J. Global Business Advancement, Vol. 10, No.

5, 2017 483

Exploring the impact of training and career

development on employee retention: the moderating
effect of person–organisation fit

Khawaja Jehanzeb*
Department of Management,
College of Business Administration,
King Saud University,
P.O. Box 71115, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
and
Faculty of Management,
Universiti Teknologi Malaysia,
P.O. Box 54100, UTM Skudai, Johor, Malaysia
Email: kjehanzeb@ksu.edu.sa
*Corresponding author

Abdullah M. Aldakhil
Department of Management,
College of Business Administration,
King Saud University,
P.O. Box 71115, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
Email: aaldakhil@ksu.edu.sa

Abu Bakar Abdul Hamid

Faculty of Management,
Universiti Teknologi Malaysia,
P.O. Box 54100, UTM Skudai, Johor, Malaysia
Email: bakarhamid3030@yahoo.com

Saif-Ur-Rehman Khan
College of Business Administration,
University of Modern Sciences,
P.O. Box 231931, Dubai, UAE
Email: doctor.saifkhan@yahoo.com
Abstract: The purpose of this study is to examine the impact of the availability
of training and career development programs on job satisfaction and the
relationship of the latter with employee retention. It also examines the
moderating effect of person–organisation (P–O) fit on the relationship between
job satisfaction and employee retention. Structural equation modelling (SEM)
technique was employed to test the hypotheses. 157 responses were finally
selected from public and private banks operating in three major cities of

Copyright © 2017 Inderscience Enterprises Ltd.

228 K. Jehanzeb et
228 al.
Pakistan (i.e., Islamabad, Lahore, and Karachi). A significant relationship is
found between three variables: availability of training, career development
programs and job satisfaction. However, an insignificant relationship is found
between the availability of training, career development programs and
employee retention. Moreover, the results indicate that P–O fit moderates the
relationship between job satisfaction and employee retention. The implications
for research and practice are also discussed.

Keywords: training; career development; person–organisation fit; job

satisfaction; retention.

Reference to this paper should be made as follows: Jehanzeb, K.,

Aldakhil, A.M., Hamid, A.B.A. and Khan, S-U-R. (2017) ‘Exploring the impact
of training and career development on employee retention: the moderating
effect of person–organisation fit’, J. Global Business Advancement, Vol. 10,
No. 5, pp.483–505.

Biographical notes: Khawaja Jehanzeb is a Researcher in the Department of

Management at King Saud University, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. He earned
his PhD in Management from Universiti Teknologi Malaysia (UTM), Malaysia.
He has published numerous articles in high quality academic journals in the
discipline of Organizational Behaviour and Human Resource Management. His
research interests are human resource management, training & development,
performance management, and general management.

Abdullah M. Aldakhil is an Assistant Professor in the Department of

Management at the King Saud University, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. He
received his PhD in Information Operations and Technology Management,
University of Toledo, Ohio, USA. His research interests are Operations
Management, Supply Chain Management and Employee Engagement.

Abu Bakar Abdul Hamid is a Professor of Marketing and Supply Chain at the
International Business School, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia. He received his
PhD from University of Derby, UK. His research interests are supply chain
management, marketing, E-commerce, SMEs, purchasing and logistics.

Saif-Ur-Rehman Khan is currently working as an Associate Professor at the

College of Business Administration, University of Modern Sciences, Dubai,
UAE. In 2006, he received PhD in Human Resource Development from
National University of Modern Languages, Islamabad, Pakistan. In 2015, he
received PhD in Accounting from University Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.
His research area includes accounting and finance, corporate governance,
project management, strategic and risk management and human resource
management.

1 Introduction

Currently, organisations are required to effectively respond to continuous technological

