ne oes 450 9 | Earth Conduction Effects in Transmission Systems By ERLING D. SUNDE Member of the Technical taf Bou Teuermoxe Lasozarons, Tre. siving sto 1 of IVER PUBLICATIONS, INC, NEW YORKcurren Contents Tateoduetion I, BASIC ELECTROMAGNETIC CONCEPTS AND EQUATIONS 2 22 23 a 2s 26 27 28 29 210 2 212 IIL RESISTANCE OF GROUNDING ARRANGEMENTS: ey 32 33 3a 35 36 37 Fundamental Concepts and Units. ‘Basic Fleccrical Phenomena and Cheracresistis, Fundamental Electromagretic Postalate, ‘Methods of Solution of Electromagnetic Problems,» ‘Paani Line Pramenss. ‘Teansmission Line Eau Sexi and Veevr Ponts of Stationary Hil. Hlecromagnotie Frergy Relations ‘Wave Equati in a Homogensous Medium. Basic Solution of Wave Equation. Internal Impedances of Cylindrical Conductors. - ‘Seif and Muwual Impedances of Cylindrical Conductors ‘Fourier Integral Transforms and Operational Calculus... IL FARTH RESISTIVITY TESTING AND ANALYSIS Tntroduetion Basic Equacions Electrodes at Suriuse of Uniferm Barth... cts iow Sura of Uifarm Ear. ‘TwoLayer Stratification “Thrve Layer Stratification... Arbitrary Stratification ae Exponential Variation in Resisivicy-- Deter Analytical Apprenizati Earth fy Measaremenss,. arch Resistivity Data... Dara Seat Hariznet Wis. Buried Radial Wires, - ios of Earth Resistivity 2nd Structure from Measure. of Meayuted Resisivities. pace SSERRESE Senne eesshees aaes suxeee 3comarren f CONTENTS CONTENTS ix ‘VI. D.C BARTH CONDUCTION AND CORROSION PROTECTION 64 Istraduetion. 62 Corrsian Charters 7 cr 3:10 Equivalent Racias of Flat Conductors...» z 54) Inversey of Heterogeretic Cutrents 181 SUV Bifet of Vanvion in Resistivity with Depth. eee ae ist 312 Effect of Chemical Treatment of Soil... 6.3 Stray Conduction in Proximity Zones... i” 188 3.13 Earth Potentials Near Grounds. 6.6 Stray Between Point Electrode and Long Conductor. . 189 ‘L14 Hesting Eset. 6.7 Stray Between Parallel Conductors. . . eee ‘192 3.15 Greund Reslerance Measurements. 6.8 Parallel Conductors in Close Proximity. . 7 194 a EARIELRETURN fo EettefVarmion n Rev exc Gave 98 of INSULATED 60. Ecce of Variation in Resistivity on Stray Coirent. 198 1V. MUTUAL, IMPEDANCE G11 ce Coins and Baritene, 2 = 6:12 Protestve Sectonalzation — Insulating Joints... 200 4.1 Introduction B (613 Protestive Drainage — Cathodic Protection » SI og 33. Veruca and Witton Dipole Pies, eee {S.L4 Measarements of Conductor Constants, --...0c0.... 205 43° Bacth Return Mutsal Impedances in Geeta a ‘LE Menautements of Current and Potentials... 00... ‘or £4 Wires of Infinite Length at Serface of Barc ge 6:16 Cathodic Protection Test8.- secs. b at £5 Wat nce Lh te Sls oP ri E47 Steven Cando Survey. con 25 Wine of Infinite Length below Susface of Far 4.7 Infinite Wire on Surface of Two Layer Ext i ‘Vil, POWER SYSTEM EARTH CONDUCTION AND INDUCTIVE 4h Tednite Wire soows Sartre of Two-Layer Earch Eee Sere 49 Infinite Wire — Arbitrary Horizantal Stratification co 7 4.20 Tafsite Wire — Exponential Variation of Resistivity. - TA Introduction....... x fs ms TL Finite Wires, Uniform Earth and Low Frequency... 13 72. Coupling and Circit Terminology Se noee al als 412 Finite Wires, Two-Layer Earth and Low Frequency. «0-0 +--+ 126 73. Current Disribution Between Reta Conductors 413 Resistive Coupling at High Frequencies. «<3: r ZA Return System Propagation Characteristics... -s..0-- toe et eerretc ck Woranecal and Vertical Conductors... 129 33 Earth-Gurrent and Barth Potential Distribution. 14. Maraal impede of Yercal Conductor, a 1 Betery Sipkan Potentalns spotter over Te Transient Coupling of BaeicReraen Cities 0.000000 ey 2. Shel fran see Gro Cec 2 fa Radiation. .cocsvssersesec ors 1B Shielding Effect of Concent Shields and Tape Arco Ee Geol Elis in Bo ' eh ee of Terminal to Longitudinal Voltages... .. 197 10 Transmission System Admiteances snd Impedances Bs Y, PROPAGATION CHARACTERISTICS OF EARTH-RETURN 71. Metheds of Fault Current Calcalation....... me ‘CONDUCTORS ‘Li2 Protective Devices for Communication Systems. 148 $1 Invrdoction 5 0 713 Protective Measures in Power Systests..- VL at 52. Fundamental Egaasons ee ww 74 Basic Factors im Nove-Frequency Induction... 000S. 282 $3 Rigorous Solution for Single Conductor... us a Approximate Solution for Single Conductor.» i ‘VII. SURGE CHARACTERISTICS OF EARTH. RETURN CONDUCTORS $5 Bees Appronmains fr Single Concucnr. +e 81 Bawaba nes 284 56 Pacallel Conduetors «++ -++0+ ie 82 Relation of High-Brequeney sad Surge Cheractristica. 00.00) 258 52 ena sessnesasattte ass 33 Propagation Constant for Bored Conductors, sv-s-ccsvvvsscee 258 8 Shunt Enegzation is 54 Sune Current Propagation in Long Buried Conductors... 259 £5. Conductive Enema 5 i 5-Sunme CarenePropsatn in Short Bar Condor. 2H $40 Tective Enerpzation. 2 sss sons isa TT gh 86. Surge Impedance Characerstice of Long Buried Candictor.. 263 SAL Effect of Farth Resistivity Variation with Dept ee 8.7 Surge Impedance Characteristic of Short Buried Conductors -.. 266 512 inte Conductor in Pre Space onion Ta 8. Efect of Soil lnization on Surge Characterietisg.- os sesss. 26? $13 Horizontal Conductor over a Perfectly Conduct OR: <<-*" yy 8.9 Propagation Characteristics of Insulated Buried Conductors,.,, 269 524 Hover oat ee eee a i $40 Propegaon Contato Innate Atl Contos «... mm $15 Impedance of oe = 8.11 Sune Current ition along Aerial Conductors .. 4 E46 Amtema Ground Lowes... un ae 172 ure Propagation along hut ”CONTENTS 8.12. Sune Impedance Characteristic of Aerial Conducta. 813 Effect of Carona on Propagation Characteristics... Rid Reflection Points ia Apseal Cond nctow.«-sosec0 8:13 Aerial Conductors with Uniformly Spaced Grounds, Inreanverion, ‘Aspe from the numerous transmission problems encountered in the develop- ment and operation of extensive communication and power systems, number of interference and protection problems also arise because of the unavoidable conflict of sac systems wich nature and with each other. This conilice resides in the circumstance that the earth is iavalved, it sre measure, 38 8 seturn canductor for both types af systems, either curing normal operation ot fr at the time of faults. The earth also serves as a return conductor for lightaing currents, which may occasion disturbances in communication and power systems. Since the soil is electrolytic, corrasion may be experienced ‘on buried conductors where an interchange of current takes place beeween the conductor and the earth. Problems thus arise both in communication and power engineering concerning the protection of transnission Ynes and ‘associated equipment against breakdown or interference due to excessive voltages. Protection mast also be provided against personal hazard due to abnormal voltages imposed on communication eircuits or on accessible ‘youncied metalic structores ofthe telephone and power plant. In addition, buried metallic seructores must be protected against excesive corrasiost Strokes 0 Atal Conlucers. 94 Stokes to Grune. ie , 3S Methane of Stokes co Buried Cordnctors Be Ghar Chorens for Stokes to Buried Conductors 27 peta Sree Bad Gnas ee Valeage Equations for Long Conductors... 38 Be VEE rhe used Cable for Direct Strokes Sio Veltpes in Buried Cable for Strokes to Ground... SAL Velases in Cable fer Discharges Beeween Clouds. .- 9.12 Provesve Mixsues (er Buried Cable. : 315 Lighting Trouble Expectancy for Buel Cable. S14 Voleages for Stokes to Aerial Cable ". Ss Prometive Measures for Long-Distance Amrial Ca 3g Carrere and Voltages in Local Aerial Cable 39 Bere Meee Leal Agila 318 Listening Voltages Imposed on Power Transmission Lines Bre rencctne Measures or Transmisnan Lines.e-v-e-o-ss 2-000 APPENDIX: DEFINITIONS AND TABLES OF FUNCTTONS 1, Eapooenti spre and Leguithmie Functions a resulting from stray current ot other causes, 2, Bxpoventia Inegr! Paretion. +++ x “To deal adequately with such questions, ic is necessary to consider theo- 3 ee ae - retical solutions to a number of basic problems in which the earth, as well 2s $ Rema functions. s--s buried eonductors or grounded serial conductors, is involved. ‘The analysis 6. The Functions © 9 and @ es 5. Paired Frequescy and Tine Response Funedians, References. 38 of such problems is inherently more complex chan that af completely metallic circuits, for several reasons. The first difficulty is the great extent of the earth, which necessitates the use of electromagnetic field theory rather than conventional transmission line and circuit theory in the solution of mast of the problems, Moreover, electromagnetic field theory alone does not suffice for the solution of all problems, sinee ionization effects due to high voltages ‘or to electrolytic action may also be involved. ‘The heterogencous character of the earth as a conductor and an electrolyte must be considered in some instances. Furthermore, the phenomena under consideration may be of anexrremely variable nature, asin the case of lightning earrents and voltages, necessitating statistical sreatment. Finally, in problems of inductive inter- ference, acquaintance may be required with the performance and operation of circuits and equipment of both power and communication systems.iit INTRODUCTION ‘Te mighe appear that with the many ead variable factors which may be involved, theoretical analysis may not serve any purpose, since the idealized conditions chat must of necessity be assumed will not be met with odinatily jn actual sitaations. On the contrary, this very situation necessitates theorctical derivation of relationships between the various basic factors. Sach relations cannot be established from experimental studies or observa. tions in particalar situations, since the various factors are aot under control and may not even be adequately known, On the other hanc, experimental studies staged under known conditions are essential and have beck used to establish whether or not excessive deviations fran theoretical resules may be expected because of departures from idealized basic physical assumptions, particularly as a resule of the heterogeneous character of the earth, Lightning disturbances are deale with extensively in the literarore, largely 1 atmospheric phenomena governed by the electric field in the air. How- lever, as regards the behavior and the effects of lightning near the surface of the ground and in communication and power systems they are primarily earth conduetion problems and should be so treated for proper understanding, and interpretation of a variety of observations. For instance, flashes that sometimes occur to objects within the protective zone of vertical conductors struck by lightning, as well as lightning damage to buried cable land the prevalence of lightaing outages of power transmission lines in high resistiviey trritory, are readily explained when account is taken of che finite conductivity of the earth and resultant earth potential gradients ‘Ina general analysis as presented here, advantage may be taken of the common nature of many of the problems to broaden the aspects of both theoretical and experimental results, For instance, the formulas for the conductive coupling becween a drainage ground and an excensive buried cable, which are of interest in covrasion protection, are basically the same as for the conductive coupling through the earth between a lightning channel to ground and an adjacent cable, excepe that in the first case the resist- ance of the cable is of main importance whereas in the other case the inductance is. The same basic effect is again involved as regards the earth potential near an electrified railway track, except that the important cizeuit parameters are again somewhat different. In adition to such similarities kn the physics of various problems, there may be other interrelations. Thus, the protection of power transmission linea against lightning outages provices, at the same time, a reduetion in the frequency of occurrence and magnitude oFiinductive disturbances in telephone cireuits. Protective measures against lightning damage to the telephone plant may also be effective in relation 1 inductive disturbances and, ia some instances, may affect corrosion aspects. "Although it is necessary torestrit the analysis to fairly simple fundamental INTRODUCTION xii cases on account of the complexities that would otherwise arise, in man; case eis possible by ingpection and analysis of theoretial reals to meas, nize fairly general Principles: ‘or rules which may be approximate but will serve as a useful guide in complex situations. To obtain engineering for- lay, it has been in this presentation sometimes expedient t9 make tae of mathematical approximations not afecting the fndamental aspects of the comet oy ewe etrors ae ‘usually be estimated and, where it has n sible to make experimental compar is, val tain tf make ceil company, the formulas thus obtained ong the application of carch-rerurn circuit analysis is here confined ‘transmission circuit protection problems, some of the devfvations ore base also to the study: of ground-wave radiation fields and antenna impedances. However, radiation phenomena are well covered in literature, with the cx- ception of antenna ground loses dissssed ely herein, _ Communication circuits are used frequently to investigate earth potenti diferences beeneen remote point Ppl fom ear eurenes on a vol, wide scale. ‘These currents are due ty terrestrial phenomena associatéd with the motion of the earth and with disturbances of solar origin in its magnetic field and im the ionosphere. Under abnormal conditions, these effects may be associated with interference in radio communication and in earth-retarn telegraph or control circuits. On long telephone circuits, the resultant earth potectial differences may also cause breakdown of equipment unless adequate Protection is Provided. The theory of terrestrial electricity and magnetism is dealt with extensively in literature and not considered herein.CHAPTER T Basto Exzetromacyetio Coxcerrs axp Equanioxs ‘This chapter is a brief review of basic electromagnetic concepts and equations and of conventional methods of solution of electromagnetic field problems, The presentation, which is arranged primarily for orientation and convenient reference to problems dealt with in later chapters, presumes acquaintance with differential and integral calculus and with furdemental clectrical terms and notions. For a more complete exposition and. for other aspects of the subject matter than aze of primary concen here, reference is mnade to the literature on electromagnetic theory, transmission Tine and circuit theory. 1 Fundamental concepts and units Blectricity appears to be of an atomic nature, the smallest particle being the electron, which, by conventions established before iis discovery, has been assigned 2 negative charge Since charges and their motion ace responsible for electric, magnetic and cleexrodynamic phenomena, it is natural that some unit of charge should be at the bese of an electrodynamic system of units. The additional units required to specify che motion of charges and the forces between them 2re provided in the international ‘meter-Hlogram-second system used in dynamics. For practical purposes, the coulomb is preferable as 2 unit of charge to the elementary electron charge 1.591 X 10 coulomb, and is employed here together with the other units mentioned above in the MKSC system advocated by Giorgi and Campbell, ‘The basic derived electrical concepes are as fellows: Quantity Defrion Symtol Designation Curent Coulanb/Sec J Ampere Porential Fote/Ceulms 7,7 Yale Power Tonle See PP Wate Plate Intensity Vole/Merer 56 Vae/Merr Magecsie Inceniy Arpere/Mexe HH Ampere Meter Revstance, Tnpedance Volt/Ampre RZ Ohm Conductance, Admiteence” Arpere/Volt GY Mh Inductance bum Second2 EARTH CONDUCTION EFFECTS cue. In formal relations between the above quantities, such as elementary laws established from basic experiments or more: complicated relations established therefrom by mathematical derivation, the units are as specified above. To comply with engineering practice, however, other units are tused at timer in illustrative examples or as coordinates on curves, Thus, 2 length may be designated in millimeters, centimeters, Kilometers, inches, feet or miles, although the lengths used in formulas are in meters. Simi- larly, it may be convenient to express a voltage gradient in volts per Kilometer or per mile or in kilovotts per centimeter, although the voltage gradient or fcld intensity used in formulas is in volts per meter. Tt alsois convenient at times to designate conductor constants in ohms, rhes, henries or farads per kilometer or mile, rather than per meter ag in the formulas. 