Methods o f R e s e a r c h

L e c t ure Compilation

C o m p ile d b y : A .M S o m o r a y
 C h a p te r 1 : O V E R V IE W O F R E S E A R C H

R e s e a r c h is in e v ita b le , th e th in g s t h a t w e e n jo y a t p r e s e n t a r e a n o u tc o m e o f a n in q u is itiv e
m in d s . T h o s e in te lle c tu a l h e r o e s m a y h a v e in v e s te d a c o n s id e r a b le le n g th o f tim e , e f f o r t, m o n e y a n d
v a r io u s r e s o u r c e s in o r d e r to in v e n t, d is c o v e r o f f in d o u t n e w k n o w le d g e a n d th in g s f o r th e b e n e f it
o f h u m a n ity .

In th e d ia g n o s is o f v a r io u s d is e a s e s , n e w te c h n o lo g ie s , n e w m e d ic in e s a r e b e in g d e v e lo p e d
a n d d is c o v e r e d to tr e a t s o m e k ille r d is e a s e s lik e c a n c e r , tu b e r c u lo s is a n d m o r e .
C h ild r e n o n th e o th e r h a n d a r e n o w e n jo y in g th e n e w ta s te o f m e d ic in e s lik e s tr a w b e r r y ,
c h e r r y , o r a n g e th a t d e lig h ts th e m .
T h e r e a r e n e w tr e n d s in th e f ie ld o f m e d ic in e s u c h a s c o s m e tic s u r g e r y , a r tif ic ia l h u m a n
in s e m in a t io n , la s e r s u r g e r y a n d m o r e . ( D r .R o n n ie B o u in g )

In th e f ie ld o f A g r ic u ltu r e :
In th e e a r ly d a y s , a m in im u m s a c k o f r ic e w e r e b e in g h a r v e s te d b e c a u s e o f th e m a n u a l
m a c h in e r ie s a n d m a n u a l s y s te m o f ir r ig a tio n . R e s e a r c h m a d e a ll th in g s p o s s ib le in th e f ie ld o f
a g r ic u ltu r e f r o m a n e w te c h n o lo g y b e in g d e v e lo p e d in ir r ig a tio n , p la n tin g a n d h a r v e s ti n g . A n e w
b r e e d o f c ro p s , a n e w tr e n d s in a n im a l r a is in g , c r o s s b r e e d in g , a n e w f e e d s b e in g d e v e lo p e d to
s p e e d u p th e g r o w th o f p o u ltr y a n d h o g s , a r tif ic ia l in s e m in a tio n a n d m o r e .

In th e f ie ld o f B u s in e s s

A n e w c o n c e p t w e r e d e v e lo p a p r o d u c t t o s u it t h e c o n s u m e r ’s p r e f e r e n c e s a n d n e e d s .
E x a m p le s a r e a n e w s c e n t o f a la u n d r y s o a p fr o m c a la m a n s i t o f lo r a l, d if f e r e n t f la v o u r s o f in s t a n t
ju ic e s .
R e s e a r c h e r s h a v e a lr e a d y d e v e lo p e d a d e v ic e th a t a llo w s y o u to s e e th r o u g h e ig h t -in c h -
th ic k c o n c r e te w a lls , b u t n o w , s c ie n t is ts h a v e d e v is e d a n o th e r w a y to r e v e a l o b je c ts th a t a r e h id d e n
f r o m v ie w : a c a m e r a th a t c a n s e e a r o u n d c o r n e r s.
H a v e y o u h e a r d a b o u t a v ir tu a l s u p e r m a r k e t s h o p p in g ?

In th e f ie ld o f In f o r m a tio n T e c h n o lo g y

In th e e a r lie r tim e s , c o m m u n ic a tio n ta k e s a v e r y lo n g a n d s lo w p r o c e s s o n h o w to r e la y o f

m e s s a g e s to s o m e o n e . N o w a d a y s , c o m m u n ic a tin g w it h o u r f a m ily a n d f r ie n d s a c r o s s c o n tin e n ts

w o u ld o n ly ta k e a f e w s e c o n d s , w e c a n e v e n s e e th e m w h ile c o m m u n ic a tin g w ith o u t th e e x p e n s e o f

a lo n g d is ta n c e c a ll.

T h is c o n v e n ie n c e s h o w s th e a d v a n c e d te c h n o lo g y p r e v a le n t in o u r g lo b a l c o m m u n ity .

C e a s e le s s in n o v a tio n s s u c h a s c e llp h o n e s , la p to p s , n o te b o o k s , ta b le ts , w i -f i, p la s tic m o n e y a r e n o w a

p a r t o f o u r e v e r y d a y liv e s .

A c t i v i t y : T h i n k a b o u t a n e v o lu t i o n a n d a n e w t r e n d i n t h e h o s p it a li t y i n d u s t r y b e c a u s e
o f resear ch .
 In t r o d u c t io n t o R e s e a r c h

M e a n in g o f R e se a rc h

- R e s e a r c h is a q u e s t f o r a n a n s w e r to a q u e s tio n . K n o w in g th e a n s w e r to a q u e s tio n r e q u ir e s

a s c ie n tif ic m e th o d a n d n o t m e r e ly a s k in g f r o m v a r io u s p e r s o n s o r m e r e ly o b s e r v in g s e v e r a l

s itu a tio n s th a t m a y o u t -r ig h tly p r o v id e h a p h a z a r d a n s w e r s to p o s e d q u e s tio n s .

- R e s e a r c h o r r e -s e a r c h “ to r e s e a r c h a g a in ” , to ta k e a n o th e r m o r e c a r e f u l lo o k , to f in d o u t

m o r e .( S e lt iz e t a l., 1 9 7 6 )

- R e s e a r c h is a n a c tiv ity w h ic h is m e a n t to a c q u ir e b e tte r k n o w le d g e b y “ r e le a r n in g w h a t w e

a lr e a d y k n o w th o u g h s y s te m a tic o b s e r v a tio n a n d e x p e r im e n ta tio n .

- R e s e a r c h is a s y s te m a tic , c o n tr o lle d , e m p ir ic a l a n d c r itic a l in v e s tig a tio n o f n a tu r a l

p h e n o m e n a g u id e d b y th e o r y a n d h y p o th e s e s a b o u t a p r e s u m e d r e la tio n s a m o n g s u c h

phenom ena.

- R e s e a r c h is s y s te m a tic a n d o b je c tiv e a n a ly s is a n d r e c o r d in g o f c o n tr o lle d o b s e r v a tio n s th a t

m a y le a d to th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f g e n e r a liz a tio n s , p r in c ip le s o r th e o r ie s r e s u ltin g in

p r e d ic tio n a n d p o s s ib ly u ltim a te c o n t r o l o f e v e n ts . ( B e s t & K h a n n , `8 9 )

A c t i v i t y : : W r i t e y o u r o w n d e f i n i t io n o f r e s e a r c h ,b a s e d o n t h e d i f f e r e n t m e a n i n g s .

C o m m o n E le m e n ts o f R e se a rc h :

1. T o a tta in o r e s ta b lis h f a c ts a b o u t th e p h e n o m e n o n b e in g in v e s tig a te d

2. S y s te m a tic
3. O b je c tiv e
4. C o m p r e h e n s iv e in v e s tig a tio n
5. A c c u r a te g a th e r in g o f d a ta , r e c o r d in g a n d c r itic a l a n a ly s is o f d a ta a n d in te r p r e ta tio n o f f a c ts

C h a r a c t e r i s t ic o f R e s e a r c h

1. R e s e a r c h is d ir e c te d to w a r d s th e s o lu tio n o f a p r o b le m .
2. R e s e a r c h e m p h a s iz e s th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f g e n e r a liz a tio n , p r in c ip le s o r th e o r ie s th a t w ill b e
h e lp f u l in p r e d ic tin g f u tu r e o c c u r r e n c e .
3. R e s e a r c h is b a s e d u p o n o b s e r v a b le e x p e r ie n c e o r e m p ir ic a l e v id e n c e .
4. R e s e a r c h d e m a n d s a c c u r a te o b s e r v a tio n a n d d e s c r ip tio n .
5. R e s e a r c h in v o lv e s g a th e r in g n e w d a te f r o m p r im a r y o r f ir s th a n d s o u r c e s u s in g e x is tin g d a ta
fo r a n e w p u rp o se .
6. C a r e f u l d e s ig n e d p r o c e d u r e s th a t a p p ly r ig o r o u s a n a ly s is .
7. R e s e a r c h r e q u ir e s e x p e r tis e .
8. R e s e a r c h tr ie s to b e o b je c tiv e a n d lo g ic a l, a p p ly in g e v e r y p o s s ib le te s t to v a lid a te t h e
p r o c e d u r e s e m p lo y e d , th e d a t e c o lle c te d
9. R e s e a r c h in v o lv e s th e q u e s t f o r a n s w e r s to u n s o lv e d p r o b le m s
10. R e s e a r c h is c h a r a c te r iz e d b y p a tie n c e a n d u n h u r r ie d a c tiv ity .
11. R e s e a r c h is c a r e f u lly r e c o r d e d a n d r e p o r te d .
 1 2 . R e s e a r c h s o m e tim e s r e q u ir e s c o u r a g e

2 M a jo r T y p e s o f R e se a rc h

1. B a s ic R e s e a r c h – is th e ty p e w h ic h is c o n d u c te d f o r th e s a k e o f k n o w in g . A ls o k n o w n a s
“ th e o r e tic a l r e s e a r c h ”

O b je c tiv e o f B a s ic R e s e a r c h :

 D e s ig n to a d d to o u r u n d e r s ta n d in g a n d s to r e k n o w le d g e , b u t w ith o u t a n y p a r tic u la r
p r a c tic a l g o a ls .
 T o te s t o r a rr iv e a t a th e o r y w ith u ltim a te g o a l o f e s ta b lis h in g g e n e r a l p r in c ip le s

2 . A p p l ie d R e s e a r c h – is d o n e w h e n t h e p u r p o s e is t o o b t a in k n o w l e d g e f o r p r a c t ic a l a p p l i c a t i o n

a ls o k n o w n a s “ p r a c tic a l r e s e a r c h ” .

