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This section provides a definition of climate change mitigation and related concepts.
It further gives an overview of greenhouse gases (GHGs), current emission levels, as
well as pledges of different countries to reduce GHG emissions in the future. The
section concludes with some examples of co-benefits of climate change mitigation.

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In order to prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system,
actions need to be taken to stabilize greenhouse gas concentrations in the
atmosphere. Such actions are referred to as “climate change mitigation”. More
specifically, mitigation involves:
• reducing GHG emissions, e.g. by making older equipment more energy efficient;
• preventing new GHG emissions to be released in the atmosphere, e.g. by avoiding
the construction of new emission-intensive factories;
• preserving and enhancing sinks and reservoirs of GHGs, e.g. by protecting natural
carbon sinks like forests and oceans, or creating new sinks (“carbon
sequestration”).

UNFCCC (2009). Fact Sheet: The Need for Mitigation

UNEP website/

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Mitigation Options: In order to reduce or limit GHG emissions and/or increase
carbon sequestration, a variety of mitigation options can be taken. They can be as
complex as a low-emission plan for the energy sector, or as a simple as
improvements to a cook stove design. Mitigation options can vary greatly from one
country to the other and need to be adapted to specific national circumstances
(referred to as “Nationally Appropriate Mitigation Actions” – NAMAs).

Low Carbon and Green Economy: In a nutshell low carbon development implies
‘using less carbon for growth’. The term green economy likewise encompasses the
reduction of greenhouse gas emissions, but also covers other environmental issues
which are not directly related to climate change (such as protecting human health
and the environment from mercury). The green economy concept also puts
emphasis on social benefits.

Mulugetta Y. & Urban, F. (2010). Deliberating on Low Carbon Development. Energy

Policy
UNEP (2010). Towards a Green Economy
UN Sustainable Development Knowledge Platform

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In order to make informed mitigation decisions, it is important to consider different
greenhouse gases, their sources and contribution to climate change. The most
important gas in terms of quantitative emissions is carbon dioxide. It accounted for
76% of total GHG emissions in 2010. Other important factors to be considered
include the capacity of different gases to trap heat in the atmosphere, or their so-
called “global warming potential” (GWP), as well as the time a certain gas remains in
the atmosphere (see Module 1 on Climate Change Science for further information).

IPCC (2007). Fourth Assessment Report

UNEP (2012). The Emissions Gap Report, p11

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The global community has committed itself to hold warming below 2°C (compared to pre-
industrial temperatures) to prevent dangerous climate change. The 2013 IPCC report on the
physical science basis of climate change provides a “budget approach” to this goal, looking at
total allowable CO2 emissions level to meet the 2°C target. The report states that in order to
have a greater than two in three chance of keeping global warming below 2°C, cumulative
emissions of CO2 cannot exceed 1,000 Gigatonnes of carbon (GtC). As of 2011, more than
half this amount, or over 500 GtC, has already been emitted since 1861-1880. When the
effects of other greenhouse gases are included, even less CO2 could be emitted to keep
below a 2°C warming.

Current annual emission levels are at 9.5 GtC and are likely to grow every year due to
population growth and economic development patterns. If annual emissions continue to
grow as in past years (“business as usual” scenario) the carbon budget will be exhausted in
the next three decades.

IPCC (2013). Climate Change 2013 – The Physical Science Basis, Summary for Policymakers

Further information:

The 2°C target is not universally agreed. Small Island Developing States (SIDS) and Least
Developed Countries (LDCs) have identified global warming of 1.5°C as warming above
which there would be serious threats to their own development and, in some cases, survival.

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In Paris in 2015, Parties to the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change
(UNFCCC) adopted an agreement to keep temperature increase below 2°C and strive
to keep it even below 1.5°C. The mitigation contributions to help the global
community reach this goal were part of each country`s Intended Nationally
Determined Contribution (INDC). (see also Module 2). This map shows the countries
who have submitted INDCs and the different categories of contributions made by
countries. In some cases, the contributions take the form of a GHG target, Non-GHG
target, actions or a combination.