1.2 Basic electrical phenomena and chavatterisics ‘Two kinds of forces between electrical charges are responsible for the physical recognition of electricity and its utilization for energy. transtnis- sion. For a given separation between the charges, one of these depends on the quantity of charge only and is referred to as the electric force. The ‘other depends on the product of charges and their relative velocity, or the electric current, and is referred to a8 the magnetic force. Associated with a configuration of charges may be visualized an electric feld of force, the intensity of which is specified by the force & exerted on a probe of unit charge at the point under consideration. Similarly, a current may be con- czived to have a magnetic field of force, the intensity of which is specified by the force IK that would be exerted on a fictitious isolated unit magnetic pole, actually nonexistent. Although the forces are of an electrical nature, they are measured in the same units as gravitational and mechanical forces and, like the latter, 2 vectorial quantities, as is the electric current. ‘A given electric or magnetic field produces a certain reaction within a medium which depends on three basic electrical characteristics. These are referred to a cube of the medium 1 meter on the side and are designated as follows: Conductivity: #, mho/meter, or resistivity p, meter-ohm Capacitiviey: 1, farad/meter, 8.854 + 10~* for free space Induetivity: », henry/meter, 1.257 - 10°* for free space “The conductivity of a medium is a measure ofits ability co transfer charge jn response to a given impressed electric force. ‘The capacitivity and Inductivity relative to free space are designated the dielectrie constant, fe and the permeability, respectively. ‘The departure of these quantities from unity, ¢— 1 and w— 1, referred to as the electric and the magnetic ELECTROMAGNETIC CONCEPTS AND EQUATIONS — 3 susceptibility, may he thought of as measures of the ability of a medium to betome peasize hy displncments in i seructursio estore eek send magnetic forces. Permanent magnets retain a partial or remacens ‘ragnetizaton upon removal ofan applied magnetic feld and « corrspene, ing but less pronounced phenomenon may be observed in diclectics, which ray have a epocary ral plareatn 7 ‘onductors are generally classified into’ metals and cleciralytes, the conductiviy of metals being due tothe presence of free clecerons, that of electrolytes ta she dissociation of molecules into positive and negative fone Eleccrelytes are subject to the same clectromagetic laws as metals although the current in an electrolyte is sometimes regarded as a convection rates then « conduction cutrent and is associated with chemical phenomena that are outside the scope of eicctromagnetie feld theory. The electrom: asic laws also apply co convection earrents arising from che motion of electrons and ions in gases, although explicit consideration of thelr mesa may then be recuired to determine their paths and distribution in space In the case of conductors, any effects of the mass of the particles are in. cluded in the empirically determined condnctivisy, inductvity and capac, {sot actually encountered except in free space, in many problems « median of aabetantal conduevity my be regarded as an insta. In ooher robles metium of low eonduetvty may behave virally a «perfect, Residing in the atomic structere of a substance are other clectrk chest ttn the ested on, whch sero a a effects observed upon variation in the state of a medium or upon a ance Py nen et a no belong in the feld of electronics and sleetrothewiatey. tod ne caened briefly hete, the motion of electrifed particles oven in obedience to bor ot predictable from, the electromagnetic laws aling, since othes ects are invaved then the imeracton of else and magne fa a 5,0 these phenomena beiong electrifeation by friction between different inslators of witablesufae texture, resulting in tanner of surface lee {rom oe instr othe eter, the decree conduct of metal eh Increasing wemperarte aya result ofa decrease inthe numberof cleans, end the existence of contact potential between diferent reel, which fs inherent in the fact that there isa difference berween metale ie the 18y required to remove an electron from a metal in free spaces Other Bhenomens ae the cert proce na cloned chain of aiferet metalic conductors as a result of conversion of thermal into elecerieal energy whens 8 junction i heated ar by conversion of chemie! into local rere an electrolytic conductor is inserted in such a chain heeween ifr4 EARTH CONDUCTION EFFECTS Coane _metallic conductors or if « metallic conductor is inserted between different electrolytes in a closed chain of electrolytic conductors or cells. Within electrolytic cells, metalic ions, which are always positive, travel toward and are deposited on the metal at the negative boundary or cathode, while the negative ions travel toward the positive boundary or anode, where they neutralize metal ions and thereby cause dissolution of the metal surface. Other phenomena are the removal of free electrons from metals by appli- cation of an electric feld of high intensity, known as high-feld emission, by heating the metal in a highly evacuated space, known as thermionic emis sion, or by illumination of certein metallic eurfaces, referred to as photo- clectric emission. If electrons released into 2 gas by any of these processes attain sufficient velocity, by virtue of an applied electric eld of high in- tensity, 2 phenomenon known as jonization may take place, in which some of the ators lose an electron in colliding with fast electrons to become tive ions. Under certain conditions this process may become cumul and result in an arc between the field electrodes, with both che initiat electrons and those emitted from the atoms as well as the positive ions colliding with other gas particles to release additional electons. At ex. ceedingly high temperatures, che electrons of neutral gas aroms may acquire sufficient velocity 10 become deteched, so thac a gas may also become ionized by thermal emission, although this cffect is ordinarily of secondary importance. In certain crystals, such as quartz, the pitzo-clectric effect is observed, in which charges appear on certain surfaces of the crystal as a result of me- chanical pressure and deformation; in addition, a pyro-clectric effect, in Which electromotive forces are developed berween certain faces of the crysl by application of heat, may be noted. The piezo-electric effect is revers- ible so that when the eryses is placed in an electric field, i is deformed by variation in the field intensity. Aside from the above phenomena in which charges or their external electric forces are observed, there are the very important internal electric Phenomena, resulting form the electrical structure of the atoms, that manifest themselves by chemical affinity between the elements and are thus responsible for chemical combinations. 1.3 Fundamental eeiromagnetic postuisses ‘The electric and magnetic fields at any point in a medium satisfy cereain physical postulates abstracted from basic experiments’. ‘These may de expressed symbolically without reference to any particular coordinate system and provide the hasis of mathematical formulation and solution of electromagnetic problems?-**, First, the following relations obtain between the field intensities and the ELECTROMAGNETIC CONCEPTS AND EQUATIONS 5 density J ofthe electric current, ® of the dielectric x or disp. 4 of the magnetic Bux ar displacement™, 7 — 01 1.02) . (2.03) pane ae ‘and 9, cand» are the characteritis of the medium at the point and in the direction under consideration. Th tity xb =O the displacement eutrent which, like the foresees fhe diplacemenc current which, lke the conduction curene «6, produces Second, the quantitice 9 § and B behave as ini ible and i stmuetible Puids so that the net fux over a neds ee yfhen it include a soure, in which case the total outward fux equals that from the saurce. The surface integral of the fx per unit volume as the enclosing volume becomes infinitesimal is defined as the divergence of the Yeetor. Because there are no free magnetic poles and since displacement Guzen i include with conduction eure, the divergences of and are Iways zero. This is not the case, however, with the ic displace ment 9 sad che faliowing relations obtains SCet dl 9-2 (104) divg -0 (1.05) divB a0 (1.06) ‘hare is the charge density at the point under consideration, change in the magnetic feld gives rise to an electric field, and converecly, the fed ineensces at 4 point being intercl wal clectromagnetic equations ce oe curl 6 = —s3ie (07) ene K = 66 + ab (2.08) here : and IC are time derivatives of 6 and frst equation i an expression of Faraday’s law regarding the voltage induced in a metalic loop by the variations in che fax treading the loss, {In a plane normal to the direction of the magnetic fax as shown in Fig, 11 a closed path sis assumed to include an area 2 of such small dimensions that the fx density may bereganted as constant over dd. By Faraday's Jam; the integral feof the tngential electric force 6 around the path * Scie letesaro used hereto dasa nstantancus values of quanta wh ‘vary arbitrarily with time, Sass6 EARTH CONDUCTION EFFECTS rar tis equal to the time derivative of the flux vid within the path. The curl is, by definition, the integral per unit area, hence (1.07). “The second equation is a corresponding expression of Ampére’s law re- garding the line integral of the magnetic field strength around a path en~ losing @ conduction current, augmented by Maxwell to include displace- ‘ment current. F Kats taken in plane normal ro the dtection ofthe tor current (o& + xb) a included by she path, as shown in Fig. 1.2, ‘The absence of magnetic conductivity will be noted in the frst equation and is dae co the lack of isolated magretic poles in nature, Actually, the 4 ti Jeattat fester Fon 1. right-hand sides of the equations should be ~ @= —»¢— 7, and «6 +9~ 06 + 6 +46, but for media or circuits with fixed characteristics, as dealt with here, time variations in » and x are zero. ‘The electric and magnctic field intensities in (1,07) and (1.08) are not rovessarly the totel eld incensieies ata point. ‘There may be, for example, Potationary electric field due to galvanic or therraal action, or a stationary magnetic eld due to 2 permanent magnet of to current in 2 loop insulated Jom the medium. ‘The oxtl of any such feld vanishes, however, 36 the leetzie fed is not accompanied by variation in the magnecic (hux, and the Imagnetie Held is not accompanied ky current at the point under considera. tion. Such fields may chus be subtracted from the !eft-hand sides of the equations without affecting their validity, as is sometimes done to indicate that the equations apply to the fields arising from the vasiation in the magnetic fux or due to current at the point under consideration “The field equations may also be written in integral form applying to any path, rather than in the above differential form spplying to a point. The ELECTROMAGNETIC CONCEPTS AND EQUATIONS 7 latter form is convenient in formulating differential equati ttl eens Che ‘lowing integal frm is ors metic Eomseriog with clocui Sous=—f faa 1.09) Shute = f f Gras 2.10) _ bs ins eter on sheen ses are eke aun the boundary of any surface f over which the normal nents of & areir freed on the ghee ssa cn a in Fig. 13. The integral form follows ce fom the diferential Tor by application & cof Stokes’ theorem, which seates that the surface integral of the component of the curl of the veetor normal to the surface fexual the line integral of the tangential component of the veeror alongs the bound ary of the surface. The field equations also apply at dis- continuities such as the interface of two media of diferent electrical characteris, fies. Tn order to eatsty the equations at 4 boundary, itis necessary for the tangential components of the electric and magnetic field intensities to be equal on the two sides of the boundary: ds Ftsds=- [finda Bre, 13. Pa Bu Gey Hay = Tae a) ring fh v us 2 wee tant ten ie ee ae Fla 14 Boondary conditions fo magnetic felds Hag = Hay ‘This flows when she Fld intensities are de f ld intensities are decomposed into normal an asgental components, at shown for Jin ig Lin Whe the mente Sarge clang x natrow angen loop which incdes rhe boundary the width of the loop is made to vanish, the area did under the loop and the incearal $C, de = dA vanishes. This condition can be stised only if8 EARTH CONDUCTION EBPECTS cans the feld insensities are the same on beth sides of the boundary, with the Pie erception: if a conducting shee is placed between the two media and the conductivity of the sheet approaches infinity at the same time as the sheet becomes infinitesimally chin, the product of sheet thickness a Currene density may reach a finite value <. ‘The pach will then include eh current and the equations are then satisfied with Bes Gx Has Hae = E 12) here’ is the sheet current density measured in amperes per meter width of the sheet LA Methods of solution of electromagnetic problems aati rreated here generally deal wit Flectromagnetic problems of the type treated ‘ the resultant current, field intensity or pec in ee —— rimary field. ‘The latter may be a voltage applied to te erminals ee eras generally, a distribution of electric force along @ conductor crogithin a oeediam. ‘The primary Geld may be arbitrarily assigned although actually t2 specify the distribution of charges and Sa iat will provide a primary field as assumed may be an electromagnetic problem init Pit, For the purposes of analysis, the primary field is assumed to give rise ro a secondary distribution ‘of charges and currents and ree Tecondary field. ‘The resultant field is the sum of the primary and # secondary fields, ito, pa eae" aa) i Each of eh corresponding relations for the potential and the current. aie C19) met saesty gern (17) ed (1.08) wal = see i) atthe boundary of eo mets te = problems: jnvolving fields varying with the time, the snilyiie ee (aa fied considerably by the introduction of the familiar soidal" ime sett ‘sed in the symbolic solution of alternating-current problems & = BAt = Bicosat + isin wt) & - whe (ula) is li f cosine functions, which is related where £ is the amplitude of the sine and. h = he rootmeanaguare value E by #=V2E. ‘The amplitudes. and Feotmean square valucs are vectors like the instantaneous quantities, Inserting (114) and a corresponding relation for 3 in (1.07) and (1.08), shin name of the function, Which i la refered toa & hasmonic: fstion, i aeived focr the relation off = cost fsinw = 8x. ELECTROMAGNETIC CONCEPTS AND EQUATIONS 9 and eliminating on both sides 2, the latter equations become curl B= — fav (11s) cart H = oF + ioe (1.16) Variation with time thus has been climicared. The solutions may be extended, moreover, to arbitrary nonsinucoidal variations with time by methods described lator. Generally, the problems dealt with may be classified into circuit or net. work problems, conventional transmission Tine problems and two or three dimensional fica problems. fn cxcait problems it is possible to, isolate elements each having separately the familiar electrical characteristics — capacitance, conductance and inductance. These elements may be in- terconnected in a variety of ways into networks or circuits, and the currents or potentials in various branches in response to an impressed or electro- motive force may be found from a set of simaleaneous equations. These equations must be set up to satisfy (1.05), which in circuit theory is known 1s the first Kirchhoff law, requiring the sum of the currents at a branch point to be zero. Furthermore, to satiafy the field postulates or the second Kirchhoff law, the voltage around each closed loop or mesh, cluding electromotive Forces, must be 2010. Tn conventional transmission line theory, the field at any paint in a plane perpendicular to the transmission line is assumed to depend on the current and the charge at the point of intersection with the plane, but not on che ‘current at other peints along the line. With chis assumption it is possible to assign to a transmission line element the characteristics or parameters of longitudinal impedance and transverse admittance, and to formulate the current and the potential at any point by a differential equation known as the transmission Line, or the telegraph, equation. Ix deriving the transmission line equation, the distrfbution of the current or the field over the cross section of the conductors or in the surround medium is left out of consideration, and its effect, as well as that of dis- tributed charge, is assumed co be included in the longitudinal impedance and the transverse admittance. These parameters include the effect of currents and charges induced within or upon the transmission line con- ductors and surrounding or adjacent media, such as the earth. Derivation of formulas for the transmission line parameters necessitates the applica- tion of the eleecromagnetic equations to the electric andl magnetic field in the plane perpendicular to the line, a particular case of field theory. More gmnerally, field theory is concerned with the transmission of electromag- netic waves in three dimensions through space or media having specified clectric and magnetic properties, usually in response to current in 2 short conthietor, as én the ease of radiation, or to current in s long eonductor, as0 RARTH CONDUCTION EFFECTS cant in connection ith nmutusl inductive effects between earth zerorr ductors. ; The solution of feld problems generally is based om 2 three dimensional “wave cqustion derived from the general electromagnetic postulates wit the concepts of scalar and yeetor potentials introduced to facilitate the olution, By suitable choice of a coordinate system, depending on the type of symmetry involved in the problem at hand, itis possible to secure Pe ematical solutions to a pismber of problems involving homogeneous rnedie or combinations of such medi han ‘On account of their application in later chapters, the transmiss and wave equations will be desived here, togecher with foumulas for the transmission Une parameters LS Transmission line parameters a “Assume that a potential 7 is applied berween the inner and outer con- duceors of 4 coaxial conductor arrangement a shown in Fig. 1.5. The eS © eurcTRI HELD Mucxenc FIELD io, 15 Comin condor arrangement f suctor and, at some electric Sed will then be radial around the central conductor and, at sme GFatance rom the ens will have no component in the axial direction. coary (1.05), the radial cverent density at che distance 7 most equa Jin) = Jolt oan fe the total current between the inner and outer conductors per ware Jos th 2 ore arg thine fo oh dec fre the distance eis ther by (1.02) 20 =e th ag) GF tos) Oar ‘The applied potential muse equal the integral or (7) between r= a and 1 dyhence. he : fe Ver Sie btajds 7 Dale + ue) ELECTROMAGNETIC CONCEPTS AND EQUATIONS 11 ‘The unit length admittance defined by Y = Ja/V is therefore yw OS ot tee ais) $ kee bre ee eas. oa 2, (1.20) é log= jogs where G and C are the unit length leakage conductance and capacitance. Assume next a current J slong che inner conductor wich retum in the cuter, and let the conductivity and capacitivity of the medium between the condtuctors be negligible in comparison with chat of the conductors, 30 that longitudinal current in the medium may be neglected. The longitadina’ clectric force due to the finite conductivity of the conductors is then related to the longitudinal current density by (1.02). Nopleeting the capacitance of the conductors $n comparison with their conductance, and assuming @ ‘uniform current distribution over the cross section of the inner and outer conductors, the applied potential per unit length required to sustain the cearrent against the resistance of the circuit becomes Vi, = Ra Ry) = IR (1.21) Ra and Rp are the unit length resisvances of the inner and outer conductors: which equal Ry = 1/y4q and Xy = Lend, where og and oy are the con- duetivities, da and 4, the cross-section areas of the inner and outer con- ductors. ‘When the current varies with time, an additions! impressed force ia required to overcome the voltage induced in the circuit by the variation in the magnetic foe borween the innex and outer conductors. ‘The lines of magnetic Aux ate conceutzic circles about che inner conductors, and it Fallows from (1.10), with [f° Ju 2d = 1,0 more dineetly from Ampire's law that H= Ltr a2) By application of (1.07) or (1.09) to a path consisting of the inner can- ductor with return in the owter, or by direct use of Faraday’s law of mag- netic induction, i follows thar the applied voleage per unit lengeh required to sustain the current against the inductive voltage equals W=1T te pion 8 ta loge (1.23)2 EARTH CONDUCTION EFFECTS cnet “The unit length inductance is defined by L = F/T or Vial and eavals Pig’ 1.243 Lopes (128) “The vn length longicodinal impedance is the impressed electric fore we, quired, per unit Fength and for nie corent wo overeome the resistive and inductive voltages ancl equals La Rt ak 2s) “To derive corresponding expressions for & pair of parallel nos-coaxial conducts ies convenient to regard the fe as consisting of two radial cePspomente due 20 appli potentials of opposite sins givin:rse toa Zada) cerent Jo in one and —Jo in the other conductor, both with setur jo @ camote Cendctar a the distance D. If the conductors are separated by ihe distance d, the potentials of conductors, of a rains @ and, #7 bb (pre pre mo xml ° i ) Jo yy? le + tx) tee -f ya dale ff) e “The potential difference betweck the conductors Py — Py equals Ing Y= ale pie) Bab (4.26) % aay «.28) ‘The admittance is accordingly a The + aed 7 (1.29) ae “phe inductance ofthe constr exanaerneat ay be devel in a siilaz nmaer to thet ased in deriving (24) and equals 2 = pes 120) baal Consider a hypothetical plane midway berween the two conductors, 6 caeceesi. 