• A p p lie d r e s e a r c h is d e s ig n e d to s o lv e p ra c tic a l p ro b le m s o f th e m o d e r n w o r ld , r a th e r th a n to

a c q u i r e k n o w l e d g e f o r k n o w l e d g e 's s a k e . O n e m i g h t s a y t h a t t h e g o a l o f t h e a p p l i e d s c i e n t i s t

is to im p ro v e th e h u m a n c o n d itio n .

• F o r e x a m p le , a p p lie d r e s e a r c h e r s m a y in v e s tig a te w a y s to :

• im p r o v e a g r ic u ltu r a l c r o p p r o d u c tio n

• tr e a t o r c u r e a s p e c if ic d is e a s e

• im p r o v e th e e n e r g y e f f ic ie n c y o f h o m e s , o f f ic e s , o r m o d e s o f tr a n s p o r ta tio n

M e th o d o lo g y o f R e se a rc h

1. Q u a lita tiv e R e s e a r c h ( in f o r m a tio n )

- Q u a lita tiv e r e s e a r c h is a ty p e o f s c ie n tif ic r e s e a r c h . In g e n e r a l te r m s , s c ie n tif ic r e s e a r c h

c o n s is ts o f a n in v e s tig a tio n th a t:
• s e e k s a n s w e r s to a q u e s tio n
• s y s te m a tic a lly u s e s a p r e d e f in e d s e t o f p r o c e d u r e s to a n s w e r th e q u e s tio n
• c o lle c ts e v id e n c e
• p r o d u c e s f in d in g s th a t w e r e n o t d e te r m in e d in a d v a n c e
• p r o d u c e s f in d in g s th a t a r e a p p lic a b le b e y o n d th e i m m e d ia te b o u n d a r ie s o f th e
s tu d y

Q u a lita tiv e r e s e a r c h is e s p e c ia lly e f f e c tiv e in o b ta in in g c u ltu r a lly s p e c if ic in f o r m a tio n a b o u t

th e v a lu e s , o p in io n s , b e h a v io u r , a n d s o c ia l c o n te x ts o f p a r tic u la r p o p u la tio n s

W h a t a r e s o m e q u a lita tiv e r e s e a r c h m e th o d s ?
a. P a rtic ip a n t o b s e rv a tio n is a p p r o p r ia te f o r c o lle c tin g d a ta o n n a tu r a lly o c c u r r in g b e h a v io u r s
in th e ir u s u a l c o n te x ts .
b. In -d e p th in te rv ie w s a r e o p tim a l f o r c o lle c tin g d a ta o n in d i v id u a ls ’ p e r s o n a l h is to r ie s ,
p e r s p e c tiv e s , a n d e x p e r ie n c e s , p a r tic u la r ly w h e n s e n s itiv e to p ic s a r e b e in g e x p lo r e d .
c. F o c u s g r o u p s a r e e ff e c t iv e in e lic it in g d a t a o n t h e c u lt u r a l n o r m s o f a g r o u p a n d in
g e n e r a tin g b r o a d o v e r v ie w s o f is s u e s o f c o n c e r n to th e c u ltu r a l g r o u p s o r s u b g r o u p s
r e p r e s e n te d .
 2. Q u a n tita tiv e R e s e a r c h ( n u m b e r s )

- Is c o n d u c te d to f in d a n s w e r s to q u e s tio n s a b o u t r e la tio n s h ip a m o n g m e a s u r a b le v a r ia b le s

w ith a p u r p o s e o f e x p la in in g , c o n tr o llin g a n d p r e d ic tin g p h e n o m e n a .

- In q u a n tita ti v e r e s e a r c h y o u r a im is to d e te r m in e th e r e la tio n s h ip b e tw e e n o n e th in g ( a n

in d e p e n d e n t v a r ia b le ) a n d a n o th e r ( a d e p e n d e n t o r o u tc o m e v a r ia b le ) in a p o p u la tio n .

Q u a n tita tiv e r e s e a r c h d e s ig n s a r e e ith e r d e s c r ip tiv e ( s u b je c ts u s u a lly m e a s u r e d o n c e ) o r

e x p e r im e n ta l ( s u b je c ts m e a s u r e d b e f o r e a n d a f te r a tr e a tm e n t) . A d e s c r i p tiv e s tu d y

e s ta b lis h e s o n ly a s s o c ia tio n s b e tw e e n v a r ia b le s . A n e x p e r im e n t e s ta b lis h e s c a u s a lity .

- Q u a n tita tiv e r e s e a r c h is a ll a b o u t q u a n tif y in g r e la tio n s h ip s b e tw e e n v a r ia b le s . V a r ia b le s a r e

th in g s lik e w e ig h t, p e r f o r m a n c e , tim e , a n d tr e a tm e n t. Y o u m e a s u r e v a r ia b le s o n a s a m p le o f

s u b je c ts , w h ic h c a n b e tis s u e s , c e lls , a n im a ls , o r h u m a n s . Y o u e x p r e s s th e r e la tio n s h ip

b e t w e e n v a r i a b l e u s i n g e f f e c t s t a t i s t i c s , s u c h a s c o r r e l a t i o n s , r e la t i v e f r e q u e n c i e s , o r

d if f e r e n c e s b e tw e e n m e a n s .

C o m p a r is o n o n Q u a n tita tiv e a n d Q u a lita tiv e R e s e a r c h

Q u a n tita tiv e Q u a lita tiv e

G e n e r a l F r a m e w o rk - S e e k t o c o n fir m h y p o t h e s e s a b o u t - S e e k t o e x p lo r e p h e n o m e n a

phenom ena - In s t r u m e n t s u s e m o r e fl e x ib l e ,
- In s t r u m e n t s u s e m o r e r ig id s t yl e i t e r a t i v e s t y l e o f e l i c it i n g a n d

o f e li c i ti n g a n d c a t e g o r i z i n g c a t e g o r i z i n g r e s p o n s e s t o q u e s t io n s

re sp o n se s to q u e stio n s - U s e s e m i- s t r u c t u r e d m e t h o d s s u c h
-U se h ig h ly stru ctu re d m e th o d s a s in - d e p t h in t e r v ie w s , fo c u s

su ch a s q u e stio n n a ire s, su rv e y s, g ro u p s, a n d p a rticip a n t o b se rv a tio n

a n d stru ctu re d o b se rv a tio n

A n a ly tic a l O b je c ti v e s - T o q u a n t if y v a r ia t io n - T o d e s c r ib e v a r i a t io n
- T o p r e d ic t c a u s a l r e l a t io n s h ip s - T o d e s c r ib e a n d e x p l a in r e la t io n s h ip s

- T o d e s c r ib e c h a r a c t e r i s t ic s o f a - T o d e s c r ib e i n d iv id u a l e x p e r ie n c e s
P o p u la t io n - T o d e s c r ib e g r o u p n o r m s

Q u e s tio n f o r m a t C lo s e d e n d e d O pen ended

D ata F o rm at N u m e r ica l (o b ta in e d b y a ssig n in g T e x t u a l (o b t a in e d fr o m a u d io t a p e s ,

n u m e rica l v a lu e s to re sp o n se s) v id e o t a p e s , a n d fie ld n o t e s )

la rg e sa m p le sm a ll sa m p le

sta n d a rd iz e d in stru m e n ts o b se rv a tio n s, in te rv ie w s

R eport o f fin d in g s N u m b e rs, sta tistics, a g g re g a te d d a ta W o rd s, n a rra tiv e s, in d iv id u a l q u o te s,

p e rso n a l v o ice
 R esearch R ep ort and L ayou t

T itle P a g e

E ndorsem ent Page

Approval Sheet

A c k n o w le d g e m e n t

A b s tr a c t

T a b le o f C o n te n ts

L is t o f T a b le s

L i s t o f F i g u r e s , I l l u s tr a t i o n s , P l a t e s

L is t o f A p p e n d ic e s

C h a p te r I: T H E P R O B L E M A N D IT S B A C K G R O U N D

In tr o d u c tio n

S ta te m e n t o f th e P r o b le m

H y p o th e s is

S ig n if ic a n c e o f th e S tu d y

S c o p e a n d L im ita tio n

C h a p te r II: R E V IE W O F R E L A T E D S T U D IE S A N D L IT E R A T U R E

R e la te d L ite r a tu r e

T h e o r e tic a l / C o n c e p tu a l F r a m e w o r k

R e s e a r c h P a r a d ig m

D e f in itio n o f T e r m s

C h a p te r III: R E S E A R C H M E T H O D O L O G Y

R e s e a r c h D e s ig n

L o c a le a n d P o p u la tio n o f th e S tu d y

D e s c r ip tio n o f th e R e s p o n d e n ts

S ta tis tic a l T r e a tm e n t U s e d

In s tr u m e n ta tio n a n d T r y -o u t P h a s e

C h a p te r IV : P R E S E N T A T IO N , A N A L Y S IS A N D IN T E R P R E T A T IO N O F D A T A

C h a p te r V : S U M M A R Y , C O N C L U S IO N S A N D R E C O M M E N D A T IO N S

S u m m a r y o f f in d in g s

C o n c lu s io n s

R e c o m m e n d a tio n s

B IB L IO G R A P H Y

APPE N D ICE S

C U R R IC U L U M V IT A E ( B o u in g , R )
 R e s e a r c h T it le & K n o w in g t h e P r o b le m

B e f o r e w e p r o c e e d to y o u r R e s e a r c h title , a r e s e a r c h e r m u s t b e a b le to id e n tif y th e p r o b le m
f ir s t. R e s e a r c h p ro b le m r e f e r s to th e r e s e a r c h title . T h e title is a v e r y im p o r ta n t p a r t o f a ll th e s is
d o c u m e n ts , a s it in tr o d u c e s r e a d e r s to th e n a tu r e . M a n y p r o fe s s o r s r e c o m m e n d th a t s tu d e n ts c r e a t e
th e ir th e s e s titl e s o n ly a ft e r th e y h a v e c o m p le te d w r i tin g th e ir th e s e s s o th a t th e y c a n b e s u r e th a t th e
title a c c u r a te ly r e fle c ts th e c o n te n t o f th e th e s e s d o c u m e n t . O th e r p r o f e s s o r s r e c o m m e n d th a t
s tu d e n ts b e g in th e e n tir e th e s is w ith th e th e s is title a n d u s e t h e title a s a m e th o d o f d ir e c tin g th e
c o n te n t.