World Resources Institute (2015). CAIT Climate Data Explorer

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UNEP’s 2012 Emissions Gap Report states that there is a significant gap between
current pledges and emission reductions needed to meet the 2° goal. According to
the report, emissions would need to peak before 2020 and be at about 44 Gt of
equivalent carbon dioxide (CO2e) per year in order to have a likely chance of meeting
the 2ºC target. Depending on countries’ capacity and willingness to implement
reductions pledges and the effectiveness of accounting rules, there are several
possible scenarios for emission levels in 2020, that are consistent with the current
reduction pledges:
Case 1. Unconditional Pledges, lenient rules (the median estimate of annual GHG
emissions in 2020 is 57 GtCO2e)
Case 2. Unconditional Pledges, strict rules (the median estimate of annual GHG
emissions in 2020 is 54 GtCO2e)
Case 3. Conditional Pledges, lenient rules (the median estimate of annual GHG
emissions in 2020 is 55 GtCO2e)
Case 4. Conditional Pledges, strict rules (the median estimate of annual GHG
emissions in 2020 is 52 GtCO2e)
The most optimistic scenario (case 4) sets emissions in 2020 at 52 GtCO2e level. If
countries, both developed and developing, fully implement their reduction targets,
this will reduce emissions to below the ‘business-as-usual’ level in 2020 but not to a
level that is in line with the agreed upon target of 2°C (i.e. about 44 GtCO2e). This
projection presents a minimum of a 8 GtCO2e gap of necessary emission reductions,
and currently there is no indication as to how this gap is going to be closed.

UNEP (2012). The Emissions Gap Report, p2 & 3

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If emission targets are not raised in the coming years, we can expect a level of global
temperature increase considerably higher than 2°C. The graph shows that with a
fossil fuel intensive business-as-usual pathway (IPCC SRESA1FI), warming will exceed
4°C towards the end of the 21st century. If current emission pledges by developed
and developing countries are achieved, this is likely to translate into a global
warming of 3°C by 2100. However more can be done. There are technically and
economically feasible emission pathways that could limit warming to 2°C by 2100,
with is the agreed level above which ‘dangerous’ global warming will occur. With
developing countries increasingly contributing to GHG emissions growth in the
atmosphere, the responsibilities for mitigating climate change is shared and
substantial emission reductions are needed on the part of both developed and
developing countries, as further illustrated in the following slides.

IPCC (2007). Fourth Assessment Report

World Bank (2012). Turn Down the Heat, p23 & 24

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The following three graphs compare past, current and expected GHG emission levels
for G20 countries that made mitigation pledges. (European countries are depicted as
a group.) The present graph shows total emissions per country. In 1990, the largest
emitter was the United States of America. However, in 2010 the USA was clearly
surpassed by China in terms of total emissions. The difference is even more
pronounced when it comes to projected emission levels for 2020.

The following slides look at emission levels on a Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and
per capita basis.

UNEP (2012). The Emissions Gap Report, p19

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This graph depicts GHG emissions per unit of GDP. In the case of China, the decrease
in GHG per unit of GDP from 1990 to 2010 indicates the extent to which China has
managed to decouple GHG emissions from economic growth. However, emissions
per unit of GDP remain often higher in developing countries than in developed
countries, in particular if a lot of emissions come from the forestry sector, as is the
case in Indonesia.

UNEP (2012). The Emissions Gap Report, p19

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This graph shows emission levels per capita. While China’s total emissions are high,
the per capita emissions are relatively low. Countries such as Australia, Canada and
USA, with very high per capita emissions, might achieve an overall reduction by 2020
if they meet their pledges, but in comparison to other countries their per capita
emissions would still remain high.

UNEP (2012). The Emissions Gap Report, p20

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While climate change mitigation is often discussed in terms of constraints, there are
actually various environmental, economic, and social co-benefits that may arise as a
result of mitigation actions. For example, forest conservation limits GHG emissions
while at the same time protecting biodiversity and ecosystems. The promotion of
renewable energies can lead to increased local employment due to decentralized
energy production. Reducing GHG emissions has health benefits e.g. through lower
urban air pollution concentrations. Successful mitigation measures can also lead to
potential cost savings due to a reduced need for adaptation actions.

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Farming communities around the world are embracing alternative methods of
obtaining energy that are more affordable and better for the environment. In China,
a Government programme is helping poor farmers convert animal and human waste
into biogas, improving the livelihoods of families while contributing to climate
change mitigation. The programme is supported by the International Fund for
Agricultural Development (IFAD).

