energies

Article
New Method for Calculating the Heating of
the Conductor
Žiga Voršič 1, *, Robert Maruša 2 and Jože Pihler 3
1 SODO d.o.o., Minařikova ulica 5, SI-2000 Maribor, Slovenia
2 ELES d.o.o., Hajdrihova 2, SI-1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
3 Faculty of Electrical Engineering, University of Maribor, Smetanova 17, SI-2000 Maribor, Slovenia
* Correspondence: ziga.vorsic@sodo.si; Tel.: +00386-08-2001-708




Received: 17 June 2019; Accepted: 11 July 2019; Published: 18 July 2019


Abstract: The paper describes the core heating of ACSR (aluminum conductor steel—reinforced)
conductor in stable operation under different environmental conditions. The calculations are greatly
simplified in a steady state—we can calculate on a balance of power instead of a balance of energies.
At a known surface, the temperature of the conductor due to solar radiation, natural convection,
and joules heating as well as the temperature of the steel core were calculated, which is relevant for
the tensile strength of the rope. Measurements of the surface of the conductor and the core rejected
a simple model of heat transfer—it is also necessary to take into account empty air spaces between
the wires of a rope. On the basis of measurements, a new model has given satisfactory compliance
with the measured values.

Keywords: conductor; ACSR rope; mathematical model; temperature; temperature gradient;

calculation; measurements

1. Introduction
In the design of distribution and transmission networks the choice of cross-section affects several
factors such as a voltage drop, a power loss, stability, and protection. The temperature rise [1] of the
conductors above the ambient temperature is important. It is necessary to know the largest continuous
current of the conductor, since it determines the maximum allowed temperature of the conductor.
The temperature of the conductor affects the sag of the conductor between the pillars and determines
the change in the tensile strength due to heating [2–5].
In calculating the load capacity of the conductors, attention must be paid primarily to the
mechanical properties depending on the temperature [6–8].
Three temperatures are important: Joule heating [9] depends on the average conductor temperature,
and natural convection [10] and radiation depend on the surface temperature of the conductor [11–13].
The change in the tensile strength in the first approximation depends on the temperature of the strands
of the rope in the middle of the conductor.
In the articles [14–16], a sensitivity analysis was performed based on operating conditions (wind,
solar, current) [14–16] and on the IEEE standard [17] for calculating the temperature of the conductor.
In the article [13], a current is determined based on the calculation and measurement of the average
temperature of the conductor [18].
It was also emphasized that, under exceptional conditions, the thermal creep and the loss of
tensile strength of the conductor must be taken into account [15,19–21].
In this paper, a new method for calculating the warming of overhead lines (Al/Fe conductors)
is presented.

Energies 2019, 12, 2769; doi:10.3390/en12142769 www.mdpi.com/journal/energies

 Energies2019,
Energies 12,x 2769
2019,12, FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of1514
2 of

Despite a good contact between the individual layers of aluminum, which is ensured at the time
Despite a good
of manufacture, therecontact
is a great between
deal of the individual
influence layers
between theofempty
aluminum,
spaceswhich
betweenis ensured
the wires.at the time
If they
of manufacture, there is a great deal of influence between the empty
are ignored, the rope has almost the same (thermal) properties as a homogeneous conductor, and the spaces between the wires. If they
are ignored,in
temperature thethe
ropeaxis hasis almost
almostthe equalsame to (thermal) properties
the temperature on as
thea surface.
homogeneous conductor,
Considering and the
the empty
temperature in the axis is almost equal to the temperature on the
spaces between the wires, the thermal conductivity is about a hundred times smaller. The differencessurface. Considering the empty
spaces between the wires, the thermal conductivity
between the surface and center temperatures are also greater. is about a hundred times smaller. The differences
between
The newthe surface
method,and whichcenter temperatures
results from theare also greater.
surface temperature of the conductor and takes into
The new method, which results
account the empty spaces between the wires, was confirmed from the surface temperature of the conductor and takes into
by measurements.
account
In thethe empty
paper, spaces between
individual influencing the wires,
factorswas confirmed
on the conductor by measurements.
are shown, consequently indicating
In the paper, individual influencing factors on the
whether they heat it or cool it in a stable operation. In the second chapter, conductor are shown, consequently
a general indicating
thermal equation
whether they heat it or cool it in a stable operation. In the second
of conductors has been written. In the third chapter, the simplification of the general equationchapter, a general thermal equation
for
stable operation with emphasis on radiation, natural convection, and electric heating, is presented.for
of conductors has been written. In the third chapter, the simplification of the general equation
stable operation
In the fourth with
chapter,emphasis on radiation,
the increase natural convection,
in temperature from the layers andfrom
electric
theheating,
surface to is presented.
the interior
In the fourth chapter, the increase in temperature from the
was determined. In the fifth chapter, the measurements that were rejected by the simple ACSR layers from the surface to the model
interior
ofwas
thedetermined.
conductor inIn the the fifth chapter,
fourth chapter, the are measurements
described. In the that were
sixth rejected
chapter, inbythethe simple ACSR
conductor model, model
the
of the conductor in the fourth chapter, are described. In the sixth
empty spaces between the wires of the individual layers were taken into account, and the measured chapter, in the conductor model,
the empty
results spaces the
confirmed between
results.theThis
wires is of theconfirmed
also individualby layers weremethod
the new taken into account, and
of calculating thethe measured
heating of
results confirmed
the conductors. the results. This is also confirmed by the new method of calculating the heating of
the conductors.
2. Selection of Cross Section of the Conductors Considering on Heating
2. Selection of Cross Section of the Conductors Considering on Heating
Each conductor is heated if an electric current flows through it. If all the heat produced in the
Each conductor is heated if an electric current flows through it. If all the heat produced in the
conductor was consumed for heating, the temperature of the conductor would rise steadily. When
conductor was consumed for heating, the temperature of the conductor would rise steadily. When the
the temperature of the conductor rises above the ambient temperature, the conductor sends the heat
temperature of the conductor rises above the ambient temperature, the conductor sends the heat into
into the surroundings.
the surroundings.
Figure 1 shows the flow of heat in the elemental volume with the indicated geometric and
Figure 1 shows the flow of heat in the elemental volume with the indicated geometric and
material parameters.
material parameters.