A g o o d title s h o u ld h a v e th e f o llo w in g p r o p e r tie s :

1 ) T h e title n e e d s to b e v e r y s p e c if ic in n a t u r e
2 ) In s p ite o f b e in g s p e c if ic it s h o u ld a ls o h a v e th e e x p r e s s i v e p o w e r to s h o w th e e n tir e s c a le
o f th e r e s e a r c h s tu d y in th o s e f e w w o r d s .
3 ) It s h o u ld te ll th e to ta l n a tu r e o f th e s u b je c t.
4 ) It n e e d s to b e v e r y d e f in ite a n d c le a r .
5 ) T h e title n e e d s to b e a ttr a c tiv e a n d in te r e s tin g e n o u g h to c a t c h th e a tte n tio n o f th e r e a d e r s .

B e f o r e w e s t a t e t h e p r o b l e m , l e t u s l e a r n f ir s t t h e s t a n d a r d s i n w r i t i n g a t i t l e .

1. T h e title m u s t b e c o n c is e . It c o n ta in s o n ly th e w o r d s e n o u g h to h in t t h e c o n te n t o f th e

r e s e a r c h . O m it p h r a s e s a n d w o r d s lik e :

 A S tu d y o f

 T h e Im p lic a tio n s o f

 A C o m p a r a tiv e S tu d y o f

 An Assessm ent of

 A n A n a ly s is o f

 In q u ir y

 In v e s tig a tio n

T hese are o verused w ords and phrases o r can be s ta te d in th e b o d y o f th e s tu d y .

2. T h e title m u s t b e s ta te d i n d e c la r a tiv e f o r m , n o t in te r r o g a tiv e f o r m .

3. If th e title e x c e e d s b e y o n d o n e lin e , it m u s t b e s ta te d lik e V -f o r m . L ik e w is e , n o title

S h a ll b e w r itte n in e x c e s s o f th r e e lin e s r e g a r d l e s s th e n u m b e r o f w o r d s . ( B o u in g )

A c tiv it y :

C o n s tr u c t a p r o b le m a n d a title o u t o f y o u r c o u r s e ( H o s p ita lity In d u s tr y ) . T h e r e a r e s e v e r a l

g e n e r a l id e a s t o c h o o s e fr o m s u c h a s :

 L o d g in g ( h o te l, m o te l, in n )

 R e s ta u r a n t ( b a r , f in e d in in g , f a s t f o o d , c a f é , r e s ta u r a n t, c a f e te r ia s )

 F o o d s e r v ic e ( c a t e r i n g , b a r t e n d in g e t a l.)
  F o o d ( b a k i n g , c u l i n a r y , h e r b s , s p i c e s , s a n i t a t i o n e t a l .)

 E v e n t ( b ir th d a y s , w e d d in g , c o r p o r a te e v e n t)

 th e m e p a r k s a n d r e c r e a tio n a l p a r k s

 tr a n s p o r ta tio n ( a ir , la n d a n d w a te r tr a n s p o r ta tio n )

 T r a v e l ( p la c e s , tr a v e l a g e n c y , f o r m s o f tr a n s p o r a tio n )

 T o u r is m ( to u r is t, to u r is t d e s tin a tio n s , f e s tiv a ls , e c o to u r is m )

 Y o u r s e lf – th e s tu d e n t

 U n iv e r s ity o f f e r in g a h o s p ita lity c o u r s e s

Say yo u cho o se :

R e sta u ra n t

C o m m e n t: (to o b r o a d )

1. M o d if y th e p r o b le m a n d th e title . It s h o u ld b e S M A R T
2. C h o o s e a k e y is s u e s o f co n c e r n in a r e s ta u r a n t s e r v ic e b u s in e s s .

3. L e t s a y y o u w a n t to fo c u s o n a “ Q u ic k S e r v ic e R e s ta u r a n t”

A n a ly z e th e g iv e n to p ic : “ D is c r e te N e g a tiv e E m o tio n s a n d C u s to m e r D is s a tis f a c tio n Responses

A m o n g th e Q u ic k S e r v ic e R e s ta u r a n t A lo n g K a tip u n a n Q u e z o n C ity ”

S u b je c t m a tte r : C u s to m e r d is s a tis f a c tio n

L o c a le o f th e s tu d y : K a tip u n a n , Q u e z o n C ity

P o p u la tio n in v o lv e d : C u s to m e r s

N o te : S o m e tim e s , w e n e e d to a n a ly z e th e w o r d s c a r e f u lly , o th e r u n n e c e s s a r y w o r d s a r e n e e d to b e

o m itte d , a n d c a n b e p la c e d o n th e s c o p e a n d lim ita tio n o f th e s tu d y o r a v o id a s s o c ia tin g th e

p la c e w ith n e g a ti v e s itu a tio n o r im a g e )

 C o n s t r u c t in g a S t a t e m e n t o f t h e P r o b le m

T h e s im p le s t w a y to a p p r o a c h p r o b le m s ta te m e n ts is to s ta r t b y lo o k in g a t w h e r e

th e y f it in to y o u r d o c u m e n t. P r o b le m s ta te m e n ts m a k e u p th e c o r e o f th e in tr o d u c tio n to

y o u r d o c u m e n t. Y o u r in tr o d u c tio n s h o u ld s e t th e s ta g e f o r y o u r r e a d e r s a n d g iv e th e m a

c le a r id e a o f y o u r a r g u m e n t. A n e f f e c tiv e d o c u m e n t w ill m o ti v a te r e a d e r s b y a r tic u la tin g a

p r o b le m th a t th e d o c u m e n t c a n h e lp r e s o lv e . Y o u c a n o n ly b e s u r e th a t y o u r r e a d e r s

u n d e r s ta n d th e p r o b le m th e s a m e w a y a s y o u if y o u e x p r e s s n o t o n ly th e p r o b le m o r th e

s itu a tio n , b u t a ls o th e c o n s e q u e n c e s th a t m a k e th e p r o b le m w o r th s o lv in g .

A g o o d p r o b le m s ta te m e n t s h o u ld a n s w e r th e s e q u e s tio n s :

1. W h a t is th e p r o b le m ? ( h o w , w h a t, w h e n , w h e r e , w h o , w h ic h , w h y ? )
2. W h o h a s th e p r o b le m o r w h o is th e c lie n t/ c u s to m e r ? T h is s h o u ld e x p la in w h o n e e d s th e

s o lu tio n a n d w h o w ill d e c id e th e p r o b le m h a s b e e n s o lv e d .
3. W h a t f o r m c a n th e r e s o lu tio n b e ? W h a t is th e s c o p e a n d lim ita tio n s ( in tim e , m o n e y ,

r e s o u r c e s, te c h n o lo g ie s ) th a t c a n b e u s e d to s o lv e th e p r o b le m .
4. L im it th e p r o b le m – T h e p r o b le m m a y b e v e r y b r o a d , tr y to f o c u s o n s c o p e a n d b o u n d a r ie s

r e s e a r c h s h o u ld b e S M A R T – ( S p e c if ic , M e a s u r a b le , A tta in a b le , R e a lis tic & T im e B o u n d )

A c t i v i t y : T r y t o l i m it t h e s e f o l l o w i n g t o p ic s :

o S m o k in g b e b a n n e d in a ll p u b lic p la c e s

o C h ild r e n o b e s ity p r e v e n tio n

o D ia b e te s r e la te d to c h ild h o o d o b e s ity

o V io le n c e in W o r k p la c e

o Ju n k F o o d s

T h e s e s te p s m a y h e lp y o u in th e c o n s tr u c t io n o f th e s ta te m e n t o f th e p r o b le m s :

1. M a k e a c le a r a n d a n a ly tic a l in tr o d u c tio n w h ic h u s u a lly e n c o m p a s s e s th e m a in

p r o b le m th e title , s ta te d in th e e x p a n d e d f o r m .

2. T h e f ir s t q u e s tio n in q u ir e s th e in f o r m a tio n lin k e d to th e in tr o d u c tio n .

3. C r e a te s u b s id ia r y q u e s tio n s c le a r ly , lo g ic a lly a n d s u b s e q u e n tly d e r iv e d f r o m th e

p r o b le m .
4. E n s u r e th a t y o u c o n s tr u c t a q u e s tio n th a t e lic its th e p r e s e n ta tio n o f th e n e w

k n o w le d g e o r s itu a tio n to a p r o b le m .

5. P o s e a h y p o th e tic a l th a t s h a ll b e te s te d , if n e c e s s a r y
6. C h e c k if y o u r q u e s t io n s a r e s u ff ic ie n t , a b o u t 3 - 6 s t a t e m e n t s , a n d a r e a b le t o e lic it

in f o r m a tio n th a t p r o v id e s u b s ta n tia l a n s w e r to m a k e th e m a in p r o b le m ( B a u in g )
E x a m p le S ta te m e n t o f th e P r o b le m :

T h e r e s e a r c h e rs a im s to k n o w th e D is c r e te N e g a tiv e E m o tio n s a n d C u s to m e r D is s a tis f a c tio n

R e s p o n s e s A m o n g th e Q u ic k S e r v ic e R e s ta u r a n t A lo n g K a tip u n a n Q u e z o n C it y .

S p e c if ic a lly , th e s tu d y a im e d to a n s w e r th e f o llo w in g q u e s tio n s :

1. W h a t a r e th e c h a r a c te r is tic s o f a q u ic k s e r v ic e r e s ta u r a n t?
2. W h a t a r e th e n e g a tiv e e m o tio n s a n d c u s to m e r d is s a tis f a c tio n in a q u i c k s e r v ic e r e s ta u r a n t?
3. H o w a r e th e s e n e g a tiv e e m o tio n s a n d d is s a tis f a c tio n c o n tr ib u te s to th e im a g e o f th e s e q u ic k
s e r v ic e r e s ta u r a n ts ?
4. I s t h e r e a s ig n if ic a n t r e la t io n s h ip b e t w e e n a d is c r e e t n e g a t iv e e m o t io n s a n d c u s t o m e r

d is s a t is f a c t io n t o t h e o v e r a ll p e r f o r m a n c e o f a Q u ic k S e r v ic e R e s t a u r a n t ?

A c t iv it y # 1 : (In d iv id u a l)

- U n d e rlin e th e k e y w o rd s fo c u s o f th e stu d y .

