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Sarah Neil

Professor Malcolm Campbell

UWRT 1103

257 November 2019

Police Militarization: Law Enforcement Officers or Community Soldiers?

This year, I attended a football game at Clemson University. As I approached the

stadium, I took note of the abundance of police officers,; especially those wearing SWAT gear

and holding high powered rifles. These officers had a tense and watchful presence compared to

their peers standing next to them in regular uniform. This scenario compares the appearance of

SWAT officers and patrol officers. encapsulates The intense presence caused by the actions and

tools used by SWAT officers introduces the concept of police militarization. According to the

Charles Koch Institute, police militarization is defined as the adoption of military equipment,

strategy, thinking, or culture by civilian police forces (Mosteller). In recent years, the appearance

of police officers has begun to shape how community members view and interact with law

enforcement.

Law enforcement agencies have acquired military- grade weapons and supplies through

the Department of Defense’s Excess Property Program 1103 (Mosteller). The 1103 program

grants lethal and non-lethal surplus military supplies to local and federal law enforcement

agencies (Katel). It can be argued that this program has led to the militarization of police forces

across America.

In the article, “Police Tactics: Has U.S. Law Enforcement Become Militarized” by Katel,

Mark Lomax, the executive director of the National Tactical Officers Association, argues that the

appearance of militarized police units has a negative effect on trust towards law enforcement
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(qtd. in Katel). The militant appearance of law enforcement officers can lead citizens to feel like

they are the enemy instead of fellow community members (Katel). ). Mark Lomax acknowledges

that police departments receive military supplies, and sometimes receive little- to- no training on

how or when to properly use them. (qtd. in Katel). The apathetic attitude towards proper training

can lead to the misuse of newly implemented equipment.

Are SWAT Teams Overused?

According to Frederic Lemieux, a criminologist at Georgetown University, SWAT team

presence has increased in everyday police operations (qtd. in Akpan). Lemieux explains that the

intended use of SWAT teams was to barricade armed suspects and face hostage situations (qtd.

in Akpan). It is common for police departments to explain their goals and reasoning for

deploying special operations teams. The Charlotte-Mecklenburg Police Department in North

Carolina defines SWAT as Special Weapons and Tactics team. The goal of the Charlotte

Mecklenburg Police Department’s SWAT team is to protect people in high risk situations using

specialized weaponry and skill to boost community confidence (“Special Weapons and Tactics

Team (S.W.A.T.)”). However, not all police departments across America increase community

confidence using their SWAT team’s presence.

In 2008, a Maryland SWAT team raided the home of Cheye Calvo that was supposedly

involved in a drug trafficking scheme (Akpan). After a 32-pound drug shipment was delivered to

the address, a SWAT team raided the home; they killed Calvo’s two dogs and interrogated him

and his wife on the scene (Akpan). Calvo and his wife were later found innocent in a court of

law. This event led to the implementation of a Maryland statute requiring state agencies to report

their SWAT team deployments (Akpan). The raid of Cheye Calvo’s home inspired Jonathan

Mummolo, a political scientist at Princeton University, to research the pros and cons of
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militarized policing and its effect on communities (qtd. in Akpan). Jonathan Mummolo is a

political scientist at Princeton University. Mummolo observes that the militant appearance of

police forces can diminish police-community relations, especially in communities of color.

Mummulo found that African American communities witnessed more SWAT team deployments

than areas with a predominately white population. Surprisingly, this was still the case in areas

with low crime rates (Mummolo). These findings may cause African American communities to

feel like they are subject to violent and militarized police response due to the unethical

stereotypes that were placed on their communities in the past.

The Use of Force Continuum

When considering the role of militarized police forces, it is important to understand the

use of force continuum. According to the National Institute of Justice, this sequence describes

escalating levels of force and action that officers can use in certain situations. For example, an

officer may decide to use verbal commands to gain compliance, but, if the situation escalates, the

officer may decide to pull out a taser to gain better control over a subject. The National Institute

of Justice explains that the mere presence of an officer in uniform can deter crime and diffuse

situations. Officer presence is listed as the lowest level of force an officer can inflict (“The Use-

of-Force Continuum”). If misused, this position of authority can be used to take advantage of

citizens and violate their rights. One example of the misuse of force would be an officer using

deadly force to stop a fleeing subject that is a low risk to the officer or public safety. If a law

enforcement officer in a traditional uniform has a forceful presence, an officer in militarized gear

is likely to have an even greater effect.