Figure 1. Heat flow in elementary volume [22].

Figure 1. Heat flow in elementary volume [23].
General thermal equation of conductors (1) after V. T. Morgan [22]:
General thermal
∂
 equation
∂T
  of conductors
 (1) after∂T
V.1 T. ∂Morgan
 [23]:
∂T

∂r
λ(T ) · ∂r · 1 + r + r · λ(T ) · ∂r + r2 · ∂ϕ · λ(T ) · ∂ϕ +
dr 1
∂T 1 ∂  ∂T  (1)
∂ ∂  λ ( T )∂T∂T  dr dr 1
⋅ λ((T
T )) ⋅· 1 ++ 2dr⋅ −⋅ γλ((TT)) ⋅· c(T )+ · dT · 1 +
  
+ ∂z λ(T ) · ∂z⋅ · 1⋅ +
1 +  ++ Q dr
=0
∂r  ∂r  
2·r r  r ∂r r
2·r ∂ϕ  ∂ϕ  dt 2·r
(1)
∂ ∂T    produced
dr heat   unit volume,
drper dT λ(T)dristemperature-dependent
+  λ ( T ) ⋅ ⋅ 1 +
where Q(T) is temperature-dependent  + Q ( T ) ⋅ 1 +  − γ (T ) ⋅ c (T ) ⋅ ⋅ 1 + =0
∂z  ∂z  2 ⋅ r   2⋅r  t  2⋅r 
thermal conductivity, γ is specific weight, c is specific heat, T dis temperature, and r, z, ϕ are
geometric parameters.
Energies 2019, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 15

where Q(T) is temperature-dependent heat produced per unit volume, λ(T) is temperature-
dependent thermal conductivity, ϒ is specific weight, c is specific heat, T is temperature, and r, z, φ
are geometric parameters.
Energies 2019, 12, 2769 3 of 14

3. Stabile Operation
3. Stabile Operation
In stable operation, there are events observed—energy in a time unit, that is, power. All energy
equilibrium is operation,
In stable simplified there
in thearebalance
events of power. For reasons
observed—energy of transparency,
in a time the factAll
unit, that is, power. that the
energy
conductor can be hidden a few meters from the sun so the heat flow is not observed
equilibrium is simplified in the balance of power. For reasons of transparency, the fact that the conductor in the
longitudinal
can be hidden direction (z-axis)
a few meters is not
from thetaken
sun sointo
theaccount.
heat flowGiven
is notthe fact that
observed in the
the factors of immission
longitudinal direction
and emissivity for clear, cloudy skies, grassy surfaces and fields are not known, both
(z-axis) is not taken into account. Given the fact that the factors of immission and emissivity the emissivity
for clear,
and the albedo
cloudy are setsurfaces
skies, grassy up by the same
and one,
fields arethus
not obtaining a rotational
known, both symmetric
the emissivity system
and the [23].
albedo are set up
by the same one, thus obtaining a rotational symmetric system [23].
3.1. Power of Radiation
3.1. In
Power of Radiation
the case of heating the conductor, a comparison between the calculated values with the new
methodIn and during
the case the measurements
of heating wasamade.
the conductor, comparison between the calculated values with the new
method and during the measurements was made. and on which we performed the measurements
Figure 2 shows the conductor we are exploring
described below
Figure in thethe
2 shows article.
conductor we are exploring and on which we performed the measurements
described below in the article.

Construction

Al Fe

nr/dAl nr/dFe dcore

nr. layer
[mm] [mm] [mm]

54 x 3 7x
5.1
3.4 (12,18,24) 3.4

drope 30.6 mm

Figure 2. ACSR (aluminum conductor steel—reinforced) conductor Al/Fe 490/65 mm2 .

Figure 2. ACSR (aluminum conductor steel—reinforced) conductor Al/Fe 490/65 mm2.
Using (2), the amount of light that irradiates a 1 m long piece of the conductor at temperature
T =Using
20 ◦ C(2), the K
= 293 amount of light thatFor
was calculated. irradiates
reasonsa of
1m long piece ofitthe
transparency conductorthat
is supposed at temperature
the surfaceTis
=ideally
20 °C =black.
293 K was calculated. For reasons of transparency it is supposed that the surface is ideally
black. P = ϕ · Sv = σ · T4 · S = 40 W (2)
v