- C o n s t r u c t a s t a t e m e n t o f t h e p r o b l e m o n t h e fo l l o w in g r e s e a r c h t itl e s :

1. “ T o u r G u id e P e r f o r m a n c e a n d T o u r is t S a tis f a c tio n : a S tu d y o f th e P a c k a g e T o u rs in a

S e le c te d T r a v e l A g e n c ie s In M e tr o M a n ila ”

2. “ T ip p in g a n d S e r v ic e Q u a lit y o f a F in e D in in g R e s ta u r a n t”

3. “ P a m p a n g a a s a C u lin a r y T o u r is m D e s tin a tio n ”

A c t i v i t y # 2 : F o r m a g r o u p c o m p o s e d o f 3 m e m b e r s . L e t th e s tu d e n ts c o n v e n ie n tl y s e le c t

th e ir m e m b e r s . A r r a n g e th e m in a c ir c u la r f o r m . E le c t a g r o u p le a d e r, s e c r e ta r y .

A ssig n m e n t :

1. E ach m em ber s h o u ld p r e s e n t a to p ic , a title , a n d a p r o b le m .

2. O n th e f o llo w in g m e e tin g , e a c h g r o u p s h o u ld p r e s e n t its o w n r e s e a r c h to p ic a n d a

r e s e a r c h p r o b le m . ( It s h o u ld b e p r e s e n te d in f r o n t o f th e c la s s , m a k e s u r e th a t th e

p r e s e n t e r m u s t p r o v id e a v is u a l a id a n d s h o u ld p r e s e n t w it h o u t r e a d in g .)

3. H a v e th e c la s s a n a ly z e a n d c r itic iz e th e p r e s e n te d title .

4. T h e b e s t to p ic w ill b e th e b a s is f o r th e title d e f e n s e .
 D e s c r ip t io n s o f t h e P a r t s o f R e s e a r c h

T itle P ag e

it in c lu d e s th e title o f th e r e s e a r c h w h ic h s h a ll s ta te d b r ie f ly . It m a y o f a t le a s t o n e lin e b u t

n o t e x c e e d th r e e lin e s w r itte n in f u ll u p p e r c a s e m a k in g a V f o r m . O th e r in f o r m a tio n in th e

title page in c lu d e th e na m e o f th e u n iv e r s ity , th e degree to w h ic h th e researcher is a

c a n d id a te , th e nam e o f th e r e sea r ch e r a n d th e m o n th and y e ar w hen th e p a p e r w ill b e

p r e s e n te d . T h e f o n t s iz e o f th e t itle p a g e s h a ll n o t b e s m a lle r th a n 1 2 n o t b ig g e r th a n 1 4

u s in g T im e N e w R o m a n , A r ia l, B o o k m a n S ty le , o r a s p r e s c r ib e d b y th e in s titu tio n .

C h a p te r I

In t r o d u c t io n

T h e s i s i n t r o d u c t i o n is th e f ir s t p a r t o f a th e s is p a p e r. T h e s i s i n t r o d u c t i o n a llo w s th e
r e a d e r s to g e t th e g e n e r a l id e a o f w h a t y o u r th e s is is a b o u t. T h e s i s i n t r o d u c t i o n a c q u a in ts th e
r e a d e r s w ith th e th e s is p a p e r to p ic , e x p la in in g th e b a s ic p o in ts o f th e th e s is r e s e a r c h a n d p o in tin g
th e d ir e c tio n o f y o u r r e s e a r c h .

T h e s i s i n t r o d u c t i o n h a s to c o n ta in th e f o llo w in g in f o r m a tio n :

 T h e th e s is p a p e r to p ic ;
 T h e r e a s o n s w h ic h p u s h e d a s tu d e n t to w r ite h is o r h e r th e s is p a p e r e x a c tly o n th is to p ic ;
 T h e th e s is to p ic p r e f a c e , o r th e b a c k g r o u n d in f o r m a tio n o n th e th e s is p a p e r to p ic ;
 T h e g o a ls y o u a r e g o in g to a c h ie v e ;
 T h e ta s k s to c o m p le te in o r d e r to a tta in th e g o a ls , o r th e d ir e c tio n o f th e th e s is re s e a r c h
d e v e lo p m e n t;

R e m e m b e r th a t y o u r th e s is in tr o d u c tio n h a s to c o n ta i n a ll th e in f o r m a tio n p r e s e n te d a b o v e . B u t it
is n o t e n o u g h ju s t to k n o w th e c o m p o n e n ts o f th e th e s is in tr o d u c tio n if y o u w a n t to s u c c e e d in
th e s is p a p e r w r itin g . Y o u a ls o h a v e to k n o w s e v e r a l s e c r e ts o f th e th e s is in tr o d u c tio n w r itin g . W e
w ill te ll y o u th e s e s e c r e ts , s o th a t y o u c o u ld p r e p a r e a b r illia n t th e s is in tr o d u c tio n .

 Y o u s h o u ld w r ite y o u r th e s is in tr o d u c tio n a f te r c o m p o s in g th e e n tir e th e s is p a p e r . It w ill

a llo w y o u to a n a ly z e th e w h o le w o r k , a n d d is c o v e r th e b e s t w a y to in tr o d u c e y o u r th e s is to
th e r e a d e r s .
 Y o u s h o u ld n o t u s e a n y te r m s in y o u r th e s is in tr o d u c tio n , s in c e it c a n b a f f le th e r e a d e r s . Y o u
s h o u ld p r e s e n t th e te r m s r e la te d to th e to p ic o f y o u r th e s is p a p e r o n ly in th e m a in b o d y o f
th e th e s is p a p e r .
 T r y to u s e s im p le la n g u a g e w ith in y o u r th e s is in tr o d u c tio n .
 R e m e m b e r th a t o n e o f th e m a in ta s k s o f th e th e s is in tr o d u c tio n is to a ttr a c t th e r e a d e r s ’
a tte n tio n to y o u r th e s is p a p e r .
 H y p oth e se s of th e Stu d y

F o r m u la te H y p o th e s e s – A h y p o th e s is is a n e d u c a te d g u e s s a b o u t h o w t h in g s w o r k :

" I f _ _ _ _ _ [I d o t h is ] _ _ _ _ _ , th e n _ __ _ _ [th is ] _ _ _ __ w ill h a p p e n ."

Y o u m u s t s ta te y o u r h y p o th e s is in a w a y th a t y o u c a n e a s ily m e a s u r e , a n d o f c o u r s e , y o u r
h y p o th e s is s h o u ld b e c o n s tr u c te d in a w a y to h e lp y o u a n s w e r y o u r o r ig in a l q u e s tio n .

T h e h y p o th e s is m u s t b e w o r d e d s o t h a t it c a n b e te s te d in y o u r e x p e r im e n t. D o th is b y
e x p r e s s in g th e h y p o th e s is u s in g y o u r in d e p e n d e n t v a r ia b le ( th e v a r ia b le y o u c h a n g e d u r in g
y o u r e x p e r im e n t) a n d y o u r d e p e n d e n t v a r ia b le ( th e v a r ia b le y o u o b s e r v e -c h a n g e s in th e
d e p e n d e n t v a r ia b le d e p e n d o n c h a n g e s in th e i n d e p e n d e n t v a r ia b le ) . In f a c t, m a n y
h y p o th e s e s a r e s ta te d e x a c tly lik e th is : " If a p a r tic u la r in d e p e n d e n t v a r ia b le is c h a n g e d , th e n
t h e r e is a ls o a c h a n g e in a c e r t a in d e p e n d e n t v a r ia b le ."

E x a m p le H y p o th e se s

 " If I o p e n th e f a u c e t [f a u c e t o p e n in g s iz e is th e i n d e p e n d e n t v a r ia b le ], th e n it w ill in c r e a s e
th e f lo w o f w a te r [f lo w o f w a te r is th e d e p e n d e n t v a r ia b le ].

 " R a is in g th e te m p e r a tu r e o f a c u p o f w a te r [te m p e r a tu r e is th e in d e p e n d e n t v a r ia b le ] w ill

in c r e a s e th e a m o u n t o f s u g a r th a t d is s o lv e s [th e a m o u n t o f s u g a r is th e d e p e n d e n t
v a r ia b le ]."

 " If a p la n t r e c e iv e s f e r tiliz e r [h a v in g f e r tiliz e r is th e in d e p e n d e n t v a r ia b le ], th e n it w ill g r o w

to b e b ig g e r th a n a p la n t th a t d o e s n o t r e c e iv e f e r tiliz e r [p la n t s iz e is th e d e p e n d e n t
v a r ia b le ]."

L e t ’s r e v i e w : H y p o t h e s e s i s a m a k i n g a p o s s i b l e o u t c o m e o f t h e s t u d y

• T e n t a t i v e t h e o r e t i c a l s c h e m e f o r t h e r e s e a r c h p r o b le m

• T h e h y p o th e s is s h o u ld b e s ta te d in a te s ta b le f o r m

• N u ll h y p o th e s is s h o u ld b e s ta te d . S ta te d in th e n e g a tiv e to m a k e it e a s ie r to p r o v e o r

d is a p p r o v e

• Q u a lita tiv e r e s e a r c h d o e s n o t te s t h y p o th e s is

S ig n ific a n c e o f th e S tu d y

• W h o w ill b e n e f it f r o m y o u r s tu d y ? H o w w ill th e y b e n e f it?

• T h is s h o u ld s ta te w h y th e p r o b le m in v e s tig a te d is im p o r ta n t a n d w h a t s ig n if ic a n c e th e
r e s u lt h a v e .
• S ta te m e n t o n r e le v a n c e f e lt n e e d s ,
• P o te n tia l c o n tr ib u tio n o f th e r e s e a r c h to n e w k n o w le d g e
• P o lic y im p lic a tio n s a n d o th e r p o s s ib le u s e s f o r its r e s u lts
 S c o p e a n d L im ita tio n

T h is te lls th e c o v e r a g e a n d b o u n d a r ie s o f th e s tu d y . It te lls th e a ttr ib u te s a n d c h a r a c te r is tic s

th a t a r e in c lu d e d o r e x c lu d e d . S c o p e a n d L im ita tio n m a y b e a p p lic a b le to p la c e , ti m e , p e o p le ,
v a lu e o r o th e r f a c to r s . ( B o u in g )

T h e " s c o p e " s e c tio n is w h e r e y o u lis t w h a t y o u a r e d o in g . T h e " b o u n d s " s e c tio n is w h e r e y o u

s e t th e b o u n d a r ie s a n d y o u lis t s o m e th in g e x p lic itly th a t y o u a r e n o t d o in g b e c a u s e th e y a r e
o u ts id e th e b o u n d s o f th e p r o je c t.

