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CIRCUITS
A closed conducting path through which an electric
current flows or is intended to flow
Parameters
The various elements of an electric circuit, like resistance, inductance,
and capacitance which may be lumped or distibuted.
TYPES
Passive Network
With no source of emf.
Active Network
Contains one or more than one sources of emf.
PARTS
Node
A junction in a circuit where two or more circuit elements and/or
branches are connected together.
Branch
Part of a network which lies netween two junctions.
Loop
A closed path in a circuit in which no element or node is encountered
more than once.
Mesh
A loop that contains no other loop within it.
SERIES/PARALLEL CIRCUITS
SERIES CIRCUITS
EX = ET • RX
RT
Where: EX – voltage across the resistor concerned
ET – total voltage across the circuit
RX – the resistor concerned
RT – the sum of all resistances in the circuit
SERIES/PARALLEL CIRCUITS
PARALLEL CIRCUITS
PARALLEL circuits
A circuit connection in which the components are
connected to form more than 1 conducting path
SERIES/PARALLEL CIRCUITS
PARALLEL CIRCUITS
IX = IT • Req
RT
Where: IX – current concerned flowing through resistor Rx
IT – total current of the circuit
Req – equivalent resistance of the parallel circuit except Rx
RT – the sum of all resistances in the circuit
SERIES/PARALLEL CIRCUITS
KIRCHHOFF’S LAW
KIRCHHOFF’S LAW
More comprehensive than Ohm’s Law and is used in solving electrical
Termed as “Laws of Electric Networks”
Formulated by German physicist Gustav Robert Kirchhof
NETWORK ANALYSIS
KIRCHHOFF’S CURRENT LAW
In short the sum of currents entering a node equals the sum
of currents leaving the node
⁻ Current towards the node, positive current
⁻ Current away from the node, negative current
IB + I C + I D = I A
(IB + IC + ID) - IA = 0
NETWORK ANALYSIS
KIRCHHOFF’S VOLTAGE LAW
Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL)
“The algebraic sum of the products of currents and resistances in
each of thr conductors in any closed path (or mesh) in a
network PLUS the algebraic sum of the emfs in the path is
zero.”
NETWORK ANALYSIS
KIRCHHOFF’S VOLTAGE LAW
In short, the sum of the voltages around the loop is equal to
zero
⁻ For voltage sources, if loops enters on minus and goes out on plus,
positive voltage and if loops enters on plus and goes out on minus,
negative voltage.
⁻ For voltage drops, if the loop direction is the same as current
direction, negative voltage drop and if the loop direction is opposite to
the current direction, positive voltage drop.
NETWORK ANALYSIS
MESH ANALYSIS
MESH analysis
A sophisticated application of KVL with mesh currents.
In general:
Number of network to analyze is equal to number of independent
sources.
To consider effects of each source independently, sources must be
removed and replaced without affecting the final result:
All voltage sources >> short circuited
All current sources >> open circuited
NETWORK ANALYSIS
COMPENSATION THEOREM
COMPENSATION theorem
If the impedance Z of a branch in a network in which a current I
flows is changed by a finite amount dZ, then the change in the
currents in all other branches of the network may be calculated
by inserting a voltage source of -IdZ into that branch with all
other voltage sources replaced by their internal impedances.
NETWORK ANALYSIS
RECIPROCITY THEOREM
RECIPROCITY theorem
“If a voltage source E acting in one branch of a network causes a
current I to flow in another branch of the network, then the same
voltage source E acting in the second branch would cause an identical
current I to flow in the first branch. ”
Simply mean,
E and I are mutually transferable, or
The receiving point and the sending point in a network are
interchangeable, or
Interchange of an IDEAL voltage source and an IDEAL ammeter in any
network will not change the ammeter reading,
Interchange of an IDEAL current source and an IDEAL voltmeter in any
network will not change the voltmeter reading
NETWORK ANALYSIS
MILLMAN’S THEOREM
MILLMAN’S theorem
“ A special case of the application of Thevenin’s Theorem/or
Norton’s Theorem used for finding the COMMON voltage (VAB)
across any network which contains a number of parallel voltage
sources. ”
NETWORK ANALYSIS
MAXIMUM POWER TRANSFER
THOREM
MAXIMUM POWER TRANSFER theorem
For loads connected directly to a DC voltage supply, maximum
power will be delivered to the load when the resistance is equal
to the internal resistance of the source.
