The cell theory, or cell doctrine, states that all organisms are composed of similar units of organization, called

cells.
The concept was formally articulated in 1839 by Schleiden & Schwann and has remained as the foundation of
modern biology. The idea predates other great paradigms of biology including Darwin’s theory of evolution (1859),
Mendel’s laws of inheritance (1865), and the establishment of comparative biochemistry (1940).
First Cells Seen in Cork
While the invention of the telescope made the Cosmos accessible to human observation, the microsope opened up
smaller worlds, showing what living forms were composed of. The cell was first discovered and named by Robert
Hooke in 1665. He remarked that it looked strangely similar to cellula or small rooms which monks inhabited, thus
deriving the name. However what Hooke actually saw was the dead cell walls of plant cells (cork) as it appeared
under the microscope. Hooke’s description of these cells was published in Micrographia. The cell walls observed by
Hooke gave no indication of the nucleus and other organelles found in most living cells. The first man to witness a
live cell under a microscope was Anton van Leeuwenhoek, who in 1674 described the algae Spirogyra. Van
Leeuwenhoek probably also saw bacteria.
Formulation of the Cell Theory
In 1838, Theodor Schwann and Matthias Schleiden were enjoying after-dinner coffee and talking about their studies
on cells. It has been suggested that when Schwann heard Schleiden describe plant cells with nuclei, he was struck by
the similarity of these plant cells to cells he had observed in animal tissues. The two scientists went immediately to
Schwann’s lab to look at his slides. Schwann published his book on animal and plant cells (Schwann 1839) the next
year, a treatise devoid of acknowledgments of anyone else’s contribution, including that of Schleiden (1838). He
summarized his observations into three conclusions about cells:

1. The cell is the unit of structure, physiology, and organization in living things.
2. The cell retains a dual existence as a distinct entity and a building block in the construction of organisms.
3. Cells form by free-cell formation, similar to the formation of crystals (spontaneous generation).

We know today that the first two tenets are correct, but the third is clearly wrong. The correct interpretation of cell
formation by division was finally promoted by others and formally enunciated in Rudolph Virchow’s powerful
dictum, Omnis cellula e cellula,: “All cells only arise from pre-existing cells”.
Modern Cell Theory

1. All known living things are made up of cells.

2. The cell is structural & functional unit of all living things.
3. All cells come from pre-existing cells by division. (Spontaneous Generation does not occur).
4. Cells contain hereditary information which is passed from cell to cell during cell division.
5. All cells are basically the same in chemical composition.
6. All energy flow (metabolism & biochemistry) of life occurs within cells.

As with the rapid growth of molecular biology in the mid-20th century, cell biology research exploded in the 1950’s.
It became possible to maintain, grow, and manipulate cells outside of living organisms. The first continuous cell line
to be so cultured was in 1951 by George Otto Gey and coworkers, derived from cervical cancer cells taken from
Henrietta Lacks, who died from her cancer in 1951. The cell line, which was eventually referred to as HeLa cells, have
been the watershed in studying cell biology in the way that the structure of DNA was the significant breakthrough of
molecular biology.
In an avalanche of progress in the study of cells, the coming decade included the characterization of the minimal
media requirements for cells and development of sterile cell culture techniques. It was also aided by the prior
advances in electron microscopy, and later advances such as development of transfection methods, discovery of
green fluorescent protein in jellyfish, and discovery of small interfering RNA (siRNA), among others.
A Timeline
1595 – Jansen credited with 1st compound microscope
1655 – Hooke described ‘cells’ in cork.
1674 – Leeuwenhoek discovered protozoa. He saw bacteria some 9 years later.
1833 – Brown descibed the cell nucleus in cells of the orchid.
1838 – Schleiden and Schwann proposed cell theory.
1840 – Albrecht von Roelliker realized that sperm cells and egg cells are also cells.
1856 – N. Pringsheim observed how a sperm cell penetrated an egg cell.
1858 – Rudolf Virchow (physician, pathologist and anthropologist) expounds his famous conclusion: omnis cellula e
cellula, that is cells develop only from existing cells [cells come from preexisting cells]
1857 – Kolliker described mitochondria.
1879 – Flemming described chromosome behavior during mitosis.
1883 – Germ cells are haploid, chromosome theory of heredity.
1898 – Golgi described the golgi apparatus.
1938 – Behrens used differential centrifugation to separate nuclei from cytoplasm.
1939 – Siemens produced the first commercial transmission electron microscope.
1952 – Gey and coworkers established a continuous human cell line.
1955 – Eagle systematically defined the nutritional needs of animal cells in culture.
1957 – Meselson, Stahl and Vinograd developed density gradient centrifugation in cesium chloride solutions for
separating nucleic acids.
1965 – Ham introduced a defined serum-free medium. Cambridge Instruments produced the first commercial
scanning electron microscope.
1976 – Sato and colleagues publish papers showing that different cell lines require different mixtures of hormones
and growth factors in serum-free media.
1981 – Transgenic mice and fruit flies are produced. Mouse embryonic stem cell line established.
1995 – Tsien identifies mutant of GFP with enhanced spectral properties
1998 – Mice are cloned from somatic cells.
1999 – Hamilton and Baulcombe discover siRNA as part of post-transcriptional gene silencing (PTGS) in plants
cell theory is the historic scientific theory, now universally accepted, that living organisms are made up of cells, that
they are the basic structural/organizational unit of all organisms, and that all cells come from pre-existing cells.