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This section explores opportunities for integrating mitigation into development
planning through Low-Emission Development Strategies (LEDS). It first introduces
basic characteristics and elements of LEDS. The section then provides examples of
policy instruments and other mitigation actions that could be promoted through
LEDS.

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Mitigating climate change requires a fundamental change in the way decision-
makers, the public and the private sector perceive and pursue economic
development. The slide presents three important dimensions of low carbon
development, including new political thinking, more resource efficient patterns of
consumption and production, as well as incentives to redirect investment flows.

Given the fundamental changes required to achieve low carbon development,

mitigation actions needs to be integrated with broader development goals and plans.
Low Emission Development Strategies (LEDS) can help to outline the intended overall
economic, energy, and emissions trajectory for a country, set clear targets, and
identify and prioritize policy interventions that contribute to national development
goals.

EU and UNDP Low Emission Capacity Building Programme website

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A LEDS is a national, high-level, comprehensive, long-term strategy, which aims at
decoupling economic growth and social development from greenhouse-gas (GHG)
emissions. It provides long-term guidance for daily policy decisions. In order to be
effective and relevant, a LEDS should build upon and influence existing national
strategies and processes, such as national development plans, poverty reduction
strategies, sectoral strategies, etc.

GIZ (2012). LEDS Factsheet

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The form, scope and content of LEDS vary from country to country.

Some countries have developed self-standing national low-carbon or green economy

strategies. For example, Ethiopia has embarked on the development of a Climate-
Resilient Green Economy (CRGE) Strategy addressing both climate change adaptation
and mitigation objectives. The strategy builds on the country’s five-year Growth and
Transformation Plan (2010/11 – 2014/15).

Other countries have integrated green/low-carbon considerations directly in their

national development plans. For example, South Korea in 2009 enacted a Framework
Act on Low Carbon Green Growth, the first law of its kind in the world, and released
a National Strategy for Green Growth and a Five-Year Plan for Green Growth. Under
the Five-Year Plan, Korea is investing annually about 2 % of its GDP in the field of
green growth.

UNDP website
UNCSD website

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There is no internationally agreed definition of what a LEDS includes. According to the
German Development Cooperation (GIZ), LEDS comprise most or all of the following
elements:

• A long-term strategic vision based on national development priorities, global agreements

and scientific projections
• Baseline GHG emissions analysis and projections under a “business as usual” scenario
• Prioritization of key mitigation sectors and measures (according to e.g. abatement
potential, costs, co-benefits, feasibility, timeframe of implementation, socio-economic
and environmental impacts, synergies with existing national strategies and policies, etc)
• Identification of policies, measures and definition of targets

Further information:

The approach for developing a LEDS depends on the national framework conditions. For
example, some rainforest countries may focus primarily on the forestry and agriculture
sectors and include adaptation aspects, as these sectors are very vulnerable to climate
change. Some newly industrializing countries may have the resources and data available to
perform a comprehensive analysis of all sectors.

Mitigation Partnership website

GIZ (2012). LEDS Factsheet

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An essential element of a LEDS is the identification of concrete policy measures.
Policy-makers have the choice between various instruments to promote mitigation
and low carbon development. Market based mechanisms, such as emissions trading
schemes, establish an overall level of emissions allowed, and then let the open
market determine the price. Financial incentives to promote mitigation include, for
example, subsidies for renewable energies or access to capital for clean technology
start-ups. Fiscal instruments, such as carbon taxes, follow the “polluter pays”
principle. That means they charge producers or consumers at the point that they are
responsible for the creation of a emissions. Other instruments include support for
research and development of low carbon development technologies or the
establishment of environmental standards (e.g. on energy efficiency). Investing in
appropriate skills development, e.g training workers in the renewable energy sector,
can also support the implementation of a low carbon development strategy.

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LEDS do not only include national policy instruments, but can promote a wide range
of mitigation actions, including individual mitigation projects or sectoral initiatives.
This spectrum of actions is summarized under the term “Nationally Appropriate
Mitigation Actions (NAMAs)”. The relationship between LEDS and NAMAs can be
top-down or bottom-up. For example, a LEDS might be developed beginning from an
overall policy objective and emission reduction goal of the country, before moving
on to identifying NAMAs in various sectors. This approach usually relies upon the
results of macro-economic modeling. Or it might be bottom-up, with emission
reduction options/NAMAs in various sectors identified and prioritised first, which are
then integrated within an overall emission reduction goal of a LEDS.