A c tiv it y :
1. E a c h m e m b e r o f th e g r o u p s h o u ld w o rk o n C h a p te r 1 ( In tr o d u c tio n , S ta te m e n t o f
th e P r o b le m , H y p o th e s is , S ig n if ic a n c e o f th e S tu d y , S c o p e a n d L im i ta tio n ) . R e a d y to
p r e s e n t o n th e f o llo w in g w e e k th e o u tc o m e .

C h a p t e r II

R E V IE W O F R E L A T E D S T U D IE S A N D L IT E R A T U R E

R e la te d L ite r a tu r e

A r e v ie w o f r e la te d lite r a tu r e is a n in te g r a l p a r t o f th e s e s o r d is s e r ta tio n s . It m a y a ls o b e a
r e q u ir e d p a r t o f p r o p o s a l s . T h e m a in p u r p o s e o f a r e v ie w o f r e l a t e d l i te r a t u r e is t o a n a l y z e
s c ie n tif ic w o r k s b y o th e r r e s e a r c h e r s th a t y o u u s e d f o r in v e s tig a tio n c r itic a lly .

H o w to W r ite th e In tr o d u c tio n o f a R e v ie w o f R e la te d L ite r a tu r e

In o r d e r to m a k e th e In tr o d u c tio n e l a b o r a te ly , ta k e th e f o llo w in g s te p s :
1. Id e n tif y th e g e n e r a l to p ic o f th e s o u r c e s u n d e r d is c u s s io n . T h u s , y o u w ill p r o v id e th e
c o n te x t o f y o u r r e v ie w o f r e la te d lite r a tu r e ;
2. D is c u s s w h a t w a s a lr e a d y p r e s e n te d a b o u t th e to p ic o f y o u r p a p e r : c o n f lic ts in a th e o r y ,
c o n c lu s io n s , g a p s in r e s e a r c h a n d s c h o la r s h ip , e tc .
3. E x p la in w h y th e lite r a tu r e u s e d is w o r th r e v ie w in g .

H o w to W r ite th e B o d y o f a R e v ie w o f R e la te d L ite r a tu r e

W h e n w r itin g th e B o d y , d o th e f o llo w in g :
 G r o u p th e s o u r c e s a c c o r d in g to th e ir c o m m o n d o m in a to r s ( a p p r o a c h e s , o b je c tiv e s o r a n y

s p e c if ic c h r o n o lo g ie s ) ;
 G iv e th e e x a m p le s o f h o w to s o r t o u t th e s e g r o u p s . U s e q u o ta tio n s , e v id e n c e s , d a ta , e tc .

T h e y w ill m a k e y o u r r e v ie w o f r e la te d lite r a tu r e m o r e v a lid .

H o w to W r ite th e C o n c lu s io n o f a R e v ie w o f R e la te d L ite r a tu r e

T o m a k e th e C o n c lu s io n , d o th e f o llo w in g :
 S u m m a r iz e th e c o n tr ib u tio n s o f th e lite r a tu r e s o u r c e s m a d e to th e a r e a o f s tu d y y o u

in v e s tig a te . M a in ta in th e c e n tr a l f o c u s in th e In tr o d u c tio n ;
 G iv e a k in d o f in s ig h t in to th e r e la tio n s h ip b e t w e e n th e to p ic o f y o u r r e v ie w a n d a la r g e r

s t u d y a r e a ( e .g . a d is c ip lin e , a s c ie n t if ic e n d e a v o r , e t c .)
C ita tio n
I t is a w a y o f s t r e n g t h e n in g o r c o n c r e t iz in g o n e ’s id e a b y c it i n g t h e s im ila r o r r e le v a n t id e a s o r
f in d in g s o f o th e r r e s e a r c h e r s a n d a u th o r itie s . D o c u m e n ta tio n w a s d o n e th r o u g h f o o tn o tin g o r
p a r e n th e r ic a l r e f e r e n c e c ita tio n . M o d e r n w r ite r s is n o w u s in g p a r e n th e r ic a l r e f e r e n c e s ty le . T h e
s ty le is c a lle d “ A m e r ic a n P s y c h o lo g ic a l A s s o c ia tio n s ty le ” o r A P A s t y le

E x a m p le s o f A P A s ty le o f c ita tio n

W o r k s b y s in g le a u th o r

A c c o r d i n g t o F l i p p o ( 1984) proper job performance is achieved

o n l y i f e m p l o y e e s a r e t r a i n e d because they will improve their skills .

f r o m t heory on bounded rational ity (Simon, 1945)

F l i p p o ( 1 9 8 4 ) s t a t e d t h e r e lationship or training and performance,

t h u s :

“ A f t e r p e r s o n n e l h a v e b e e n obtained, they must be to some degree

d e v e l o p e d . D e v e l o p m e n t h a s to do with the increase of skill through

t r a i n i n g , t h a t i s n e c e s s a r y for proper job performance.”

W o r k s b y m u ltip le a u th o r s
W h e n a w o r k h a s t w o a u t h o r s , al w a y s c it e b o t h n a m e s e v e r y t im e t h e r e fe r e n c e o c c u r s in t h e t e x t . In

p a r e n t h e t i c a l m a t e r i a l jo i n t h e n a m e s w i t h a n a m p e r s a n d ( & ) .

a s h a s b e e n s h o w n ( L e i t e r & M a s lach, 1998)

I n t h e n a r r a t i v e t e x t , j o i n t h e n a m e s w i t h t h e w o r d " a n d ."

a s L e i t e r a n d M a s l a c h ( 1 9 9 8 ) d e monstrated

W h e n a w o r k h a s t h r e e , f o u r , o r f i v e a u t h o r s , c i t e a l l a u t h o r s t h e fi r s t t i m e t h e r e f e r e n c e o c c u r s .

K a h n e m a n , K n e t s c h , a n d T h a l e r ( 1991) found

I n a l l s u b s e q u e n t c i t a t i o n s p e r p a r a g r a p h , i n c l u d e o n l y t h e s u r n a m e o f t h e f i r s t a u t h o r f o l l o w e d b y " e t a l ."

( L a t i n f o r " a n d o t h e r s " ) a n d t h e y e a r o f p u b l i c a t io n .

K a h n e m a n e t a l . ( 1 9 9 1 ) f o u n d

W r itin g th e r e la te d lite r a tu r e

In a r e p o r t, th e o r ig in a l in f o r m a tio n s ta te d b y th e r e s e a r c h e r a r e p r in te d d o u b le s p a c e , w h ile th e

b o r r o w e d in f o r m a t io n a r e e n c o d e d in s in g le s p a c e if c o p ie d w o r d f o r w o r d fr o m t h e s o u r c e .

P a r a p h r a s e d in f o r m a tio n is s ta te d a ls o in d o u b le s p a c e ( B o u in g )
G r o u p a c tiv ity :

1. E a c h m e m b e r f u r n is h a c o p y o f f o r e ig n a n d lo c a l lite r a tu r e o f th e ir s tu d y .

2. H a r m o n iz e th e in f o r m a tio n f o llo w in g th e s e q u e n c e o f th e q u e s tio n u n d e r S ta te m e n t

o f th e P r o b le m

3. L if t, a d o p t, p a r a p h r a s e o r q u o te th e e s s e n tia l s u b s ta n c e o f a w r itte n s o u r c e .

4. P r e s e n t th e o u tp u t t o th e c la s s

( B o u in g )

T h e o r e tic a l / C o n c e p tu a l F r a m e w o r k

A c o n c e p t u a l f r a m e w o r k i s t h e r e s e a r c h e r ’ s i d e a o n h o w t h e r e s e a r c h p r o b le m w i l l h a v e t o b e

e x p lo r e d . T h is is fo u n d e d o n t h e t h e o r e t ic a l f r a m e w o r k , w h ic h lie s o n a m u c h b r o a d e r s c a le o f

r e s o lu t io n . T h e t h e o r e t ic a l fr a m e w o r k d w e lls o n t im e t e s t e d t h e o r ie s t h a t e m b o d y t h e f in d in g s o f

n u m e r o u s in v e s tig a tio n s o n h o w p h e n o m e n a o c c u r .

T h e t h e o r e t i c a l fr a m e w o r k p r o v id e s a g e n e r a l r e p r e s e n ta tio n o f r e la tio n s h ip s b e tw e e n th in g s in a

g iv e n p h e n o m e n o n . T h e o r e tic a l f r a m e w o r k c ite s th e s a lie n t o u tc o m e s o f th e p r e v io u s s tu d ie s

p r e s e n ts th e th e o r ie s f o r m u la te d b y o th e r w r ite rs , th e s e w ill b e u s e d a s b a s e s in p r o v in g o r

d is a p p r o v in g th e a p p lic a b ili ty o f s u c h th e o r ie s o n p r e s e n t tim e .

T h e c o n c e p tu a l f r a m e w o r k , o n th e o th e r h a n d , e m b o d ie s th e s p e c if ic d ir e c tio n b y w h ic h th e

r e s e a r c h w ill h a v e to b e u n d e r ta k e n . S ta tis tic a lly s p e a k in g , th e c o n c e p tu a l f r a m e w o r k d e s c r ib e s th e

r e la tio n s h ip b e tw e e n s p e c i fi c v a r i a b l e s id e n tif ie d in th e s tu d y . It a ls o o u tlin e s th e i n p u t, p r o c e s s

a n d o u tp u t o f th e w h o le in v e s tig a t io n . T h e c o n c e p tu a l f r a m e w o r k is a ls o c a lle d th e r e s e a r c h

p a ra d ig m .

R e s e a r c h P a r a d ig m

P a r a d i g m i s a c h a r t , d i a g r a m o r i l l u s t r a t i o n o f t h e e x i s t e n c e o f t h e p r o b le m . I t p r o v i d e s s o l u t i o n s

a n d th e o u tc o m e s o f th e p r o c e s s e s o r in te r v e n tio n d o n e .

D e f in itio n o f T e r m s

T h is p a r t s im p lif ie s th e k e y w o r d s u s e d in th e s tu d y . It s e r v e s a s th e g lo s s a r y o f th e r e s e a r c h p a p e r .