THE THREE MAIN COMPONENTS OF ANY PLANT OR ANIMAL CELL ARE:

1. PLASMA MEMBRANE/ CELL MEMBRANE

Structure- a bilipid membraneous layer composed of proteins and carbohydrates. It is fluid like.

Function - the cell membrane separates the cell from its external environment, and is selectively permeable (controls
what gets in and out). It protects the cell and provides stability.

Proteins are found embedded within the plasma membrane, with some extending all the way through in order to
transport materials.

Carbohydrates are attached to proteins and lipids on the outer lipid layer.

2. CYTOPLASM

Structure - The jelly-like substance composed of mainly water and found between the cell membrane and
nucleus. The cytoplasm makes up most of the "body" of a cell and is constantly streaming.

Function - Organelles are found here and substances like salts may be dissolved in the cytoplasm.

3. NUCLEUS

Structure - The largest organelle in the cell. It is dark and round, and is surrounded by a double membrane called
the nuclear envelope/membrane. In spots the nuclear envelope fuses to form pores which are selectively
permeable. The nucleus contains genetic information (DNA) on special strands called chromosomes.

Function - The nucleus is the "control center" of the cell, for cell metabolism and reproduction.

THE FOLLOWING ORGANELLES ARE FOUND IN BOTH PLANT AND ANIMAL CELLS.
1. "ER" OR ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM

The Endoplasmic Reticulum is a network of membranous canals filled with fluid. They carry materials throughout
the cell. The ER is the "transport system" of the cell.

There are two types of ER: rough ER and smooth ER.

Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum is lined with ribosomes and is rough in appearance and smooth endoplasmic
reticulum contains no ribosomes and is smooth in appearance.

2. RIBOSOMES

Ribosomes are small particles which are found individually in the cytoplasm and also line the membranes of the
rough endoplasmic reticulum. Ribosomes produce protein. They could be thought of as "factories" in the cell.

3. GOLGI BODY / APPARATUS

Golgi bodies are stacks of flattened membranous stacks (they look like pancakes!). The Golgi Body temporarily
stores protein which can then leave the cell via vesiciles pinching off from the Golgi.

4. LYSOSOMES

Lysosomes are small sac-like structures surrounded by a single membrane and containing strong digestive enzymes
which when released can break down worn out organelles or food. The lysosome is also known as a suicide sac.

5. MITOCHONDRIA

The mitochondria are round "tube-like" organelles that are surrounded by a double membrane, with the inner
membrane being highly folded. The mitochondria are often referred to as the "powerhouse" of the cell. The
mitochondria release food energy from food molecules to be used by the cell. This process is called
respiration. Some cells (muscle cells) require more energy than other cells and so would have many more
mitochondria.

6. VACUOLES

Vacuoles are fluid filled organelles enclosed by a membrane. They can store materials such as food, water, sugar,
minerals and waste products.

1) All organisms are made up of one or more cells and the products of those cells.

2) All cells carry out life activities (require energy, grow, have a limited size).

3) New cells arise only from other living cells by the process of cell division.

Plant cells are eukaryotic cells present in green plants, photosynthetic eukaryotes of the kingdom Plantae.

A generalized plant cell type, parenchyma cells are alive at maturity. They function in storage, photosynthesis, and
as the bulk of ground and vascular tissues.

Sclerenchyma, in plants, support tissue composed of any of various kinds of hard woody cells.

Collenchyma cells are elongated cells with irregularly thick cell walls that provide support and structure. Their
thick cell walls are composed of the compounds cellulose and pectin. These cells are often found under the
epidermis, or the outer layer of cells in young stems and in leaf veins.
The most distinctive xylem cells are the long tracheary elements that transport water. Tracheids and vessel elements
are distinguished by their shape; vessel elements are shorter, and are connected together into long tubes that are
called vessels. Xylem also contains two other cell types: parenchyma and fibers.

Phloem, also called bast, tissues in plants that conduct foods made in the leaves to all other parts of the
plant. Phloem is composed of various specialized cells called sieve tubes, companion cells, phloem fibres,
and phloem parenchyma cells.

Animal cells are typical of the eukaryotic cell, enclosed by a plasma membrane and containing a membrane-bound
nucleus and organelles.