EU and UNDP Low Emission Capacity Building Programme website

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Mitigation actions are already underway in countries all over the world. Several
databases have been created to compile information on NAMA development and
implementation and to help facilitate exchange of information and knowledge
sharing. Thus, decision-makers can learn from other countries experiences and gain
insights into how mitigation activities can support the low-carbon development of
their countries. The slide shows a selection of NAMAs underway in different regions
of the world.

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This section presents seven sectors which have a particularly high mitigation
potential (including energy, transport, buildings, industry, agriculture, forestry, and
waste management). For each of these sectors, examples of specific mitigation
measures that can be undertaken are being provided.

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The graph illustrates the mitigation potential of different sectors, as identified by the
IPCC. This categorization is now largely recognized and applied on national and
international levels. The percentages indicate the share of global GHG emissions in
2010 per sector.

Source: IPCC (2014). Fifth Assessment Report

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The energy sector poses particular challenges in the context of low carbon
development due to its size and potential transformational effects for the
development of other sectors. A wide variety of mitigation options can be applied in
the energy sector. Renewable energies can make a major contribution to reducing
emission levels. Changes in energy production patterns need to be supplemented
with improvements in energy distribution systems (e.g. improved power grids) to
avoid inefficient use of energy resources. New technologies for climate change
mitigation, include for example Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS). CCS allows
depositing carbon dioxide from large point sources (such as fossil fuel power plants)
in an underground storage site, preventing it from entering the atmosphere.
Combined heat and power (CHP) allows the use of a heat engine or power station to
simultaneously generate electricity and useful heat.

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From 2005 to 2009, an average growth rate of 17% per year was observed in the
domestic demand for electricity in Bhutan. Wider rural electrification coverage is
expected to make the domestic demand supply balance even tighter. In view of the
rising demand for electricity and increasing reliance on hydropower as an energy
source, it was deemed critical to broaden the energy mix by means of harnessing
other forms of clean renewable energy sources. The new Renewable Energy Policy
seeks to diversify the energy supply base through wind, solar, biomass, and micro
hydropower. Specific options which Bhutan has started to explore and implementing
(with the help of international partners, such as the Asian Development Bank)
include:

• on-grid rural electrification sourced from hydropower,

• off-grid rural electrification sourced from solar power,
• establishment and grid-connection of pilot wind power generation mills,
• a pilot program to promote domestic biogas plants.

UNESCAP Green Growth website

Government of Bhutan (2011). Renewable Energy Policy

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The main challenges for the transport sector include high consumption of liquid
fossil fuels, growing emissions, as well as chronic traffic congestion in many of the
world’s urban areas. Key mitigation technologies developed in the transport sector
focus on the design of more fuel efficient vehicles and the use of alternative energy
sources such as biofuels. Policy interventions such as more affordable urban public
transport and more bicycle lanes can also contribute to mitigating the impacts of the
transport sector.
In addition, consumer behaviour plays an important role, for example in terms of
purchasing smaller vehicles, or taking the bus, bike or train instead of a personal car.

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The TransMilenio Bus Rapid Transit (BRT) system of Bogotá, Colombia reduces
emissions by facilitating the use of public transportation. It also has co-benefits for
the urban poor: as a result of the BRT the traveling time of the lowest income groups
which live in the city periphery is now considerably shorter, resulting in increased
labour productivity and access to work, services and education.
The graph illustrates that time savings are greater for people in the lower income
groups (according to the study): 18 minutes for the lowest income stratum,
compared to 10 minutes for the people in the highest income stratum. Congregated
on the city periphery, lowest income strata are typically enduring the longest
distances to access the city’s centrally located trip attractors.

UNFCCC. CGE Training Materials – Mitigating Climate Change, slide 34

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How we design and build our homes, offices, commercial and industrial buildings can
make a big contribution to reducing carbon emissions. In developed countries,
opportunities for reducing emissions from the building sector are found mainly in
retrofitting existing buildings (e.g. improved insulation, more efficient light bulbs,
etc). For the majority of developing countries, which have a significant housing
deficit, the greatest potential to reduce energy demand comes from a new
generation of green buildings with more efficient design, less energy intensive
materials, and higher performance standards.