change, the elimination of trade barriers, globalisation and instability in customer demand
(Luoma, 2000). This continuous change has confronted organisations with the need to
 Exploring the impact of training and career development 229
229
understand how to manage businesses effectively in an uncertain business environment.
Such unpredictable challenges have generated the need for learning organisations.
Therefore, to retain the value of human capital, organisations are required to invest in
employees’ training and development programs (Blunch and Castro, 2005).
Banking organisations perform a significant role in the development of the economy,
and their employees are the source of providing better quality services to customers
(Khan et al., 2011). Banks allocate the use of capital for high-value activities, such as risk
management and maintaining cost factors to produce economic activities (Jaffe and
Mark, 2001; Wachtel, 2001). The execution of analytical tasks motivates the banking
sector to implement training and career development (T&CD) programs designed to
enhance employee development in all stages (Khan et al., 2011). Training is
recommended in different areas, such as operational risk, asset quality, risk management
and time management (Anwar, 2012).
One of the serious challenges developing countries face is the shortage of skilled,
educated, and trained employees, particularly managers. This shortage invites businesses
and governments to pay more attention to providing necessary training programs
(Al-Madhoun and Analoui, 2003). It is stated that “Bank failure is increasingly becoming
an issue in a variety of developing countries” (Feltenstein, 2000, p.3). Similarly, “In the
21st century, human resource management is still being ignored in the growing banking
sector of Pakistan” (Saleem et al., 2012, p.1). According to the investigations conducted
by quality assurance professionals, losses resulting from poor quality services run almost
in billions of Rupees, which has been ignored by most of the banking organisations in
Pakistan (Khan, 2009).
This research supports the concept of T&CD, which is positively related to a number
of desired outcomes, such as job satisfaction and employee retention. While a number of
studies have been conducted in Western context (Klein, 2001; Patrick and Owens, 2006;
Turek and Wojtczuk-Turek, 2015), research conducted on the relationship between
training and retention is limited in Pakistan. This study is an attempt to fill the research
gap that exists in the literature that addresses employee training, career development and
employee retention related to developing countries, particularly in the context of
organisations in Pakistan (Ashar et al., 2013). Moreover, this study extends the research
recommended by researchers to examine the moderating effect of person–organisation
(P–O) fit on the relationship between job satisfaction and employee retention (Chang et
al., 2010; Newman et al., 2011).
This study contributes to the discussed theory and practice in a number of ways. First,
it extends to Pakistan the work on the relationship between employee perceptions of
T&CD and job satisfaction. Secondly, the results enable researchers to understand
whether T&CD provision helps banking organisation to enhance employee retention
based on their determined level of P–O fit. Thirdly, this study will help banking
organisations to better tailor their T&CD provision to enhance employee retention.
To demonstrate how banking organisations enhance employee retention, we explore the
relationship between training, career development and employee retention which has
been used previously (Lowry et al., 2002; Rowden and Conine, 2005; Wang and Hwang,
2012).
230 K. Jehanzeb et
230 al.
2 Literature review

2.1 Availability of training

Training is a planned activity conducted by the organisation to transfer job knowledge
and skills, and to improve the attitude and behaviour of employees in a way that is
consistent with organisational goals (Noe, 2012). Employees who have been provided
with training opportunities are more satisfied with their jobs than those who have not.
An effective training program produces better quality services, increased job satisfaction
and decreased employee turnover (Newman et al., 2011). In addition, availability of
training reassures employees that their organisations are take interest in their well-being,
leading to greater employee satisfaction and decreased turnover (Acton and Golden,
2003; Jehanzeb et al., 2013). This type of organisational support produces an emotional
state of responsibility, and feelings of satisfaction with the organisation.
Training increases long-term employment, and creates a distinctive position in the
market where organisations provide superior service. Together, these factors result in
continuous improvement, increased efficiency and organisational profitability (Jehanzeb
and Bashir, 2013; Ubeda-Garcia et al., 2013). Training helps build skilled and
experienced employees, who are accountable for creating a learning environment and
assisting their organisations in improving performance. Employees believe that
participating in training programs will lead to increased task significance, job enrichment
and greater satisfaction (Diamantidis and Chatzoglou, 2012). However, one school of
thought teaches that training increases employee turnover, while another suggests that
training is a tool that leads to high employee retention (Colarelli and Montei, 1996).

2.2 Career development program

Career development refers to an individual’s long-term personal and professional growth
(London, 1993). A career development program involves in an organised, formalised and
planned effort to accomplish a balance between the individual’s career needs and the
workforce requirements of the organisation (Lips-Wiersma and Hall, 2007). Accordingly,
organisations provide development programs to ensure that employees have the required
knowledge, skills and abilities to be successful (Butler and Waldrop, 2001). Career
planning should be established on the basis of facilitating employee success by providing
suitable and valuable career paths (Birasnav and Rangnekar, 2012).
Today, organisations do not provide favourable environments for long-term job
security, but often assist employees in maintaining their skills, and thereby in retaining an
advantage in the job market (Moses, 1999). The poor economic condition is also leading
the organisations towards restructuring and downsizing which negatively affect the
concept of career needs (Baruch, 2004). Employees should be provided with experience
according to their desired career path, and given the opportunity to follow their selected
careers (Baruch, 2004). Because organisations strengthen their bonds with employees by
financing their various career development stages (Choi et al., 2012; DeCenzo and
Robbins, 2010), and are trying to retain their most skilled employees, as they are the
source of achieving organisational goals (Davis, 2015).
Noe and Wilk (1993) described three types of benefits that might be received from
training programs. These are individual, work-related and career benefits. First,
individual benefits indicate the degree to which employees perceive that participation in
 Exploring the impact of training and career development 231
231
training programs will help improve job performance and encourage advancement
towards personal growth. Secondly, career benefits result from contribution in training
programs, and lead to understanding career goals, attaining career objectives and earning
opportunities to purse innovative career tracks. Thirdly, work-related benefits help
participants improve relations with colleagues, subordinates and supervisors.