T e r m s m a y b e d e f in e d c o n c e p tu a lly o r o p e r a tio n a lly . C o n c e p tu a l d e f in itio n in c lu d e s th o s e lif te d

f r o m th e d ic tio n a r y o r w r itte n r e s o u r c e s . O p e r a tio n a l d e f in itio n r e f e r s to th e d e f in itio n c o n s tr u c te d

b y th e r e s e a r c h e r a s a p p lie d to th e p r e s e n t s tu d y . ( B o u in g )

L o c a le a n d P o p u la tio n o f th e s tu d y

T h is p a r t id e n tif ie s th e s e ttin g , v e n u e , p la c e o r lo c a tio n o f th e s tu d y . It in c lu d e s t h e p o p u la tio n a n d

th e s a m p le ta k e n f r o m th e p o p u la tio n . T h e s a m p lin g m e th o d is a ls o in c lu d e d h e r e ( B o u in g )
A c tiv it y :

P r e s e n t to th e c la s s y o u r T h e o r e tic a l F r a m e w o rk , a n d e x p la in w h y y o u d e r iv e d o r h o w th is th e o r y

a p p lie s to y o u r s tu d y .

Illu s tr a te a C o n c e p tu a l P a r a d ig m o f y o u r s tu d y to th e c la s s a n d e x p la in h o w th e r e s e a r c h p r o b le m

w ill h a v e to b e e x p lo r e d .

A C T IV IT Y T E S T : (P e r G r o u p )

1 . B e r e a d y to p r e s e n t o n c e a g a in y o u r C h a p te r s 1 , 2 a n d 3

2 . P r e p a r e a s h o r t p r e s e n ta tio n w ith o u t r e a d in g a n d s im p ly e x p la in e a c h c h a p te r s .

3 . O t h e r g r o u p s s h o u l d c o m m e n t a n d a s k q u e s t i o n s f o r c l a r if i c a t i o n .

4 . C h e c k t h e g r a m m a r o f y o u r s t u d y c a r e f u lly b e fo r e p r e s e n t in g y o u r m a n u s c r ip t .

C h a p te r III

R e s e a r c h D e s ig n

 r e f e rs to a s a s c h e m e o r p la n o f a c tio n f o r m e e tin g th e o b je c tiv e s o f th e s tu d y .

- E a c h r e s e a r c h d e s ig n h a s its o w n a p p lic a b ility f a c to r s to c o n s id e r :

• n a tu r e o f p r o b le m

• o b je c tiv e s o f th e s tu d y

• a ttr ib u te s a d g e o g r a p h ic a l d is p e r s io n o f th e s u b je c ts

• I n v e s t ig a t o r ’s c a p a b ilit y

• A v a ila b ility o f r e s o u r c e s a n d tim e e le m e n t

T y p e s o f R e s e a r c h D e s ig n

1 .H is to r ic a l R e s e a r c h D e s ig n – is th e s y s te m a tic a n d o b je c tiv e lo c a tio n , e v a lu a tio n a n d

s y n th e s is o f e v id e n c e in o r d e r to e s ta b lis h th e f a c ts a n d d r a w c o n c lu s io n s a b o u t p a s t

e v e n ts .

E x a m p le :” A T a le o f T w o c r i s e s : T h e B e lg i a n a n d Ir i s h D i o x i n C o n t a m i n a ti o n

In c i d e n t s ” b y D o n a ld C a s e y

2 .D e s c r ip t iv e R e s e a r c h D e s ig n - a im s t o f in d o u t w h a t p r e v a il in t h e p r e s e n t c o n d i t io n s o r

r e la t io n s h ip s , h e l d o p in io n s a n d b e lie f s , p r o c e s s a n d e ff e c t s a n d d e v e lo p in g t r e n d s

T y p e s o f D e s c r ip tiv e R e s e a r c h :

a. C a s e S tu d y - – is a n e m p ir ic a l in q u ir y th a t in v e s tig a te s a c o n te m p o r a r y p h e n o m e n o n

w ith in its r e a l-lif e c o n te x t, e s p e c ia lly w h e n th e b o u n d a r ie s b e tw e e n p h e n o m e n o n

a n d c o n te x t a r e n o t c le a r ly e v id e n t.
 E x a m p l e : ” R u r a l W o m e n i n R i c e E n t e r p r i s e : A C a s e S t u d y ” b y D .D . T o r r e t a

b. T r e n d S tu d y - p r e d ic ts o n th e b a s is o f a v a ila b le d a ta , th e d ir e c tio n a n d f u tu r e s ta tu s

o f c e r ta in p h e n o m e n o n lik e p o p u la tio n s iz e , s c h o o l, p o p u la tio n s iz e , s c h o o l

e n r o lm e n t, b u s in e s s g r o w th , h o u s e h o ld e x p e n d itu r e s a n d r e s id e n tia l lo c a tio n .

E x a m p le : “ T r e n d s i n B r e a s t f e e d i n g P r e v a l e n c e a n d D u r a t i o n ” b y Z e ld a

c. S u r v e y - d e ta ile d a n d q u a n tif ie d d e s c r ip tio n o f a p o p u la tio n o f a p o p u la tio n –

p r e c is e m a p o r p r e c is e m e a s u r e m e n t o f p o te n tia l .

E x a m p l e : “ C u s t o m e r S a t i s f a c t i o n o f A B C T r a v e l a n d T o u r ” b y D .C C a s t r o

d. C o n te n t A n a ly s is / D o c u m e n t A n a ly s is – to f in d o u t t h e ty p e a n d th e q u a lity o f

m e s s a g e f o u n d in c u r r e n t d o c u m e n ts d e a ls w ith c o m m u n ic a tio n , p r o c e s s e s .

E x a m p le : “R h e t o r ic a l P a t t e r n s o f S p e e c h e s o f P r e s . B e n ig n o A q u in o III ”

e. F e a s ib ility s tu d y – s c h e m e u s e w h e n th e o b je c tiv e o f th e s tu d y is to f in d o u t th e

v ia b ility o f s ta r tin g a b u s in e s s v e n tu r e , im p le m e n tin g a d e v e lo p m e n t

p r o g r a m ,e s ta b lis h in g a n in s titu tio n , f o r m in g o r g a n iz a tio n , p u ttin g u p a te le v is io n

n e tw o r k o r c o n s tr u c tin g a c o m m e r c ia l b u ild in g . C o m p o n e n ts : m a r k e t, te c h n ic a l,

f in a n c ia l a n d m a n a g e m e n t a s p e c ts o f th e d e s ir e d u n d e r ta k in g .

E x a m p l e : “E s ta b lis h m e n t o f F o o d S e r v ic e B u s in e s s in A n tip o lo C ity ” b y A .M S o m o r a y

f. D e v e lo p m e n t s tu d y – a s c h e m e to f in d o u t h o w a n d to w h a t e x te n t i n d iv id u a ls g r o w

o r d e v e lo p in te r m s o f p h y s ic a l, in te lle c tu a l, e m o tio n a l a n d s o c ia l d im e n s io n .

T y p e s : lo n g itu d in a l ( y e a r s to f in is h ) a n d c r o s s s e c tio n ( o n e p o in t in tim e )

E x a m p l e : “ T h e D e v e lo p m e n t o f S o c ia l A w a r e n e s s A m o n g F ilip in o C h ild r e n ” b y

P N C R es e a r ch C e n ter

g. F o llo w -u p s tu d y – is c o n d u c te d w ith th e g o a l o f f in d in g o u t w h a t h a p p e n e d to

in d iv id u a ls w h o c o m p le te d a p r o g r a m a p r o g r a m , a tr e a tm e n t o r a c o u r s e o f s tu d y .

E x a m p le : O L F U S tu d e n t M o n ito rin g P ro g ra m : A F o llo w u p Stu d y

h. E v a lu a tio n s tu d y – to f in d o u t w h e t h e r o r n o t a g iv e n p r o g r a m is w o r k in g o r a n

in s titu tio n is s u c c e s s f u l.

E x a m p le : “ A n E v a lu a tio n o f th e N a tio n a l T u b e r c u lo s is P r o g r a m in W e s t e r n V i s a y a s ” by

V .B . A r d a le s

i. E th n o g r a p h ic s tu d y – is a f ie ld m e th o d s tu d y a n d u s e s th e te c h n iq u e s o f o b s e r v a tio n

a n d in te g r a tio n to th e g r o u p a n d c o n s e r v a tio n a n d i n te r v ie w s w ith i n f o r m a n ts .

O b s e r v e s b e l i e f s , a t t i t u d e s , f e a r s a n d h o p e s o f c u l t u r a l o r e t h n i c g r o u p s , r e a l l if e

s e ttin g .

E x a m p le : “ B e lie f s a n d C u s to m s o f F a r m e r s in G a p a n , N u e v a E c ija ”

j. R e la tio n a l s tu d y – to f in d o u t th e d ir e c tio n a n d e x te n t o f r e la tio n s h ip b e tw e e n tw o

O r m o r e p a ir e d v a r ia b le s o r tw o o r m o r e s e ts o f d a ta .
 E x a m p le : ” R e la t io n s h ip B e t w e e n E c o n o m ic S t a t u s a n d A c a d e m ic P e r fo r m a n c e a n d

C a r e e r P r e f e r e n c e o f S e n i o r H i g h S c h o o l S t u d e n t s i n t h e I l o il o C i t y ”

k. E x P o s t F a c to S tu d ie s / C a s u a l C o m p a r a tiv e D e s ig n – is a m e th o d w h e r e in th e

in v e s tig a to r s tu d ie s th e p r o b le m b y a n a ly z in g p a s t e v e n ts o r e x is tin g c o n d itio n s to

d e te r m in e th e in f lu e n c e . T o f in d o u t th e e x is tin g d if f e r e n c e s in th e s ta tu s b e h a v io u r ,

a ttitu d e a n d b e lie f o f g r o u p s o f in d iv id u a ls .

E x a m p le : “ S o m e F a c to r s in J o b S a tis f a c tio n A m o n g E m p lo y e e s in a F iv e S ta r H o te l

I n M e t r o M a n ila ” b y A .M L o p e z

l. R e p lic a tio n a n d S e c o n d a r y A n a ly s is – r e p e titio n o f a r e s e a r c h w o r k b u t in a

d if f e r e n t s e t o f p a r tic ip a n ts , s e ttin g a n d ti m e . C h a lle n g in g a n d v e r if y in g th e

c o n c lu s io n s o f p r e v io u s s tu d ie s .