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Sofia, like many cities in Eastern Europe, is surrounded by sprawling prefabricated
housing estates, built during the socialist period. With soaring energy prices,
incentives are high to improve the energy efficiency of such buildings. Energy bills
can be cut by as much as 50 percent in some cases, and hence the money invested in
renovations can be recouped in a couple of years. With half of Sofia's GHG emissions
coming from buildings, there are great opportunities for lowering the city’s carbon
footprint, while at the same time improving the living conditions of citizens and
creating employment.

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Industry consists of a vast array of activities involving thousands of different
processes that are often site-specific in design. Whereas the buildings and
transportation sectors can utilize a limited number of energy conservation measures
that may be widely applied, the industrial sector requires more of a focus on options
in specific industries. Generic technologies that cut across industries represent only
part of the full range of opportunities, and even these generic technologies are
typically customized for particular applications. Generally, low-carbon measures in
the industrial sector include more efficient use of energy and better use of materials
and recycling. Thereby, the greatest increases in the efficiency of energy and
materials use often do not come from direct efforts to reduce consumption, but
rather from pursuing other goals such as improved product quality and lower
production costs.

UNFCCC (1995). Greenhouse Gas Mitigation Assessment: A Guidebook

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Erel Cement is a cement producer in Darkhan, Mongolia and produces approximately
80,000 tons cement per year. The dust emission removal and control system at the
gypsum feeding point to the cement mill was poor, an dust emissions were only
visually monitored. Twelve electro motors were installed at the strew conveyors and
the dust control system was better sealed off. This resulted in a net GHG emission
reduction of 11,007 tons CO2 per year.

Green Industry Platform

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Mitigation of GHG emissions in the agriculture sector can be achieved through
reducing/avoiding emissions or by creating carbon sinks.

To reduce emissions from farming systems, several means are available. For
example, in crop and feed production, the use of inorganic fertilizer can be
optimized, or in some cases, replaced by organic fertilizers.

In terms of carbon sinks also different approaches exist, such as increasing biomass
(and carbon) by incorporating trees and bushes to farming systems. Great potential
also lies in increasing the carbon content of soils. Through the restoration of
degraded soils, especially in vast grassland and pasture areas, by regulating animal
numbers and pasture improvement, the soil carbon sequestration rate is improved.

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The agriculture sector faces complicated and intertwined challenges. It needs to
ensure food security, adapt to the impacts of climate change, and mitigate its
contribution to GHGs emissions. Climate-smart agriculture refers to “agriculture that
sustainably increases productivity, resilience (adaptation), reduces/removes
greenhouse gases (mitigation) and enhances achievement of national food security
and development goals”. FAO’s website dedicated to climate-smart agriculture
features a number of production services that are already being used by farmers and
food producers to address these intertwined challenges.

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Reducing deforestation, establishing a forest where there was no forest
(afforestation) or restocking depleted forests (reforestation) are some of the prime
mitigation options that can be applied in the forestry sector. Forest management
plays an important role in reducing deforestation and eliminating illegal logging. At
policy level the promotion of voluntary certification schemes for sustainable forest
management can contribute to ensuring that trees, an important carbon sink, are
managed in a sustainable manner.

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Indonesia’s forest land comprises 60 % of the country’s land area, which makes it the
third largest area of tropical rainforest in the world. The Indonesian rainforests are
also among the world’s richest in terms of biodiversity and cover a significant
proportion of the planet’s tropical deep peat. Indonesia’s forest is therefore
important not only for the national economy and local livelihoods, but also for the
global environment. The Government of Indonesia estimates that, for each year
between 2003 and 2006, around 1.17 million ha of forest was cleared or degraded.

Since 2009 UN-REDD has been working with relevant government agencies, NGOs,
academics and the private sector at the national level and in the pilot province,
Central Sulawesi. The Programme has supported the development of several
decrees. A methodology for Reference Emission Level was developed and a National
Forest Inventory database has been set up.

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Waste generates methane emissions. By applying mitigation technologies such as
landfill methane recovery a dual purpose is fulfilled: not only is less methane
emitted into the atmosphere but methane can also be used to generate electricity.
Other mitigation technologies that can be used are waste incineration with energy
recovery or the composting of organic waste, a method that can be applied by
households.