where P means light current, Sv is Psurface = ϕ ⋅ Sv of

= σthe
4
⋅ T conductor
⋅ S v = 40 W[m2 ], Sv = 2·π·r·1 m = 2·π·0.0153(2)
m·1
= 0.096 m 2 , ϕ
where P means light current, Sv is surface of the conductor [m2], Sv = 2·π·r·1 m = 2·π·0.0153 m·1 m =as
m is density of radiation flow of the black body, σ is a universal constant, known
Štefan–Boltzmann
0.096 m2, φ is density constant, T is temperature.
of radiation flow of the black body, σ is a universal constant, known as Štefan–
Because the rope conductor
Boltzmann constant, T is temperature. loses 40 J at a temperature of 20 ◦ C per second, under these
circumstances,
Because theit rope
wouldconductor
be cooled loses
every40second
J at for (P/(m·cp ·dT) of
a temperature = 40/1547) = 0.026
20 °C per K. under these
second,
Bodies around the rope also have the same temperature ◦
(20 =C) and are=not ideally
circumstances, it would be cooled every second for (P/(m·cp·dT) 40/1547) 0.026 K. black. The rope
from the surroundings gets exactly the same amount of energy, namely
Bodies around the rope also have the same temperature (20 °C) and are not ideally black. The
rope from the surroundings gets exactly the same amount of energy, namely
σ · To4 · Sv = 40 W per second. (3)
σ ⋅ T ⋅ Sv = 40 W per second.
o
4
(3)
When the sun shines on the conductor, the light flux is joined by the previous 40 watts:
When the sun shines on the conductor, the light flux is joined by the previous 40 watts:
Ps = Φs = ϕs · Ap = 30 W (4)
Ps = Φs = ϕs ⋅ Ap = 30 W (4)
where ϕs is a solar constant (1000 W/m2 ).
where φs is a solar constant (1000 W/m2).
As an irradiated surface, due to the curvature, the longitudinal cross-section Ap = 2·r·1 = 2·0.0153
m·1 m = 0.0306 m2 is taken. The conductor reaches such a T temperature to transmit exactly as much
energy per second as it receives. If only the light currents are considered, the balance is the following:

ϕs · Ap + σ · To4 · Sv = σ · Tp4 · Sv (5)

 As an irradiated surface, due to the curvature, the longitudinal cross-section Ap = 2·r·1 = 2·0.0153
m·1 m = 0.0306 m2 is taken. The conductor reaches such a T temperature to transmit exactly as much
energy per second as it receives. If only the light currents are considered, the balance is the following:
Energies 2019, 12, 2769 ϕs ⋅ Ap + σ ⋅ To4 ⋅ S v = σ ⋅ Tp4 ⋅ S v 4 of 14
(5)

where φs is solar energy density at surface [W/m2], Ap is longitudinal section of the conductor [m2], σ
where ϕs is solar energy density at surface8 [W/m22], A4p is longitudinal section of the conductor [m2 ],
is Štefan–Boltzmann’s constant 5.68 × 10 W/(m K ), T0 is ambient temperature [K], Tp is surface
σ is Štefan–Boltzmann’s constant 5.68 × 108 W/(m2 K4 ), T0 is ambient temperature [K], Tp is surface
temperature of the conductor [K], Sv is surface of the conductor [m22].
temperature of the conductor [K], Sv is surface of the conductor [m ].
Considering the solar constant (E0 = 1367 W/m2) less for passing through the atmosphere (φs =
Considering the solar constant (E0 = 1367 W/m2 ) less for passing through the atmosphere
1000 W/m2), it is:
(ϕs = 1000 W/m2 ), it is: s
4 j ⋅A
4 js s· App
T =T = T4 o4To++ = 338
= K ==6565°C
338 K ◦
C (6)
(6)
σσ· S ⋅ Svv
Figure
Figure33shows
showsthe
theheat
heatflux
fluxininequilibrium.
equilibrium.

Figure 3. Thermal balance of the conductor in the sun. Note: sun = 30 W, surrounding = 40 W,
conductor
Figure 3. at 65 ◦ C =balance
Thermal 70 W. of the conductor in the sun. Note: sun = 30 W, surrounding = 40 W,
conductor at 65 °C = 70 W.
3.2. Convection
Convection is the transition of heat from solid bodies to a gaseous (liquid) medium and vice
3.2. Convection
versa [24].
Convection is the transition of heat from solid bodies to a gaseous (liquid) medium and vice
The research of heat flows due to convection [25,26] gave the following empirical formulas for
versa [24].
determining the size of these flows:
The research of heat flows due to convection [25,26] gave the following empirical formulas for
determining the size of these flows:     W
Φ = S · α · Tp − To [W] ; ϕ = α · Tp − To (7)
m2
W
( ) (
Φ = S ⋅ α ⋅ Tp − To [ W ] ; ϕ = α ⋅ Tp − To  2  ) (7)
where α is thermal transfer coefficient [W/(m2 K)] (depending on the position m  and shape of the wall),
Tp is the temperature of the convection surface2 [K], To is the temperature of the surrounding medium
where α is thermal transfer coefficient [W/(m K)] (depending on the position and shape of the wall),
[K], S is surface [m2 ].
Tp is the temperature of the convection surface [K], To is the temperature of the surrounding medium
For a horizontal tube [27], the heat flux density can be calculated as follows:
[K], S is surface [m2].
For a horizontal tube [27], theheat flux density4 can
r be calculated as follows:
Tp − To  
ϕ = α · Tp − To = 1.4 · · Tp − To (8)
Tp −dTo
(
ϕ = α ⋅ Tp − To = 1.4 ⋅ 4
)
d
⋅ Tp − To ( ) (8)
Taking radiation and convection into account, the equilibrium equation for power is for Al/Fe
mm2 conductor
490/65Taking radiation per
andunit of length:
convection into account, the equilibrium equation for power is for Al/Fe
490/65 mm2 conductor per unit of length:
1.4  1.25
ϕs · Ap + σ · To4 · Sv = σ · Tp4 · Sv + √ · Tp − To (9)
1.4
4

( )
1.25
ϕ ⋅ A + σ ⋅T 4 ⋅ S = σ ⋅T 4 ⋅ S + d ⋅ T − T
s p o v p v 4 p o (9)
d
In this case, the markings are equal to (5) and additionally d is a pipe diameter (conductor) [m].
The equation
In this is not
case, the algebraically
markings solvable.
are equal With
to (5) and the numerical
additionally d is tangent method [28],
a pipe diameter the surface
(conductor) [m].
temperature of the conductor is 316 K. or 43 C. ◦

Assuming that the surface of the conductor is the ideal black body, it is heated in the sun to 65 ◦ C,
the convection (without wind) cools it to 43 ◦ C (Figure 4).
 Energies 2019, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 15

The equation is not algebraically solvable. With the numerical tangent method [28], the surface
temperature of the conductor is 316 K. or 43 °C.
Assuming
Energies 2019, 12, 2769 that the surface of the conductor is the ideal black body, it is heated in the sun to 65
5 of 14
°C, the convection (without wind) cools it to 43 °C (Figure 4).