For maximum power transfer: RS = RL
NETWORK ANALYSIS
THEVENIN’S THEOREM
THEVENIN’S theorem
“ Any two-terminal of a linear, active bilateral network of a
fixed resistances and voltage source/s may be replaced by a
single voltage source (VTH) and a series of internal resistance
(RTH). ”
where:
VTH – the open circuit voltage which appears across the two terminals from where
the load resistance has been removed.
RTH – the resistance looking back into the network across the two terminals with all
the voltage sources shorted and replaced by their internal resistances (if any) and all
current sources by infinite resistance.
NETWORK ANALYSIS
NORTON’S THEOREM
THEVENIN’S theorem
“ Any two-terminal active network containing voltage sources
and resistances when viewed from its output terminals, is
equivalent to a constant-current source (IN) and a parallel
internal resistance (RN). ”
where:
IN– the current which would flow in a short circuit placed across the output terminals.
RN – the resistance of the network when viewed from the open circuited terminals after
all voltage sources being replaced by open circuits.
NETWORK ANALYSIS
THEVENIN-NORTON
TRANSFORMATION
NETWORK ANALYSIS
NORTON-THEVENIN
TRANSFORMATION
NETWORK ANALYSIS
EQUIVALENT THREE-TERMINAL
NETWORKS
DELTA to WYE
The equivalent resistance of each arm to the wye is given by the
PRODUCT of the two delta sides that meet at its end divided by the
SUM of the three delta resistances.
NETWORK ANALYSIS
EQUIVALENT THREE-TERMINAL
NETWORKS
WYE to DELTA
The equivalent delta resistance between any two twrminals is given by the
SUM of a star resistance between those terminals PLUS the PRODUCT of
these two star resistances DIVIDED by the third resistance.
NETWORK ANALYSIS
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. A battery with a rating of 9 volts has an internal resistance of 20 ohms.
What is the expected resistance of the bulb that is connected across the
battery to attain a maximum power transfer?
a. 20 ohms
b. 10 ohms
c. 5 ohms
d. 2 ohms
2. In a sireis ciscuit a resistors 2200 and 4500 with an impressed voltage of 10,
what is the circuit current in mA?
a. 1.49
b. 6.67
c. 4.34
d. 1.34
REVIEW QUESTIONS
3. The current needed to operate a soldering iron which has a rating of
600 watts at 110 volts is.
a. 5.455 A
b. 66,000 A
c. 18,200 A
d. 0.182 A
4. The ammeter reads 230 ampere while the voltmeter is 115 volts.
What is the power inKW at the time of reading
a. 264.5
b. 2645
c. 264500
d.26.45
REVIEW QUESTIONS
5. What is the type of circuit whose parameters are constant
which do not change with voltage or current?
a. Lumped
b. Tuned
c. Reactive
d. Linear
18. Using ohms Law, what happens to the circuit current if the applied
voltage increases?
a. Current doubles
b. Current increases
c. Current remians constant
d. Current decreases
REVIEW QUESTIONS
19. According to ohms law, what happen to the circuit current if the
circuit resistance increases?
a. Current doubles
b. Current decreases
c. Current increases
d. Current remains constant
26. If the number of valence electrons of an atom is less than 4, the substance
is usually
a. Semiconductor
b. An insulator
c. A conductor
d. None of the above
REVIEW QUESTIONS
27. Electric current in a wire is the flow of
a. Free electrons
b. Valence electrons
c. Bound electrons
d. Atoms
38. Two incandecent lamps of 100 W, 200V are in parallel across the
200 V. The total resistance will be
a. 800 ohms
b. 200 ohms
c. 400 ohms
d. 600 ohms
REVIEW QUESTIONS
39. Three resistors are connected in parallel and draws 1A, 2.5A, and
3.5A, rspectively. If the applied voltage is 210V, what is the total
resistance of the circuit?