The Visual Effect of Police Uniforms

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Mummolo conducted a survey of 6,000 people regarding their support of increasing

funding for law enforcement after showing them two different images of police officers (qtd. in

Akpan). The first image shown to respondents was of an officer in standard uniform and the

other was of an officer who had a militant appearance. The survey found that the militant

appearance of police officers decreased the respondents support for law enforcement funding by

four percent (Akpan). However, the militarized police image had an increased effect on African

American respondents who showed a 21 percent decrease in support (Akpan). Mummolo

concluded that there was no overwhelming evidence that the use of SWAT teams lowered

violent crime rates or a decrease in the rate of officer deaths or assaults. Mummulo’s study

provided evidence that the militarization of police forces has begun to erode public trust. The use

of militarized police force threatens to increase tensions between police officers and their

community; this is especially true in African American communities, where trust in law

enforcement is already weakened by historical tensions (Mummulo).

In his article “Police Militarization in a Democratic Society”, published in the FBI Law Formatted: Font: Italic

Enforcement Bulletin, Dr. Jay Fortenbery explains that the modern distinction between police

officers and military personnel was influenced by the discontent colonists felt toward British

troops that took on policing roles in colonial America. Jay Fortenbery is a former police officer

and police chief who is currently an assistant professor of criminal justice at Elizabeth City State

University in North Carolina. When looking at the role of police officers, it is important to

consider the ideas of English Philosopher philosophy of Sir Robert Peel; that law enforcement

officials should be connectedintertwined with citizens and should enforce the law using the least

amount of force necessary (Fortenbery). Sir Robert Peel is referred to as the father of modern

policing for his Metropolitan Police Act of 1829 that helped shape modern policing in the United
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Kingdom. Fortenbery contradicts the finding and opinions of Mummolo by arguing that the

militarization of police departments tends to correlate with a community’s crime rate. The

militarization of police can be justified through the concept that certain geographical locations

face unique challenges and law enforcement agencies should be allowed to respond using

appropriate measures (Fortenbery).

Benefits and Responsibilities Associated with Police Militarization

An argument can be made in support of the militarization of police departments. Dr. Jay

Fortenbery explains that lawless individuals and groups have acquired increasingly lethal

weapons throughout time (Fortenbery). Therefore, law enforcement officials need advanced

equipment and training to address modern threats. Police equipment being modified to defend

against the threats of the time can be traced back to the 1920’s (Fortenbery). Police departments

began upgrading their weaponry in the 1920’s to face mobs and gangsters who had access to

high capacity weapons (Fortenbery). The trend continued throughout the 1960’s as police

departments began to implement the use of less lethal weapons, such as tear gas to disperse large

and violent crowds (Fortenbery). The use of SWAT teams expanded to numerous agencies

across America in the 1990’s during the War on Drugs (Fortenbery). Modern threats to society,

like terrorist threats and mass shootings, have sparked the adoption of assault rifles and military

techniques in modern policing (Fortenbery).

Although the use of advanced weapons and training can be justified, there is a level of

responsibility that must be acknowledged. Fortenbery warns readers that the overuse of

specialized force can lead community members to question the training of specialized officers

and the way officials interpret threat levels. The use of specialized force should be limited to

high-risk situations and scenarios where lives are on the line. Specialized force should not be
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used to increase officer safety against low risk subjects. make police officers appear intimidating

and less approachable. This can lead to a gap in communication between citizens and law

officials. Comparisons to the military can be illustrated by the rigorous fitness requirements and

high level of weapons training demanded of specialized police forces (Fortenbery). It is

important to understand that these qualifications can make law enforcement officials less aware

of the consequences of their actions and more likely to oppose demilitarization efforts

(Fortenbery).

