Alvin B.

Manalo Ratings:
BSEd II-D Date: 11/27/19

FLUIDS AND MECHANICS

HYDROPOWER PLANT
1. What is hydropower plant?
 A hydropower plant is a renewable energy power plant that generates electricity
using a renewable natural resource, water running down waterways as a result of
rainfall.

2. How do hydropower plant works?

 A typical hydroelectric plant is a system with three parts: a power plant where the
electricity is produced, a dam that can be opened or closed to control water flow,
and a reservoir where water is stored. The water behind the dam flows through an
intake and pushes against blades in a turbine, causing them to turn. The turbine
spins a generator to produce electricity.

 The amount of electricity that can be generated depends on how far the water
drops and how much water moves through the system. The electricity can be
transported through long-distance electric lines to homes, factories, and
businesses. Other types of hydropower plants make use of the flow through a
waterway without a dam.

3. Benefits hydropower plant.

 Humans have been harnessing the energy of river currents for centuries, using
water wheels spun by rivers initially to process grains and cloth. Today,
hydropower provides about 16 percent of the world's electricity, generating
power.
4. How much electricity can hydropower plant make?
 The amount of electricity a hydropower plant produces depends on two
factors:
 How Far the Water Falls. The farther the water falls the more power it has.
Generally, the distance that the water falls depends on the size of the dam. The
higher the dam, the farther the water falls and the more power it has. Scientists
 would say that the power of falling water is "directly proportional" to the distance
it falls. In other words, water falling twice as far has twice as much as energy.
 Amount of Water Falling. More water falling through the turbine will produce more
power. The amount of water available depends on the amount of water flowing down the
river. Bigger rivers have more flowing water and can produce more energy. Power is
also "directly proportional" to river flow. A river with twice the amount of flowing water
as another river can produce twice as much energy.
 Along the Fox River in Appleton, Wisconsin.

5. How Much Energy a Dam in My Area Can Make?

 Let's say that there is a small dam in your area that is not used to produce
electricity. Maybe the dam is used to provide water to irrigate farmlands or maybe it
was built to make a lake for recreation. As we explained above, you need to know
two things:
 How far the water falls. From talking to the person who operates the dam, we
learn that the dam is 10 feet high, so the water falls 10 feet.
 Amount of water flowing in the river. We contact the United States Geological
Survey, the agency in the U.S. that measures river flow, and learn that the average
amount of water flowing in our river is 500 cubic feet per second.
 Now all we need to do is a little mathematics. Engineers have found that we can
calculate the power of a dam using the following formula:
 Power = (Height of Dam) x (River Flow) x (Efficiency) / 11.8

Power  The electric power in kilowatts (one kilowatt equals 1,000 watts).

Height of
 The distance the water falls measured in feet.
Dam

 The amount of water flowing in the river measured in cubic feet per
River Flow
second.

 How well the turbine and generator convert the power of falling water
into electric power. For older, poorly maintained hydroplants this might
Efficiency
be 60% (0.60) while for newer, well operated plants this might be as
high as 90% (0.90).

11.8  Converts units of feet and seconds into kilowatts.

For the dam in our area, lets say we buy a turbine and generator with an efficiency of
80%.

Then the power for our dam will be:

Power = (10 feet) x (500 cubic feet per second) x (0.80) / 11.8 = 339 kilowatts

To get an idea what 339 kilowatts means, let's see how much electric energy we can
make in a year.

Since electric energy is normally measured in kilowatt-hours, we multiply the power

from our dam by the number of hours in a year.

 Electric Energy = (339 kilowatts) x (24 hours per day) x (365 days per year)
= 2,969,000 kilowatt hours.
 The average annual residential energy use in the U.S. is about 3,000 kilowatt-hours for
each person. So we can figure out how many people our dam could serve by dividing the
annual energy production by 3,000.
 People Served = 2,969,000 kilowatts-hours / 3,000 kilowatt-hours per person) = 990
people.
 So our local irrigation or recreation dam could provide enough renewable energy to meet
the residential needs of 990 people if we added a turbine and generator.
 Note: Before you decide to add hydropower to a dam, have a hydropower engineer
review your calculations and consult with the local resource agencies to be sure you can
obtain any permits that are required.