E x a m p le : “ S o c ia l C h a n g e in M in d a n a o : A R e v ie w o f th e R e s e a r c h o f th e D e c a d e ”

B y M .A C o s t e llo

3 . E x p e r im e n ta l R e s e a r c h D e s ig n - is a r e s e a r c h m e th o d in w h ic h th e in v e s t ig a to r m a n ip u la te s a

v a r ia b le ( s ) u n d e r v e r y c o n tr o lle d c o n d itio n s a n d e x a m in e s w h e th e r c h a n g e s o c c u r in a s e c o n d

v a r ia b le ( s ) . In d e p e n d e n t & D e p e n d e n t V a r ia b le s

T h e m a n ip u la t e d v a r ia b le is c a lle d t h e IN D E P E N D E N T V A R IA B L E ( p r e s u m e d " c a u s e ." ) T h e

v a r ia b le th a t is e x p e c te d to c h a n g e a s a r e s u lt o f th e m a n ip u la tio n o f th e in d e p e n d e n t v a r ia b le

is c a lle d th e D E P E N D E N T V A R IA B L E . ( p r e s u m e d " e f f e c t ." )

4 .F a c t o r ia l R e s e a r c h D e s ig n - d e s ig n is o f t e n u s e d b y s c ie n t is t s w is h in g t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e e f f e c t o f

tw o o r m o r e in d e p e n d e n t v a r ia b le s u p o n a s in g le d e p e n d e n t v a r ia b le .

5 . A c tio n R e s e a r c h D e s ig n - le a r n in g b y d o in g ” - a g r o u p o f p e o p le id e n tif y a p r o b le m , d o s o m e th in g

t o r e s o lv e it , s e e h o w s u c c e s s f u l t h e ir e f fo r t s w e r e , a n d if n o t s a t is f ie d , t r y a g a in . W h ile t h is is t h e

e s s e n c e o f th e a p p r o a c h , th e r e a r e o th e r k e y a ttr ib u te s o f a c tio n r e s e a r c h th a t d if f e r e n tia te it f r o m

c o m m o n p r o b le m -s o lv in g a c tiv itie s th a t w e a ll e n g a g e in e v e r y d a y .

6 .P a r t ic ip a t o r y R e s e a r c h D e s ig n - I s a n a r r a n g e d e f f o r t b y t h e r e s e a r c h e r a n d t h e p e o p le t o c o n d u c t

a s t u d y t h e r e s u lt o f w h ic h is r e le v a n t t o a c t io n s f o r t r a n s f o r m in g o r im p r o v in g p e o p le ’s c o n d it io n .

i s a r e c o g n i z e d f o r m o f e x p e r i m e n t a l r e s e a r c h t h a t f o c u s e s o n t h e e f f e c t s o f t h e r e s e a r c h e r 's d i r e c t

a c tio n s o f p r a c tic e w ith in a p a r tic ip a to r y c o m m u n i ty w ith th e g o a l o f im p r o v in g th e p e r f o r m a n c e

q u a lity o f th e c o m m u n ity o r a n a r e a o f c o n c e r n .

7 .O p e r a t io n s R e s e a r c h D e s ig n - I s t h e a p p lic a t io n o f a n a ly t ic m e t h o d s t h a t h e lp d e c is io n m a k e r s

c h o o s e a m o n g v a r io u s o p tio n s to a c c o m p lis h s p e c if ie d g o a ls . It is u s e f u l in s o lv in g p r o b le m s th a t

a r e r e la te d to th e c o n d u c t a n d c o o r d in a tio n o f o p e r a tio n s o f o r g a n iz a tio n s .

 S a m p lin g P r o c e d u r e

S a m p lin g r e f e r s to ta k in g a r e p r e s e n ta tiv e s u b s e c tio n o f th e p o p u la tio n . C o n ta c tin g ,

q u e s t io n in g , a n d o b t a in in g i n f o r m a t io n f r o m a la r g e p o p u la t io n , s u c h a s t h e 3 7 0 ,0 0 0 h o u s e h o ld s

r e s id in g in A n ti p o lo C ity , is e x tr e m e ly e x p e n s iv e , d if f ic u lt, a n d tim e c o n s u m in g . A p r o p e r ly

d e s ig n e d p r o b a b ility s a m p le , h o w e v e r , p r o v id e s a r e lia b le m e a n s o f in f e r r in g in f o r m a tio n a b o u t a

p o p u la tio n w ith o u t e x a m in in g e v e r y m e m b e r o r e le m e n t .

T w o G e n e r a l T y p e s o f S a m p lin g :

A . P ro b a b ility sa m p lin g - is ta k in g a s a m p le f ro m th e p o p u la tio n . It e n s u r e s th a t th e r e is a

p o s s ib ility f o r e a c h p e r s o n in a s a m p le p o p u la tio n to b e s e le c te d . A p r o b a b ility s a m p le te n d s to b e

m o r e d if f ic u lt a n d c o s tly to c o n d u c t. H o w e v e r , p r o b a b ility s a m p le s a r e th e o n ly ty p e o f s a m p le s

w h e r e th e r e s u lts c a n b e g e n e r a liz e d f r o m th e s a m p le to th e p o p u la tio n . In

a d d itio n , p r o b a b ility s a m p le s a llo w th e r e s e a r c h e r to c a lc u la te th e p r e c is io n o f th e e s tim a te s

o b ta in e d f r o m th e s a m p le a n d to s p e c if y

th e s a m p lin g e r r o r .

T y p e s o f P r o b a b ility S a m p lin g :

5 . R a n d o m S a m p li n g – T h is is s im ila r to lo tte r y m e th o d th a t p r o v id e s e v e r y o n e in th e

p o p u la tio n th e e q u a l c h a n c e to b e p i c k e d a s s a m p le .

6 . S y s te m a tic S a m p li n g – T h is is u s e d if a h ig h d e n s ity o f a p o p u la tio n is a t s ta k e . T h e

r e s e a r c h e r m a y f in d a r e c o r d o f th e p o p u la tio n , lis t th e n a m e a lp h a b e tic a lly a t a n y

d e s ir e d o r d e r , id e n tif y th e s a m p le s iz e , th e n p r o c e e d to a s y s te m o f s e le c tio n . S a y

th e p o p u la tio n is 1 0 0 0 a n d h e p r e f e r r e d s a m p le is 2 0 % , th e r e s e a r c h e r n e e d s 2 0 0 ,
th
s o h e p ic k s e v e r y 5 n a m e f r o m th e lis t. ( B o u in g )

7 . S tr a tif ie d R a n d o m S a m p lin g - d iv id i n g u p th e p o p u la tio n in to s m a lle r g r o u p s , a n d

r a n d o m ly s a m p lin g f r o m e a c h g r o u p .

E x a m p le : T o g e t a s a m p le f ro m th e C ity o f A n tip o lo . T o o b ta in m o r e p r e c is e

e s tim a te s o f th e p o p u la tio n , th e r e s e a r c h e r m a y w a n t to s tr a tif y th e s a m p le b y

g e o g r a p h ic r e g io n o r b a r a n g g a y .

4 . C lu s te r S a m p lin g - is s im ila r to s tr a tif ie d s a m p lin g b e c a u s e th e p o p u la tio n to b e

s a m p le d is s u b d iv id e d i n to m u tu a lly e x c lu s i v e g r o u p s . H o w e v e r , in c lu s te r s a m p lin g

th e g r o u p s a r e d e f in e d s o a s to m a in ta in th e h e te r o g e n e ity o f th e p o p u la tio n .

E x a m p le : F e m a le m e m b e r s o f B a r a n g g a y S a n Is id r o .

B . N o n -P ro b a b ility S a m p l i n g - i n c o n t r a s t , d o n o t a l l o w t h e s t u d y 's f i n d i n g s t o b e g e n e r a l i z e d

f r o m th e s a m p le to th e p o p u la tio n . W h e n d is c u s s in g th e r e s u lts o f a n o n p r o b a b ility s a m p le , th e

r e s e a r c h e r m u s t lim it h is / h e r f in d in g s to th e p e r s o n s o r e le m e n ts s a m p le d . T h is p r o c e d u r e a lso

d o e s n o t a llo w th e r e s e a r c h e r to c a lc u la te s a m p lin g s ta tis tic s th a t p r o v id e in f o r m a tio n a b o u t th e

p r e c is io n o f th e r e s u lts . T h e a d v a n ta g e o f n o n p r o b a b ility s a m p lin g is th e e a s e in w h ic h it c a n b e

a d m in is te r e d . N o n p r o b a b ility s a m p le s te n d to b e le s s c o m p lic a te d a n d le s s ti m e c o n s u m in g t h a n

p r o b a b ility s a m p le s . If th e r e s e a r c h e r h a s n o in te n tio n o f g e n e r a liz in g b e y o n d th e s a m p le , o n e o f

th e n o n p r o b a b ility s a m p lin g m e th o d o lo g ie s w ill p r o v id e th e d e s ir e d in f o r m a tio n .

T y p e s o f N o n -P r o b a b ility S a m p lin g

1 . N e tw o r k s a m p lin g – “ r e f e r r a l s a m p lin g ” th a t s te m s f r o m o n e o r f e w id e n tif ie d

s a m p le s w h o a f te r b e in g in v o lv e d in th e s tu d y w ill le a d th e r e s e a r c h e r to o th e r

s a m p le s w h o p o s s e s s th e s a m e a ttr ib u te s . ( B o u in g )

2 . A c c id e n ta l S a m p lin g - A s a m p lin g b y o p p o r tu n ity in w h ic h th e r e s e a r c h e r ta k e s th e

r e s p o n d e n ts f r o m th o s e h e m e e ts u n e x p e c te d ly .

3 . P u r p o s iv e S a m p lin g – “ J u d g e m e n ta l s a m p lin g ” . A d e lib e r a te s e le c tio n o f in d iv id u a ls

b y t h e r e s e a r c h e r b a s e d o n p r e d e f i n e d c r i t e r i a . E x a m p l e , if t h e r e s e a r c h e r w a n t s t o

k n o w a b o u t c h ild b ir th p r o b le m s , th e r e s p o n d e n ts m a y b e o b s te tr ic ia n , g y n e c o lo g is t.

4 . C o n v e n ie n c e S a m p l in g – S e le c ti n g r e s p o n d e n t s in th e e a s ie s t w a y . T h e r e s p o n d e n ts

m a y b e th e n e a r e s t p e o p le , f r ie n d s , r e la tiv e s , a c c e s s ib le o r g a n iz a tio n , a v a ila b le

person.