2.3 Job satisfaction

Job satisfaction is defined as “an attitude that individuals have about their jobs. It results
from their perception of their jobs and the degree to which there is a good fit between the
individual and the organisation” (Ivancevich et al., 1997, p.91). Job satisfaction is a
complete assessment of an employee’s work and job related activities, influenced by the
individual’s beliefs, ideas and opinions (Chan et al., 2004; Hsieh and Huang, 2017).
There is no single comprehensive job satisfaction description; however, it is usually
considered an emotional reaction to the job, or to fellow employees’ behaviour
(Weiss et al., 1999). Many organisational studies have been conducted to examine
why some employees are more satisfied with their jobs than others (Ellickson, 2002).
Today, organisations are seeking intervention methods that will increase employee job
satisfaction.
The relationship between job satisfaction and job design has been tested primarily
through a tool called the Job Diagnostic Survey. Hackman and Oldman (1980) developed
the Job Diagnostic Survey to measure employee perception in five job dimensions: task
identity, autonomy, skill variety, task significance and feedback (Pierce et al., 1986). The
efforts in studying the area of job satisfaction have been sustained for a number of
reasons, including
• job turnover, employee behaviour, absenteeism and work efficiency
• characteristics of employee titles, job diversity, role conflict and ambiguity and task
characteristics
• individual employee demographics such as age, sex, need for achievement and job
tenure (Arora et al., 2010).

2.4 Employee retention

Retention can be described as the capability to hire employees whom the organisation
considers long-term personnel (Johnson, 2000). Employee retention is a purposeful
organisational change made to develop a working environment that encourages
employees to stay in the organisation (George, 2015; Presbitero et al., 2016). To enhance
employee retention, research suggests that organisations must include effective training
programs that identify volunteer tasks, needs and opportunities (Seigel and DeLizia,
1994). Organisations truly need to consider financing T&CD programs for employee
retention (Leonard, 1998), as organisations that provide T&CD opportunities to their
employees are more successful in retaining them (Logan, 2000).
Research conducted at Sears shows that store branches where managers help
employees to develop professionally experience turnover rates that are 40–50% less than
those where this relationship is not available (Logan, 2000). This discussion reveals, as
most researchers agree, that employee training is a multifaceted human resource practice,
232 K. Jehanzeb et
232 al.
which positively influences organisational success. Research involving 30 managers from
six different companies found that workplace learning enhanced employee retention, and
that those employees who contributed to workplace learning had a 21% higher retention
rate than those who did not participate in training (Gershwin, 1996).

2.5 Person–organisation fit

Person–organisation (P–O) fit refers to the compatibility of individuals and organisations,
affirming that individuals and organisations contribute identical attributes and/or fulfil
one another’s needs (Kristof, 1996). This idea proposes that the attitudes and behaviours
of individuals are influenced by the degree to which the individual and organisation are
alike. It has been suggested that fit between individual and organisation is linked with
different attitudinal and behavioural results, such as job satisfaction and turnover
intentions (Wheeler et al., 2007; Boon and Biron, 2016).
The relationship between P–O fit and organisational training programs might be used
to predict employee turnover intentions. The concept of P–O fit is very important for the
individuals while selecting the organisation to work (Saks and Ashforth, 1997), for
recruiters in employee selection process (Kristof-Brown, 2000), and for the employee’s
commitment which affects their retention (Astakhova, 2016). These results propose that
employees are capable of matching their traits with those of organisations in order to
develop good P–O fit. Therefore, it is important to learn how P–O fit can be increased,
and how individual develop their perceptions about the value and working environment
of the organisation.

3 Hypotheses development

3.1 Relationship between availability of training and job satisfaction

Training positively influences employee efficiency, which results in a high level of job
satisfaction (Patrick and Owens, 2006). Similarly, a study on expatriate training shows a
significant positive relationship between expatriates’ training and job satisfaction
(Nauman, 1993). An employee’s positive attitude (i.e., job satisfaction) towards their
organisation yields high work efficiency, reduced absenteeism and increased employee
retention (Hock and Sam, 2012). Rowden and Conine (2005) conducted research in small
commercial US banks to examine the relationship between workplace learning and job
satisfaction. They discovered a significant relationship between workplace learning and
job satisfaction, as well as a high correlation between learning opportunities and
employee job satisfaction. This leads to the following hypothesis:
H1: There is a positive relationship between availability of training and job
satisfaction.