a. 5 ohms
b. 147 ohms
c. 3 ohms
d. 73.5 ohms
42. Of the following combination of units, the one that is not equal to
the watt is
a. Joule/sec
b. Ampere-volt
c. Ampere-ohm
d. Ohm/volt
REVIEW QUESTIONS
43. The power dissipated in a circuit is not equal to
a. VI
b. IR
c. V/R
d. IR/V
46. When a 100W, 240V, light bulb is operated at 200V, the current
that flows in it is
a. 0.35 A
b. 0.42 A
c. 0.5 A
d. 0.58 A
REVIEW QUESTIONS
47. The equivalent resistance of a network of three 2 ohm resistors
cannot be
a. 0.67 ohms
b. 1.5 ohms
c. 3 ohms
d. 6 ohms
52. In a simple DC power line, the wire that carries the current
from the generator to the load is called
a. Return wire
b. Feeder
c. Outgoing wire
d. Conductor
REVIEW QUESTIONS
53. A circuit in which the resistance are connected in a continuous run,
i.e., end-to-end is a _____ circuit.
a. Saries
b. Parallel
c. Series-parallel
d. None of these
Advantages of AC:
Magnitude can easily be changed (stepped-up or stepped down) with the use of a
transformer
Can be produced either single phase for light loads, two phase for control motors,
three phase for power distribution and large motor loads or six phase for large
scale AC to DC conversion.
BASIC AC THEORY
AC WAVEFORMS
BASIC AC THEORY
AC WAVEFORMS
Parameters of Alternating Signal
f = 1 λ = v
T f
BASIC AC THEORY
AC WAVEFORMS
BASIC AC THEORY
AC WAVEFORMS
AVERAGE AMPLITUDE – the mathematical “mean” of all a waveform’s points
over the period of one cycle. Technically, the average amplitude of any
waveform with equal-area portions above and below the “zero” line on a
graph is zero.
For a sine wave, the average value so calculated is approximately 0.637 of its
peak value.
BASIC AC THEORY
AC WAVEFORMS
RMS AMPLITUDE - “RMS” stands for Root Mean Square, and is a way of
expressing an AC quantity of voltage or current in terms functionally
equivalent to DC. Also known as the “equivalent” or “DC equivalent”
value of an AC voltage or current.
For a sine wave, the RMS value is approximately 0.707 of its peak value.
BASIC AC THEORY
AC WAVEFORMS
BASIC AC THEORY
AC QUANTITIES
BASIC AC THEORY
AC QUANTITIES
Inductive Reactance (XL)
• The property of the inductor to oppose the alternating current
XL = 2πfL
Inductive Susceptance (BL)
• Reciprocal of inductive reactance
BL = 1 BL = 1
XL 2πfL
Z = R + jXeq Z = |Z| ∠φ
Where: |Z| = √ R2 + X2
φ = Arctan Xeq
R
BASIC AC THEORY
AC QUANTITIES
If I = Im ∠β is the resulting current drawn by a passive, linear RLC circuit from
a source voltage V = Vm ∠θ, then
Z = V = Vm ∠θ = Z
∠φ
I Im ∠β
Z cosφ + jZsin φ = R + jX = √ R2 + X2 ∠ tan-1 X
R
BASIC AC THEORY
AC QUANTITIES
ADMITTANCE (Y)
The reciprocal of impedance
Expressed in siemens or mho (S)
Y = Im ∠ β – θ = Y = Ycos φy + jYsin φy = G + jB
Vm
Y = √ G2 + B2 ∠ tan-1 B
G
Impedance (Z) = R
With an AC circuit like this which is purely resistive, the relationship of the voltage
and current is as shown:
Because the current and voltage waves arae 90o out of phase, there sre times when one
is positive while the other is negative, resulting in equally frequent occurences of
negative instantaneous power.
Negative power means that the inductor is releasing power back to the circuit, while a
positive power means that it is absorbing power from the circuit.
The inductor releases just as much power back to the circuit as it absorbs over the span
of a complete cycle. AC CIRCUITS
AC INDUCTOR CIRCUIT
o Inductive reactance is the opposition that an inductor offers to alternating
current due to its phase-shifted storage and release of energy in its
magnetic field. Reactance is symbolized by the capital letter “X” and is
measured in ohms just like resistance (R).