Figure 4. Thermal balance of the cylinder in the sun, taking convection into account. Note: sun = 30 W,
Figure 4.=Thermal
surrounding balance of=the
40 W, convection cylinder
16 W, conductor 43 ◦ C
in theatsun, = 54 W.
taking convection into account. Note: sun = 30
W, surrounding = 40 W, convection = 16 W, conductor at 43 °C = 54 W.
3.3. Electric Heating
3.3.
TheElectric
amount Heating
of heat released is proportional to the square of the current (Joule’s law):
The amount of heat released is proportional toρelthe square of the current (Joule’s law):
Q ∝ I2 · R · t = I2 · · t [J] (10)
2 ρ el
2
A
Q ∝ I ⋅ R ⋅t = I ⋅ ⋅t [J] (10)
where Q is heat due to electric current, I is current of the conductor, A R is resistance of the conductor, t is
time, ρel is Q
where specific
is heatresistance and Acurrent,
due to electric is sectionI isofcurrent
the conductor.
of the conductor, R is resistance of the conductor,
t is time, ρel is specific resistance and A is section of the and
The resistance of the conductor depends on the shape the substance forming the conductor,
conductor.
and furthermore from the
The resistance oftemperature,
the conductor frequency
dependsand oncurrent
the shape density
and flowing through
the substance the conductor
forming [10].
the conductor,
Normally,
and at thefrom
furthermore ropes,the intemperature,
the calculations of operating
frequency states, only
and current the flowing
density resistance (conductivity)
through of
the conductor
the aluminum
[10]. cover is considered. For the generality, the conductivity of the steel core and the proper
distribution of the current
Normally, along the
at the ropes, layers
in the [29] will also
calculations be taken states,
of operating into account.
only the The maximum
resistance allowed
(conductivity)
current for the conductor Al/Fe 490/65 mm 2 is 960 A.
of the aluminum cover is considered. For the generality, the conductivity of the steel core and the
The equilibrium
proper distribution equation, takingalong
of the current into account
the layersthe[29]
current, is then:
will also be taken into account. The maximum
allowed current for the conductor Al/Fe 490/65 mm2 is 960 A.
ϕs · Ap into
The equilibrium equation, taking To4 · Sv +the
+ σ ·account I2 ·current,
RT = is then:
4 1.4
 1.25 (11)
= σ · Tp 4· Sv + √4 2 · Tp − To
ϕ s ⋅ Ap + σ ⋅ To ⋅ S v + I d ⋅ RT =
1.4 (11)
In this case the marks are as in (5).
( )
1.25
= σ ⋅ Tp4 ⋅ S v + 4 ⋅ Tp − To ◦
Using the tangent numerical method [28], the surface ofdthe conductor is obtained 354 K or 81 C.
Assuming that the surface of the conductor is the ideal black body, it is heated in the sun to 65 ◦ C,
In this case cools
the convection the marks are◦ C,
it toPEER
43 as maximum
in (5). allowable current I = 960 A heats it to 81 ◦ C (Figure 5). 6 of 15
Energies 2019, 12, x FOR REVIEW
Using the tangent numerical method [28], the surface of the conductor is obtained 354 K or 81
°C.
Assuming that the surface of the conductor is the ideal black body, it is heated in the sun to
65 °C, the convection cools it to 43 °C, maximum allowable current I = 960 A heats it to 81 °C (Figure
5).

Figure 5. The heat balance of the conductor in the sun, taking into account electrical heating and
convection. Note: sun = 30 W, surrounding = 40 W, Joule’s heating = 70 W, convection = 55 W,
Figure 5. The heat balance of the conductor in the sun, taking into account electrical heating and
conductor at 43 ◦ C = 54 W.
convection. Note: sun = 30 W, surrounding = 40 W, Joule´s heating = 70 W, convection = 55 W,
conductor at 43 °C = 54 W.

4. Heating a Conductor by Layers

In the case of electric conductors, mainly the steel core determines the tensile strength and thus
the sag and spacing from the ground [21,30]. The change in the tensile strength in the first
approximation depends on the temperature of the strands of the rope. Internal, warmer strands lose
tensile strength faster, therefore, it is necessary to count or also measure the temperature gradient.
Energies 2019, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 15
Energies 2019, 12, 2769 6 of 14