Glands can be single epithelial cells, such as the goblet cells that line the intestine. Multicellular glands include the
endocrine glands. Many animals have their skin composed of epithelium.

Chloroplasts are organelles found in plant cells and eukaryotic algae that conduct photosynthesis.
Chloroplasts absorb sunlight and use it in conjunction with water and carbon dioxide gas to produce food for the
plant.
They are the most important organelle in plant cell. First of all, they are only present in plant cells, and only
green plants at that. Also, they require sunlight to function, as their main purpose is to convert light energy into
chemical energy.

Why chloroplasts are found in plant cell?

Chloroplasts are found only in plant cells because they contain a green pigment called chlorophyll. This
green pigment is important for photosynthesis in green plants. This chlorophyll pigment traps solar energy and
utilises it to manufacture food for the plant.

Chlorophyll (C55H72O5N4Mg) is a green photosynthetic pigment found in plants, algae, and

cyanobacteria. Chlorophyll absorbs mostly in the blue and to lesser extent red portions of the electromagnetic
spectrum, hence its intense green colour.

What is the purpose of chlorophyll?

Chlorophyll is vital for photosynthesis, which allows plants to absorb energy from
light. Chlorophyll molecules are arranged in and around photosystems that are embedded in the thylakoid
membranes of chloroplasts. In these complexes, chlorophyll serves three functions.

What is the most important function of chlorophyll?

In addition to giving plants their green color, chlorophyll is vital for photosynthesis as it helps to channel the
energy of sunlight into chemical energy. With photosynthesis, chlorophyll absorbs energy and then transforms
water and carbon dioxide into oxygen and carbohydrates.

DNA or deoxyribonucleic acid is a long molecule that contains our unique genetic code. Like a recipe book it
holds the instructions for making all the proteins in our bodies. Your genome? is made of a chemical called
deoxyribonucleic acid, or DNA for short.
The sequence of the nucleotides along the backbone encodes genetic information. The four roles DNA plays
are replication, encoding information, mutation/recombination and gene expression.

Ribonucleic acid (RNA) is a polymeric molecule essential in various biological roles in coding, decoding,
regulation and expression of genes. RNA and DNA are nucleic acids, and, along with lipids, proteins and
carbohydrates, constitute the four major macromolecules essential for all known forms of life.
The main function of RNA is to carry information of amino acid sequence from the genes to where proteins
are assembled on ribosomes in the cytoplasm. This is done by messenger RNA (mRNA). A single strand of DNA is the
blueprint for the mRNA which is transcribed from that DNA strand.

What is the difference between DNA and RNA?

DNA is a double-stranded molecule while RNA is a single-stranded molecule. ... DNA and RNA base pairing is
slightly different since DNA uses the bases adenine, thymine, cytosine, and guanine; RNA uses adenine, uracil,
cytosine, and guanine. Uracil differs from thymine in that it lacks a methyl group on its ring.

Main Function of DNA and RNA

DNA and RNA perform different functions in humans. DNA is responsible for storing and transferring genetic
information while RNA directly codes for amino acids and as acts as a messenger between DNA and ribosomes to
make proteins

Why is RNA a single strand?

DNA and RNA are both nucleic acids. They Both are genetic material in different organisms (eukaryotes and
prokaryotes). In genetic evolution DNA is found to be more stable because of double stranded nature
whereas RNA is single stranded due to its function of forming protein. One RNA codes for single type of protein.

Why is DNA so important?

DNA is vital for all living beings – even plants. It is important for inheritance, coding for proteins and the
genetic instruction guide for life and its processes. DNA holds the instructions for an organism's or each cell's
development and reproduction and ultimately death.

There are two main functions of centrioles that we will focus on. The main function of the centriole is to help with
cell division in animal cells. The centrioles help in the formation of the spindle fibers that separate the chromosomes
during cell division (mitosis).

Centrioles are an organelle inside animal cells that are made of microtubules and are involved in cilia, flagella and
cell division. Centrosomes are made of a pair of centrioles and other proteins. The centrosomes are important for
cell division and produce microtubules that separate DNA into two new, identical cells.

Every animal-like cell has two small organelles called centrioles. They are there to help the cell when it comes time
to divide. They are put to work in both the process of mitosis and the process of meiosis. You will usually find them
near the nucleus but they cannot be seen when the cell is not dividing.