AC CIRCUITS
AC CAPACITOR CIRCUIT
The most distinguishing electrical characteristics of an C circuit is that leads the voltage
by 90 electrical degrees
The current through a capacitor is a reaction against the change in voltage across it
A capacitor’s opposition to change in voltage translates to an opposition to alternating
voltage in general, which is by definition always changing in instantaneous magnitude
and direction. For any given magnitude of AC voltage at a given frequency, a capacitor
of given size will “conduct” a certain magnitude of AC current.
The phase angle of a capacitor’s opposition to current is -90 o,meaning that a capacitor’s
opposition to current is a negative imaginary quantity
AC CIRCUITS
AC CAPACITOR CIRCUIT
o Capacitive reactance is the opposition that a capacitor offers to alternating
current due to its phase-shifted storage and release of energy in its electric
field. Reactance is symbolized by the capital letter “X” and is measured in
ohms just like resistance (R).
AC CIRCUITS
SERIES RESITOR-INDCUTOR CIRCUIT
For a series resistor-inductor circuit, the voltage and current relation is
determined in its phase shift. Thus, current lags voltage by a phase shift
(θ)
AC CIRCUITS
SERIES RESISTOR-CAPACITOR CIRCUIT
For a series resistor – capacitor circuit, the voltage and current relation is
determined by the phase shift. Thus the current leads the voltage by an
angle less than 90 degrees but greater than 0 degrees.
AC CIRCUITS
PARALLEL RESISTOR-INDUCTOR
o When resistors and inductors are mixed together in parallel circuits (just
like in series cicuits), the total impedance will have a phase angle
somewhere between 0o and +90o. The circuit current will have a phase
angle somewhere between 0o and -90o.
AC CIRCUITS
PARALLEL RESISTOR-CAPACITOR
o When resistors and capacitors are mixxed together in circuits, the total
impedance will have a phase angle somewhere between 0 o and -90o.
AC CIRCUITS
APPARENT POWER (S)
APPARENT POWER
Represents the rate at which the total energy is supplied to the
system
Measured in volt-amperes (VA)
It has two components, the Real Power and the Capacitive or
Inductive Reactive Power
POWER IN AC CIRCUITS
APPARENT POWER (S)
Power Triangle
Complex Power
S = P ± jQ
POWER IN AC CIRCUITS
REAL POWER (R)
REAL POWER
The power consumed by the resistive component
Also called True Power, Useful Power and Productive Power
Measured in Watts (W)
It is equal to the product of the apparent power and the power factor
P = Scos θ
Power Factor
Cosine of the power factor angle (θ)
Measure of the power that is dissipated by the cicuit in relation to the
apparent power and is usually given as a decimal or percentage
Pf = cos θ
POWER IN AC CIRCUITS
REAL POWER (R)
Ratio of the Real Power to the Apparent Power P
( )
S
when:
Pf = 1.0 I is in phase with V; resistive system
Pf = lagging I lags V by θ; inductive system
Pf = leading I leads V by θ; capacitive system
Pf = 0.0 lag I lags V by 90o; purely inductive
PowerPffactor
= 0.0 lead
Angle (θ) I leads V by 90o; purely capacitive
The angle between the apparent power and the real poweer in the power triangle
Where: θ = phase shfit between v(t) and i(t) or the phase angle of the
equivalent impedance
POWER IN AC CIRCUITS
REACTIVE POWER (QL or QC)
REACTIVE POWER
Represents the rate at which energy is stored or released in any of the
energy storing elements (the inductor or the capacitor)
Also called the imaginary power, non-productive or wattless power
Measured in volt-ampere reactive (Var)
When the capacitor and inductor are both present, the reactive power
associated with them take opposite signs since they do not store or
release energy at the same time
It is positive for inductive power (QL) and negative for capacitive power
(QC) Q = V I sin θ
m m
Reactive factor
Ratio of the Reactive Power to the Apparent Power
Sine of the power factor angle (θ)
Rf = sin θ
POWER IN AC CIRCUITS
BALANCED THREE PHASE SYSTEMS
BALANCED 3-PHASE SYSTEM
Comprises of three identical single-phase systems operating at a 120o
phase displacement from one another. This means that a balance three-
phase system provides three voltages(and currents) that are equal in
magnitude and separated by 120o from each other
CLASSIFICATION
Three-Phase, 3-wire systems
Provide only one type of voltage(line to line) both single phase and
three phase loads
BALANCED ∆-system
IL = √3 IP and VLL = VLN
THREE-PHASE
VJH POWER
P = 3VPIPcos θ = √3 VLIL cos θ watts
Q = 3VPIPsin θ = √3 VLIL sin θ vars
S = 3VPIP = √3 VLIL va
2. Term used for the out of phase, non-productive power associated with
inductors and capacitors.