3.2 Relationship between availability of training and employee retention

Training programs increase employees’ sense of attachment to stay with their
organisations long-term. One study demonstrated this principle by revealing that training
positively affects both job satisfaction and employee retention (Lowry et al., 2002).
 Exploring the impact of training and career development 233
233
Training is a significant tool for the successful achievement of organisational goals, as it
increases organisational efficiency (Konings and Vanormelingen, 2009). While skilled
and experienced employees are significant assets, organisations are currently facing
problems in retaining them. A research study conducted in 1994 suggests that
organisations can increase employee retention by delivering training programs that
differentiate between volunteer tasks and opportunities (Seigel and DeLizia, 1994).
This leads to the following hypothesis:
H2: There is a positive relationship between availability of training and employee
retention.

3.3 Relationship between career development program and job satisfaction

Employees who have career development opportunities feel more satisfied with their
organisations (Tansky and Cohen, 2001). The success of career development programs
can be calculated by the resulting employee satisfaction and retention rate (Wang and
Hwang, 2012). However, lack of training and promotional opportunities is the main cause
of high performers’ turnover (Allen et al., 2003). Kostera et al. (2011) suggested that
employee development programs affect job satisfaction in three ways. First, organisations
that provide development opportunities to employees are encouraging them to feel
emotionally committed to the organisation. By adopting this practice, organisations
develop a psychological contract between employees and employer, resulting in higher
job satisfaction (Georgellis and Lange, 2007). Secondly, job satisfaction is also higher
when employees perceive that organisations are concerned for the improvement of their
skills and competencies. Thirdly, opportunities for employees to develop new skills and
competencies increase their level of employability within and outside the organisation
(Lee and Bruvold, 2003) and thus increase their job satisfaction as well. This leads to the
following hypothesis:
H3: There is a positive relationship between career development programs and job
satisfaction.

3.4 Relationship between career development programs and employee retention

The research conducted on employee retention shows that retention is influenced by
different factors that must be managed properly, such as communication systems,
organisational strategy, salary and remunerations, training, flexible working hours and
career development programs (Logan, 2000). It is proposed by Eisen et al. (2005) those
organisations that have training and development programs gained a 70% increase in
employee retention. This study suggested that training methods are the best strategies for
retention, such as engaging employees in career progression, developmental prospects,
job incentives, better salary and helpful working environments. Amble (2006) concluded
that employee training programs are helpful in improving career development, job
satisfaction and retention. Therefore, this leads to the following hypothesis:
H4: There is a positive relationship between career development programs and
employee retention.
234 K. Jehanzeb et
234 al.
3.5 Relationship between job satisfaction and employee retention
Employees who are satisfied with their jobs have greater intentions of staying with their
organisations, resulting in a lower level of employee turnover (Logan, 2000; Jehanzeb
et al., 2015). A research study conducted in government hospitals of Malaysia suggests
that employees’ perception of their job satisfaction has a positive impact on employee
retention (Samad and Ysuuf, 2012). However, researchers argue that a negative
relationship is found between job satisfaction and employees turnover (Yücel, 2012).
Training becomes an essential part of the employee’s organisational life, and the
relationship between training, job satisfaction and employee retention becomes stronger.
Consistent with the results of earlier studies, a positive relationship is indicated between
job satisfaction (Patrick and Owens, 2006) and employee retention (Rowden and Conine,
2005). This leads to the following hypothesis:
H5: There is a positive relationship between job satisfaction and employee
retention.

3.6 Moderating effect of person–organisation (P–O) fit between job satisfaction

and employee retention
In the last two decades, studies have consistently supported that favourable outcomes are
related to P–O fit (Kristof, 1996). It is suggested that low P–O fit leads to decreased job
satisfaction, which is the main cause of employee turnover (Wheeler et al., 2005).
Alniaçik et al. (2013) conducted a research in cooperation with academic and
administrative staff members of higher education institutions in Turkey. The study
examined the moderating effect of P–O fit on the relationship between job satisfaction
and turnover intentions. The results demonstrated that the level of P–O fit significantly
moderates the effect of job satisfaction on turnover intentions. Therefore, it is expected
that P–O fit acts as a moderator between job satisfaction and employee retention.
This leads to the following hypothesis:
H6: P–O fit moderates the relationship between job satisfaction and employee
retention.