16, and assume that the two conductors have equal rai om asthe potentiel and che elsctric fore inthe tangential dines, Tener a neo. For this rezon, Hf ee plant were condcting, Fe would ELECTROMAGNETIC CONCEPTS AND EQUATIONS 18 not carry current. IF the conductivity of che plane is asoured infinite, i ie farthermore permissible to remove the conductor on one side without dis trbing the feld on the other sie of the plane. The field equations will then be satisfied, since the tangential components of the field intensity slong the plane will be zero, as mast be the case for a plane of infinite condvetiv= ity, both for the static condition and when the feld varies with time, Fic, LS FleewicSeld of « pair of oppaitely chard conductors, Since the conductor potestial and the longitudinal voltage drop will be cnly half as great as with two similar wires, che admit inde ca ha as eat wires, ittance and induetance asi) L- pe (1.32) ‘The magnetic eld of a stationary current is not affected by che presence of a conducting sheet, and the sbove formula for L applies only for 2 vari- able Geld of & stationary field over a plane of infinite permeal Aper- fectly conducting plane acts as 2 reflector or mirrof, and the method of images employed in the above derivation is generally applicable to con- ductors over such a plane,4 EARTH CONDUCTION EFFECTS 1.6 Transnsission line equation om Ti in Fig. 1.7, and Consider a short segment ofa transmission Tine as shown in Fig. 1.7, assume that the potential ¥/= (x) and the longitudinal current J = Z(x) vary with time as e. Tn accordance with the definitions of ¥ and Z the following equations then apply, when the positive direction of current is along the positive direction of the s-axis: at few 1.33) z ¥) q = 134) = a a iat on wi 0.x and substicution in Differentiation of the frst equation with respect to.» and substitution i the second give a differential equation for the current, whereas differentia ee eee ee Tor Bio. 1.7 Transmison line equations Us 442) ~ Ie) ~~ al = YFG Vig + ds) ~ Mp) = ~6P = Bld tion of the second equation and substitution in che first give « differential equation for the potential. These equations are ar apy 7. (1.35) ‘where Tis the propagation constant: P= ZY = UR + al)G + wor” (1.36) ‘The solutions of these equations are Ts pete Tg) = ae — Be mi Ve) = Kae + Ke ELECTROMAGNETIC CONCEPTS AND EQUATIONS 15 where the second equation is obtained from the first by use of (1.33) and K/=1/¥ is the characteristic impedance: Km 2/YPF ARE WEYG + ioe? (1.38) The integration constants and B are determined from boundary con- ditions which require continuity of both conductor current and potential at series or shunt discontinuities, except at a source point. At the open end cof a conductor the current mast thus be 2ero, while at the junction of sev eral condvetors the sam of the conductor currents must be zero. At very high frequencies there may actually be a displacement current fram the open end of a conductor which may need consideration, but transmission line equations as considered here axe not applicable in that case. The dis. continuity at a source point is equal to che electromotive force of the source less the impedance drop through the latter. Atthe junction of two conduc tors of different material there may be an electromotive force due to galvanic or thermal action, which must be taken into account in some problems, The current and potential distribution for a conductor of finite length energized at one end x = 0 and terminated at the other end x= s, through aan impedance Z, is frequently required and is obtained as follows: Assume that the current (0) impressed at x~ 0 is known, When (1.37) is applied to x = 0 and + = s, the boundary conditions to be satisfied are Ate=0: 4-B=1(0) Ate mas (4eT — Bel) Z,= KideP + Bel The solution of these equations is 1 4=1OT AW: B= 10) where jis the reflection Factor: os— K)/ (Ze K) (139) ‘The current and potential at « are accordingly ee) (1.40 ve) as) The impeiance Z = ¥(0)/F(0) looking into the energized end of the condictoris Let CLS ae 1.42)16 EARTH CONDUCTION EFFECTS aan lerivation of the transmission line ‘equation the current was Tn the abr ei to one or more impressed electromotive forces be ‘at certain points, When the ate ix cual brs dis lectri¢ Aeld intensity £°(x) in the axial direction along the con witued fs ‘will appear on the right-hand side of (1.34) and with this snedification the current equation ts ar 1.49) -r = —¥P@) a we i. “The general solution of this equasion may be written 2 Toe) = [4 + Pe ™ BE Qe (1.44) (eq) = Kid + PON + BT ae where ron kf rome (4.45) ow Ae [Boer er (1.46) ‘The constants 4 and B are determined by the boundary conlions at qnds of the conductors or at source points, as before. -_ ee (ad) may te derived a (llowet, Consider an infinite condctr slong which there i an impressed foree (9), ‘The caren at see ce the electric force B°(2) de along the conductor element ais the 21) = Pe) PK. Ths allo since she Garett Implant k ja connected t9 cach end of the element de and the al impede ice ofthe laters celyible by comparion. The curren at due te Iimproned fore at os then dZ(@) exp — 11x — 2] and the tral current rue to the impressed forces between —* and = equals Pe) = ef Ors a) ‘current may next be canceled at any two points by two series genesa- on 30 aS or shen ‘@ conductor of eet grey Esra eatin iy be wriien as CP — BPC, a0 that the to by the genera ycror assured to extend from O in the postive direction nay be writen e ates Te) = fio BE Le [BO de = Lf + POET — B+ 9G) ~ BC e™ ‘To obtain (1.44), the constant =~) is included in B. ELECTROMAGNETIC CONCEPTS AND EQUATIONS 17 When the impressed electric force along a conductor vaties as UG + of)", P(x) and Qe) may be expressed in terins of the functions ‘and ¥ defined ia Appendix I and, when J ~ 0, in terms of the exponential integral function. With several transmission Tines « namber of simultaneous differential equations must be satisfied unless physical conditions permit lumping into 2 single equivalent line. Although the formal solution for rmultiple lines may readily be obtained®* in a similar or corresponding, manner to that shown in Chapter V for two conductors, considerable difficulty may be encountered in the practical application to more than tes lines of different characteristics. Using the formulas for ¥ and Z. given in 1.5, the propagation constant for a transmission Fine of negligible resistance becomes, Pm Tarlo + fee) 0.48) ‘When it is permissible to assume plane wave transmission and to neglect the conductor resistance, the propagation constant is thus independent of the geometrical configuration. Expression (1.48) for the propagation constant recurs in the wave equavion and upplies to the medium in which the conductor is imbedded. LT Scaler and vector potentials of stationary fields To derive the particular form of the field equations in a rectilinear coordinate system, consider a small reccanghe ddan the y.% plane around the component H, of the magnetic field, as shown in Fig. 18. ‘The electric force around the loop is then [@Fx/8y — 3«/0s] dydz which, in accordance with Fig. 11, must equal —ioB, dydx. From this and corresponding ‘equalities for other components it follows that for time vatiation as eM! cutl E = 08,/ay ~ E,/0z = —iewH, curly E = aE,/0x ~ 8E,fax = ~inlly a9) curl, E = 0E (0x — 0B fay = —twrl, Similarly; curl, H = aH,/8y — aH,/0: = oF, tines curl, H = aHs/03 ~ OH ,/8% = oBy + inky (1.50) oul, Hl allyfar — 0/89 = cE, + iE ‘When applied to a cube in a rectilinear evordinate system, the expression for the divergence, as involved in (1.04), (1.08) and (1.06), becomes, in18 EARTH CONDUCTION EFFECTS cnr. the case of J = oF + fanB av f= SE (st) 2 i irecti because fowis the rate at which current in the x direction changes the ae ‘of current through the four faces of the cube parallel to the cee ith a corresponding significance as regards the other two deriva- ives. ‘When the integral pendent of the paths of the field intensity between any two points is inde- “follows that che integral around a closed path — ovine me pA 2M pwted 2B ae a “The field intensity and each af cur ofthe field — is 20. ani ence the curt of the Se the negative gradient of a salar its components may then be expressed ax potential U: E, © —ade U = ~ Uae (GQ --mvr - [+ 2+ By the definitions of divergence snd gradient, the divergence of fels desived from a scalar potential becomes au eu, aU divend U= Fat Ge tg 7 40 «1.82 (1.53) which is referred to as the Laplacian of U. anu ie static condition, J = 0, and the stationary condition i = ob en hat cat! B= 0, ‘The field may be derived accordingly ELECTROMAGNETIC CONCEPTS AND EQUATIONS 19 from a scalar potential which must satisfy Poisson's equation obtained from (1.01), (1.04) and (1.52), ie, aU = -O/s (154) where @ is the charge density at the point under consideration. ‘When the charge density is zero, a8 in free space, the potential satisfies Laplace's equation au=0 (ass) which also, in view of (2.05), applies to the potentia! in a medium carrying a constant current and, furthermore, to a magnetostatic field not accom panied by current at che point under consideration. Such a ficld may be due to a permanent magnet or to constant cutrent in a metallic loop ulated from the medium. Where there ig current or electric force varying with the time in the medium, however, tis seen (earn (1.08) that the curl of the magnetic force does not vanish’so that the integral of the magnetic Geld intensity between cwo points depends on the path. ‘The magnetic field intensity may then he expressed s the curl of a vector po- tential 4, the equation for each component of which corresponds to (1.54) and is Ad =» 56) where Jis the current density in the dizection of the component of / under consideration and y the induceivity of the medium. ‘This equation is derived as follows: With Brawls as7 (1.58) equation (1.08) becomes curl curl 4 = 9 From expression (1.49) for the cor), it flloms that a a eu, (cul A) = Seve A — 5 early 2 (ede 240) _2 (oe Bae ~ ay) eae 3x ‘Adling and subtracting 0°4,/a2, the following relation is obtained: cat (carl A) = ad, + Sev 4 Comesponding relations are obtwined for the yan components, so that the fllowing relation cbrains forthe total field: curl (curl 4) = —Ad + grad div d (1.39)—= ~ EARTH CONDUCTION EFFECTS Cane. ‘Asmentioned before, the curlof the gradient of ascalar potential vanishes, so that (1.57) remains valid ifthe gradient of a scalar potential is added to ‘A. This acalar potential may be so selected that div = 0, in which ease (1.56) is obtained when (1.59) is inserted in (1.58). ‘When 2 point charge Qo is imbedded in a uniform dielectric, it follows from (1.04) that the dielectric flux density D at the distance R from Qs Qo/4rR?, Hence the electric ficld strength equals Qo/4anR? and the poten a the distance Rs dR Qo Om nde HE tee a) The capaciy of « charged sphere of radius Ris accordingly 4xR, Expres sion (1.60) # a solution of (1.54). The more general solution for charges Gistributed in a uniform dieleetrc ia obtained by superposizion of the po- ‘ential due to individual charges and equals UR z Sf asi) where @ is the charge density at the distance R from the point under con- Sideravion and the integration is extended over the entire volume. "These solutions also apply to the stationary condition obtaining in the ‘ease of aconducting medium. A current is then required to maintain the charge distribution, as when current supplied to a cylindrical metallic conductor is discharged along its surface into & surrounding mediam of Comparatively low csnductivity, asin problems dealt with in Chapter IIL ‘Thus, if Ip is the current radiating from a point having a charge Qo, the current density at the distance Ris J = Jo/4nR? and the electric intensity due to the current J9/4zoR®, The potential at R is accordingly jo (dR __Io Grade TE Gro In the stationary condition both (1,60) and (1.62) arc satisfied, but the solution is expressed ordinarily in terms of che current, which is usually of greater finportance and is moze readily observed than the charge: ‘Corresponding to (1.61) a3 & solution of (1.54), the following volume ‘neegral represents the general solution of (1.56) for the vector potential cof a stationary current distibution: aa ve (1.62) “The volume integral applies to each component of the vector potential, J being the carrent density in the direction of the component under con- sideration, ELECTROMAGNETIC CONCEPTS AND EQUATIONS 21 Assume a short conductor of length 25 imbedded in a conducting medium of infinite extent and insulated from it except at the ends. When the con- ductor is made to carry a current J, the return through the medium will ‘onsist of wo opposite radial flows ‘rom the ends ofthe conductor element. Evaluation of the vestor potential shows that the contribution fram the two radial return flows is zero. For distances that ate large compared to dS, the volume integral of the current density may then be taken as 14S/R, so that Ids TER (1.68) A short current element as considered al i :own as i J 48 as its moment. ie aie i ‘From (1.64) the following expression for the magnetic flux intensity di toa dipole, known as the Biot-Savart law, is obtained by use of st “e pati = WE sng 65) 4 where ys the angle included between the radius vector R from the i s [e incl from the ai {> the poine ae which Bir evaluated aad the dioteon of he dipole aa, rom ths expression, the ogni fd due wo erent ins cenductor of acirary path nay be obsined by inerton along he Ph of con. 18 Electromagnetic energy relasions Icis postulated that the energy CV#/2 required to charge a eapecita to a potential Vis dntributed inthe surrounding imediam with the den sity «6/2. Similarly, thatthe energy LI?/2 required to create a magnetic fild by a current J in a ciceuit of inductance L is distributed as +C2/2. ‘The instantaneous energy within a volume is then given by the followin volume integral = WH af es pra 66) When the fed varies with time, the energy lose per aie time equals &O o —D ~~ f (bb + 0) de 187) Fram (1.07) and (1.08), —sC = curl 6 and xb = curl K — 66 Hence, oD — OP x fea &~ Sean) de+ [ose (68) - fi ‘diy [60] do + f 08 do (1.69)a EARTH CONDUCTION EFFECTS Cu. 1 where (1.69) is derived from {1.68} as shown below, and 16H] = 65 sing (1.70) je the vector product of & and SK, and 0 is the angle incloded between these vectors. The vector product is a vector perpendicular co the plane through Pr A Fro, 19 Ratited power deity Ps — [EH] ~ EH sin and X, as shown in Fig. 1.9. In rectilinear coordinates, t [SIC], = 6H, — EH; [BK], = BK, — 6H ys ' (6901, = B.C, — 6,50. a7 ; a a div {69€] = 5 (GH. — 6G) +5, CMe — EH) + EGR, ~ 57) We OH) g (2s _ he ~~ [8G 2) + 6G - 32) iy ae ed ¢ ae By >) ‘a, a8," (aby 38," + [-(B- 3) +90 GF a6 (3-3) =e eens (72) ‘The integral throughout « closed volume of the divergence of a vestar is equal by Gauss’ theorem to he surface intégral of the component of the a ee BLECTROMAGNETIC CONCEPTS AND EQUATIONS 23 ‘vector normal in the outward direction ¢o the surface enclosing the volume, i.e, the total flux from sources within a volume must equal the flux through the surface. Hence, if 4 is the area of the surface enclosing the volume, (1.69) may be written as follows: - 2 = fiends fos? ao (7a) ‘The firs incegral represents the power radiated through the surface, the second integral the power dissipated in heat within the volume. The ‘vector , = (6H) a7) represents the instantaneous power radiated per unit area across « surface through & and 5 and is referred to as the Poynting vector. For a steady state Geld varying as cos ai, with a time phase displacement «9 between the electric and magnetic field intensities, the average dissipa- on P, per unit volume and the radiation P, across a unit area over a long period f are given by 7s) P= BR! [Ritemateos (ou beddy toe = YOR cos. sin = EH cos gin 6 76) where # and A are amplitudes and E = B/V2, H = A/x/2 are root- ‘moan-square values. ‘Near a power source, ¢ ney be nearly 90°, so that the eneray in the field ‘oscillates between the electric and the magnetic state, wich only « minor fraction being radiated. At remote points, however, approaches zero ‘0 that the field is a radiation field rather than aa induction field, 28 near ‘power source. In order to evehiate the reactive effect of the field on the primary power system and the radiation from such systems, i is necessary to derive the electromagnetic wave equation and to obtain an appropriate solution, as outlined in the following sections. 