Considerations for Law Enforcement Officials

Former chief of police Dr. Jay Fortenbery offers several considerations for law

enforcement agencies regarding the use of military resources. He explains that is important for

high- ranking law enforcement officials to consider how the overuse of militarized force can

counteract relationship building efforts. Many officers on foot patrol make a conscious effort to

get to know community members (Fortenbery). They do this by presenting themselves as

approachable and visible. Military gear can appear intimidating and cause community members

to keep their thoughts and actions to themselves.If community members notice that law

enforcement agencies are overusing specialized force, they may begin to question the intentions

of the department. This could lead community members to wonder if police departments place a

higher value on officer safety than the fair treatment of their communities.

It is important to consider the role of the Black Lives Matter and the Blue Llives Matter

movements when discussing police militarization and police-community relationships.

According to the class lesson plan intitled “Black Lives Matter: From Hashtag to Movement”,

published by the Anti-Defamation League, the Black Live Matter movement was formed after Formatted: Font: (Default) Times New Roman, 12 pt
Formatted: Font: Italic
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George Zimmerman fatally shot Trayvon Martin in July of 2013. Zimmerman was employed by

a local police department at the time of the shooting. Black Lives Matter began as a hashtag used

on social media to spark conversation and awareness. Black Lives Matter has evolved into a

movement with activists and protestors worldwide (“Black Lives Matter: From Hashtag to

Movement”). According to Frank Leon Roberts, who is an activist and author of several books

regarding the Black Lives Matter movement, the mission of the Black Lives Matter movement is

to challenge police corruption.

The Blue Lives Matter movement is sometimes considered the countermovement of

Black Lives Matter. According to the Washington Post article entitled “Blue lives’ do matter — Formatted: Font: Italic

that’s the problem” by race historian Matthew Guariglia, the movement was formed after

Louisiana became the first state to enact a “Blue Lives Matter” law that considered targeting an

individual because of their perceived or actual employment as a law enforcement officer as a

hate crime. The movement argues that police officers can adopt a unified identity, regardless of

race. This movement strives to protect the identities and interests of police officers while they are

on and off duty (Guariglia). Although the two movements often take opposing sides, they both

feel that members of their communities are undervalued (Stoughton).

Former police officer and law professor at the University of South Carolina, Seth

Stoughton, remains optimistic about police-community relations. Public distrust of the police can

lead to violent crime, resistance, and the rejection of information regarding high profile cases.

When police officers distrust their communities, the probability of officer misconduct, lowered

tolerance for minor infractionsactions, and the excessive use of force increases (Stoughton).

Stoughton believes, if military personnel serving in Iraq and Afghanistan can implement
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community policing strategies and experience positive outcomes, then it is possible for local law

enforcement agencies to do the same.

American police forces use community policing strategies to fight the War on Terror. According

to Dr. Stevan Weine, a professor of psychiatry at the University of Illinois at Chicago, radical

communities are often composed of immigrants and refugees from countries where police

officers were feared, causing citizens from these countries to naturally be apprehensive towards

police presence. Community policing strategies may help ease the resentment these community

members feel toward law enforcement. In the essay “How Local Law Enforcement Uses Formatted: Font: (Default) Times New Roman, 12 pt

Community Policing to Combat Terrorism”, Weine argues that outreach efforts should be

prioritized in communities that are at a high risk for terrorism recruitment. These efforts can ease

the fear of terrorist threats among all community members and encourage intelligence sharing

between citizens and law enforcement officials. Trust building exercises, civic engagement, and

educational efforts should be implemented in all communities at a high risk for terrorism

involvement to address all types of ideologically inspired violence (Weine). The editor’s note

explains that terrorism should be fought on the local level because terrorists who may appear as a

lone wolf can usually be traced back to a community with similar goals or targets.

Community Policing

Police militarization efforts can formulate distrust and disconnection within communities.