4 Research methodology

4.1 Data collection and sample

The fieldwork of the study was conducted in three major cities of Pakistan (i.e.,
Islamabad, Lahore and Karachi) from August to November 2014. First, researchers
collected phone numbers and addresses of bank branches (public and private)
from official websites. Secondly, one of our researchers personally distributed and
collected questionnaires to the total population sample. This approach was adopted in
order to build a strong relationship between researchers and the target population, and to
clarify any uncertainties respondents may have had about the survey questions (Sekaran,
2003).
 Exploring the impact of training and career development 235
235
In documenting this study, it is important to mention the reasons behind selecting the
sample population from the banking sector of Pakistan. First, the banking sector of
Pakistan plays a significant role in the development of the country’s economy, and is one
of the fastest developing service sectors (Hanif and Kamal, 2009). Secondly, the banking
sector performs a key role in developmental activities, such as offering financial
resources to public and private sectors for achieving developmental goals. Thirdly, there
is a lack of empirical research on T&CD, and their effects on employee retention in the
banking sector of Pakistan. These facts highlight the point that Pakistan, as a developing
country, would benefit from empirical studies in the field of T&CD, which may help
enhance employee retention.
A stratified sampling technique was used in this study. Respondents consisted of
13,986 banking sector employees from three major cities in Pakistan (Anwar, 2012).
A total of 140 questionnaires were sent to banking employees in Lahore and Islamabad,
and 60 questionnaires were sent to banking employees in Karachi, out of which 175
questionnaires were returned with a response rate of 87.5%. Of these, 18 responses were
excluded due to missing data, resulting in a total of 157 questionnaires for data analysis.
Table 1 summarises the demographic characteristics of the study sample. 80.9% of
respondents were male, and 19.1% were female. The highest respondent age range was
from 21–30 years. This demographic made up the majority of respondents at 65%.
In terms of education level, 69.4% of respondents had a Master’s degree, and 28% had a
Bachelor’s degree. The majority of employees, 62.4%, were hired on a contractual basis,
while 37.6% were permanent. In terms of total years of experience, 43.3% had
experience of 2–5 years, while only 7% had more than 10 years of experience. Finally,
35% of respondents were from private banks, and 65% were from public sector banks.

Table 1 Characteristics of the sample

Category Frequency Percentage

Gender
Male 127 80.9
Female 30 19.1
Nature of Job
Permanent 59 37.6
Contractual 98 62.4
Age group
21–30 years 102 65.0
31–40 years 48 30.6
41–50 years 5 3.2
Over 50 years 2 1.3
Qualification
Intermediate (F.A) 4 2.5
Bachelor (B.A) 44 28
Master 109 69.4
236236 K. Jehanzeb
et al.
Table 1 Characteristics of the sample (continued)

Category Frequency Percentage

Occupational tenure
Less than 1 year 25 15.9
2–5 years 68 43.3
6–10 years 53 33.8
More than 10 years 11 7.0
Type of bank
Public Bank 102 65.0
Private Bank 55 35.0
Name of City
Islamabad 80 51.0
Lahore 36 22.9
Karachi 41 26.1

4.2 Measurement
The data were collected by means of a structured questionnaire. The statements of the
questionnaire required the respondents to rate the importance of each statement on a
five-point Likert scale ranging from ‘strongly disagree’ (1) to ‘strongly agree’ (5).
Availability of training was measured using the scale suggested by Newman et al. (2011).
Career development programs was measured by adopting scale items from Sturges
et al. (2002), job satisfaction indicators were adopted from the study of Hackman and
Oldham (1975), and P–O fit was measured with scale items adopted from Cable and
Judge (1996). Finally, employee retention indicators were measured by adopting the scale
from the study of Seashore et al. (1982).

4.3 Control variables

Griffeth et al. (2000) recommended that employees’ age, nature of job and occupational
tenure may influence their turnover decisions. The occupational experience and length of
time working for an organisation could influence the effects of P–O fit (Kristof-Brown
et al., 2002). Therefore, we added age, nature of job and occupational tenure as control
variables (all measured in years).

5 Data analysis

5.1 Measurement model evaluations

A two-stage analysis process was adopted to test the measurement model. In the first
step, confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was performed by using AMOS 21 with
maximum likelihood estimation, in order to identify the pattern by which each measure
loads on a specific factor (Hair et al., 2006). In the second step, the structural regression
model was used to test the proposed conceptual model. Different fit measures, such as the
 Exploring the impact of training and career development 237
237
2
normed chi-square (χ /df), goodness-of-fit index (GFI), comparative fit index (CFI) and
root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA), were used to examine the model fit.
Table 2 shows the model fit statistics. The GFI is greater than the commonly
suggested 0.8 indicating a good fit to our model. The other model fit statistics, however,
look even more promising. The CFI is equal to 0.90, a common cut-off for goodness of
fit (Hair et al., 2006). The RMSEA is 0.08, indicating an adequate model fit (Browne and
Cudeck 1993).

Table 2 CFA fit statistics

χ2 df χ2/df GFI CFI RMSEA

Measurement model 558.43 265 2.10 0.81 0.90 0.08

Table 3 shows the factor loadings and Cronbach’s α of each construct (i.e., availability of
training, career development program, job satisfaction, P–O fit and employee retention).
Standardised factor loadings were used to determine the validity of the five constructs
(Anderson and Gerbing, 1988; Amin et al., 2013). The final measurement model contains
25 items, after eliminating four items with low factor loadings. The findings indicate that
each factor loading of reflective indicators ranged from 0.60 to 0.93, which exceeds the
recommended level of 0.50 (Hair et al., 2006).