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Landfill sites, with wastes undergoing a methanogenic stage of biodecomposition,
produce large volumes of landfill gas (LFG) typically containing some 40-60%
methane. At Marianhill Landfill site, Durban, South Africa, a methane capture system
converts the methane into electrical energy that is then fed into the national
electricity grid. This method of electricity production entails higher costs and is not
competitive as compared with other options in South Africa. However, the project is
made possible via carbon financing, channelled through the World Bank’s Prototype
Carbon Fund (PCF), a Public Private Partnership with participants from several
countries worldwide. The Marianhill Landfill site is the country’s first Clean
Development Mechanism (CDM) project (explained more fully in the following
section: International Initiative to Support Climate Change Mitigation).

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This section presents an overview of the different ways international support is
provided for mitigation activities. It first presents the financial mechanisms found in
the Kyoto Protocol and the recently negotiated New Market Mechanism (NMM). It
then provides a summary of selected UN agencies and programmes that provide
technical of financial support for mitigation.

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Various international instruments provide assistance to countries in reaching their
emission reduction targets.

• Under the Kyoto Protocol three flexible market mechanisms were established,
including the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM), Joint Implementation (JI)
and Emission Trading.
• A New Market Mechanism (NMM) to complement the flexible market
mechanisms is under negotiations.
• Some countries/regions have established their own carbon offset and trading
schemes, such as the European Union Emissions Trading System (EU – ETS) , the
New Zealand Emissions Trading Scheme (NZ ETS), Regional Greenhouse Gas
Initiative (RGGI) in the US and the Tokyo Metropolitan Emissions Trading Scheme.
• In addition, non-market mechanisms exist, which in principle include all mitigation
actions as long as these are not considered as market-based approaches.

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Three approaches to mobilize resources for climate action at all levels are explored
by the Subsidiary Body for Scientific and Technological Advice (SBSTA) of the
UNFCCC. The purpose and scope of the Framework for various approaches generally
refers to an agreed framework to govern internationally traded units (e.g. emissions
or carbon units). The New market-based mechanism aims to scale-up mitigation
activities beyond project and programme level activities and covers broad segments
of the economy. The UNFCCC will set up common rules but the Parties will be
flexible to design the mechanisms. The SBSTA also reviews non-market-based
approach to support mitigation efforts, such as joint mitigation and adaptation
approaches for the sustainable management of forests.

UNFCCC website
IGES (2015). New Market Mechanisms in Charts

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Further mitigation efforts are necessary globally to stay below a 2°C increase in global
average temperature. New carbon market mechanisms could contribute to the needed
efforts in a cost-effective manner, including in developing countries. In this context some
countries have proposed scaled-up market mechanisms, based on policies or sector-wide
reductions (instead of project based emission reductions). During COP 17, Durban 2011, it
was decided by Parties to the Convention that a international New Market Mechanism
(NMM) is to be established to complement the CDM and JI.

Further information:

While the details of the new mechanism are still under negotiation a few parameters have
been set out:

• The mechanism will operate under the guidance and authority of the Conference of the
Parties (COP).
• Participation in the mechanism will be voluntary.
• The mechanism should include “standards that deliver real, permanent, additional, and
verified mitigation outcomes, avoid double counting of effort and achieve a net decrease
and/or avoidance of greenhouse gas emissions”.

UNFCCC (2013). Technical Synthesis on the New Market-based Mechanism

OECD and IEA (2010). Scaled-up Market Mechanisms – What is Needed to Move Forward?

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Emission trading scheme? Cap and trade? What do these words mean? And how
does it all contribute to reduced emissions of greenhouse gases? This animation
shows how the scheme works. By the Norwegian Ministry of Environment.

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Various work programmes and initiatives have been developed to support countries
in meeting their Convention obligations. The Nairobi Framework aims to assist
countries with CDM implementation and to enable countries to identify, develop,
submit and process CDM projects. The UN REDD Program seeks to create a financial
value for the carbon that is stored in trees. It offers incentives for developing
countries to reduce emissions from forested lands and to invest in low-carbon
development paths that are sustainable. At COP 16, Cancun 2010, Parties decided to
establish a registry where NAMAs seeking international support (demand) can be
matched with finance, technology and capacity-building support (supply).

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