Submitted to:

Sir Omar Shaoor Khan

Submitted By:
AhmadFaras

Zeshan Khalid

Faizan Ali

Waqas Saeed

Asad Hayat

Subject:
Psychology
Evolution in psychology
In Greek mythology, Psyche was a mortal woman whose beauty was so great that it rivaled that
of the goddess Aphrodite. Aphrodite became so jealous of Psyche that she sent her son, Eros, to
make Psyche fall in love with the ugliest man in the world. However, Eros accidentally pricked
himself with the tip of his arrow and fell madly in love with Psyche himself. He took Psyche to
his palace and showered her with gifts, yet she could never see his face. While visiting Psyche,
her sisters roused suspicion in Psyche about her mysterious lover, and eventually, Psyche
betrayed Eros’ wishes to remain unseen to her. Because of this betrayal, Eros abandoned Psyche.
When Psyche appealed to Aphrodite to reunite her with Eros, Aphrodite gave her a series of
impossible tasks to complete. Psyche managed to complete all of these trials; ultimately, her
perseverance paid off as she was reunited with Eros and was ultimately transformed into a
goddess herself (Ashliman, 2001; Greek Myths & Greek Mythology, 2014).

Psyche comes to represent the human soul’s triumph over the misfortunes of life in the pursuit of
true happiness (Bulfinch, 1855); in fact, the Greek word psyche means soul, and it is often
represented as a butterfly. The word psychology was coined at a time when the concepts of soul
and mind were not as clearly distinguished (Green, 2001). The root –ology denotes scientific
study of, and psychology refers to the scientific study of the mind. Since science studies only
observable phenomena and the mind is not directly observable, we expand this definition to the
scientific study of mind and behavior.

The scientific study of any aspect of the world uses the scientific method to acquire knowledge.
To apply the scientific method, a researcher with a question about how or why something
happens will propose a tentative explanation, called a hypothesis, to explain the phenomenon. A
hypothesis is not just any explanation; it should fit into the context of a scientific theory. A
scientific theory is a broad explanation or group of explanations for some aspect of the natural
world that is consistently supported by evidence over time. A theory is the best understanding
that we have of that part of the natural world. Armed with the hypothesis, the researcher then
makes observations or, better still, carries out an experiment to test the validity of the hypothesis.
That test and its results are then published so that others can check the results or build on them. It
is necessary that any explanation in science be testable, which means that the phenomenon must
be perceivable and measurable. For example, that a bird sings because it is happy is not a testable
hypothesis, since we have no way to measure the happiness of a bird. We must ask a different
question, perhaps about the brain state of the bird, since this can be measured. In general, science
deals only with matter and energy, that is, those things that can be measured, and it cannot arrive
at knowledge about values and morality. This is one reason why our scientific understanding of
the mind is so limited, since thoughts, at least as we experience them, are neither matter nor
energy. The scientific method is also a form of empiricism. An empirical method for acquiring
knowledge is one based on observation, including experimentation, rather than a method based
only on forms of logical argument or previous authorities.
It was not until the late 1800s that psychology became accepted as its own academic discipline.
Before this time, the workings of the mind were considered under the auspices of philosophy.
Given that any behavior is, at its roots, biological, some areas of psychology take on aspects of a
natural science like biology. No biological organism exists in isolation, and our behavior is
influenced by our interactions with others. Therefore, psychology is also a social science.

Many ancient cultures speculated on the nature of the human mind, soul, and spirit. Psychology
as a scholarly study of the mind and behavior in Europe dates back to the Late Middle Ages. It
was widely regarded to a branch of philosophy until the middle of the nineteenth century. During
the last quarter of the nineteenth century, however, psychology in the West began to be seriously
pursued as a scientific enterprise.

In 1879, Wilhelm Wundt founded the first laboratory dedicated exclusively to psychological
research in Leipzig, Germany. Other important early contributors to the field include Hermann
Ebbinghaus (a pioneer in studies on memory), William James, and Ivan Pavlov (who developed
the procedures associated with classical conditioning). Sigmund Freud developed his
psychoanalytic method, which revolutionized the treatment of psychological disorders.

Soon after the development of experimental psychology, various kinds of applied psychology
began to appear. G. Stanley Hall brought scientific pedagogy to the United States from Germany
in the early 1880s. John Dewey's educational theory of the 1890s was another early example. In
the 1890s, James McKeen Cattell adapted Francis Galton's anthropometric methods to generate
the first program of mental testing.

The twentieth century saw a rejection of Freud's theories of mind as being too unscientific. This
led to the formulation of behaviorism by John B. Watson, which was popularized by B. F.
Skinner. Behaviorism proposed epistemologically limiting psychological study to overt behavior,
since that could be quantified and easily measured. Scientific knowledge of the "mind" was
considered too metaphysical, hence impossible to achieve.