4. Heating a Conductor by Layers

In the case of electric conductors, mainly the steel core determines the tensile strength and thus the
sag and spacing from the ground [21,30]. The change in the tensile strength in the first approximation
depends on the temperature of the strands of the rope. Internal, warmer strands lose tensile strength
faster, therefore, it is necessary to count or also measure the temperature gradient.
In the steady state, the temperature of the surface of the conductor was calculated. The basic
equation for calculating the temperature of individual layers is the equation for the heat flux (power)
through a differential thin wall [22]:
dT
Φ = P = −λ · S · (12)
dr
Figure 5. The heat balance of the conductor in the sun, taking into account electrical heating and
where P, PFe and PAl is electrical power at the appropriate temperature.
convection. Note: sun = 30 W, surrounding = 40 W, Joule´s heating = 70 W, convection = 55 W,
Through a differential thin tube (wall thickness dr) in time dt transfers heat flow φ from the steel
conductor at 43 °C = 54 W.
core (PFe ) and a part of the heat flow from a source in aluminum to a radius r (Figure 6):
4. Heating a Conductor by Layers P  
Φ = PFe + PAl 0 = PFe + Al · π · r2 − r2Fe · l (13)
In the case of electric conductors, mainly the steel VAl core determines the tensile strength and thus
the sag and spacing from the ground [21,30]. dT The change
PAl in
 the tensile strength in the first
2
approximation depends on−the λAltemperature
· 2 · π · r · l · of the= Pstrands
Fe + of·π − r2Fe
· rrope.
the ·l
Internal, warmer strands lose
dr VAl
tensile strength faster, therefore, it is necessary to count or also measure the temperature gradient.
T (r) PAl Zrof the conductor
PAl Zr was calculated. The basic
In the steady state, the
Z PFe − π of
temperature · l ·the 2
surface
VAl · rFe dr VAl
dT =
equation for calculating−the temperature · layers is+ the equation
· r ·for
dr the heat flux (power)
(14)
2 · of
π ·individual
l · λAl r 2 · λAl
through a differential thinTpwall [22]: rAl r Al

PFe − πΦ
P
· l =· VPAl=· −r2Fe dT Al P
λ ⋅ S ⋅ rAl VAl   (12)
T (r) = Tp + Al
· ln dr + · r2Al − r2
2 · π · l · λAl r 4 · λAl
where P, PFe and PAl is electrical power at the appropriate pAl ·r2Fe temperature.
Through a differential thin tube (wall thickness pFe − 2 dr)
(rAl −r2Fe ) in time
rAl dt transfers
pAl heat flow Ф from the
T Fe = T ( r Fe ) = T p +
steel core (PFe) and a part of the heat flow from 2a ·source · ln +
π · λAl in aluminum rFe 4to
· πa· radius
λAl r (Figure 6):

Figure 6.
Figure Heat current
6. Heat current from
from the
the steel
steel core. Note: rr is
core. Note: is appropriate radius,TTappropriate
appropriateradius, temperature,λ
appropriatetemperature,
appropriate conductivity.
λ appropriate conductivity.

The temperature in the axis of the conductor can also be calculated (Figure 7).
P
+ PAl ' = PFe + Al ⋅ π ⋅ ( r 2 − rFe2 ) ⋅ l dT
Φ = PFe P (13)
Fe 2 V
Φ=P= · π · r · l =Al −λFe · 2 · π · l · (15)
VFe dr
dT PAl
−λAl ⋅ 2 ⋅ π ⋅ r ⋅ l ⋅ = PFe + ⋅ π ⋅ ( r 2 − rFe2 ) ⋅ l
T (r) dr
Z PFe VAl Zr
VFe
− dT = · r · dr
2 · λFe
Tp rFe
 PAl 2 PAl
T (r ) PFe − π ⋅ l ⋅ ⋅ rFe r r
VAl dr V (14)
− 
Tp
dT =
2 ⋅ π ⋅ l ⋅ λAl
⋅
rAl r
+ Al ⋅  r ⋅ dr
2 ⋅ λAl rAl
Energies 2019, 12, 2769 7 of 14
PAl 2 PAl
PFe − π ⋅ l ⋅ ⋅ rFe
VAl r V
T ( r ) = Tp + ⋅ ln Al + Al ⋅ ( rAl2 − r 2 )
2 ⋅ π ⋅ l ⋅ λAl pFe r 4 2⋅ λAl 2 
T (r) = TFe + · rFe − r (16)
4 · λFe · π · r22Fe
pAl ⋅ rFe
pFe − 2
To = T (r = 0) = rTAlFe−+
TFe = T ( rFe ) = Tp +
(
rFe2
pFe
4 ⋅· ln
r
π · Al
)
λFe+
pAl
2 ⋅ π ⋅ λAl rFe 4 ⋅ π ⋅ λAl
where φ is heat due to electric current, P, PFe and PAl is power or specific power, V Fe and V Al is volume,
The rtemperature
r, rAl and Fe is radius, in
l isthe
length, λAlthe
axis of and, λFe is specific
conductor can also be calculated
conductivity, and(Figure 7).
Tp is surface temperature.

Figure 7. Calculating the temperature in the steel core axis.

Figure 7. Calculating the temperature in the steel core axis.

In Table 1, the temperatures are given as a function of the distance from/to the surface.
P dT
Φ = P = Fe ⋅ π ⋅ r 2 ⋅ l = −λFe ⋅ 2 ⋅ π ⋅ l ⋅ (15)
VFe
Table 1. Temperature in dependence of radius. dr
Radius r [m]
P ϑ [◦ C]
Fe
T (r ) r
rAl3 V
0.0153 50.80
rAl2 
− dT 0.0119
Tp
= Fe ⋅ 50.8088
2 ⋅ λFe rFe 
r ⋅ dr
rAl1 0.0085 50.8148
rFe2 0.0051 50.8177
p
T ( r r)Fe1
= TFe + 0.0017Fe 250.8212
4 ⋅ λ ⋅ π ⋅ r
(
⋅ rFe2 − r 2 )
center 0.0000
Fe 50.8223
Fe
(16)
I = 960 A, ϕ = 200 W/m2 , To = 5 ◦ C.
pFe
To = T ( r = 0 ) = TFe +
4
Despite of calculating the layers, the heat flow is the same ⋅ π ⋅ λFe
as for a solid conductor.