Table 3 Validity and reliability of the measurement

 Factor
Items loadings α
Availability ofK.
238238 training
Jehanzeb 0.81
et
Myal.organisation provides its employees with opportunities to receive 0.61
in-house,
Table 1 job-specific training
Characteristics of the sample (continued)
My organisation provides opportunities to learn general skills and 0.79
knowledge, which may be helpful for employee career building
My organisation provides its employees opportunities to attend 0.83
general training programs and seminars outside the organisation
My organisation provides assistance with taking management training 0.73
programs in educational institutions outside the organisation
Career development program 0.93
My organisation provides training to help with developing my career 0.60
My organisation provides guidance that helps me improve my work 0.69
My organisation provides my career development plan 0.75
My organisation provides working assignments that develop my 0.85
career skills
My manager provides fair feedback on my performance 0.79
I am given fair career advice whenever I need it 0.93
My organisation provides me with a mentor to help my career 0.81
development
My manager introduces me to people who help build my career 0.80
238238 K. Jehanzeb
et al.
Table 3 Validity and reliability of the measurement (continued)

Factor
Items loadings α
Job satisfaction 0.88
I feel good about working in this organisation 0.77
Exploring
I feel secure about mythe
jobimpact of training and career development 0.75 239
239
I believe management is concerned about me 0.71
Overall, I believe work is good for my physical health 0.84
My wages are good 0.78
I feel good about my job 0.72
Person–organisation fit 0.80
My values match or fit with the values of this organisation 0.86
I am able to maintain my values at this organisation 0.76
My values prevent me from fitting in as an employee, because they 0.65
are different from the values of my organisation
Employee retention 0.81
I am likely to stay in this organisation for the next five years 0.66
I think this organisation is the best of all possible organisations to 0.79
work for
I will not give up my employment with this organisation easily 0.63
I am rarely interested in or looking for jobs outside my organisation 0.87

As the factor loadings of each item were >0.50, the convergent validity for each construct
was established, thereby providing evidence of validity for all constructs (Hair et al.,
2006). The coefficient α’s exceeded the minimum standard of 0.70, which indicated a
good estimate of internal consistency.
Table 4 shows the correlations between the latent variable and the average variance
extracted for each variable. The diagonal elements are the square root of the average
variance extracted (AVE), whereas the off-diagonal elements are the correlations
between the underlying constructs. The AVE was calculated by assessing convergent and
discriminant validity for the five constructs (Hair et al., 2006). As shown in Table 4, the
AVE ranged from 0.552 to 0.612 that exceeds the 0.5 benchmark for convergent validity
(Fornell and Larcker 1981; Hair et al., 2006). The square root of the AVE of each
variable is greater than the correlations between each variable, suggesting adequate
discriminant validity (Fornell and Larcker, 1981).

5.2 Structural regression model

Structural equation modelling (SEM) was employed by using AMOS 21 with maximum
likelihood estimation to test the research model (Barry and Goran, 2012). The fit indices
2 2
of the structural model were as follows: χ = 447.94; df = 203, χ /df = 2.20; GFI = 0.81;
CFI = 0.90; and RMSEA = 0.08. The results for all indices indicated that the model
provided a good fit to the data. The results of the structural model are presented in
Figure 1.
Table 4 Convergent and discriminant validity of the construct

CR AVE ER CDP JS AVT P–O fit

Employee retention 0.829 0.552 0.743 –
Career development 0.926 0.612 0.221 0.783 –
programs
Job satisfaction 0.894 0.584 0.404 0.690 0.765 –
Availability of training 0.830 0.552 0.099 0.433 0.433 0.743 –
Person–organisation fit 0.805 0.582 0.308 0.417 0.374 0.358 0.763
AVT: availability of training, CDP: career development program,
P–O fit: person–organisation fit, JS: job satisfaction, ER: employee retention.

Figure 1 Structural model of the study

*p < 0.05; **p < 0.01; ***p < 0.001.