19 Woase equation in a hemogencous medium “Yo derive the equations for the scalar and vector potentials of fields varying with time, as e, the magnetic field intensity is again related to the vector potentia) by (1.57). When the latter relation is substituted insz w EARTH CONDUCTION EFFECTS Cass. (07), curl (E+ iad) = 0 co that E+ isd is the negative gradient of a scalar potential U. Hence Em ~ied — grad U am which, when substituted in (1.58), gives, in view of (1.02), carl curl 4m =? = Fae u a.7ay here oP = favo + ie) (1.79) ‘Wieh (1.59) in (1.78), ~ad+enddivd yd — Tend 0 (1.80) ‘This cquation is satisfied when the following relations obtain: ad a7 asi) au = 70 1.82) diy Gad) = 7° (1.83) Equation (1.83) is obtained by observing that to satisfy (1.80) assuming (1.81), itis necessary that grad div 4 = ~ (7?/ia) grad U, which is identi- cal with (1.83), Equation (1.82) fellows from (1.81) and (1.83) when its obscrved that to satisfy (1.08) for a homogencous medium, in which there are no body charges, i is necessary chat div Z = 0, Heace, in view of (LIT), div (ied) = —div grad U = -AU 84) ‘which, when substituted in (1.83) gives (1.82). The solution of (1.81) and (1.82), together with (1.57) and (1.77), gives the magnetic and electri field intensities. “The potentials and U and the fické intensities snay also be expressed in terms of a single vector function IZ, usually referred to as the Hertzian ‘vector, each of the three components of which must satisfy the wave equation an= (1.85) ‘Equation (1.83) is satisfied with 4 U= -divt (1.86) ach component of the electric feld intensity and the magnetic flux density ELECTROMAGNETIC CONCEPTS AND EQUATIONS — 25 is then related ¢o the corresponding component of by B= 90+ grad div IE (1.87) a Post a Tn rectilinear coordinaces, E,= —7lle Dan (tle 2 oe a Oe A solution of the electromagnetic wave equation is represented by the following volume integrals: L per vp foye » on ~a lI ® (190) fay ee -plIge where Q and J are the charge and current densities in the elementary volume dv at the radial separation 2 from the point under consideration, and the integrals for 4 and II apply to the components of these vectors in the direction of the current component under consideration. These solv tiens are obtained by introducing polar coordinates and finding the current due to # single charge or current clement, from which the sclution follows by superposition. For # dipole in a uniform medium of infinite extent, the formula cor- responding to (1.64) is was oe =e ast iol as 1S 192) Integrals (1.90) presume a known charge and current i Ordinarily, however, the problem is, in effece, to determine the distribution,—s= 2% FARTH CONDUCTION EFFECTS cunt andy in turn, the potentials and field intessities. This is usually accom. shed seine manner outlined in following secions, without explice use of 19). 1.40 Haste solution of wave equation Jin dealing with problems involving cylindrical conductors and combina- tions of cylindrical conductors and media of great extent with plane boundaries such as the etrth, it is convenient to introduce cylindrical Fi 110. ‘elaon of efi and reir erat, coordinates as shown in Fig. 1.10. Equation (1.85) then takes the: form? * 16/4 1én, em 18g LT ax) CG)+tagta? To solve this equation, it is assumed that the solution may be written as the product of three functions, each involving only one of the variables: T= RP)Z@) (1.94) Substituting (1.94) in (1.93) the latter equation becomes 1 af am 1 1 eZ _ 11.95) ane) t Poet zee? a) Since the first two terms and the right-hand side are independent of 2, the third erm mast egal some constant independent of = which wil be designated m?, in which case the equation for Z and its solution is 22 a Dede + Be (1.96) a Equation (1.95) then becomes de £ 26,2) LER yp — my? as7) Sale) eae ot ELECTROMAGNETIC CONCEPTS AND EQUATIONS 27 in which the frst term and the right-hand side are independent of @, 20 that the second term may be represented by a constant X* not involving ¥. ‘The equation for & and ies solution is then Fe rt ee ae ae 98) Equation (1.97) sow becomes ra) +08 - ot aia <0 nh b? — G4 = myrIR 0 a.99) which, with ® = én and 4? — 1? = u2, is brought into che customary form ‘of Bessel’s equation for a function ® = R iru): aR cs e Fea tO Faas tured — aR = 0 4.100) The general solution of this equation is Rr) Aafulrd) + By¥alr2) (1.101) uy where Jo = Besse! function of the first kind, order » Y, = Bessel function of the second kind, order These and various associated Bessel fonctions are considered in more detail in Appendix 1. ‘The solution of (1.93) may now be written A,coune\ | Ae ArJalra) m=(+ “t+ {+ (1.302) By sin ne) Bet BY (ru) where a = (2 + 92)", In applications to specific problems for which this form of solution is valid, some of the conscants 4 and B are eliminated by physiesl considera tions of symmetry and of convergence of the solution for large and small distances. The temaining constants are determined from the boundary conditions of equal tangential eleceric and magnetic field intensities at the interfaces of different media. ‘The constant 2 will also be determined by such considerations and will be zero when the field is independent of g. When the field is independent of 5, w is eliminated since @ = 0 so that w= iy, When the fcid is independent of ¢ and r, = 0, 1 =0 and-—e 2B EARTH CONDUCTION EFFECTS Cann a= 7. Equation (1.93) zhen simplifies to the transmission line equation (1.35) and It = 4e-™ + Be, With the ficld depending on s, elimination of wis achieved by integrating (1.102) between appropriate Emits which depend on the integral representation of che impressed ficld, but in general may be written as Aycosme’\ (fee) J fw Inl) m=(+ 7 a2 lt de (1-103) By sin nel Jo \ > gitine JN galu¥ate Integration between finite limits may be secured by taking the f and functions zero outside the limits of the integration range. This solution jneludes (1.102) as a special case in which these functions are zero except for a single value of a at which they are equal to the constants 4 and B in (1.102). ‘Expression (1.92) for the I function of a dipole in a medium of infinite extent may be written in che integral form (1.103) es fend dS fu as See hem deira ae (1.108) wherer = (7 +72)! anda = ( + 94)". In problems involving a horizontal or vertical dipole above the earth, (1.104) is used as the II function of the primary field ta derive che resultant Tifunetion. Formulas for the Ul function of vertical and horizontal dipoles snd for che mutual impedance of horizontal earth return circuits, which may be regarded as composed of such dipoles, are derived in this manner jin Chapter IV. 111 Internal impedances of cylindrical conductors Tn later chapters reference will be made to the internal impedances of cylindrical conductors and shields when the frequency is such that skin ‘Hfect must be considered, which may be the case even at low frequencies when the permeability is high. For a long cylindrical conductor along the ‘axis with internal or external coaxial retorn, II must be independent of ¢ and zand will have a componentin the direction only. Hence, in (1.102), n= Oand m= 0, 0 that w= fy and W =H, = 4, Jolin) + B-¥olh7) = Aglolrr) + BoKoler) (1.105) where fp and Ky designate Bessel fonctions of the frst and second kind fer imaginary arguments and are defined in Appendix 1 ELECTROMAGNETIC CONCEPTS AND EQUATIONS 29 ‘The magnetic flux intensities derived from (1.89) are Bom Fldoli(or) ~ BoKi or] 4.106) Tf the conductor has an inside radius ¢ and an outside radius a, the mage netic feld intensity at r = & must be 0, provided that the conductor current T returns outside che conductor. At r= the magnetic flux density, fox the other hand, must equal vJ/2ea. Hence, with dly/dr = Jy and aKo/dr = —Ky, Acid) — BoKu8 D = In(ya)Ks(yb) — L1(8)K (va) ‘The electric force becomes Ey = —7"t1 or jel Es = Fp Hot Kilnd) + KolrrdvGr8)] (1107) ‘The negative ratio of the electric force along the outer surface r = a to the total curent is defined as the external surface impedance with external return Zr, and the corresponding ratio for r= 4 as che intemal surface impedance with external return, Ziq. Neglecting the capacitivity of che conductor so that 7 = (iava)''®, these impeciances become 1 fiw! Pee = Fad ®) Hoya) Ka (v2)-+ Ka(a)!a6)] (1.108) ‘aa\2 2u= 5 (® Mol) Kx G8) + Kol Li8)] (1.109) ‘The internal impedance with internal return is obtained by interchanging a and & in (1.108), while the extemal impedance with internal zeturn Zei = Zee: For solid conductors (6~ 0) Zee is usutlly referred to as the internal impedance of the conductor Z, a8 distinguished from the ex--- 0 EARTH CONDUCTION EFFECTS Cure ternal impedance due to magnetic ux outside che conductors as considered in the next section. When the Bessel functions are replaced by their expansions for large valucs of the arguments 72 and 7, the following approximare formulas are obtained, which apply within a few per cent for tke type of cylindrical conductors ordinarily enoountered. Bug = Ry coth ao 110) Pag = Rrifsioh 8 qa) Zi = Rre/ts b= 0,1a>1 tia) where R isthe direct current resistance and y may be expressed in terms of the latter as 7 = (iur/2nt6R)"? when the thickness 8 = 0 — Fis jess than about 259% of the mean zadius = (@ + A)/2 112 Self and mutual impedances of eslindrical conductors Ta dealing wich the mutual impedance of two circuits, ft is convenient to designate one as the primary and the other as the secondary circuit. The ‘mutual impedance is the ratio of the voltage in the secondary to current in the primary, and it is he same regardless of which circuit is the primary. ‘The letter proposition, known as the reciprocal theorem, applies to linear cirouits oaly, in which the muvual impedance does not vary with current. ‘The external impedance of @ round conductor, which is the impedance due to external magnetic flux, is equal to the mutual impedance between the conductor and an infinitesimally thin insulsted wire at its surface. The self impedance of a conductor is the sum of the excernal impedance and the internal impedance, as considered in the preceding section. The external impedance depends on the characteristics of rhe medium svrrounding the conductor and, for a conductor in am insulating medium, includes 2 com- ponent referred to as the radiation resistance, as discussed in the following. With a dipole 28 along the z-axis, in a uniform medium of indnite extent in all dircotions, the electric field incensities in a plane through the dipole obtained from (1.92) and (1.89) are ras[-riw) +5 008)] (1.113) Ey a E, = 1a5 375, O(R) where r = (9 + 9?) and, with R= (+7), pay - 1 oe a@ R! "get ROM ELECTROMAGNETIC CONCEPTS AND EQUATIONS 31 ‘The voltage dV impressed along an element ds of a second wire lng 9 paths in the same plane as S, as shown in Fig, f,{1,is then Ey cas ¢-+ Ey sin ¢, where eis the angle between dS and ds. Hence, with dz = d9 oF = 148 ae ~PiReor eZ O6Reos e+ SX ORsin | =128a(-Pipenet 2 [2B ces Mone) asl a . = -1asai[ Peajeose+ 5% 008] (15) Pea 111 Manual impedance berwcen two wines S aes exeting Som 4 to B and 2 to Leia zane aa ‘The last relation is obtained by observing that the square bracket term é R 75 0(R)y where y is the angle between 28 and R, in the preceding expression equals 4 Q(R)[eas y cos « + sin ¥ sin = 2 Zotwem o-9= The mutual impedance between two wires and s of arbitrary path as shown in the latter figure may now be waitten Zan ff [Pm net A ow|ases = ff Pa coseds ds + dame» (att6) Qa—wus—» = Ga) ~ O(AB) + (Bd) — QtBa) (1.117)wy 32. EARTH CONDUCTION EFFECTS Cuan. t in which 4a, 42, Bb and Ba are the distances r between the four terminals of the wires. The doable integral in (1.116) is che mutual impedance between the wire paths alone, while the second term is independent of the wire paths and Tepresents the impedance becween the wire terminals through the surround. ing medium. For a straight conductor of length f and radius @, having no interchange of current with the outside medium execpt through the ends, the external impedance beoomes a Lf PUR) de de + 210(0) — O01 (tts) where R= {(¢— 2)? + 2°]! is the radial distance between the center of the conductor element de at x and the surface of conductor element dt at Tis assumed that the current at x may be regarded as concentrated at the center in calculating the electric force due to this current along the surface ‘atu, which is permissible except for short conductors of large eross section, which are not considered here- Expanding «7 as 1 — 7R + (PR)F/2! — (R}/31-+-+-, the follow ing formala ie obtained for the external impedance: Vat fod (2 3) _ iawn Z Met ee (ose 2) fern OAD) “The first term is the impedance of the conductor terminals, which, in the case of a nonconducting medium, is a capacitive reactance. The second term is the external inductive reactance of the wire with direct current return in the medium. ‘This inductance includes a term — tuslv/4a from “20(D. The third term is the first order approximation of the effec of ‘currents induced in the surrounding medium. For an insulating medium ‘the latter losses appear as radiation and the last term is, in this case, the ‘radiation resistance, which may also be written, with y = ioGox)"?, 9 = (Cre), w = 2rf and d= Hf, anieh) GQ) = (5) (1.20) where A is the wave length. This formula applies to 2 short: conductor Carrying the same current throughout its length. When a short conductor ELECTROMAGNETIC CONCEPTS AND EQUATIONS 33 is energized in free space, the current will Gecrease linearly from the poine of energization toward the ends of the conductor. The average current is then half as large as in te above case. Hence, ifthe radiated power is cxpressed in tema of the input current, rather ¢han the average curen the radiation resistance becomes a Ry = 20e? & (aay As the separation berween primary and secondary increases, the second term in (1.115) decreases as €7®/2° and becomes negligible in comparison with the fist term. The electric force normal ro Rin a plane through the axis of » dipole then becomes, with 48 = /, ¢ ye Hod ute amy where ¥ = 3 is the angle between /and R, of propagation, and d = o/f'is the wave length. ‘The magnetic ‘field intensity may be obtained from (1.92) and (1.89) in wy manner to that used in obtaining expression (1.113) for the intensities, With Z = HL, H, = 0, Hy = 0 in (1.89), the total magnetic field intensity H = (HE + Hy)*, i.e, the magnetic field in- vey normal to R and to the plane through the axis of the dipole, comes awl sin tans 4eR me E (Um)! is the velocity a iisiny oo ar ORR # when yR 2 1 .t23) Ig will be noticed that, when 7X2 1, as assumed in (1.122) and (1.123), the electric and magnetic field intensities are related by B-= (e/x)\2 ot Et = ol (1.124) ch shows that, under the conditions stated, the energies in the electric and magnetic Belds are equal. “The power radiation per unit area normal to Ris obtained from (1.76) with ¢ =@ and @ = 90°, since E and H given by (1.122) and (1.123) areme 34 EARTH CONDUCTION EFFECTS our in temporal phase but in spatial quadrature, and equals where Po is the total radiated power J°R, obtained by use of (1.120). 113. Fourier integral transforms and operational calewias Boundary value problems may frequently be solved by representation of an impressed field by an infinite integral, as ia the preceding sections. ‘This is also true of problems involving an arbitrary variation of the field with time, rather than in space. In the latter case the solution is accom- Wished ordinavly by finding the response characteristic co the simple time function ¢* assumed earlier. ‘The impressed field or current ie then sustained, and the steady state response, which slso contains the factor #4, may be characterized by # ratio F(a), a fanction of ie but independent foftime. The latter ratio may be the impedance or admittance at the point of transmission, the transfer impedance or admittance to some othet point, for the currenr or voltage transfer ratio, The response to an arbicrary: Jmpressed field or current may be obtained, in torn, by a Fourier integral sepresentation of the letter in terms of e#, as discussed. below. Tf a decaying exponential time fonction ¢* had teen assumed, the response characteristic as a function of # for a given value of a would have sufficed to describe che response 20 other impressed forces, provided thar the latter were represented by integrals involving ¢~**. Of particular interest is the unit step fanetion obrained with a = 0, which is assumed initiated at ¢ =0 and is unity thereafter. When the response cherae. teristic 5) for such a step function is known, she bekavior for an arbitrary cause may be evaluated by regarding ths lareer as composed of infinitesimal step functions. A third elementary function frequently used is the unit impulse, which i a highly concentrated field of infinitesimal width in time or space and of such intensity that the integeal or area of the impulse is unity. When the unit impulse response 5”) is known, the effect of any other cause may be evaluated by regarding the latter as composed of impulses. Various interrelations between the responses to the thros elementary time functions, and between the responses to these fonctions and to arbitrary causes, will bediscussed briefly here. ‘A Fourier integral representation of a Function is the limiting form of che series obtained by extending the integration rangs to infinity. As a result, an integral over & continuous frequency spectrum is obtained rather thar a summation of terms in discrete harmonic frequencies. Subject to eestain = _ ELECTROMAGNETIC CONCEPTS AND EQUATIONS 35 restrictions a funetion /(@) may thus be represented by the following, integrals in whick p = A: 1p WO = 5 fe [fe cng) de Efe Liwie + an =E fla flrme a (1.126) ‘The last integral is obtained by change of variable from ~p to p in the ¢ bracket term of che preceding integral. It is then observed that the gral of this component is identical to thar of ehe first bracket term. Let ¢¢p) zepresent che integral with respect to of (1.126). The double integral may then be written in the following paired form: Jone Lf" vee az) with eo fl yorta 128) sphere exch of the last two integrals is the Fourier transform of the other. ‘The function f(¢) nay have only a finite number of discontinuities and muse be such that the integral of the absolute value|/(?