The final decades of the twentieth century saw the rise of a new interdisciplinary approach to
studying human psychology, known collectively as cognitive science. Cognitive science again
considered the "mind" as a subject for investigation, using the tools of evolutionary psychology,
linguistics, computer science, philosophy, and neurobiology. This approach proposed that a wide
understanding of the human mind is possible, and that such an understanding may be applied to
other research domains, such as artificial intelligence.
Psychological Perspective:
The Psychodynamic Perspective

The psychodynamic perspective is based on the work of Sigmund Freud. Freud was the founder
of the psychoanalytic school of thought in psychology develops the use of important concepts
including the unconscious mind, ego, and defense mechanisms.

Freud believed that human behavior was motivated by an energy he called the libido. The libido
is the driving force between the part of personality known as the id. The id is the most primal
part of personality that is present at birth and that strives to fulfill all of the most basic urges. As
people age, part of the personality known as the ego develops which is responsible for mediating
between the demands of the id and reality. The last component of personality to emerge is
known as the super ego. This part of personality strives to make us behave in moralistic ways.

Fruit also believe that much of our behavior is driven by unconscious desires, wishes, and urges.
Childhood experiences play a critical role in shaping personality and our behavior as we grow
older. Well Freud was responsible for originating psychoanalysis, other thinkers also contributed
to the psychodynamic perspective. These include Freud’s daughter Anna Freud, Eric Erickson,
Melanie Klein, and Carl Jung. While psychoanalysis is not a dominant school of thought today,
the psychodynamic perspective remains an important part of psychology.

The Behavioral Perspective

During the early part of the 20th century, the school of thought known as behaviorism emerged.
The school of thought was focused on studying observable behaviors and making psychology a
more scientific pursuit.

According to the behavioral perspective, behaviors can be explained by looking at the processes
of conditioning and reinforcement. Two of the key ways that behaviors are learned is through the
processes known as classical conditioning and operant conditioning.

Classical conditioning is the process that was first discovered by the Russian physiologist Ivan
Pavlov during his famous studies on the digestive systems of dogs. He discovered that the dogs
had been conditioned to salivate whenever they saw the white coat of his lab assistant. Because
the animals associated the white coats with the presentation of food, a learned response was
formed. Operant conditioning is the learning process described by the American psychologist BF
Skinner. Operant conditioning involves using reinforcement or punishment as a consequence for
a behavior. Actions followed by reinforcement become more likely to be repeated in the future,
while those followed by punishment become less likely to occur in the future.
The Humanist Perspective

The humanist perspective focuses on looking at human beings in a holistic way. Rather than
focusing on dysfunction, humanists take the view that people are innately good and possess an
actualizing tendency that leads them to pursue self-actualization.

Those who take a humanist perspective emphasize the importance of free will and allowing
people to maximize their full potential. The work of humanistic psychologists Carl Rogers and
Abraham Maslow are important in this view of behavior. Rogers was the theorist behind client-
centered therapy, a non-directional approach that stresses the important of unconditional positive
regard in mental well-being.

Maslow is best known for his famous hierarchy of needs. His hierarchy is often displayed as a
pyramid in which the most basic needs lie at the bottom and increasingly complex needs lie
higher up toward the peak.

The Biological Perspective

Physiology has played a major role in psychology since the earliest days of the discipline.
However, it is only fairly recently in history that scientists and doctors have had the ability to
look at the brain and other biological processes more closely. The emergence of advanced brain
imaging techniques such as MRIs and PETs has allowed psychologists to learn much more about
how the brain, nervous system, and other body systems contribute to how we think and act.

Psychologists who take a biological perspective look at how the brain and nervous system work
and the many factors that might influence them. Topics such as genetics, the limbic system, the
endocrine system, and the immune system are just a few of the things that might interest
someone who takes this perspective. Biological psychologists also look at how brain damage and
disease influence people actions as well as their personalities.

Contribution in psychology by different scholars

1. B. F. Skinner

B.F. Skinner's staunch behaviorism made him a dominating force in psychology and therapy
techniques based on his theories are still used extensively today, including behavior modification
and token economies. Skinner is remembered for his concepts of operant conditioning and
schedules of reinforcement.

2. Jean Piaget

Jean Piaget's theory of cognitive development had a profound influence on psychology,

especially the understanding of children's intellectual growth. His research contributed to the
growth of developmental psychology, cognitive psychology, genetic epistemology, and
education reform.

Albert Einstein once described Piaget's observations on children's intellectual growth and
thought processes as a discovery "so simple that only a genius could have thought of it."

3. Sigmund Freud

When people think of psychology, many tend to think of Sigmund Freud. His work supported the
belief that not all mental illnesses have physiological causes and he also offered evidence that
cultural differences have an impact on psychology and behavior. His work and writings
contributed to our understanding of personality, clinical psychology, human development, and
abnormal psychology.

4. Albert Bandura

Albert Bandura's work is considered part of the cognitive revolution in psychology that began in
the late 1960s. His social learning theory stressed the importance of observational learning,
imitation, and modeling.

"Learning would be exceedingly laborious, not to mention hazardous, if people had to rely solely
on the effects of their own actions to inform them what to do," Bandura explained in his 1977
book "Social Learning Theory."