5.3 Hypothesis testing

The hypothesised relationships were examined by structural model (see Figure 1)
using AMOS 21. It is proposed that the availability of T&CD programs interact with job
satisfaction to influence employee retention (see Figure 2). By using employee retention
as the dependent variable, we entered the control variables (i.e., age, nature of job and
occupational tenure) to observe their effects on employee retention. The results of the
structural model are presented in Table 5.
The results indicated that there is a significant relationship between availability of
training, career development program, and job satisfaction (β = 0.170, p < 0.05;
β = 0.637, p < 0.001, respectively). These results support proposed hypotheses 1 and 3.
Furthermore, the results show that T&CD programs are useful tools for enhancing
employee job satisfaction. This indicates that organisations should focus on HR practices
that enhance employees’ knowledge and skills through providing T&CD opportunities.
The results of our research indicated that there is insignificant relationship between
availability of training, career development program, and employee retention (β = –0.048,
p > 0.05; β = −0.034, p > 0.05, respectively). These results do not support proposed
Hypotheses 2 and 4. Therefore, in order to ensure that employees are satisfied with
T&CD programs, organisations must provide highly educated, supportive and qualified
240 K. Jehanzeb et
240 al.
trainers, courses that are well planned and feasible, and a positively applied learning
experience (Choo and Bowley, 2007).
The results of our study also indicate that there is a significant relationship between
job satisfaction and employee retention (β = 0.350, p < 0.001). This is in the support of
our proposed Hypothesis 5. The findings of the study suggested that T&CD opportunities
are not useful for enhancing employee retention in banking sector of Pakistan.
Furthermore, a significant relationship was found between employee age and job
satisfaction (β = −0.264, p < 0.001); however, an insignificant relationship was
found between job nature, occupational tenure, and employee retention (β = −0.090,
p > 0.05; β = 0.138, p > 0.05, respectively). In summary, hypothesised relationships H1,
H3 and H5 are supported by the results of our research, while H2 and H4 are not.

Table 5 Results of the structural model

Relationship Estimates S.E t p

AVT → JS 0.170 0.085 2.015 0.044
AVT → ER –0.048 0.077 –0.623 0.533
CDP → JS 0.637 0.114 5.574 0.000
CDP → ER –0.034 0.095 –0.364 0.716
JS → ER 0.350 0.104 3.381 0.000
Age → ER –0.264 0.075 –3.523 0.000
Tenure → ER 0.090 0.056 1.599 0.110
Job nature → ER 0.138 0.077 1.803 0.071
AVT: availability of training; CDP: career development program; JS: job satisfaction;
ER: employee retention.

Figure 2 Proposed model of the study

5.4 Moderation analysis

SEM was adopted by using AMOS 21 with maximum likelihood estimation to test the
moderation effect, as SEM provides allowances for measurement errors in the statistical
model. SEM techniques have long been accepted in place of the regression technique for
 Exploring the impact of training and career development 241
241
testing moderation effects, as it allows modelling of both measurement and structural
relationships, and yields better overall fit indices (Baron and Kenny, 1986).
The results of the moderation analysis are given in Table 6. The impact of the
moderator is determined by whether a significant relationship is found between the
interaction term and the dependent variable. In this case, the result suggests that there is a
significant relationship between the interaction term (i.e., JS × P–O fit) and employee
retention (β = 0.096, p = 0.016 < 0.05). Therefore, the results show that P–O fit has a
moderating effect on the relationship between job satisfaction and employee retention.

Table 6 Moderation analysis

Relationship Estimate SE CR P Result

JS → ER 0.501 0.067 7.447 ***
P–O fit → ER 0.452 0.081 5.599 ***
JS× P–O fit → ER 0.096 0.040 2.410 0.016 Significant

To illustrate the findings, the sample was divided into low and high groups of P–O fit
(see Figure 3). It is evident from Figure 3 data that the relationship between job
satisfaction and employee retention is stronger for high P–O fit; and weaker for low
P–O fit. This proves that P–O fit moderates the relationship between job satisfaction and
employee retention. This supports proposed Hypothesis 6.

Figure 3 Moderation effect of P–O fit between JS and ER (see online version for colours)