}| of the function be- tween —w and ++ exists, At points of discontinuiry, the integral will eve a single value equal to the average of the function. Assume next that the frequency response for the sinusoidal condition is F(p), with p = fw = 2rif. This response might be the impedance at the point of transmission, the transfer impedance to some other point, or che current or voltage transfer ratio, Then, if f(t} is an impressed force, to apy term 4 in (1.126) will correspond a response F(p)e2-", The regultant reapanse to f() is accordingly ow =2 fla [puree ae oo = 2 [le emrea (1.129) wich oor) = [" cme ar 90;_s 36 BARTH CONDUCTION EFFECTS Cuan In particular for a unit step cause, f(!) = 0 when ¢-<0 and 1 when £50. Ie this case #(p) obtained from (1.128) is U/p and the following relations obtain, when the response to a unit step cause is designated by 8. sood flet@a ast) ws FO) _ ft pn FO fo enswa aus where the lower limit —-» in the last integral has been replaced by zero Shee S(@) = Owhen? <0. ‘The function Fp) is known as the operational ‘equivaient of $(¢) for unit step current, and the relationship expressed by (1.132) as the infinite integral theorem.’ F(p)/p is the Laplacian trans- form of $(). For nee impulse, f(¢) = 0 except at ¢, where it is s0 defined that the area under the pulse is unity. Hence (1.128) becomes @(p) = 1. Between #(p) and the response characteristic to @ uait iinpulse the following rela- tions thus obtain: © Fp) a (1.133) with Foye [soe ast) For the above integrals to converge itis necessary to place certain restrie- tions on F(p). Thus, for a unit step voltage, (1.128) does not actually converge except as a limit of an applied voltage é~** when ¢ —+0,sinceother- ‘wise the integral of |/(@)| does not exist. For this reason, the integrals in the above form are confined to circuits in which the current in response to une sep volage ultimately decays to zoo, but sey sre adequate for fanctions F(p) of the type dealt with in later chapters ‘The response H1(¢) to an arbitrary cause C(¢) may be evaluated from the response to unit step current or unit impulse by application of one or the other of the following integrals, which are obtained by superposition of the responses to the elementary time functions: ue) = cos + [se- NOs acoso+ [ sace-na £ Bal = CH)50) + fe NEG) at =cnsot f stoee- ae Wee eee ELECTROMAGNETIC CONCEPTS AND EQUATIONS 37 For cettain functions G(@) it may be possible to find tie operational equivalent F\(p) from (1.132) or (1.134), in which case the corresponding time fanction is given by eh ft FOG) He = 5, fe FOR (1.136) where F(p)Fi(p) is now the operational equivalent of (4) when the cause fanetion is C@). For comparatively simple circuits the response may be found from (1.136) for other than unit step or impulse conditions. For frequency functions ax dealt with later, however, it is usually necessary to evaluate the response ftom (1.135) after Sor S/"has been derived. Even the latter response characteristics may not always be obtained from tables of paired Frequency and time functions,"° but they may be evaluated by approximate methods usually adequate for engineering purposes. These methods may consist ix finding the time functions Sp and Sw for small and large values cof time, which correspond to the frequeney functions F., and Fg for large and small values of 7. The approximate response may next be obtained by plotting Sp and S~ and drawing 2 transition curve between them. A check on the accuracy of the rime function S(¢) thus derived may be obtained by a numerical integration of F(p}/p in accordance with (1.132), for a value of pin the transition range. ‘The procedure outlined above is usually less laborious than a cumericel integration of (1.131) to obtaim St), on account of the complex quantities invelved in the latter inte- gration. ‘A uumber of associated responses to the three elementary functions are listed in Appendix I.- Ve CHAPTER Barri Resisriviry Tesino ano Ananysis 2A Introduction ‘Among the electrical characteristics of the earth, only the permeability may be regarded as constant and equal to unity. Alchough the dielecerie ‘constant varies within rather wide limits, between 1 and $0, depending on the nature of the soil or the rock, it is not ordinarily a factor of first im- portance in the kind of problem dealt with here, even at very high fre- ‘quencies. The dielectric strength of the soil is of importance in lightning phenomena but varies within fairly narrow limits, whereas in corrosion problems the chemical constitution of the soil must be considered. The resistivity of the earth, however, varies within extremely wide limits, be- ‘tween 1 and 10,000 meter-ohms, and is of decisive importance in all prob- Jems involving the earth asa return conductor, such as i studies of ground. ing, stray current conduction and corrosion, inductive interference and lightning protection. Because of this wide variation, it is usually neces- sary to measure the resistivity in the locality under consideration, and the ‘theoretical analysis presented here is of importance in the interpretation of the results of such measurements. Similar tests ere also employed in certain types of geophysical prospecting, but their interpretation often requires cansiderably more detailed anzlysis than is necessary in connec- tion with the problems dealt with here. "To measure earth resistivity, it is natural to pass current between ewo lectrodes in the earth and messure the voltage between two intermediate potential electrodes, at indicated in Fig. 2.1, in the same manner as for ordinary conductors. In most cases, the resistivity of a considerable ‘volume of earth is requized, so that the electrodes must be a good distance apart. ‘The dimensions of the electrodes therefore will be small compared t the distance betweer. them, so that the current distribution is practically the same as when the electrodes are considered as points, Since checurrent, paths are not parallel lines, the resistivity cannot be obtained from the ‘measurements of voltage between potential electrodes in she same simple ‘menner as for small cylindrical conduetors. For a uniform earth, however, the resistivity is obtained from « simple relationship involving mutual re- sistance and electrode spacing, When several measurements ere made for Gifferent electrode spacings, however, the resistivity obtained from this Fr EARTH RESISTIVITY TESTING AND ANALYSIS 39 simple relationship usually varies, sometimes to a very marked extent, because of increase in the volume and consequent variation in che character of the earth included in the messutements. Measurements have indicated chat such variations may often be accounted for if the earth is assumed to have a surface layer of different resistivity from that of the earth below. With such an earth structurc, the voltage between potential electrodes depends on the resistivity and che depth of che surface layer and en the resistivity of the earth below. It is evident that by proper choice of these three variables, @ great variety of observations may be approximately. represented. Although the theory fex such a twolayer earth is easily Mia, 21 Gienitarangement for mesmrement of eth resisiviey. extended to three or more layers, too many variables ate then involved to Justify its use except in connection with geophysical prospecting, where the detailed structure of the earth is the main objective, rather then an ‘overall approximation asin mest problems deale with here. Certain limit: ing cases of three-layer structures may serve, however, as a aseful guide in these problems. The cart resistivity may also be derived from measurements of mag. nitude and phase angie of the aiternating-curcenr mutual impedance of wires laid on the ground. Except when the wires are fairly long, the rea tive component of the impedance is not materially affected by earth resi tivity variations. ‘Thus, the additional information secured by measuring the reactive component is ordinarily of insufficient value to warrant the use of this method, particularly since it requires more complicated equip- ment and mathematical analysis. The resistivity near the surface may also be derived from measurements of the wave tilt of radiation fields, as discussed in 4.17, For a horizontally stratified medium consisting of two or more layers, theome 0 EARTH CONDUCTION EFFECTS Cane. lectric ficld due to current entering at « point source has been stated by Maxwell! in terms of an infinite series of images, whereas the solution in the form of an inzegeal involving Bessel functions has been given by Oliendorf and by Stefancsco and Schlumberger.® Formulas in terms of images have been published by Hummel,‘ corves for the potential dis. sribution by Weaver, and numerical tables for the calculation of such curves by Roman®; Muskat! has given an analytical discussion of the formal solution and obtained certain expansion formulas. For the case of arbitrary variation of the resiscvity with depth a formal soketion has been. given by Schlichter,® who, together with Langer,'?° has considered the irect solution of the inverse problem of finding the variation in resistivity swich depth when the surface potential distribution is known. For uniform earth, 2 comprehensive treatment has been given by Carmpbel!” of the magnetic as well as the electric field due to divect current in wires berween point electrodes on the earth’s surface. In earth resis= tivity measurements by methods considered here, it is usual co make petiodie reversal of the current, ani zhe resulean¢ variation of the magnetic field gives rise to inductive effects which may influence the results in certain cases, The question of inductive effect, however, is deferred to a later chapter. As for electrolytes in general, che resissivisy of the soil decreases, with increasing temperature and is independent of field strength and fre- quency, except for extremely high values. (References 2, 3, Chapter VI.) 22 Basic equations ‘The eursent and potential distribution in the earth in response to ‘pressed electromotive forces must satisfy the electromagnetic feld equa. tions of Chapter IL. For the particular case of a stationary current ente.. ing a uniform or a horizontally stratified earth, over « spherical electrode cor & cylindrical electrode perpendicular to the surface of the earth, the gereral solution of thesc ciuations is represented by {1.103) with y = 0. ‘The solution for the scalar potential U, which for direct current may be wsed in place of I, is then o- LUMO HMA HMA — GoD ‘where d is used in place of 1 as a-variable of integration and ris the radial separation from the zaxis, which is perpendicular to the surface of the earth. The Bessel function fois appropriate in the present problem, since the potential remains finite for r = 0, except when z= O at the samme tie, while ¥p (AA) becomes infinite for r ~ 0. From the genera! sofucion, the povential may be obtained formally for any number of horizontal layers by determining the funcvions f and g from ioe EARTH RESISTIVITY TESTING AND ANALYSIS 41 the boundary conditions at the interface of adjacent layers and at the surface oF the earth. At the interface of two layers m and m +1, there must be continuity of the potential and of the current density: i, = — 0m dUm/ds normal to the boundary, ie, Un = Unt Uy ap Ong = om (2.02) where « = I/p is the conductivity and p the resistivity. At the surface of the earth the current density /, = 0, hence dU/dz = 0, The boundary equations are xecotdingly Fat MO BP = fant + Bust fapin fi Po hem Gam — Ftd pap, _ Soot Pm Pm Pm Pott ot Gy ‘These equations are identical with those at the junction of two transmis. sion Tine sections a and m + 1, when both sections have ‘the same propaga- tion constant A and characteristic impedances fim 2nd fj. The futctions fand z ‘are obtained accordingly in the same manner ag for the correspond- jing transmission line problem. This circumstance will be utilized to some sdyantage in later sections to extend the solution for two and three layers to an arbitrary number of layers and to continuous variation in ‘resistivity, with depth, ‘The formal solution for continuous variation in resistivity with depth may also be derived from che basic equations for this case. ‘These equa. tions and their solution, as given by Schlichter," are presented here for ‘completeness although they are not: essential to the development in later sections. Let it be assumed that the conductivity of the earth o = o(syy,t) is a fonction of the coordinates of the point in question and that the earth is isotropic, so that the conductivity is the same in all directions. The carrent densities may then be written as follows: Je=Es Jy=oEy Jam oBy (2.08) If Wis the potential at any poine in the earth, the electric intensities along the three axes are Fyn —dUjix By=—dUféy Ey= —dU/ds (2.08 ‘The current must satisfy the equation div J = 0 or 4s 4 de, dds ke + a + e o (2.06)42 EARTH CONDUCTION EFFECTS With (2.04) and (2.05) in (2.06), the following equation is obtained: PU 2U UA [dlde | dU de #10 eon at a at olde dv dy dy de de Let the conductivity vary with depth only as ¢ ~ o(2), 80 that de/dx and do[dy = 0. The field will then be symmetrical about 2 and, introducing clindrical coordinates with r= (#7 +37)", the following equation is obtained: @U 1a PU, dole) Firat dk o@) where a! (z) = da(z}/d2. ‘The equation may be solved in the usual manner demonstrated in 1.10 by asouming U(ra) = u(r)o(2), and thus separating (2.08) into two equations: te Mee tye Ser G tuum 2, oe) do B+ TOS ve-0 f where d is an arbitrary constant. "The fst of these equations is that of Bessel fonctions of ero onder. AS { shown later on, the sosoad equation can be identified with the equa A general solution of (2.08) may new be writzen in the form T= [0 omar reae a where g(x) is a function of d only, at disposal to satisfy certain boundary conditions. ‘Equation (2.09) is satisfied by the Bessel func: case, since the potential remains finite forr = 0 (except if = time), while the function ¥y has a singularity atr = 0. "The boundary conditions require tht the electric fexce in the 5 direction must vanish at the surface of the earth, since the current in the 2 direction {s zeros hence, for = = 0, ZL emnoovoaa 0 where 0! Qa) + dv/ds. i ee ee Ee plane wave propagation in a medium where the conductivity changes along the dizeetion of propagation, propagation constant b remaining unchanged, because the longitesiaal and teansverse conductivities change in the same sof the frst and second kind, Jo(ar) and YoQ). Of these, the former is appropriate n the present EARTH RESISTIVITY TESTING AND ANALYSIS 43 Equation (2.12) is satisfied by ¢(} = AA/0"Q,0) where 4 is a constant, since tie integral vanishes when the integrand equals A/o(\r) dh. Hence v= af" poreaaa 2.13) where _ 0a) ane) = MBO eu) For uniform earth, a pair of solutions of (2.10) is ¢™, the negative sign being taken to make the potential vanish at infinity. For other cases, the general solution of (2.10) consists of two functions, the one vanishing 5 infinity being appropriate to present purposes. Fora uniform earth erefore, va af" non anserer® rs) ‘The solution for a uniform earth, as obtained in a simple manner later on, is U — (lp/2n}- (P+ BY, so that 4 = Io/2n, I being the current in the electrode and p = I/e the earth resistivity. ‘When the resistivity varies arbitrarily with depth, the ratio of potential sta pointton the surface of the earth to current entering the electrode, which i the mtu restane ofthe electrode withthe pent in question, may be written thus: 90) - 2 f emrsor) a 16) where po = p(0) is the resistivity at the surface and &(A) = £00). Equation (2.16) applies when the current is supplied chrough a point lectrode or through an elearode consisting of a conducting hemisphere, so that earth current is uniformly radial near the electrode. Another case of interest is thet of a iat circular dise electrode of negligible thickness and resistivity, which excails a modification of the solution for points near the clectrode. In this instance, g@}, in addition to satisfying the condition of zzr0 Vertical electric force at the surface of the earth, must also be such that the potential is constant when the radial distance rs equal to or less than the radius a of the dise, for z= 0, ‘At the same time, the potential must ish as To/2er when r becomes large compared to the radius of the disc. ‘These conditions are satisfied when the factor sin ah/an ie inserted in the integrand of (2.13) and 2.14), The potential at the surface of the earth is thens 210 = 2 f° 2 203 Joo) ar em where #0) 's determined as before,-_aea 4 EARTH CONDUCTION EFFECTS cunt For uniform etrth, the mutual resistance for a dise electrode is then, wit 4Q) = 1, when tS 2 when r 2a 28) when > a. by Weber's integral. The above results may also be obtained by introdie jing ellipsoidal coordinates tnd regarding the disc as very thin ellipsoid of revolution, ‘The formula for ra ie obtained in the latter manner in section 3.2. ‘When earth resistivity varies continuously with depth, the problem i solved formally by obtaining a corresponding solution of (2.10) and thence Ose) from (2.14). When there are Giscontinuities in the resistivity, as ix the ease of several distinct horizontal layers, (2.10) applies to each indi- vidual layer, o”fe being zero and tm = nf ™ + fine™ the solution for layer m. It is then, necessary to determine the functions fm and gm in the manner mentioned before ané thus obtain an explicit expression for cin the upper layer andi, in eurn, an expression for AQ). 