5.where Ф is heat due

Measurement to electric
of Current bycurrent,
Layers P, PFe and PAl is power or specific power, VFe and VAl is volume,
r, rAl and rFe is radius, l is length, λAl and, λFe is specific conductivity, and Tp is surface temperature.
In
Inorder
Tableto1, check the accuracyare
the temperatures of given
the calculations in the
as a function previous
of the distancechapter,
from /the distribution
to the surface. of the
current along the layers had to be checked first. At about 2 m long piece of the stranded conductor,
about 10 cm of aluminum wires were
Table removed in the
1. Temperature middle (toofgain
in dependence access to the steel core) and the
radius.
‘peeled’ part of the rope only with the removed aluminum wires were shortened (Figure 8).
Radius r [m] ϑ [°C]
The results of the measurements were different from the expectations (Table 2).
rAl3 0.0153 50.80
The sum of the currents was in the class of accuracy of the clamp meters. In checking the matching
rAl2 0.0119 50.8088
of all three measured currents, it was found that the deviations were within the limits of the accuracy
rAl1 0.0085 50.8148
class of the clamp meters.
rFe2 0.0051 50.8177
The expected current distribution at the total current 960 A was 96.13% current in aluminum
rFe1 0.0017 50.8212
coat and 3.85% in steel core. The divergence was explained with the basics of electrical engineering.
center 0.0000 50.8223
An electrical substitute circuit with calculated currents for 2 m long conductor is shown in Figure 9.
I = 960 A, φ = 200 W/m2, To = 5°C
Despite of calculating the layers, the heat flow is the same as for a solid conductor.
5. Measurement of Current by Layers
In order to check the accuracy of the calculations in the previous chapter, the distribution of the
current along the layers had to be checked first. At about 2 m long piece of the stranded conductor,
about 10 cm of aluminum wires were removed in the middle (to gain access to the steel core) and the
Energies 2019, 12, 2769 8 of 14
‘peeled’ part of the rope only with the removed aluminum wires were shortened (Figure 8).

(a)

Energies 2019, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 15

Table 2. Results of measurement with interrupted aluminum coat.

(b) through
Current Current
Current the Clamp Meter through the
Figure 8. (a)
(a) Measurement
Measurement scheme with interrupted aluminum coat. (b) Picture
Picture of measurement with
through the Km2 Clamp Meter
interrupted aluminum coat.
Clamp Meter (Aluminum— Km3
Table 2. Results
Km1 of measurement
[A] with interrupted(Steel—Core)
Surface) aluminum coat.
The results of the measurements were different from the expectations (Table 2).
The sum of the currentsCurrentwas in the
through [A]of
class
the Clamp [ / ] ofCurrent
accuracy
Meter Km2 [A]clamp
the [ /meters.
through ] the Clamp
In checking
Meter Km3the
Current through the 57 46 0.81 12 0.21
matching of all three measured (Aluminum—Surface)
currents, it was found that the deviations(Steel—Core)
were within the limits of
Clamp Meter Km1 [A]
the accuracy class of the clamp [A] 100
meters. 84 [ / ] 0.84 22 [A] 0.22 [/]
The expected
57 206
current distribution
46 166
at the total0.81 0.81 43 0.21
current 960 A was1296.13% current in0.21 aluminum
100 in steel core. The
coat and 3.85% 408
84divergence was 323explained
0.84 0.79with the
82 basics
22 0.20 0.22
of electrical engineering.
206substitute circuit with
An electrical 166
605calculated 492 0.81 for
currents 0.81 43 0.20 is shown 0.21
122conductor
2 m long in Figure 9.
408 323 0.79 82 0.20
810 650 0.80 159 0.20
605 492 0.81 122 0.20
810 1004
650 811 0.80 0.81 198 159 0.20 0.20
1004 1209
811 971 0.81 0.80 250 198 0.21 0.20
1209 971
1406 11650.80 0.83 310 250 0.22 0.21
1406 1165 0.83 310 0.22

0.0000059 Ω

Al

923 A
0.000059 Ω 0.000059 Ω

Al Al

960 A

37 A

Fe Fe Fe
0.001500 Ω 0.000150 Ω 0.001500 Ω

Figure 9. Theoretical current distribution between the steel core and the aluminum coat. Picture of
Figure 9. Theoretical
measurement currentaluminum
with interrupted distribution between the steel core and the aluminum coat. Picture of
coat.
measurement with interrupted aluminum coat.

Obviously, the distribution of the current in accessories (couplings) with the cut aluminum coat
was different than planned. The decision to check and pull out the steel core and parallelly attached
to the source the steel core and an aluminum coat was made (Figure 10).
 37 A

Fe Fe Fe
0.001500 Ω 0.000150 Ω 0.001500 Ω

Energies 2019, 12,

Figure 2769
9. Theoretical current distribution between the steel core and the aluminum coat. Picture of9 of 14
measurement with interrupted aluminum coat.

Obviously, the distribution of the current in accessories (couplings) with the cut aluminum coat
Obviously, the distribution of the current in accessories (couplings) with the cut aluminum coat
was different than planned. The decision to check and pull out the steel core and parallelly attached to
was different than planned. The decision to check and pull out the steel core and parallelly attached
the source the steel core and an aluminum coat was made (Figure 10).
to the source the steel core and an aluminum coat was made (Figure 10).