6 Discussion and implications

This preliminary study on the banking sector of Pakistan has provided a great
understanding of the impact of T&CD on employee retention. In order for an organisation
to ensure employee satisfaction, it must provide adequate T&CD programs. The findings
from this study present banking sector organisations with tremendous opportunities
242 K. Jehanzeb et
242 al.
to train and develop their employees, and to encourage long-term organisational
commitment. Well-trained, highly motivated, experienced and productive employees
have the potential to serve as favourable candidates for these banking organisations.
The results of our study have important managerial implications. The findings
provide indicative guidance to banking organisations desiring to increase job satisfaction
and employee retention. First, our research confirms a positive relationship between the
availability of training, career development and job satisfaction. This is consistent with
the social exchange theory (Settoon et al., 1996), and endorsed the findings of earlier
studies (e.g., Meyer and Allen, 1991; Patrick and Owens, 2006). Our findings emphasise
the importance of Pakistani banking organisations to improving employee perceptions
about T&CD opportunities, and enhancing employees’ expectations in these two areas of
organisational development (Bartlett, 2001; Ahmad and Bakar 2003). This can be achieve
by promoting and providing support to managers who communicate the importance of
T&CD opportunities to their subordinates.
Secondly, the insignificant relationship between availability of training, career
development programs and employee retention indicates that in the banking sector of
Pakistan, provisions for T&CD might not be useful for enhancing employee retention. To
achieve greater employee retention, banking organisations should consider other helpful
factors, such as salary and fringe benefits. Previous research confirms that these extrinsic
factors may play a significant role in enhancing employee retention (Dale-Olsen, 2006;
Artz, 2010). Meanwhile, some earlier studies also suggested a weak relationship between
training and employee retention. These studies revealed that employees are more likely to
leave their organisations if they are not provided with training opportunities (e.g., Veum,
1997; Sheng, 2003).
Thirdly, our findings reveal that job satisfaction positively influences employee
retention. This confirms the results of earlier studies, which have suggested a significant
relationship between job satisfaction and employee retention (e.g., Rowden and Conine,
2005; Samad and Ysuuf, 2012; Yücel, 2012). From a practical point of view, employers
may benefit from encouraging employees to consider the organisation as a family/
in-group (Chen and Francesco, 2000), for whom they would be more willing to invest
their long-term efforts. This might then be manifested in greater employee commitment,
and stronger employee intention to stay with their organisations. Banking organisations
should therefore encourage their employees to participate in identifying organisational
goals, missions and values.
Fourthly, our results show that P–O fit has a significant effect as a moderator on the
relationship between job satisfaction and employee retention. To strengthen this
relationship, organisations should routinely assess P–O fit by using an evaluation
tool (e.g., Cable and DeRue, 2002) in order to decrease their turnover (Lauver and
Kristof-Brown, 2001). In addition to using several tools to select employees with a high
P–O fit, the assessment between job applicants’ value and those of the organisation
should also be evaluated. To increase the employees’ P–O fit, HR managers should
ensure that the details of corporate culture are made as clear as possible through internal
publications, social events, executive presentations and formal training courses (Erdogan
and Bauer, 2005).
 Exploring the impact of training and career development 243
243
7 Research limitations

This study has four inherent limitations. First, the career needs and career awareness
stages of banking personnel may vary over time. Due to obvious time and resource
constraints, this study has undertaken only a static investigation of banking personnel,
with no dynamic examination of this same group of people over time (Chen et al., 2004).
Secondly, we believe that the low survey response rate in our study is because banking
employees may have been provided with similar questionnaires in the past (Baruch,
1999). We experienced great difficulty in generating a representative sample for this
study, as we relied heavily on the support of individual bank branches in distributing
questionnaires to their staff. Thirdly, the availability and number of studies on the
relationship between T&CD and employee retention establishes its importance and
multi-dimensionality. Not all these aspects and variables can be covered in one study, and
they far exceed the limitations of our own research.

8 Recommendations for future research

We would like to make four suggestions for future research. First, future studies are
needed to examine the varying effects of different types of T&CD programs with their
respective approaches, philosophies, and styles on employee retention (Choo and
Bowley, 2007). Secondly, further research is needed across different geographical
settings and across different industries before these results can be generalised (Schuler
et al., 1993). Thirdly, future research would be useful to examine the impact of job
satisfaction on other key outcome variables (i.e., organisational citizenship behaviour,
work performance) both in Pakistan and in other Asian countries (Newman et al., 2011;
Rasheed et al., 2015). Finally, we recommend examining the moderating influence of
person-job fit or person-group fit on the relationship between job satisfaction and
employee retention (Chang et al., 2010).

9 Conclusion

In this study, we examine the relationship between T&CD and job satisfaction, and the
relationship of the latter with employee retention in banking sector of Pakistan. We also
examine the moderating effect of P–O fit on the relationship between job satisfaction and
employee retention. A significant relationship was established between three variables:
availability of training, career development program, and job satisfaction. However,
availability of T&CD programs has an insignificant relationship with employee retention
(Rosenwald, 2000). The findings of our research reinforced the results of earlier studies
conducted in Western countries (e.g., Lowry et al., 2002; Kristof-Brown et al., 2005;
Rowden and Conine, 2005; Wheeler et al., 2005; Wang and Hwang, 2012). Overall, the
study contributes to the current available literature of employee retention by pointing out
that availability of T&CD opportunities enhances employees’ job satisfaction. Therefore,
the finding of the study suggested that management of the banks should be caring in
providing T&CD opportunities to employees to enhance their satisfaction. This
satisfaction towards the bank will help them to perform their job tasks in a better way
which will later enhance the performance of the banks.
244 K. Jehanzeb et
244 al.
Acknowledgements

The authors extend their appreciation to the Deanship of Scientific Research at King
Saud University represented by the Research Centre in the College of Business
Administration for financially supporting this research.

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