Mitosis is a cell division that occurs in animal cells where each mother cell divides into 2 daughter cells. The
number of chromosomes in the mother cell is identical to that in each resulting daughter cell. This is why mitosis is
sometimes called an ” Identical Reproduction of Cells”

Mitosis, although a continuous process, is conventionally divided into five stages: prophase, prometaphase,
metaphase, anaphase and telophase.
Prophase is the first phase of mitosis, the process that separates the duplicated genetic material carried in
the nucleus of a parent cell into two identical daughter cells. During prophase, the complex of DNA and proteins
contained in the nucleus, known as chromatin, condenses.
Prometaphase is the second phase of mitosis, the process that separates the duplicated genetic material
carried in the nucleus of a parent cell into two identical daughter cells. During prometaphase, the physical barrier
that encloses the nucleus, called the nuclear envelope, breaks down.
Metaphase is the third phase of mitosis, the process that separates duplicated genetic material carried in
the nucleus of a parent cell into two identical daughter cells. During metaphase, the cell's chromosomes align
themselves in the middle of the cell through a type of cellular "tug of war."
Anaphase is the stage of mitosis after the metaphase, when replicated chromosomes are split and the
newly-copied chromosomes are moved to opposite poles of the cell. Chromosomes also reach their overall
maximum condensation in late anaphase, to help chromosome segregation and the re-formation of the nucleus.
Telophase is the fifth and final phase of mitosis, the process that separates the duplicated genetic material
carried in the nucleus of a parent cell into two identical daughter cells. Telophase begins once the replicated, paired
chromosomes have been separated and pulled to opposite sides, or poles, of the cell.
 Meiosis is a special type of cell division that reduces the chromosome number by half, creating four haploid
cells, each genetically distinct from the parent cell that gave rise to them. This process occurs in all sexually
reproducing single-celled and multicellular eukaryotes, including animals, plants, and fungi.

Main difference between mitosis and meiosis

Mitosis gives two nuclei, and hence two cells, while meiosis gives four. Mitosis gives identical cells to each
other and to the mother cell, while meiosis leads to genetic variation due to crossing over and independent
assortment.
Mitosis consists of one stage whereas meiosis consists of two stages. Mitosis produces diploid cells (46
chromosomes) whereas meiosis produces haploid cells (23 chromosomes). Mitosis produces two identical daughter
cells whereas meiosis produces four genetically different daughter cells.
Mitosis consists of five stages, while meiosis has ten phases that are then followed by cell
division. ... Mitosis is marked by two daughter cells that are genetically identical to the parent cell. Meiosis has four
daughter cells, each of which has half the number of chromosomes

A diploid cell is a cell that contains two sets of chromosomes. This is double the haploid chromosome
number. Each pair of chromosomes in a diploid cell is considered to be one homologous chromosome set.
Haploid describes a cell that contains a single set of chromosomes. The term haploid can also refer to the
number of chromosomes in egg or sperm cells, which are also called gametes. In humans, gametes are haploid
cells that contain 23 chromosomes, each of which a one of a chromosome pair that exists in diploid cells.

Difference between haploid and diploid

The main difference between haploid cells and diploid cells is diploid cells have two complete sets of
chromosomes, while haploid cells only have one complete set of chromosomes. ... A haploid number is the amount
of chromosomes inside the nucleus of one chromosomal set.

A chromosome is a deoxyribonucleic acid molecule with part or all of the genetic material of an organism.
Most eukaryotic chromosomes include packaging proteins which, aided by chaperone proteins, bind to and
condense the DNA molecule to prevent it from becoming an unmanageable tangle.
The chromosomes of a cell are in the cell nucleus. They carry the genetic information. Chromosomes are
made up of DNA and protein combined as chromatin. Each chromosome contains many genes. ... When they
duplicate, chromosomes look like the letter "X".
There are four main types of chromosomes: metacentric, submetacentric, acrocentric, and telocentric.
For example, one chromosome may contain information on eye color and height while
another chromosome may determine blood type. Genes. Within each chromosome are specific sections of DNA
called genes. Each gene contains the code or recipe to make a specific protein.

A gene is the basic physical and functional unit of heredity. Genes are made up of DNA. Some genes act as
instructions to make molecules called proteins. However, many genes do not code for proteins. In
humans, genes vary in size from a few hundred DNA bases to more than 2 million bases
Gametes are an organism's reproductive cells. They are also referred to as sex cells. Female gametes are
called ova or egg cells, and male gametes are called sperm. Gametes are haploid cells, and each cell carries only one
copy of each chromosome.
A zygote is the union of the sperm cell and the egg cell. Also known as a fertilized ovum, the zygote begins as
a single cell but divides rapidly in the days following fertilization. After this two-week period of cell division,
the zygote eventually becomes an embryo.
In the fields of molecular biology and genetics, a genome is the genetic material of an organism. It consists of
DNA. The genome includes both the genes and the noncoding DNA, as well as mitochondrial DNA and chloroplast
DNA. The study of the genome is called genomics.
DNA is the molecule that is the hereditary material in all living cells. Genes are made of DNA, and so is
the genome itself. A gene consists of enough DNA to code for one protein, and a genome is simply the sum total of
an organism's DNA.