6. Application of hydropower plant in fluids.

 A water turbine is a rotary machine that converts kinetic energy and potential
energy of water into mechanical work.
 Impulse turbines change the velocity of a water jet. The jet pushes on the turbine's
curved blades which changes the direction of the flow. The resulting change in
momentum (impulse) causes a force on the turbine blades. Since the turbine is
spinning, the force acts through a distance (work) and the diverted water flow is
left with diminished energy. An impulse turbine is one in which the pressure of
the fluid flowing over the rotor blades is constant and all the work output is due to
the change in kinetic energy of the fluid.
 Prior to hitting the turbine blades, the water's pressure (potential energy) is
converted to kinetic energy by a nozzle and focused on the turbine. No pressure
change occurs at the turbine blades, and the turbine doesn't require a housing for
operation.
 Newton's second law describes the transfer of energy for impulse turbines.
 Reaction turbines are acted on by water, which changes pressure as it moves
through the turbine and gives up its energy. They must be encased to contain the
water pressure (or suction), or they must be fully submerged in the water flow.
 Newton's third law describes the transfer of energy for reaction turbines.
Alvin B. Manalo Ratings:
BSEd II-D Date: 11/27/19

FLUIDS AND MECHANICS

DEEP WELL
1. What is deep well?
 A water well, an excavation or structure created to access groundwater in
underground aquifers
 Deep well drilling, the process of drilling a well to a depth of 10,000 feet or more
 A well in which the water level is at a depth exceeding 22 feet beyond which the
ordinary suction pump does not operate satisfactorily.
 Ground water serves the great majority of people who live in rural areas and have
a water-supply system of one type or another. The reason is
 1 that, among the various sources of supply, ground water is by far the most I
practical and safe in nature. Even in a highly industrialized country such
 Ground-water installations far outnumber surface water supplies. It is very
probable that, for a long time to come, ground
 Water will be the most important source of supply for most rural communities of
the world.