Community- building efforts from residents and officers can help minimize the repercussions of

police militarization. In the academic article “Assessing the Relationship Between Police-

Community Coproduction and Neighborhood-Level Social Capital”,According to Jason Scott

explains that, the implementation of community policing ideals is one method that law
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enforcement can use to build a connection to the people they serve (Scott). Scott holds multiple Formatted: Font color: Auto

degrees in criminal justice from the University at Albany and has conducted research studies on

community policing, social capitalcapital, and the criminal justice system. According to the

publication “Community Policing Defined”, community policing is a philosophy that encourages

community partnerships, collaboration, and interaction with law enforcement agencies to

respond to public safety issues and prevent crime.

Two main components of community policing are an openness to organizational change Formatted: Indent: First line: 0.5"

and the role of community members in problem solving efforts (Scott). The collaborative aspect

of community policing can enhance communication among residents, increase the level of trust

and dependence among fellow citizens, and foster the willingness to assist in solving community

issues (Scott). This sense of community may also make it easier for police departments to initiate

coproduction efforts. For example, the New Brighton Department of Public Safety in Minnesota

created a program called Neighborhood Oriented Policing (NOP). The program connects patrol

officers to citizens living in different geographic locations throughout their jurisdiction. The

officers form relations with community members and form neighborhood watch blocks.

Neighborhood watch blocks are groups of citizens that work with law enforcement to reduce

crime. These groups openly share information with law enforcement to make their

neighborhoods safer. The New Brighton Department of Public Safety in Minnesota has seen

crime rates reach a record low thanks to increased community participation through the NOP

program (“Success Story: New Brighton, Minnesota, Neighborhood Oriented Policing”). Formatted: Font color: Dark Gray, Pattern: Clear
(White)
Jason D. Scott’s 2002 study on police-community coproduction and social capital found

that residents play an important role in problem solving and crime prevention efforts in

communities where police and residents collaborate. Scott defines social capital as connections
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formed through communication, shared values, and expectations that allow a group to socially

advance. Scott shared his findings in the article entitled “Assessing the Relationship Between

Police-Community Coproduction and Neighborhood-Level Social Capital”. Scott defines

coproduction as the involvement of citizens in the creation of public policy and their input on

decisions made by public service departments. Residents can provide information that a police

officer may not be able to discover on their own (Scott). Residents can also provide leads based

on personal experience and background knowledge,; two things police officers don’tdo not

necessarily have coming into a case cold (Scott). Scott found that residents also play a key role in

communities where the police is perceived as easily accessible. This academic articlejournal

provides useful insight through the lens of academia. It is important to consider the thoughts and

opinions of academics because they tend to hold different views than those who are directly

involved in police work.

My Initial InspirationReflection and Conclusion

As a child, I had multiple positive interactions with police officers in my hometown

Belmont, North Carolina. There was always a police presence at major community events and

fundraisers, but they were usually handing out free stickers and letting kids look at the squad

cars. While the kids were exploring, parents and other adults usually engaged in brief casual

conversation with the officers in attendance. This vivid memory inspired me to consider

variables that aeffect police-community relations. I wasn’twas not exposed to police officers

taking a militant appearance until I began attending major sporting events in Charlotte, North

Carolina and other surrounding areas. Seeing officers holding large high-power rifles while
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standing in front of armored vehicles was a new concept for me to grasp. As an aspiring member

of law enforcement, it was important for me to remain open minded to views that criticize or

oppose law enforcement operations. I found it easy to remain impartial by focusing on works

published by credible authors and publishers opposed to emotionally charged and one-sided

arguments.

The Future Effects of Technology Formatted: Font: Bold

Formatted: Indent: First line: 0"
As an aspiring member of law enforcement, it was important for me to remain open

minded to views that criticize or oppose law enforcement operations. I found it easy to remain

impartial by focusing on works published by credible authors and publishers; opposed to

emotionally charged and one-sided arguments. In the future, Iit will become important to

consider the long termlong-term eaffects of technology and social media on the formation of

opinion. Social media has allowed the harsh truth behind issues likeof police militarization to

surface. It is important for viewers to understand the context of the photos they see posted on

social media. Although pictures can bring social issues the attention it needs, these images can

also be taken out of context. Powerful images regarding police militarization and broken

community bonds are often taken at protests. Although these images show confrontation between

officers and citizens, they do not always portray what the protest is about or what the

wrongdoing was. Because of this, it is important for Americans in the 21st century to have the

ability to evaluate the context, purpose, and meaning of images they encounter on social media.