Figure 10. Measurement of current in parallel binding of aluminum coat and steel core.
Measurement
Energies 2019,Figure 10.PEER
12, x FOR REVIEW of current in parallel binding of aluminum coat and steel core. 10 of 15

At
At the same time,
the same time, the
the temperature
temperature of of the
thesurface
surfaceofofthe
theconductors
conductorswaswasmeasured
measuredwith
witha
athermography
thermographycamera.
camera.An An exampleofofa ameasurement
example measurementisisininthetheFigure
Figure11.
11.
Figure 11 shows the measured temperature with the thermography.
Figure 11 shows the measured temperature with the thermography. The The left
left figure
figure shows
shows the
the
temperature of the aluminum—the surface of the conductor, the right picture the temperature
temperature of the aluminum—the surface of the conductor, the right picture the temperature of the of the
steel
steel core—the
core — thetemperature
temperatureininthe
theaxis
axisofofthe
theconductor.
conductor.

Figure 11. Camera measured temperature at parallel binding.

The current distribution

distribution between
between thethe layers
layers was
was inin line
line with
with expectations.
expectations.
The difference
difference between
between the
the calculated
calculated temperatures
temperatures on on the
the surface
surface and
and in the middle of the rope
compared with the measurements shows that in the calculations we did not take into account the
empty spaces between the rope wireswires (Figure
(Figure 12).
12). In the next chapter the attention was paid to these
empty spaces.
To
To summarize,
summarize,thetheheat
heattransfer to the
transfer surface
to the is worse
surface than than
is worse it wasitassumed in the previous
was assumed section.
in the previous
section.
 The difference between the calculated temperatures on the surface and in the middle of the rope
compared with the measurements shows that in the calculations we did not take into account the
empty spaces between the rope wires (Figure 12). In the next chapter the attention was paid to these
empty spaces.
To summarize, the heat transfer to the surface is worse than it was assumed in the previous
Energies 2019, 12, 2769 10 of 14
section.

Figure 12. Conductor with drawn replaced rings of air. Note: dark gray—circle and ring of metal
Figure 12. Conductor with drawn replaced rings of air. Note: dark gray—circle and ring of metal (Fe)
(Fe) with the same surface as steel wires; light gray—the metal rings (Al) with the same surface as the
with the same surface as steel wires; light gray— the metal rings (Al) with the same surface as the
wires in the individual layers; white—rings of air with the same surface as the empty spaces between
wires in the individual layers ; white—rings of air with the same surface as the empty spaces between
the wires.
the wires.
6. Heating of Conductor by Layers with Compliance of Air between Spaces
6. Heating of Conductor by Layers with Compliance of Air between Spaces
Measurements have shown that the model of heating in layers is not the best, since it shows almost
the same values of core and surface temperatures (Table 3). Significantly higher core temperatures were
measured (Table 3). Despite the good contact between the individual layers of Aluminum, which is
ensured at the time of production, there is a considerable effect between the empty spaces between
the wires [31]. In the new model for the calculation of heat transfer from the middle to the surface,
concentric coils of metal and air were assumed (Figure 12). In the cross-section, these are coils with the
same surface as the actual metals or air spaces.
The basic equation for calculating the temperature of individual layers is the equation for the heat
flux (power) through a differential thin wall (12).
Once again the temperature of the conductor from the surface in a steady state (second chapter)
was re-emerged. In the case of heat transfer, the transmission through the layer of air has to be
separated, where the heat flow is constant (there are no sources) and the transition through the metal
layer (aluminum or steel, where the heat produced in the layer is to be added to the heat flow from
the inside).
Air layer: In a steady state, the heat flow is constant (no sources) and is equal to the heat flow to
the air. In the case of the fourth layer of air it is φ from the steel core and inner layers of aluminum
(Pnot ) at a distance rAl2 from the center of the conductor (Figures 12 and 13).

dT
− λzrak · 2 · π · r · l · = Pnot (17)
dr
T (r)
Z Zr
Pnot dr
− dT = ·
2 · π · l · λzrak r
Tp rp
Energies 2019, 12, 2769 11 of 14

pnot r
T (r) = Tzrak4 + · ln zrak4 (18)
2 · π · λzrak r
pnot r
TAl2 = T (rAl2 ) = Tzrak4 + · ln zrak4
2 · π · λzrak rAl2

Table 3. Measured and calculated currents and temperatures at parallel binding of steel core and
aluminum coat.

Clamp Meter Km2 Clamp Meter Km3

Current through the (Aluminum—Surface) (Steel—Core ro)
Clamp Meter Km1
[A] I T I T
[A] [◦ C] [A] [◦ C]
Measured * Calculated Measured * Calculated
57 56 25.7 25.9 2 25.3 25.9
104 99 26.3 4 - 26.3
205 199 27.4 27.92 7 - 27.9
414 397 34.2 15 - 34.2
611 593 41.7 43.6 22 47.9 43.6
814 792 56.4 29 - 56.4
1005 986 71.4 37 - 71.4
1210 1176 90.5 44 - 90.5
1416 1370 92.3 112.8 50 >160 112.9
* at higher
Energies 2019, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW current values, the stationary condition was not guaranteed. 12 of 15