5 . Q u o ta S a m p lin g - a p o p u la tio n is f ir s t s e g m e n te d in to m u tu a ll y e x c lu s iv e s u b -

g r o u p s , ju s t a s in s tr a tif ie d s a m p lin g . T h e n ju d g m e n t is u s e d to s e le c t th e s u b je c ts o r

u n its f r o m e a c h s e g m e n t b a s e d o n a s p e c i f ie d p r o p o r tio n . F o r e x a m p le , a n

in te r v ie w e r m a y b e to ld to s a m p le 2 0 0 f e m a le s a n d 3 0 0 m a le s b e tw e e n th e a g e o f

4 5 a n d 6 0 . T h is m e a n s th a t in d iv i d u a ls c a n p u t a d e m a n d o n w h o th e y w a n t to

s a m p le ( ta r g e tin g ) .

D e te r m in in g th e S a m p le

D e te r m in in g s a m p le s iz e is a v e r y i m p o r ta n t is s u e b e c a u s e s a m p le s th a t a r e to o

la r g e m a y w a s te tim e , r e s o u r c e s a n d m o n e y , w h ile s a m p le s th a t a r e to o s m a ll m a y le a d to

in a c c u r a te r e s u lts . T h e r e is n o g e n e r a l r u le r e g a r d in g th e s a m p le s iz e . H o w e v e r , w e c a n s a y th a t th e

h ig h e r th e p e r c e n ta g e , th e h ig h e r th e v a lid it y . It is n a tu r a l to s a y th a t th e b ig g e r th e p o p u la tio n , th e

le s s e r p e r c e n ta g e o f th e s a m p le is ta k e n .

S o m e s ta tis tic ia n s s u g g e s t th e S lo v i n f o r m u la in c o m p u tin g th e s a m p le s iz e .

n = N

1+N e2

W h e r e : n = n u m b e r o f s a m p le

N = n u m b e r o f p o p u la tio n

E = m a r g in o f e r ro r

T h e m a r g in o f e r r o r m a y b e .0 1 t o .0 5 . B u t t h e lo w e r t h e m a r g in o f e r r o r , t h e h ig h e r t h e a c c u r a c y o f

th e r e s u lt.
A c t iv it y : C o m p u t e t h e s a m p le s iz e . W h e r e t h e n u m b e r o f p o p u la t io n is 1 ,2 0 0 a n d t h e m a r g in o f

e r r o r is 3 %

n = N
1+N e2

N = 1 ,2 0 0

E = .0 3

n = ?

n = 1 ,2 0 0

1 + 1 ,2 0 0 ( .0 3 ) 2

n = 1 ,2 0 0

1 + 1 ,2 0 0 ( .0 0 0 9 )

n = 1 ,2 0 0

1 + 1 .0 8 0 0

n= 1 ,2 0 0

2 .0 8 0 0

n = 5 7 5 .9 2 o r 5 8 0

V a lid it y a n d R e lia b il it y

V a lid ity a n d R e lia b ility a r e tw o im p o r ta n t c h a r a c te r is tic s o f b o th th e r e s e a r c h p r o c e s s a n d r e s e a r c h

o u tp u t.

V a l i d it y r e f e r s t o t h e d e g r e e o f a p p r o p r ia t e n e s s , c o r r e c t n e s s , t r u t h f u l n e s s a n d a c c u r a c y o f t h e

s tu d y . In o th e r w o r d s , th e p r o c e d u r e s h a ll m e a s u r e w h a t is in te n d e d to m e a s u r e . ( B o u in g )

T y p e s o f V a lid ity

1. C o n t e n t V a l i d it y - p e r t a in s t o t h e d e g r e e t o w h ic h t h e in s t r u m e n t f u l l y a s s e s s e s o r m e a s u r e s

th e c o n s tr u c t o f in te r e s t. F o r e x a m p le , a n e d u c a tio n a l te s t w ith s tr o n g c o n te n t v a lid ity w ill

r e p r e s e n t th e s u b je c ts a c tu a lly ta u g h t to s tu d e n ts , r a th e r th a n a s k in g u n r e la te d q u e s tio n s .

2. F a c e V a l i d i ty - is a c o m p o n e n t o f c o n te n t v a lid ity a n d is e s ta b lis h e d w h e n a n i n d iv id u a l

r e v ie w in g th e in s tr u m e n t c o n c lu d e s th a t it m e a s u r e s th e c h a r a c te r is tic o r tr a it o f in te r e s t. It

r e q u ir e s a p e r so n a l ju d g m e n t, s u c h a s a s k in g p a r tic ip a n ts w h e th e r th e y th o u g h t th a t a te s t w a s

w e ll c o n s tr u c te d a n d u s e f u l.

3. C rit e rio n V a lid ity - a s s e s s e s w h e th e r a te s t r e f le c ts a c e r ta in s e t o f a b ilitie s . T o m e a s u r e th e

c r ite r io n v a lid ity o f a te s t, r e s e a r c h e r s m u s t c a lib r a te it a g a in s t a k n o w n s ta n d a r d o r a g a in s t
 its e lf .
E x a m p le :
F o r m a r k e t r e s e a r c h e r s , c r ite r io n v a lid ity is c r u c ia l, a n d c a n m a k e o r b r e a k a p r o d u c t. O n e
f a m o u s e x a m p le is w h e n C o c a -C o la d e c id e d to c h a n g e t h e f la v o r o f th e ir tr a d e m a r k d r in k .

D ilig e n tly , th e y r e s e a r c h e d w h e th e r p e o p le lik e d th e n e w f la v o r , p e r f o r m in g ta s te te s ts a n d

g iv in g o u t q u e s tio n n a ir e s . P e o p le lo v e d th e n e w f la v o r , s o C o c a -C o la r u s h e d N e w C o k e in to
p r o d u c tio n , w h e r e it w a s a tit a n ic f lo p .
T h e m is ta k e th a t C o k e m a d e w a s th a t th e y f o r g o t a b o u t c r ite r io n v a lid ity , a n d o m itte d o n e
im p o r ta n t q u e s tio n f r o m th e s u r v e y .

P e o p le w e r e n o t a s k e d if t h e y p r e f e r r e d t h e n e w f la v o r t o t h e o ld , a fa ilu r e t o e s t a b lis h
c o n c u r r e n t v a lid ity .
T h e O ld C o k e , k n o w n to b e p o p u la r , w a s th e p e r f e c t b e n c h m a r k , b u t it w a s n e v e r u s e d . A
s im p le b lin d ta s te te s t, a s k in g p e o p le w h ic h f la v o r th e y p r e f e rr e d o u t o f th e tw o , w o u ld h a v e
s a v e d C o c a C o la m illio n s o f d o lla r s .

R e lia b ility - T h e d e g r e e o f c o n s is te n c y b e tw e e n t w o m e a s u r e s o f th e s a m e th in g . ( M e h r e n s a n d
L e h m a n , 1 9 8 7 ).

• T h e m e a s u r e o f h o w s ta b le , d e p e n d a b le , tr u s tw o r th y , a n d c o n s is te n t a te s t is in m e a s u r in g th e
s a m e t h in g e a c h t i m e ( W o r t h e n e t a l., 1 9 9 3 )

E x a m p le 1 : I f w e w i s h t o m e a s u r e a p e r s o n 's w e i g h t , w e w o u l d h o p e t h a t t h e s c a l e w o u l d r e g i s t e r

th e s a m e m e a s u r e e a c h tim e th e p e r s o n s te p p e d o n th e s c a le .

E x a m p le 2 : If w e w a n te d to m e a s u r e th e le n g th o f a p ie c e o f w o o d , t h e ta p e u s e d b e tte r y ie ld th e

s a m e m e a s u r e e a c h tim e . E v e n if y o u h a d s o m e o n e e ls e r e m e a s u r e th e w o o d , th e r e s u lt s h o u ld b e

c o n s is te n t.

E x a m p le 3 : A s s u m e th a t y o u g a v e a s tu d e n t a h is to r y te s t y e s te r d a y a n d th e n g a v e t h e te s t a g a in

to d a y . Y o u f o u n d th a t th e s tu d e n t s c o r e d v e r y h ig h th e f ir s t d a y a n d v e r y lo w th e s e c o n d d a y . It

c o u ld h a v e b e e n th a t th e s t u d e n t h a d a n o f f d a y o r th a t th e te s t is s im p ly u n r e lia b le .

S ta tis tic a l T r e a tm e n t o f D a ta

S c ie n tis ts f r e q u e n tly u s e s ta tis tic s to a n a ly z e th e ir r e s u lts . W h y d o r e s e a r c h e r s u s e

s ta tis tic s ? S ta tis tic s c a n h e lp u n d e r s ta n d a p h e n o m e n o n b y c o n f ir m in g o r r e je c tin g a h y p o th e s is . It

is v ita l to h o w w e a c q u ir e k n o w le d g e to m o s t s c ie n tif ic th e o r ie s .

S ta tis tic a l tr e a tm e n t o f d a ta a ls o in v o lv e s d e s c r ib in g th e d a ta . T h e b e s t w a y to d o th is is th r o u g h

th e m e a s u r e s o f c e n tr a l te n d e n c ie s lik e m e a n , m e d ia n a n d m o d e . T h e s e h e lp th e r e s e a r c h e r e x p la in

in s h o r t h o w th e d a ta a r e c o n c e n tr a te d . R a n g e , u n c e r ta in ty a n d s ta n d a r d d e v ia t io n h e lp to
u n d e r s ta n d th e d is tr ib u tio n o f th e d a ta . T h e r e f o r e tw o d is tr ib u tio n s w ith th e s a m e m e a n c a n h a v e

w ild ly d if f e r e n t s ta n d a r d d e v ia tio n , w h ic h s h o w s h o w w e ll th e d a ta p o in ts a r e c o n c e n tr a te d a r o u n d

th e m e a n .

S ta tis tic a l tr e a tm e n t o f d a ta is a n im p o r ta n t a s p e c t o f a ll e x p e r im e n ta tio n to d a y a n d a th o r o u g h

u n d e r s ta n d in g is n e c e s s a r y to c o n d u c t t h e r ig h t e x p e r im e n ts w ith th e r ig h t in f e r e n c e s f r o m th e

d a ta o b ta in e d .