Most image’s capture only one side of a story. One image that surfaced from a Charlotte police

riot in 2016 shows law enforcement officers throwing tear gas to disperse a large crowd

(Domonoske). These images have the power to take over social media in a short amount of time.

An image of a police officer throwing tear gas at a large and violent crowd would probably
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spread to a larger audience faster than a written report of the event. It will be interesting to see

how future technological advancements transform policing and the way community members

view law enforcement officials.role of officers in their communities.

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Works Cited

Akpan, Nsikan. “Police Militarization Fails to Protect Officers and Targets Black Communities, Formatted: Space After: 0 pt

Study Finds.” PBS News Hour, Public Broadcasting Service, 21 Aug. 2018,

www.pbs.org/newshour/science/police-militarization-fails-to-protect-officers-and-targets- Field Code Changed

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black-communities-study-finds. Accessed 14 Oct. 2019.

“Black Lives Matter: From Hashtag to Movement.” Anti-Defamation League, 2019,

https://www.adl.org/education/educator-resources/lesson-plans/black-lives-matter-from- Formatted: Font: (Default) Times New Roman, 12 pt

hashtag-to-movement. Accessed 22 Nov. 2019.

“Community Policing Defined.” Bureau of Justice Assistance, U.S. Department of Justice, 2014,

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Domonoske, Camila. “After Fatal Police Shooting, Protest Erupts In Charlotte, N.C.” National Formatted: Space After: 0 pt, Add space between
paragraphs of the same style
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Fortenbery, Jay. “Police Militarization in a Democratic Society.” FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin,

FBI Training Division, 13 June 2018, leb.fbi.gov/articles/featured-articles/police-

militarization-in-a-democratic-society. Accessed 14 Oct. 2019.

Guaruglia, Matthew. “‘Blue Lives’ Do Matter — That’s the Problem.” The Washington Post, 30

Nov. 2017, https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/made-by- Formatted: Font: (Default) Times New Roman, 12 pt

history/wp/2017/11/30/why-blue-lives-matter/. Accessed 22 Nov. 2019. Formatted: Font color: Auto

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Formatted: Add space between paragraphs of the

same style
Katel, Peter. “Police Tactics: Has U.S. Law Enforcement Become Militarized?” CQ Researcher, Formatted: Space After: 0 pt

vol. 24, no. 44, 12 Dec. 2014, http://library.cqpress.com.eu1.proxy.openathens.net/

cqresearcher/document.php?id=cqresrre2014121200&type=hitlist&num=1. Accessed 4

Nov. 2019.

Mosteller, Jeremiah. “Militarization of Police.” Charles Koch Institute, 2019,

https://www.charleskochinstitute.org/issue-areas/criminal-justice-policing-

reform/militarization-of-police/. Accessed 31 Oct. 2019.

Mummolo, Jonathan. “Militarization Ffails to Eenhance Ppolice Ssafety or Rreduce Ccrime but

Mmay Hharm Ppolice Rreputation.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of

the United States of America, vol. 115, no.37, 11 Sep. 2018, pp. 9181-9186.

https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1805161115. Accessed 3 Nov. 2019.

Roberts, Frank L. “How Black Lives Matter Changed the Way Americans Fight for Freedom.” Formatted: Space After: 0 pt, Add space between
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justice/race-and-criminal-justice/how-black-lives-matter-changed-way-americans-fight.

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Neighborhood-Level Social Capital.” Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice, vol. 18,

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Accessed 3 Nov. 2019.

“Special Weapons and Tactics Team (S.W.A.T.).” Charlotte-Mecklenburg Police Department,

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SWAT.aspx. Accessed 3 Nov. 2019.

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Stoughton, Seth. “Is the Police-Community Relationship in America Beyond Repair?” The Formatted: Space After: 0 pt

Washington Post, 8 July 2019. https://www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/is-the-police-

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community-policing-combat-terrorism. Accessed 24 Nov. 2019.

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