a. Effective power
b. True power
c. Reactive power
d. Peak envelope power
REVIEW QUESTIONS
3. Refers to a reactive power.
a. Wattles, non productive power
b. Power consumed in circuit Q
c. Power loss because of capacitor leakage
d. Power consumed in wire resistance in an inductor
14. Find the phase angle between the voltage across through the cicuit
when Xc is 25ohms, R is 100 ohms and XL is 50 ohms.
a. 76 deg with the voltage leading the current
b. 24 deg with the voltage lagging the current
c. 14 deg with the voltage lagging the current
d. 76 deg with the voltage lagging the current
REVIEW QUESTIONS
15. Calculate the period of an alternating current having a equation of
I=20sin 120πt
a. 4.167 ms
b. 8.33 ms
c. 16.67 ms
d. 33.33 ms
18. If an AC signal has a peak voltage of 55V, what is the average value?
a. 34.98 V
b. 61.05V
c. 86.34 V
d. 38.89 V
REVIEW QUESTIONS
19. If an AC signal has an average voltage of 18V, what is the rms
voltage?
a. 12.726 V
b. 19.980 V
c. 25.380 V
d. 16.213 V
22.What is the time constant of a 500mH coil and a 3300 ohm resistor in
series?
a. 0.00015 sec
b. 6.6 sec
c. 0.0015 sec
d. 0.0000015 sec
REVIEW QUESTIONS
23. What is the realtionship between frequency and the value of XC ?
a. Frequency has no effect
b. XC varies inversely with frequency
c. XC varies indirectly with frequency
d. XC varies directly with frequency
30. In a pure resistive circuit, the instantaneous voltage and are current are
given by:
v=250 sin 314t i=10sin314t
The peak power in the circuit is
a.1250 W
b. 25 W
c. 2500 W
d. 250 w
REVIEW QUESTIONS
31. An average value of 6.63 A is _____ the effective value of 7.07 A.
a. The same area
b. Less than
c. Greater than
d. Any of these
32. In an R-L series circuit, the resistance is 10 ohms and the inductive
reactance is 10 ohms. The phase angle between the applied voltage
and circuit current will be
a. 45 deg
b. 30 deg
c. 60 deg
d. 36.8 deg
REVIEW QUESTIONS
33.An R-L series ac circuit has 15V across the resistor and 20V across
the inductor. The supply volatge is
a. 35 V
b. 5 V
c. 25 V
d. 175 V
34. The active and reactive powers of an inductive circuit are equal.
The power factor of the circuit is
a. 0.8 lagging
b. 0.707 lagging
c. 0.6 lagging
d. 0.5 lagging
REVIEW QUESTIONS
35. A circuit when connected to 200V mains takes a current of 20 A, leading
the voltage by one-twelfth of time period. The circuit resistance is
a. 10 ohms
b. 8.66 ohms
c. 20 ohms
d. 17.32 ohms
40. An inductive circuit of resistance 16.5 ohms and inductive of 0.14H takes a
current of 25 A. If the frequency is 50Hz, the supply voltage is
a. 117.4 V
b. 1174 V
c. 1714 V
d. 1471 V
REVIEW QUESTIONS
41. The current taken by a circuit is 1.2 A when the applied potential
difference is 250 V and the power taken is 135W. The power factor is
a. 0.35
b. 0.45
c. 0.55
d. 0.65
52. Find the half power bandwidth of a parallel resonant circuit which
has a resonant frequency of 3.6MHz and Q of 218.
a. 606 kHz
b. 58.7 kHz
c. 16.5 kHz
d. 47.3 kHz
REVIEW QUESTIONS
53. At series resonance _____ .
a. Circuit impedance is very large
b. Cicuit power factor is minimum
c. Voltage across L or C is zero
d. Circuit power factor is unity