Figure 13. Heat flow from the interior through the air layer.
Figure 13. Heat flow from the interior through the air layer.
In Table 4, the temperatures are shown in dependency of radius taking into account the empty
Inin
spaces Table 4, the temperatures
the conductor arecylinders.
with the air shown in dependency of radius taking into account the empty
spaces in the conductor with the air cylinders.
The comparison of tables 1 and
Table 4. Temperatures 4 shows that
in dependency already
from radiusatand
a low ambient temperature
environmental conditions. of 5°C and a
slight radiation of the sun (φ = 200 W/m2), the difference between the center and the surface for the
new model is calculated 3 degrees, but Radius r [m]
earlier there wereθalmost
[◦ C]
no differences.
r 0.015 50.8
Table 5 is a replicated Table 3 withAl3measured and calculated temperatures, taking into account
the empty spaces inside the conductorrzrak4 0.012
as thin air 50.807
cylinders.
rAl2 0.011 52.319
The comparison of Tables 3 and r5 shows that 0.009the difference
52.323 of the current of 611 A of middle
zrak3
temperature is higher for 7 degrees or r16%, Al1
while for
0.008 the highest
53.250 measured current, the difference is
in the order of 80 degrees according to the new0.006
rzrak2 model. In53.253
the model without regard to the airspace,
rFe2
at 611 A there is practically no difference. 0.005 53.479
rzrak1 0.002 53.482
rFe1 0.002 53.521
Table 4. Temperatures in dependency from radius and environmental conditions.
center 0.000 53.522
I = 960 A, ϕ = 200
Radius W/m2 , To = 5 ◦ C.
r [m] θ [°C]
rAl3 0.015 50.8
The comparison of Tables 1 and 4 shows that already at a low ambient temperature of 5◦ C and
rzrak4 0.012 50.807
a slight radiation of the sun (ϕ = 200 W/m2 ), the difference between the center and the surface for the
rAl2 0.011 52.319
new model is calculated 3 degrees, but earlier there were almost no differences.
rzrak3 0.009 52.323
rAl1 0.008 53.250
rzrak2 0.006 53.253
rFe2 0.005 53.479
rzrak1 0.002 53.482
Energies 2019, 12, 2769 12 of 14

Table 5 is a replicated Table 3 with measured and calculated temperatures, taking into account the
empty spaces inside the conductor as thin air cylinders.
The comparison of Tables 3 and 5 shows that the difference of the current of 611 A of middle
temperature is higher for 7 degrees or 16%, while for the highest measured current, the difference is
in the order of 80 degrees according to the new model. In the model without regard to the airspace,
at 611 A there is practically no difference.

Table 5. Measured and calculated currents and temperatures at parallel binding of steel core and
Aluminum coat taking into account the empty spaces.

Clamp Meter Km2 Clamp Meter Km3

Current through (Aluminum—Surface) (Steel—Core ro)
the Clamp Meter
Km1 Temperature Temperature
Current Current
[◦ C] [◦ C]
[A] [A] [/] Measured Calculated [A] [/] Measured Calculated
57 56 98.25 25.7 25.9 2 3.51 25.3 26.1
104 99 95.19 - 26.3 4 3.85 - 26.1
205 199 97.07 27.4 27.9 7 3.41 - 27.9
414 397 95.89 - 34.3 15 3.62 - 37.1
611 593 97.05 41.7 43.9 22 3.60 47.9 50.9
814 792 97.30 - 57.3 29 3.56 - 73.9
1005 986 98.11 - 73.2 37 3.68 - 103.3
1210 1176 97.19 - 94.3 44 3.64 - 144.4
1416 1370 96.75 92.3 119.6 50 3.53 >160 197.3
Note: at higher current values, the stationary condition was not guaranteed. We wanted to measure the steady
state even also at the nominal current of the conductor, but we managed to complete the entire measurement
only at 1370 A. During this current, the point source and the conductor were overloaded. The temperature meter
(camera) showed more than 160 degrees. At this temperature, the measurement was interrupted, and 197 degrees
were calculated.

7. Discussion
The purpose of authors was to determine the core temperature of an ACSR (aluminum conductor
steel—reinforced) conductor by simply measuring method.
In the analysis the level of heating of the conductor in a steady state of operation has been examined.
Assuming that the surface of the conductor is the ideal black body, it heats up (ϕs = 1000 W/m2 ) to
65 ◦ C in the sun, in a state without wind, the convection cools it to 36 ◦ C, maximum allowable current
I = 960 A heats it up to 80 ◦ C.
In the case of electric conductors, the steel core frequently determines the tensile strength and thus
the pitch and spacing from the ground. Joule heating depends on the average conductor temperature,
while convection and radiation depend on the surface temperature of the conductor. The change in
the tensile strength in the first approximation depends on the temperature of the strands of the rope.
Internal, warmer strands lose tensile strength faster, therefore, it is necessary to count or also measure
the temperature gradient.
At a known temperature of the surface of the conductor, the temperature rise in the interior was
calculated as a function of the distance from the surface. At the measured current 611 A, there is
practically no difference of the temperature of the conductor 490/65 mm2 Al/Fe in the center of the
steel core, if we do not take into account the empty spaces between the wires. Considering the empty
spaces of air, the difference is 7 ◦ C. In the measurements, the difference in the center of the steel core
was about 6 degrees at current 611 A.
Using the new method, taking into account the empty spaces between the wires, it was calculated
and confirmed, while using the measurement that the temperature of the steel core is higher than
would be expected from the surface of the conductor. This is of great importance because it affects
the temperature of the core on the creep and the tensile strength of the conductor and the related
Energies 2019, 12, 2769 13 of 14

sag. The new calculation method is closer to the real state, since it takes into account empty airspaces
between individual wires. Therefore, it is proposed to use the new method in assessing the temperature
of the center of the conductors (steel core) at a known surface temperature of the conductors, which can
be easily measured, for example, with a thermography camera. This gives us the information on the
appropriate mechanical strength of the conductor.
The method is suitable especially at high ambient temperatures, while the limitation is the
measurement (assessment) of the conductor temperature.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, Ž.V. and J.P.; Methodology, Ž.V., R.M. and J.P.; Software, R.M.;
Validation, Ž.V., Formal Analysis, Ž.V. and J.P.; Investigation, Ž.V. and J.P.; Resources, Ž.V., R.M. and J.P.;
Writing-Original Draft Preparation, Ž.V.; Writing-Review & Editing, Ž.V.; Visualization, Ž.V.; Supervision, Ž.V.
and J.P.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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