23 Electrodes ab surface of uniform earth Let a current J enter the ground at @ point electrode and lot the other current electrode be sufficiently remote so that its presence may be nes: ected. ‘The current is then radial about the surface point electrode, Imagine a hemispherical surface with center at the electrode and radius s, ‘The area of this surface is 2xs¥, and the radial curzent density in the ground atthe distance sis then J = //2xs%. Ifp isthe earth resistivity, che electric intensity in the ground in the radial direction at the distance sis E(s) = Jy EQ) = Ipftas? (219) “The potential at the distance s from the electrode is the integral of electric force between 5 and an infinitely remote point: Um [BEd = Ipftes 2.2) ‘The ratio of potential to current; or the mutual resistance of the electrode and the point under consideration, is then Qt) = o/ Ins at) FARTH RESISTIVITY TESTING AND ANALYSIS 45 ‘Assome next two electrodes, | and 2, on the earth’s surface. Let current enter the earth at 1 and leave at 2, aad consider the anutual resistance with 4 point 3 in the ground or on the surface, a8 indicated in Fig. 2.2. The re asltane mutual resisranceis then the diference between (sya) and Qa) or, jn a different notation, e(i a On = 3, C-- 2.22) Qumws = Ore where sig end sop are the distances between points 1 and 3 and points 2 and 3,and the subscript (1-233 of Q denotes thas the current path is between points 1 and 2 while the potential is taken at 3, sti Bia 12 Metuelseatanee af ‘loctrodes | and wich. Fi 23 Four cleerece methods of ‘arth reiscvity measurements. Banas = Ors = Qos Measured mutual redaraneeiQ—v/. ei(Helh) Apparene earth redeceay p =2araQ. With an eddivional point, 4, in the ground or on the surface, as shown in Fig. 2.3, ic follows that the mutual resistance of @ circuit between 1 and 2 with a circuit between 3 and 4 is Gomes = Dis ss — et Ooo dee. 0 =EGraoat) o> In the above formulas, the distances s were between a point on the sur~ face of the carch and a point in the ground or at the surface. Let r denote 1 radial separation along the surface of the earth and consider four clec- trodes on a séraight line at equal spacing re, 1 and 2 being the outer elec- taodes. Then fig = fou = 7, x4 = fog = 2ry. The mutual resistance is then Gave 9-2 (2- or, ifthe resitviey is desired, p= Und (2.25) When 7p is taken in meters and (? in ohms, (2.25) gives the earth resistiv- ity in meter-ohms. ace rol ~ Per (228)46 EARTH CONDUCTION EFFECTS cunr.2 Such an arrangement of four equally epaced electrodes, known as the 4 fpurelectrode” metinod, i frequently used to obtain the earth resistivity from the measured tmatual resistance. Te is easily verified chat all the above equations hold when current and potential leads are reversed, as is required by the reciprocal theorem. 2A Elecrades below surface of uniform earth Electrodes below the surface of the earth are rarely used to determine earth resistivity, but the mutual resistance of auch electrodes is required in connection with the calculation of the resistance of buried grounds, to be considered in a later chapter. ‘Consider wo point electrodes, 1 and 1’, in an infinite conducting medium, as indicated in Fig, 24, and let a current, J, enter each electrode. The ‘pve 24 Canent mating fom ono peintslecuvaes in an Saisie meio, Cament azarae to plane P— 2” in whch # — 3 potential due to current in each electrode is half as large as that considered Jn the preceding section, since currettt now radiates in all directions. The [potential due to current in both electrodes #s thus Joft 1h o- B(L+3) 25 where 5 is the distance from the polit within the earth to. electrode i, ands’ that to electrode 1. ‘Imagine a plane midway between the electrodes and perpendicular to the line between them. For reasons of symmetry, it is evident that in this plane there will be no current perpendicular to the plane. Therefore, che medium and the electrode on one sie of the plane may be removed without affecting the current distribution and the potential on the other side ‘When the imaginary plane ie identified with the surface of the earth, the potential due to an electrode below the surface is thus obrained from (2.26), F being the distance to the electrode and s’ that to the image of the elec trode above the surface of the earth. EARTH RESISTIVITY TESTING AND ANALYSIS 47 2.5 Teonlayer stratification Jo many cases the results of tests may be approximated by assum thatthe earth consists ofa surface layer ofa cortain depth d ‘oa rede x and a lower layer of infinite depth and resistivity ay. Ror such an earth structure, the mutual resistance function (@{r) between points an the surface of the carth, separated by distance r, may be expressed as a func- don M of cwo ratios, a = r/d and 8 = po/py, thus: a ler 2) = 7 Mw) 2.27) The fanction Mf, which will be determined shortly, is shown in Fig. 25. When r is small compared 20 4, the mutual resistance approaches py/2er and, when ris large compared *@ 4, it approaches p2/2er. ‘Thus, when the earth consists of rwo layers and measurements are made with increasing spacing, the earth resistivity derived from mutual impedance varies between limits g2 and fe. ‘The manner in which ic varies with r depends om the ratio r/d, and by comparison of the observed variation with char obtained from curves for various assumed values of d, an approximate value of the Inter may be obtained. Tn (227) the produc eas) may be roarded as the apparenc resistivity, ie, the resistivity that is used in connection with the formulz for uniform earth. ian When the four-clectrode method referred to before i resistance function becomes a acaaainnaaas Panes = 95, Malas) 228) where Molaf) = Mee) ~ M(20,8) Tn expression (2.28), the term piMo(as) is nt res Ta aed ean tai 0O7) ® HE ABE In the conventional method of solution of this and similar problems, the resultant field ig assumed to consist of two components, a primary fil, sometimes also referred to as the impreswod field, and a secondary field. ‘The primary field is usually the field for a known simple case, in the present case that of uniform sarth, whereas the secondary field is due to currents or charges induced on of in bodies placed in the primary field. ‘The resultant potentials Uy and U within the upper and lower layers may be written thse ave UO, = U4 UF 29) ivity.-_-* = EARTH RESISTIVITY TESTING AND ANALYSIS 49 where U" is the primary Beld, Ui! the secondary field in the upper layer and Uj/ that in the lower layer. Rach of these is a fanction of the coor: dinates, U’ being a known function applying in both the upper and the lower layers. Ifa single electrode is considered, and the axis is assurned to extend ats ‘the earth through the electro, it is evident that for either a uniform or horizontally stratified earth thote is circular symmetry about the = axis “The potential at a point in he etrth then depends upon and radial dis tance r, parallel to the surface of the carth, ta the point. Thus, in the east 8 EARTH CONDUCTION EFFECTS Cear. 2 i ey Pepa iom soo s pep son | | ~ : = : 6 — ‘9 | 50 1 2 ' | ° , 3 A & 4 & 2 Shee A £] & ; | a & nla 35 0 1 = 2 =? a a a 4 4 4 1 os to" = ae a in ai u os MS ons sl es Leal cal J a a a S ) & § I 20 50 100 200 09 0002000 S090 ard a-RId Fro. 25 Relation apparent resistivity jg to murface resistivity or for twolayer Fig. 26 Relation of apparent resisdvity pq to surface tesistivity py for twolayer ark suc tocar ith o-code metal, of a uniform earth of resistivity py equal to that of the upper layer, In - Perey a0) By means of a Fourier transformation, the term (6 + 72"? in chis ‘expression may also be written in che form @+AP (231)50 EARTH CONDUCTION EFFECTS where For) = i fo ene + PH ae = sae) a in f° v-@ [Pron a By the above transformation, the primary potential has been brought into a form involving 2 and rin separace functions. Also, this form of solution may be generalized to other cases involving the samne type of symmetry, by multiplying the integrand by an arbierary function of A. By chis gen- eralization, and by the above separation of the variables, a type of solution is obtained which can be fitted to boundary conditions. Generaliaing the solution, the secondary potentials may be written uF = [7 Ore + w@VeeQ) 20 oy = [7 add + we YoQs) an which is of the same form as (2.01). By = —dUjdx =0 i is necessary that fi = 51. To have the potential vanish as = becomes infinite, its necessary that gy ~ 0. Functions fi0\) and /(X) are obtained from the boundary condition at 1 = d, where the resultant potentials Uy and Uys defined by (2.29) mus. be equal and the current densities Ja and Jy in the z direction must also be ‘(A/os) aU/ds and Jo =~ (I/os) dUa/ds, the fol equal. With J = lowing boundary equations are obtained: h a Mt panes e8) = Bes fie 2 fe ERO + 2 ab Je ay orem] ase Solution of chese equations gives In mre FO) ae = Bene deat Mp) where in = (e1 ~ 02)/(e1 + pa)- ar i In order to satisfy the boundary condition at the surface of the earth, EARTH RESISTIVITY TESTING AND ANALYSIS st ‘The mutual resistance U1/Z for points on the surface of the ground is then en) [ [2+ x09] pana 8 [Lae onan (=m)* 5 ab + he war] pea (2.38) where a = r/d. AA physical interpretation of this formula is az follows: the surface po- tential for unit current may be calculated by adding to the potential for uniforin earth of resistivity py the potentials due to an infinite number of images, —m, +l, -ai->+ below the surface of the earth, at distances a> 2d, Ad, 6d 26 Three-layer stratification The formulas and curves for two-layer earth may also be used to find the approximate mutual resistance or the apparent resistivity for cereain types of three-layer earth. Assume that the earth consists of « top layer of resistivity oy and depth dj, an intermediate layer of resistivity py and thick- ness dp much greater than dy, and a third layer of resistivity os extending to very great depth, as shown in Fig. 2.7. When the electrode spacing is less than da the earth may be approximated by a two-layer structure with the second layer of resistivity ps assumed to extend to infinite depth. For elsctrode spacings greater than ds, the earth may be approximated by 2 two-layer structure with the original top layer a: absent. A somewhat better approximation in this latter case is to combine the two upper layers inta a single layer of depth d, +d, and equivalent resistivity (dit da)/ Giles + da/p2). From the two curves of the mutual resistance ir) or the apparent resistivity thus obtained, approximate curves for the three-layer structure may be obtained es shown in Fig. 27. When, however, the thickness of the intermediate layer is synall com- pared to that of the upper layer, the above method fails. Even if the thickness of the intermediate layer is small, is effect may be noticeable provided that its resistivity is markedly diferent from that of the top or bottom layers, as is illustrated in an example shown in Fig. 2.8, which has been calculated from formulas derived below. The general three-layer i lered here, together with the special ease in which the inter~ yer is thin enough and has a sufficiently high conductivity 0 that it may be replaced by a thin conducting shee? or, if t has a very high32 EARTH CONDUCTION EFRECTS cune resistivity, by a leakage conductance or insulating sheet between the uppe and lower layers. Proceeding 25 in the case of two layers, the potential inthe third layer é written as Us = + UY, The potential UY’ is expressed in the same ee ts CR REEL. Pa/Ps Wea as 3 tld Fic. 27 Redon of appurentrostvty to surface resistivity for» threeleyer earth acuetsr, Carve 1. Upper twe levers ankr, Cure 2, Laer swo lagers only Carve 3. Aoproximatetarceaver vaiation, pip. =-1 pier = 10 e/a = 10 ‘way os the potential UY’ before, with an unknown fonction fa. In th ‘expression for the potential UY’ itis now necessary wo retain the funetior f2 on account of the Bnite thickness of the second layer. Solving te ‘equations for /1s/x £2 and fy rom the four boundary conditions, the folles. Sng expression is obtained for the mutua! resistance between points on surface: 20) EARTH RESISTIVITY TESTING AND ANALYSIS 53 where pum ae 9/1 poe) ot woe PLE wee) a) = a ‘ af 34s (2 34s a a0 Tay Fic. 28 Relation of apparent seisvity 0 sata ‘arth structare witha Hn intermediate layer Carve 0. Upper and lower layers enly. Garve 1. Thin ftermciiate conducting leyer a4 = Of. Gave 2 Thin intermedia insolatig layer po — 1500p a= (ea~ Pa)/ (a + m0) 4; = Thickness of upper layer dy = Thickness of intermediate layer When the intermediate layer is assumed to be very thie, so that exp (—2ade) = 1 — Dada this expression for ah) simplifies to eat py oe = a 5 BE Nay 2Q) = anome 54 EARTH CONDUCTION EFFECTS Cua. When the resistivity of the intermediate layer ix very high, compared eo ‘av and pa, there is « forther simplification as follows: pt = 6a — Road pi + on + Nonde where pads is the resistance of the intermediate layer in the vertical direc tion, referred to a unit of surface area. The intermeatiate layer or shes: will not carry, in this cese, appreciable current in the radial direction, and ita principal effec is to insulate partly the lower from the upper layer. Wher the resistivity of che intermediate layer is very low compared to 1 and pp, so that it carries appreciable current in the radial direction, the following expression is obtained: aa) = 082) 1 = P+ Ma rosin pa + pa — Ma papal a Naud 5 + 09 + Road #Q) = (45) where 61, 9 and of are the ecmductivities, Xez being the conductance of ths sheet in the horizontal direction referred to unit length. Tt will be noticed that the formula for such « conducting sheet in terms of conductivities i similar, except for sign, to ther for a resistance sheet expressed in terms of the resistivities. 27 Arbitrary stratification ‘The mutual resistance for two leyers, as given by (2.38), may be written ape ‘ 09 = 2 baad for) a cas lene 1+ mae was * (ax ~ a2)/€ox + pa) ‘The function & will be referred to as the kernel of the integral. For the case of three layers, the mutual resistance as given by (2.40) may be expressed in the form ha 20-2 [amon nona es fas = 1 ps 4/0 F sae 8) EARTH RESISTIVITY TESTING AND ANALYSIS 55 a1 = pats Pi + pokes fay = (1 — pase ™)/(1 + wage) saa = (on — eal/oa + 0} Tn the latter expression, éy is the kernel of zhe two lower layers alone. As shown later, for the general case of 2 layers the mutual resistance Detween points on the surface is maae = 200 -EE Aaa. cn Jo) ad (246) fa. aan waa. hemi bins Pact = pebncot) an eT ut amie) ne 1 hin yar kein = ; OTE penne mF Homie ~ = 7H In the above formulas kigiym is the two-layer kere! fanetion for an upper layer of resistivity ys and depth dy and « lower layer of resis tivity om and infinite depth. Thus, when curves are available for various twolayer kernel functions, the ratio saa... may be calculated and, in turn, the finetion Aig.» In chis manne= the rmutaal resistance for the 1 layer case may he evalusted by aumerical intetration in a systematic way, For instance Ja the case of four layers, the process would be as follows: ame, eb nee me eae fe pee BE tam oka nase ole MT uae = 2 — Phan ikaw oe ptt pak 1 TE wanems 56 EARTH CONDUCTION EFFECTS Cuan. “The above form of solution, consisting of a serics of substisations, is similar to that employed in successively reducing an electrical ladder net- ‘work starting at the far end. I is also possible to express the solution by use of determinants, as has been done by Stefanesco and Schlumberger, which, in effect, corresponds to setting up a number of simultaneous equations for 2 network. However, as in the case of ladder networks, che latter form of solution appears to be less convenient. ‘The above formulas constitute a general solution for the case of arbitrary variation of resistivity with depth, since by variation of depths and resis- tivities any possible variation may be accounted for. The kernel kr appearing in (2.44) will be recognized as the factor by which the char- acteristic impedance of a transmission line must be multiplied to obtain the impedance when there is a point of reflection at the distance diy sna being the reflection factor and \ the propagation constant of the line. When the solution is extended to three or more layers, the kernel similarly cor- responds to two of more reflection points, provided that the characteristic jmpedance of various sections of the line is changed in such a manner that the propagation constant remains unchanged. ‘The correspondence with the transmission line problem is inherent in the identity of the boundary conditions at points of impedance discontinuity, as discussed in 2.2. The requirement of a constant propagation constant arises from the circom- stance that the earth is assumed isotropic, so that the ity in the longitudinal (2) and transverse (r) directions changes in the same manner with depth. ‘To obtain the general formulas (246), assume that « transmission line section m ~ 1 is terminated in an arbitrary impedance Zm at the end of i ‘The impedance looking into the beginning of section (248) at = Kena bemetpe Keantin VE encima 29} a knan Zn Bonn OEE Now Za may again be regarded as the impedance of a transmission line ‘composed of several sections and, in accordance with (248), be written in the form Zm = Key > knit)» Hence, : Kact = Kut him) oon Wem Kant Ke Rime) oe (2.50) pz |_| EARTH RESISTIVITY TESTING AND ANALYSIS 57 where in all expressions K is replaced by p for the case ofa stratified earth, by virene of the equivalence of p and K as shown by (2.03). Thus, when the kerne! Aniest) ...a is known for & given structure of resistivities pny wit «Px it may be found for a structure in which has been added surface layer of resistivity pi. _ To find the solution for the transmission line in the general ease of con tinwous variation, assume that the Tine has a tnit length longitudinal Impedance p and transverse admittance », both functions of 2, a coordinate parallel to the ms ofthe ine. The equations fr voltage oand current Z are then dofda= In, dfs = —09 si) Differentiating the frst equation and inserting the second, the following equation for the voltage is obtained: ede Boog =o (252) In the latter expression gv — 2%, 2 being the propagation constant, and —s'In may also be written o/c. A solution of the above equation is obtained by the substitution 9 = wexp (blog 2) 83) wrhere w is obvained fram the differential equation eu a 1d fo" fe ofe_(2¥_14(2)] ere -Gyte@)l-2 es The ratio of voltage to current at 7 = 0 is given by 9(0)/2(0) = =9(0) 2(0}/e'{0}, which is greater than the Spangler ps uniform Hine, —p(0)/A, by the factor HQ) = 900}/0"(0) (2.55) ‘The latter expression is the same ag that obtained from (2.14) for = = 0. For the general cae of consinoous vavston of rexivty with depths erefore, a) = 2 rarsotr an 2.56) Both expressions (2.47) and (2.55) for the kerne! of the integral may be regarded as general solutions for arbitrary variations in resistivity with depth, one for a finite number of discontinuities and the other for con- sinuous variation in resistivity. Expression (2.55) was obtained by™_as CS 8 EARTH CONDUCTION EFFECTS oan? taking the limiting case of continuous variation by means of a differential equation for &. To carry out the reverse procedure and to find solutions for » distince layers when differential equation (2.52) is knows, it wonld be necessary to solve the latter for 2 uniform earth and then obtain (2.46) by satslying the various boundary conditions in the manner outlined in preceding sections. The circumstance that the kernels #(\) or fiz...» may be identified wich the variation in the input impedance of a transmission line havieg certain types of irzegulerities suggests the possibility of using an artificial network to find the Kernel experimentally in the fallowingmanner. Con- sider an artificiel tranemission line consisting