results marginally for both the OPC and silica fume mixtures. Complying with chloride
ions migration trends, at low w/cm (0.30), the CNI mixtures had slightly lower cumulative intrusion than

GC-186--8
that of the corresponding mixtures without CNI. However, at higher w/cm ratio (0.45 and 0.60), all of the
CNI mixtures had relatively higher cumulative intrusion than that of the corresponding mixtures without
CNI, except for mixture SF-5, which showed the highest passing charges within the silica fume mixtures.
The effect of varying the CNI dosage on the cumulative intrusion for the OPC mixtures at w/cm of 0.45
was insignificant since mixtures OPC-5, OPC-5A and OPC-5B had similar pore size distributions (Figure
3b). This implies that the moderate linear increase observed in the migration coefficients, associated with
increasing CNI dosage, may be due to increased capillary pore continuity rather than changes in total
porosity. This supports the argument that CNI has a set accelerating effect on cement hydration that may
increase the continuity of capillary pores, but does not necessarily lead to a coarser pore size distribution.
Hence, penetrability of chloride ions is relatively increased with the addition of CNI to concrete, which is in
agreement with previous research (Pfeifer et al. 1987, Nmai et al. 1999, Li et al. 1999).

4. CONCLUSIONS

Considering the materials, proportions and test methods implemented herein, the following conclusions
can be warranted:
• Multiple measurements can be successfully obtained from the RCPT: passing charges and
chloride migration coefficients.
• Passing charges are mainly influenced by pore solution conductivity, whereas, migration
coefficients are more dependent on the physical characteristics of the pore structure.
• The RCPT-ASTM C 1202 can both evaluate resistivity and chloride penetrability, which are chief
factors in the process of corrosion of embedded steel in reinforced concrete.
• When materials that affect pore solution chemistry (e.g. silica fume and CNI) are incorporated in
concrete, the chloride ion migration coefficient can still show reliable assessment for chloride
penetrability, and thus biases are eliminated in such cases, thereby improving the overall reliability
of the test method in indicating concrete quality.

5. REFERENCES

ASTM C 1202. (2000) Electrical Indication of Concrete’s Ability to Resist Chloride Ion Penetration, V. 4.02,
Annual Book of American Society for Testing Materials, Philadelphia, USA.
Bentur, A., Diamond, S., Berke, N. (1998) Steel Corrosion in Concrete. E & FN SPON, London.
Berke, N., and Rosenberg, A. (1989) Technical Review of Calcium Nitrite Corrosion Inhibitor in Concrete.
Transportation Research Record, 1211: 18-27.
Broomfield, J. (1997) Corrosion of Steel in Concrete. E & FN SPON, London, UK.
Gj∅rv, O.E. (1995) Effect of Condensed Silica Fume on Steel Corrosion in Concrete. ACI Materials
Journal, 92: 591-598.
Hooton, D., Pun, P., Kojuncdic, T., Fidjestol, P. (1997) Influence of Silica fume on Chloride Resistance of
Concrete. Proceedings of PCI/FHWA International Symposium on High Performance Concrete, New
Orleans, Louisiana, 1: 245-256.
Kumar, R., and Bhattacharjee, B. (2003) Porosity, Pore Size Distribution and In Situ Strength of Concrete.
Cement and Concrete Research, 33: 155-164.
Li, Z., Peng, J., Ma, B. (1999) Investigation of Chloride Diffusion for High-Performance Concrete
Containing Fly Ash, Microsilica and Chemical Admixtures. ACI Materials Journal, 96: 391-396.
Nmai, C., and McDonald, D. (1999) Long-Term Effectiveness of Corrosion-Inhibiting Admixtures and
Implications on the Design of Durable Reinforced Concrete. The Rule of Admixtures in High-
Performance Concrete, L. S. Johal, ed., RILEM, Monterrey, Mexico, 1-17.
NT BUILD 492. (1999) Chloride Migration Coefficient from Non-Steady-State Migration Experiments.
NORDTEST, Finland.

GC-186--9
 Ozyildirim, C. (1994) Rapid Chloride Permeability Testing of Silica-Fume Concrete. Cement, Concrete and
Aggregates, 16: 53-56.
Pfeifer, D., Landgren, R., Zoob, A. (1987) Protective Systems for New Prestressed and Substructure
Concrete. FHWA/RD-86/193, U.S. Department of Transportation, Federal Highway Administration.
Shi, C. (2004) Effect of Mixing Proportions of Concrete on its Electrical Conductivity and the Rapid
Chloride Permeability Test (ASTM C 1202 or AASHTO T 277) Results. Cement and Concrete
Research, 34: 537-545.
Stanish, K., Hooton, R., D., Thomas, M. D. A. (2004) A Novel Method for Describing Chloride Ion
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Concrete Research, 34: 51-57.
Tang, L., and Nilsson, L. (1992) Rapid Determination of the Chloride Diffusivity in Concrete by Applying an
Electric Field. ACI Materials Journal, 89: 49-53.
Tang, L. (1996) Electrically Accelerated Methods for Determining Chloride Diffusivity in Concrete-Current
Development. Magazine of Concrete Research, 48: 173-179.
Whiting, D., and Kuhlman, L. (1987) Curing and Chloride Permeability. Concrete International, 9: 18-21.
Whiting, D., and Dziedzic, W. (1989) Resistance to Chloride Infiltration of Superplasticised Concrete As
Compared with Currently Used Concrete Overlay Systems, FHWA/OH-89/009, U. S. Department of
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Record, 1335: 55-61.

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