2. How to make a deep well?

 MAKING A WELL The construction of a well, using manual drilling techniques
is a complicated process. Before drilling starts a good drilling site has to be
selected, where experience suggests that there will be an adequate quantity of
good quality groundwater. During the drilling process there are a lot of diff erent
aspects which require attention to prevent things from going wrong. Besides the
practical drilling skills which are executed at ground level, at the same time
attention has to be paid to important processes which are happening below
ground level during drilling. Water used in drilling (working water) could fl ow
away or worse; the borehole could collapse, burying part of the drilling
equipment. And finally, once the hole has been drilled, the well casing, screen
and sanitary seals have to be installed at the right depth, preventing contaminated
water from entering, and ensuring a sufficient yield. In many countries manual
drilling teams experience problems with site selection, loss of working water, soil
determination, logging, well installation, well development, water quality and
well yield (fl ow rate of the well). These problems may occur when the drilling
process is not completely understood and important steps are missed. This
instruction manual describes many of the subjects and problems which you may
come across during drilling. The manual will help you to understand the drilling
process at ground level and far below ground level in the drilled hole. With the
information provided you will be able to understand what is taking place in the
hole during drilling, and perform a professional job as you construct high quality
water wells.
3. Advantage and disadvantage of Deep well.
 The advantages of ground water are :
 It is likely to be free of pathogenic bacteria;
 Generally, it may be used without further treatment;
 in many instances it can be found in the close vicinity of rural II / communities ;
  It is often most practical and economical to obtain and distribute; the water-
bearing stratum from which it is drawn usually provides a natural storage at the
point of intake.
 The disadvantages are :
 Ground water is often high in mineral content; it usually requires pumping.
 In ground-water-supply investigations and design, the engineer is concerned with
the following steps :
 to find it in the required quantity and quality as near as possible to the Centre of
consumption, in order to reduce transport costs ; to extract it by means of a
system which produces the quantity required, safeguards the quality, and, at the
same time, involves the least capital outlay to transport the water to the consumer
in a way which requires the least amount of operational and maintenance skill
and cost. This section is concerned chiefly with the first step mentioned above.
Obviously, a rural town or village cannot afford the cost involved in bringing
water long distances by gravity or, much less, by pumping water which will serve
a rural community must therefore be found within a rather limited area. A brief
discussion regarding the occurrence of ground water and the characteristics of
underground formations from which it can be extracted may be valuable to the
designing engineer.
4. Manual drilling techniques.
 THE HAND AUGER consists of extendable steel rods, rotated by a handle. A
number of different steel augers (drill bits) can be attached at the end of the drill
rods. The augers are rotated into the ground until they are filled, then lifted out of
the borehole to be emptied. Specialized augers can be used for different
formations (soil types). Above the water table, the borehole generally stays open
without the need for support. Below the water table a temporary casing may be
used to prevent borehole collapsing. Drilling continues inside the temporary
casing using a bailer until the desired depth is reached. The permanent well
casing is then installed and the temporary casing must be removed. Augers can
be used up to a depth of about 15-25 meters, depending on the geology.
Advantage: easy to use above groundwater table. Cheap equipment.
Disadvantage: it may be difficult to remove the temporary casing. Geological
application: Sand, silt & soft clay.
 SLUDGING (or Rota-sludging) when the drill bit is rotated) uses water
circulation to bring the drilled soil up to the surface. The drill pipes are moved up
and down. On the down stroke, the impact of the drill bit loosens the soil and on
the up stroke, the top of the pipe is closed by hand (or valve), drawing up the
water through the pipe and transporting the cuttings to the surface. On the next
down stroke, the hand (valve) opens the top of the pipe and the water squirts into
a pit, in front of the well. In this pit, the cuttings separate from the water and
settle out, while the water overflows from the pit back into the well. The borehole
stays open by water pressure. Thickeners (additives) can be added to the water to
prevent hole collapse and reduce loss of working water (drill fluid). Sludging can
be used up to depths of about 35 meters. Advantage: easy to use and temporary
casing is not needed. Disadvantage: working water has to be maintained during
the drilling process. The level of the water table is not known during drilling.
Geological application: Sand, silt, clay, stiff clay and softer consolidated rock
formations (weathered laterite).
 JETTING is based on water circulation and water pressure. As opposed to
sludging, water is pumped down the drilling pipes. The large volume of water has
an erosive eff ect at the bottom and the ‘slurry’ (water and cuttings) are
transported up between the drill pipe and the borehole wall. A motor pump is
 used to achieve an adequate water fl ow. The drill pipe may simply have an open
end, or a drill bit can be added and partial or full rotation of the drill pipe can be
used. Thickeners (additives) can be added to the water in order to prevent hole
collapse and reduce loss of working water (drill fl uid). Jetting (with rotation) is
generally used up to depths of 35- 45 meters. Advantage: very quick in sand.
Disadvantage: a lot of working is needed at once. The level of the water table is
not known during drilling. Geological application: limited to sand and thin layers
of soft clay.
 MANUAL PERCUSSION uses a heavy cutting or hammering bit attached to a
rope or cable and is lowered in the open bore hole or inside a temporary casing.
Usually a tripod is used to support the tools. By moving the rope or cable up and
down, the cutting or hammering bit loosens the soil or consolidated rock in the
borehole, which is then extracted by using a bailer. Just as with hand augering, a
temporary casing of steel or plastic may be used to prevent the hole from
collapsing. When the permanent well screen and casing are installed, this
temporary casing has to be removed. Manual percussion drilling is generally used
up to depths of 25 meters. Advantage: drills hard formations. Disadvantage: the
equipment can be heavy and expensive. The method is slow, compared to other
methods. Geological application: Sand, silt, stiff clays, sandstone, laterite, gravel
and small stones.
5. Application of hydropower plant in fluids.
 A submersible pump (or sub pump, electric submersible pump (ESP)) is a
device which has a hermetically sealed motor close-coupled to the pump body.
The whole assembly is submerged in the fluid to be pumped. The main advantage
of this type of pump is that it prevents pump cavitation, a problem associated
with a high elevation difference between pump and the fluid surface.
Submersible pumps push fluid to the surface as opposed to jet pumps which
create a vacuum and rely upon atmospheric pressure. Submersibles are more
efficient than jet pumps. Hydraulic submersible pumps (HSP's) use pressurised
fluid from the surface to drive a hydraulic motor downhole, rather than an
electric motor, and are used in heavy oil applications with heated water as the
motive fluid.
 Submersible pumps are found in many applications. Single stage pumps are used
for drainage, sewage pumping, general industrial pumping and slurry pumping.
They are also popular with pond filters. Multiple stage submersible pumps are
typically lowered down a borehole and most typically used for residential,
commercial, municipal and industrial water extraction (abstraction), water wells
and in oil wells.
 Other uses for submersible pumps include sewage treatment plants, seawater
handling, firefighting (since it is flame retardant cable), water well and deep well
drilling, offshore drilling rigs, artificial lifts, mine dewatering, and irrigation
systems.
 Pumps in electrical hazardous locations used for combustible liquids or for water
that may be contaminated with combustible liquids must be designed not to ignite
the liquid or vapors.
 Hydraulics, branch of science concerned with the practical applications of fluids,
primarily liquids, in motion. It is related to fluid mechanics (q.v.), which in large
part provides its theoretical foundation. Hydraulics deals with such matters as the
flow of liquids in pipes, rivers, and channels and their confinement by dams and
tanks. Some of its principles apply also to gases, usually in cases in which
variations in density are relatively small. Consequently, the scope of hydraulics
 extends to such mechanical devices as fans and gas turbines and to pneumatic
control systems.
 Liquids in motion or under pressure did useful work for man for many centuries
before French scientist-philosopher Blaise Pascal and Swiss physicist Daniel
Bernoulli formulated the laws on which modern hydraulic-power technology is
based. Pascal’s law, formulated in about 1650, states that pressure in a liquid is
transmitted equally in all directions; i.e, when water is made to fill a closed
container, the application of pressure at any point will be transmitted to all sides
of the container. In the hydraulic press, Pascal’s law is used to gain an increase in
force; a small force applied to a small piston in a small cylinder is transmitted
through a tube to a large cylinder, where it presses equally against all sides of the
cylinder, including the large piston.
 Bernoulli’s law, formulated about a century later, states that energy in a fluid is
due to elevation, motion, and pressure, and if there are no losses due to friction
and no work done, the sum of the energies remains constant. Thus, velocity
energy, deriving from motion, can be partly converted to pressure energy by
enlarging the cross section of a pipe, which slows down the flow but increases
the area against which the fluid is pressing.