of a great number of sections of series inductance and shunt capacitance. Assume that a given variation in conductivity with depth is to be sinralated. This corresponds to a similar variation in the shunt capacitance along the line, and an inverse variation in the series inductances (ie., the latter vary in the samme manner as the resistivity). The propagation constant 4 — sw(ZC)"? thea re mains the same for all sections along the artificial line. The variation of input impedance with frequency corresponds to the variation in # with X. 2,8 Exponential variation in resistivity In some cxses it may be possible to fit observations by assuming am ex ponential variation in resistivicy with depth. This case invoives only two varigbles, the surface resistivity oo and the rate at which the resistivity varies with depth, rather than the three variables of two-layer earth. Formulas and curves for inductive coupling are available both for ewe. layer earth and exponential variation in resistivity with depth, and the Jatter may be used, in some cases, in preference to the former if direct eur. rent measurements should indicate it is « better approximation, Let the resistivity of che earth be assumed to decrease a3, we as Equation (2.52) is then A solution of this equation is 7 4, seth ew ew( $204 d+ aver ) 2.58) ofa File dt ae EARTH RESISTIVITY TESTING AND ANALYSIS 59 and, since the positive sign ig required to make 9 = O when k= , #00 = 7 +1] x) leg)" 4] Inserting (2.59) in. (2,56) and differentiating both sides, 222 poo[fest)"- wales §]oa m= 8 [hewn i er 60) w = oar Neer) 61) aed wan -eF-fni(2), exo 2 2.62) Neer) FF 8(Z) + ortogar «<0 Here Hi is the exponential integral defined in Appendix I. When a <0, the sign of the last bracket term in (2.60) is reversed, bot rot that of the preceding term originating from a*/4 under the radical. ‘The two last terms in (2.60) then combine into 4/r and tence the logarieh- nic term in (ar). When the four-lectrode method is used, the rautual resistance is ob- tained in the same manner as for two-layer earch and is giver: by 2 % ae Nolan) 26) where ro isthe electrode spacing. and No(aro) = 2 (ar) — N(2ara) 261) 29 Determination of earth resistivity and soruetuye frome measurements In the preceding sections, the potential at the surface of the earth was determined for certain assumed variations in zesistivity with depth. The ‘curves thus obtained may be used to establish variations in earth resistiv.ema = £ # 3} |_| wo EARTS{ CONDUCTION EFFECTS cuss? ity with depth from measurements of the mutual resistance between points on the surface for various electrode spacings. This is usually done by comparing curves of measured mutual resistances with appropriate theoretical curves. In the case of actual two-layer structures, the approxi- ate resistivities and the depth of the upper layer ave readily obtained frcm dhe measurements after « few trial comparisons. Except in connection with geophysical prospecting, an approximate twodayer stratification is asually satisfactory, even when the measurements indicate a more com- plicatedearth structure. Should amore accurate determination of resistv- iy and earth structure be required, approximations as outlined in con- nection with three-layer stratification may be adequate in many instances. A direct solution of the inverse problem of finding the conductivity depth functions o(2) when the mutual resistance is known is formally possible. “Thus, by an inversion of (2.56) the following expression is obtained for the kernel: aah fe = ("ons 2.68 FQ) = [0 oenseorirdr (2.65) ‘This is consequence of Hankel’s inversion formula which states that Fo) = [0 010. , 10) = [0 Fos ovyrer are equivalent formulas, j_ being an nth order Bessel function of the first kind. “Assoming earth resistivity to vary with depth only, the kernel £(X) thos may be obtained from measurements of (7) over 4 range of separation sufficient to enable evaluation of (2.65) to the accuracy required. "The inverse boundary problem of finding the conductivity function o(@) from (2.52) when k()) is known have been solved focrnally byLanger. ‘The Kernels corresponding to various depth functions, a8 obtained by solution ‘oF (2.52) for o and use of (2.55), have becn gives by Schlichter and may be ‘ised a¢ an aid in the solution of the inverse problem. As noted above, this problem may also be solved using the simulative artificial line, ‘Langer's method consists of developing the kernel in inverse powers of ae AQ) = Lb ah ai? + 2.67) When £(A) is not given in analytical form but as a curve obtained by evaluating (2.55) from the resulss of measurements, as would be the cast in actual applications, the constants 2, a2, 5. --, etc. may be obtained by solution of the appropriate number of simultaneous equations. Thos, EARTH RESISTIVITY TESTING AND ANALYSIS 61 if m points were selected on such a curve, coefficients could be obtained from m simultancous equations. From these coeficients, a Function p(z) is calculated fom the following expression: POG) = dg + (mad + Laas + (al — Lares + dag ie? + $0Balag — Bai — aya — 2a + day) + dj — ahs + Seay + Teed — (2.68) Amey — 2ayay + Yaga ‘The conductivity as 2 fonction of depth is then of) = onexp [-2 9 «| 2.6) ‘The above method applies when ¢(=) is a continuous function and will formally give the resistivity to any depth, slthough the accuracy will de- grees the depch incense, When thee ate dssontimities in the con. juctivity, a different expression for the conciuctivity function would appl on eich side of the dicontinulty. In moot practical canes there are aie continuities in the conductivity, and the conductivity for large values of 3, a obtained by the above method, will then approach a value cifferent froin that derived directly from the matual resistance for large electrode spacings in the customary way, using (2.25). Although the method indicates the presence of discontinuities, which may usually be assumed in the frst place when there is 2 marked variation in the apparent resistivity as obtained from (2.25), it does not indicate the depth of the discontinuities. Proof of the above method may be found in the papers referzed to before,S® and a more elaborate method for the case of discontinuities has also been devieed by Langer." 210 Analytical approximation of measured resiuivities Jn problems involving earth potentisls due to distributed leakase of current from conductors, or distributed leakage of current into conduetors ve to earth potentials, a3 in the case of lightning enrrent or stray current in buried cable, itis sometimes necessary to conside: the efect of varistion i the resistivity with depth. In such problems, where an integration is involved, it is convenient to make use of the following expression for the ‘mutual resistance between points on the surface of the earth: 1 QO) = lm — Gor — one) (2.70) ‘The bracket term in the above expression approaches py and py for small and lange values of r respectively, corresponding to the resistivities near theary [0 ee ee eee a a a EARTH CONDUCTION EFFECTS Cat surface and at great depths, By proper choice of a1, p2ard earth sesistiv- key measurements may usually be spproximated to the same degree of accuracy using the above expression as by the curves for ewo-layer earth, for the reason that ideal cwe-layer stratification is seldom encountered. Compazison with carves for two.layer structures indicates that the Larter may de approximated by (270) when =u an) being the depth of the top layer and 6 2 constane which depends on the resistiviny casio about as follows: ver = 10010 a 3b 02 my a te DAL Earth resistivity measurements Earth resistivity measurements by the four-clectrode method mentioned before may be made by use of a battery, an ammerct, and a sensitive volt. eter. Allowance ant be made for the volemeter resintanee in relation to the total resistance of the potential circuit, unites a meter of very high Jnipedance is used, the resistance of the wire and the two potential ele=- trodes in cries being measured by means of the equipment mentioned Wwe. This method, however, is not seliable when the electrode spacing ig large, since the voltage to be measured is likely to be sinali relative to extraneous Voltages caused by stray current in the earth or galvanic elec- trode pocential differences. By simuleaneoualy operated reversing switches in the curreht and potential cireits, the voltage due so the vest current nay be obtained by taking the average of two readings or, ifthe difference je large, Sy averaging several sets of two readings. Lf che reversals are rude at a rapid rate, by using a double exremutator rather than reversing Switches, extraneous vaitage will not be recorded so that s direct readings obtained of the voltage éne to the test current. One tyPe of instrament hhased on this principle contains a hand-criven generator ap an ohrameter, which gives a direct reading of the mutual resistance of the current and potential electrode circuits, “in ancther type of instrament the mutual resistance ia measared by means of a potentiometer. At the Ute of balence thers is, thesefore, 20 current in the pacential cirelt, so that che resistance ofthe poren ak circuit does not affect the reading. Even with such af instrument, i is desirable, however, to use clectredss of not 200 high resistance, since otherwise the all indication may be indefinite, the voltage across the sul detector being small even when balance is not good. In high resistivity soil, therefore, it js usvally advisable to drive the ground rods, which are commonly used at electrodes, two or three feet into the ground. EARTH RESISTIVITY TESTING AND ANALYSIS 63 When the current is rapidly reversed, as in the above types of inseru- ment, 2 voltage is induced in the potential circuit because of the current reversal. This induced voltage may be particularly noticeable for large clectrode spacing, since the mmatual resistance decreases while the inductive coupling inexeases as the electode spacing is increased. This inductive effect is also more noticeable for low than for high earth resistivities, since the mutual resistance is proportional to the resistivity, whereas the induc- tive coupling depends on the resistivity to a lesser extent. The inductive coupling may be reduced somewhat by separating the current and potential leads, although this is inconvenient when the leads are long and the j ductive eect is appreciable. From a practical standpoint it is also de- sirable in taying out the wires to keep them fairly close cogether. The dificulty of inductive coupling has been overcome in a potentiometer type of instrument by setting the commutator so that the potential contaers are closed after the current contacts. Sufficient delay is used so that the induced transient voltage has disappeared by the time contact is made.!? The measurements are usually made at various lectrode spacings, ranging from a few feet to perhaps a thousand feet and sometimes even more. ‘The range of electrode spacings required depends on the nacure of the problem involved and on ehe variation in the apparent earth resistivity with the spacing. If the resistivicy increases or decreases rapidly as the ‘electrode spacing increases, itis usually necessary to continue observations ‘ntl the curve of apparent resistivity asa function of spacing has fattened cut to such an extent that a reasonably accurate estimate may be made of the resistivity for larger spacings by extrapolation of the curve. When the for-lectrode method is used, the apparent earth resistivity js calculated from expression (2.22), or by the corresponding expression 2 = 192100 when the electrode spacing is taken in feet. The results of the teats may be analyzed by che methods outlined before. In cases where an average resistivity over a fairly long eistance is required, 25, for example, in ‘estimating inductive effects or the liability of eable to lightning damage, the results of observations at several locations are averaged. The average resistivity curve as % fanetion of spacing may then be analyzed to find representative earth scracture or equivalent resistivity along the section under consideration. ‘The analysis of surface potential measurements in connection feological prospecting is discussed in 4 wumber of publications.!#.14!5.18 212 Barth resiscsity data Depending on the nature ofthe soil or the rock, the resistivity may range from an unusvally low value of 1 aan vewsualiy high valve of 10,000 meter- Jotivity may somesimes be estimated from geological maps,ome “ EARTH CONDUCTION EFFECTS cman. based on the results of tests for similar geologic formations as indicated by the maps. A study of such maps may indicate what type of variation in the resistivity with depth is to be expected. If, for instance, there is a cop layer of sand with shales at greater depth, as along @ great part of the Atlantic coastal plane, the resistiviey is likely to decrease from a very high value near the surface 3 a low value for grester depths. On the other hand, ifthe surface materiel.is clay while the underlying rock is granite, che ‘opposite type of variation will be found. ‘The relation of earth resistivity to goological age and formation, xs obtained from a large number of mieasure- ‘ments in connection with such problems as mentioned before, has been given by Card!” As a rule, the resistivity inereases with the age of the geological formation. Measurements with very large electrode spacings, ‘about 330 km between the outer elecerades and from about 25 to 140 km berween an outer and the nearese intermediate electrode, indicate aa upper Jimit zo the resistivity of deep strate in the order of 10,000 meter-ohms, ‘with lower values at depths over 50 km or so.'® The resistivity rear the surface, to a depth of about a moter, may vary appreciably betwenn along dry and 2 long wet season, and thereby affect the resistance of grounding clectredes. Otherwise this variation in earth resistivity is of secondary importance in protection problems, as ix does not appreciably infiaence voltages in cable ot transmission lines due to lightning or low frequency ‘currents, ‘The classification in the following table gives some indication of the frequency of occurrence and the range of resistivities that may be expected for various geological formations. EARTH RESISTIVITY TESTING AND ANALYSIS 6CHAPTER IIT Resissaxcr oF Gzounome Areawceuenns 3A Introduction Ground connections on electrical circuits may be provided for several purposes, depending on the nature of the cirenit. Grouncing is employed to prevent excessive potentials between metallic structures and groand at times of faulr or during normal operating conditions, to provide low fault impedence and thus prompt operation of fault clearing devices, ta conduct ghtning current to earth ané thus limi lightning voltages on transmission lines or in telephone cable or, ifthe earth is utilized as a return conductor, asin the case of radio transmitting antennas or forced drainage installations for corrosion prevention, effective grounding is desirable from the stand. joint of operating efficiency RSE sa nmieune Capand at the frequency in question, be small compared co the impedance of the Circuit in which itis connected. By this criterion, it may be perraisuble in some instances to have a ground of high resistance, several thousund ohms, a in the case of an “electrostatic” apparatus ground, get o ound of insulated apparatus cases being ordinarily quite high. In other ‘aves, heworer, «resistance of only # few ohma may be roired for eve tive grounding. ; “Anough calculations of ground redntance are rarely made before ie- stallacion, it may be advisable to make earth resistivity measurements and calculations in situations where a ground of low resistance is required, particularly if the installation site is such that « high resistance may be anticipated. Earth resistivity measurements may indicate that a ground rod or pipe driven to a certain depth is preferable to a ground wire extending at shallow depth along the surface, or vice versa. Again, should a surface ground be preferable, there may be a choice between the use of several ground rods or buried wires, between a single wire, several parallel wires, er several wire cadiating from a common point. Sach questions cenest easily be decided experimencally by comparing actual installations, the earth rersiey snd srucrareuiualy vary to such an extent from ont location to another, even for near-by ses thatthe elect of arin inte rounding atrangeinent may be small by comparison. The resistance for travious grounding uvangerca, howeves may be eudiy calculated whes & RESISTANCE OF GROUNDING ARRANGEMENTS 67 the earth i assumed to be uniform, and the effect of certain variations in the resistivity with depth may also be evaluated. In the following theoretical treatment, the grounds are assumed to be of such limited excent ther the voltage drop along the conductor may be neglected in comparison with the potential of the ground structure. In general, chis will be the case even for grounds consisting of a substantial Jength of buried wire, say a few hundred meters, at least wien the earth resistivity is high enough so chat @ ground of this length is required to ob- tain @ reasonably low resistance. ‘The resistance for a ground of such {ength that the drop along the wire must be considered may be obtained, however, by use of the formula hea (BV" RA w= (5) ” coer 2) a1} =e when R/R <4 (RR when R/R> 2 where & = resistance to ground for conductor having zero longitu. inal resistance R = longitudinal resistance of tota! length of wire. This formule is obtained by considering; the ground 2s a transmiscioa line of length open at the far end, of unit length leakance G = 1/3? and unit length resistance R/i The formula indicates that when the longitudinal resistance R is 40% of the resistance &, the actual resistance Q is about 5% higher than &. When the longitudinal resistance ie 2 times , the actual resistance is 4% higher than the characteristic resistance (RRY”. Ie is assumed in (3.01) that current enters the wire at one end. When there are m equal branches carrying cqual current, the combined longite inal resistance will be 1/m times the resiteance of one branch whereas the combined resistance to ground will be ereater than In times the resistance te ground of one branch, because of matual effects between branches. ‘The ect of the wire resistance is then less than indicated above. For a single wire or parallel wires, the formulas given below, though derived for direct current, may also be used for altereating current when consideration is taken, where necessary, of the alternating-current loogi- tudinal impedance Z of the wire, or of several wires in parallel, which re- places Fin the formula above. When the wires are not too long, say less than 100 meters, the formulas may also be used to calculate che surge im- pedance of wires to lightning currents except for unusually steep wave fronts. For shore wires or grounds consisting af only a few ground rods,cy EARTH CONDUCTION EFFECTS Cras however, the resistance to heavy currents, as encountered in lightning surokes, may be appreciably reduced beceuse of ionization of she soi! azound the ground rods, as discussed in Chapter VII. “The conduezors have been assumed to bein direct contact with the earth Measurements indicate that this is not strictly true, even after grounds hhave been installed for along time, and that, a a resale of contact resistance at the surface of the conductos, the resistance of grounds may be some 20% higher than calculated. At high frequencies, this contact resistance is bridged by capacitive admittance between conductor and ground, ani the resistence to ground is thus somewht reduced. The conductance to ground of « given conductor arrangement is derived in the same manner as the capacity of the same arrangement in free space and, except for constant factor, both are given by the same formula. Ex- cept for wites of certain shapes not used in actual installation, rigorom formulas arc quite complicated. However, formulas based on the s0- called average potential method used int calculating the capacity of wites are usually fairly simple and are known to be rather accurate. When the average potential method is employed, the caleulation of the self and mutual electric potential coeficients of conductors, or of self- and rmutual resistances of grounds consisting of wires or rods, involves evaluation of integrals identical with those encountered in. calculating the self and ‘mutual inductances of wires.’ Based on the average potential method, the capacity of various wire arrangements has been given by Howe* and Grover.® For various types of grounds of limited extent as considered here, formulas for the grounding resistance have been given by Ollendor! who has also considered the eect of heating; in addition, 2 comprehensive sumnmary has been published by Dwight.” Various practical considers. tions in connection with ground installation and testing are dealt with in x number of publications.®”°# ‘The effect of « bare interconncetion wire between ground reds connected in multiple, 2s well as the effect of variation in resistiviey with depth on the ance of grounds, have been considered here. Some tables and figures ace given of the esistance, assuming for convenience an earth resistivity of 100 meter-ohms. As is evident from data given in seetion 2.12, however, this may not be used as a representative earth resistivity, 3.2 Basic farmulas ‘The resistance of grounds having the form of = hemisphere ota plate at the surface of the earth or that of a buried sphere may be obtained in s direct manner from the formulas in Chapter HI, as shown Jater on. In stalled grounds are usually long cylindrical conductors or wires, and the general theoretical considerations outlined here are confined to such con. RESISTANCE OF GROUNDING ARRANGEMENTS 69 dactors. The resistance of a vertical or a horizontal eylindsiesl ground near the surface of the earth may be obtained in a simple manner, ws shown lates on, from the resistance of a cylindrical conductor imbedded in a con- dyeting medium of infinite extenc in all dircetions. When the mutual re sistance between any two such conductors is known, it is also possible to find the resistance of vertical or hotizoptal grounds in multiple. Con. siderations will be confined ia this section, therefore, to the self. snl utal resiotances of cylindrical conductors surrounded by 4 conducting medium of infinite extent. Assume that a conductor extends along the axis between « ~ —//2 and #= //2, and that a current Jp enters the latter at the mid-point. Lee the conductor current at the distance x = u be T(u). ‘The potential at a point xy in the surrounding medium due to current leaving @ conductor clement die at x = wis then Ble oF + yt au 3.02) a0 whore the term multiplying 2 au ig the mutual resistance between ewo points in a medium of infinite extent, as derived in the sections 2.3 and 2.4, In this expression, itis assumed that the potential due to current leaving ‘conductor element is the same as for a point source at the axis of the con- ductor, which is permissible in dealing with long conductors. The potential due to current leakage along the entire conductor is then Poona 2 fie ote ay Tf the resistance of the conductor is assumed to be negligible, so that che voleage drop along the conductor may be disregarded, the boundary con- dition to be satisfied at the surface of the conductor » = is that a (ea)/de = 0, Hence the current distribution along the conductor must satisfy the integral equation on fice wt tye ay By successive approximations, it is possible to find a distribution of leakage current 2 (i¢)/du along the conductor which satisfies this equa- tion. When the current distribution is obtained in this manner and the conduetor potential is next calculated from (3.03), ie turns out that the average value of the latter is, within a few per cent, equal to the average potential obvained from (3.03) when df (w)/d is taken equal to the average leakage current, 2U(0)/2=7,/2. ‘This has been done in connection with the (3.03) (3.04) reenact ee Eea §— | EARTH CONDUCTION EFFECTS ca.9 » calculation of the capacitanee of conductors or, eather, the patential coefhi- Gients, where the charge distribution has to satisfy the same condition ax the leakage current in the present case. Ta the caleslecon of the capacitance of a conductor in 2 medium of eapacitivity «, p/ter is replaced by L/tre in @.03) and dI(u)/de by the charge density Q(w), which for uniform distribution of charge is taken as Qa/!, Qo being the total charge on the conductor. The potential coefficient ¥/0o is accordingly obtained by replacing p/4z by 1/4ne in the forrmulas for the resistance. In calculation of the inductance of a conduetorina snedinm of inductivity », o/4r is replaced by r/4x and 4f(u)/du by the longinudinal corrent fy, which is assumed constant slong the conductor, ‘The inductance 's accordingly obtained by replacing »/'tr! by vi/dacin the formulas for the resistance. constant current leakege dI(e)/du = 21(0)/2 along the con- ductor, evaluation of (3.03) gives UO)o ae! Feo) 305) where log = log and og a(syy) VEEP FS + e+) VEq TP + eI) ‘When the length of the conductor is very much greater than its diemetec, the potential at the mid-point and at the end points is, with y = 2 and (UD + aH? = 2m a, PO2) = (ey) = 3.08) Oe el é eas Gon Oe). 2 Pfra) =P eS ‘Thus, aseuming uniform current leakage, the potential at the mid-point is nearly twice as large as at the end points. It is evident, therefore, that the lenkage current will actually be greater towards the ends of the con. cuetor. When the average potential obtained by integrating (3.08) betwee 4 = Oanda = //2is divided by 2/(0), the following expression is obtained for the resistance of the conductor in & medium of infinite extent in all directions: = E (oe[La + vrF eA] +5 — VIF GI) (3.08) RESISTANCE OF GROUNDING ARRANGEMENTS — 71 or, when > 2, w a a = fi[ice™ — 1] ~ Pou (3.09) Another method yililiag much the same result is as follows: Returning 4 equation (2.05), jc can be shown that the equipotential lines /"(s,y) constant, corresponditg to a(#,3) constant, are confocal ellipses with foci ar the wire eermmals. When a is given, the major axis 4 and the minor semi-axis @ of these ellipses aze obtained from @.10) @ cequipotential surface may be replaced by a thin sheet of negligible ivity, without disturbing the potential distribation. If the material within such a shect is next replaced by material of negligible resistivity, the potential oatside the eqripotential surface is not altered and aground is obtained having the shape of an ellipsoid of revolution. Its resistance is obtained by substituting in (3.05} 7 as obtained from (3.10) and a as obtained by solution of (3.11), with che result pense 8 — FEI hope 3.12) a= ald + 4 V1= Fell 9 = ofa? — 2 When (3.12) is applied to = sphere of radius a @—+1 and 1 lim"; loga—1, so that the resistence becomes, with = 24, = p/4na, which is correct. When the major axis approaches 2e70, the ellipsoid of revolution becomes « Set, circular dise. In this case h/e 1 and a — 1 ~ tlyfa, 90 chat with log (—1) = ir, Rr = p/8e. This is the proper result for @ Fat dise in an infinite mediam, as may be verified by comparison with (2.18} for a dis at the surface of he earth. “The resistance of an clipsoid of revolution of length fq and maximam radius 7 — 4 much smaller than J, surronnded by a medium of infinite extent, may be taken as Pgh Ie Ea R= (313)EARTH CONDUCTION EFFECTS Coan n ‘The latter formula is the same 28 that obtained by taking the potential fat che mid-point of a cylindrical conductor and differs only slightly from that obtained when the average potential method is used. Let (2) designate the resistance of a conductor as given by (2.08) ‘The mutual resistance R, (2,2) of two parallel conductors of ajual lengih is then obcained from (08) when the separation giz between the com ductors is uved in piace of the radins ¢, Touse the simpler formula G09), the length of the conductors aust be muck greater than their separation. Tn addition to the nmtual resistarce of two parallel conductors, that between two conductors starting at a common point and making with each other an angle 6 will be required in order to obtain the resistance of several wires diverging from a point. Using the average potential method, this mutual resistance is obtained by integrating the potential given by (G.05) along a straight line y = kx = x sin®, with x taken fram one ené of the wire rather than from the mid-point. The mutual resistance thus obtained is Gs Ths formula i derived in the same manner a che mural ioducane between the wires, except that in the latter the factor cos @s4/2e replace p/2xl. With this modification, formulas given by Campbell for the sei ‘and mutual inductance of straight wires! for conditions considered abow ‘and for various other couditions, a8 for wites of diferent length aot staring at a common point, also apply to the self- and mutual resistance of wires ‘When 1 parallel conductors of the seme length are arranged on a sirch of diameter D, so that all the canduetors earry equal current, the combing, resistance of the conductors including all mutual effects is wer a {axe + Baws main] Gus where Ry(2) and RW vin m fn) ate obtained from (3.08), ax = Dain mx/n being the distance between grounds 1 and m. Instance of G.15) are ®y = pIRle) + RD] Ry + HIRO) + 2RAD sin «/3)] Bq = EIRa) + BRD sin 4/4) + K(D)] Ry = ER (e) + WD sin x/5) + WD sin 2x/'5)) Re = Riba) + RD sin £6} + RD cin 2/3) + KD} ees RESISTANCE OF GROUNDING ARRANGEMENTS 73 When » conductors of equal length radiate in the same plane from a com. ‘mon point, with equal angles ¢ = 2e/m between adjacent conductors 50 chat all carry the seme current, the combined resistance equals a ~ Paws Ea, rnin) where Ry is the mutusl resistance between wires 1 and m, the angles be. tween which are @ = 2em/n. Thus, Bo = FIR (2) + By (H)] Ry = FIs (0) + Re (2"/3}] Ry = EIB (a) + We (/2) + Re (I Bs = §IBRy (a) + Ay (2n/S) + Wo (44/51 Ba = § (Rs () + Bo (x/3) + Wo (2n/3) + Ro ()] Wher the conductor arrangement is not symmetrical, so that all eon- ductors do not carry the same current, the currents in the several conduc tors and their combined resistance may be obtained by solving a number of simultaneous equations with the conduezor self. and mutual resistances as coefficients. When all conductors are of qual size, however, and the con- ductor spacing is fairly uniform, it is usually permissible to assume equal currents ip all conductors in calculating ehe combined resistance. ‘Thus, the resistance Ry of m paralicl conductors in the same plane at equal spac ing s may be abtsined by calculating the resistance with respect to each conductor and taking the average value, which becomes G6) 8 = 2 (860) +2 ter — 180) FOR OD Fo — ) GUT) 33. Spherical grounds Although itis impracticable to construct a ground in the form of « kem- ‘sphere at the surface of the earth crin the form of a buried sphere, grounds ofsuch shape may sometimes be approached by the huried metal structure of transmission ling towers oF When the resistivity of the soil around a wound is reduced by salting. Spherical grounds may also be used for experimental purposes, when a uniform radial field is desiced. As determined in section 2.3, the mutual resistance between a point elec trode at the surface ofthe earth and a point at the distance s in the ground is ven by O(8) = o/2es. ssmay be assumed in the case of metal, is placed in the form of a hemisphere Ieisevident chat when material of zero resistivity,” PARTH CONDUCTION EFFRCTS Cuar.5 ‘or radiuy 1 azourd ehe point electrode, the potential of the electrode will RESISTANCE OF GROUNDING ARRANGEMENTS 75 be the same as at the distance s, ar Baihak the effective distance tothe imagemay be taken as 2d; the resttance R= p/des G.18; ae Re at ied 2) If the ground consists of a hemispherical metal electrode of radius 4 szrromaced by mera of ressvty on Mp toa real tances the) To obtain the mstnce of a plate at pth small compared to te sistance of the ground is diameter, consider first the series tance fr Infinit li ; st the sevies resistence in an infinite mediom of £+e(t- 5) G.t9) plates separated by the distance 24-4: . To ealewlate the latter rece, dns Ue \o0 sy ance, only the medium between the plates needs to be considered, and the : 7 sistance is then 2ad/ra®. This resistance equals twice the di ‘The latter formula would apply when low resistance materia is placei Tistance is d quals twice the difference around she ground or when the soil resistivity is reduced by saleing ar by between the self-ané znutzal resistances of the plates, so that the mutual ionization hecause of high voltage gradients or increased by evaparation a pee ai pffa— ed/ra®. The resistance of a plate buried at the depth moisture as a sesult of heating. ‘When current enters 2 hemispherical ground #5 considered above, the Ra ep i “| (28 potential gradient in the vicinity of the ground som ‘be undesirably high te Fa, ) ‘The gradient at the surface, as well as the resistance of the ground, may 4.5 yrpiea es, reduced by using » buried sphere, although this may be accomplighed i 03, 7S! gotnd rods or pipe | tore practical manner bythe ase ofa diferent type of ground- When: , 8 Sotinon ype of made grotad conse of one or mare ground ros sphere is buried at a depth d large compared to che diameter of che sphere, 45 € J meters ( to {0 fe) long and 1.25 to 2.5 em (4 to 1”) in diameter, follows from considerations similar to those cutlined in section 2.4 that th: hen several reds are used in 4 permanent installation, they are uaually resistance of the ground is interconnected by a bate wire laid in a trench betwee the rods, although =. , tminsulsted wire may sumesimes be preferable ro prevenc it from cooling x B tal GO. as a result of galvanic porential difference with respect to the rote oe continued leakage current from other sources, A bare wire may in iselt «being the radius of the sphere and 2d the distance from the center of tu POvide a good ground which, however, is not taken ineo cecoune th the sphere to the center ofits image above the surface of the ground. Tai rmvlas of this section, where an insulated wire fe assumed The we formula is rather accurate when the depth of che center of the sphere ex stance of a buried bare wire, as well as that of ground rods interconnected ceeds its diameter. Tt is assumed that connection co the sphere is made 6 *Y 4 buried bare wire, is considered later. an insulated conductor. If a bare conductor of some length is used, tk Assume a plane perpendicular to the axis at the mid-point of the eon. resistance may be reduced appreciably. ductor of fengeh 7 considered in section 3.2. The medium, the conductor and the eu:zeat 1(0) to one side of this plane may then be removed without Bab Plate grounds Gstorbing the curent oF the potential on the other side. The porencial In some instances, wire nets are used to obtain a ground of faitly lor ® thes obtained for a vertical conductor of length //2 carrying a current resistance. When the meshes of the nets ae not ta0 large, the resisang J), Since the porzota! sche ame but the total cures? 90) hecend to ground will he practically the same as for 2 solid plate. of 21(0), the resistance of such a conductor is twice as large as that given From the discussion following (3-12) it is evident that the resistance oft 4” (0.08) when fis twice the length of the conductor. When /is the Jength flat, circular disc of radius @ at the surface of the earth is of the conductor, the resistance is thus: ae : and oan = (ue Fa 4 ve wR] viF@m) ea When the plate is buried ar a depth, d larger than the radius of the plate ol (iar! é. ) > when (ea (625)6 EARTH CONDUCTION EFFECTS cm RESSTANCE OF SROUND OHM a a z—5 7 © LUeNGTW OF oRoUO- METERS Fic. Sad Vasiation of resistance of rerealgtound re with lenge far varius dametar 2 indicated co survey, for aa en7thresitiviey of 100 meters. a a) The resistance of rods or pipes of varlous lengths and diameters, a1 ‘calculated from the sbove formula for » = 100 meter-ohns, is given in the following table and is shown in Fig. 3.1: rlio2 5 © $0 100 « 36 US 3 6 SO ete 1 gs )ms 192 SDT 47 he as [is Ss MTS BO 43 Y xs list 95 47 SSS O72 40 2 so [us 7 wo B 16 «5 46 6 cs ee ee ee ce 30 he 30 | 4 3 2 A 90 46 26 RESISTANCE OF GROUNDING ARRANGEMENTS 77 in parallel, separated by the distance a2, the combined resistance obtained by use of (3.15) is 2 = o2)*s ai (3.26) 34h! G27} ‘The first of these formulas is the same as for a single conductor of cquivalent radius a’. In general, the combined resistance of equsl grounds arranged at equal spacing on a circle of diameter D small compared to the length of the round may be computed by use of an equivalent radius given by [ arte d=[ne 6) [". p< ‘When the # ground rods are arranged on a circle of diameter D and the spacing between adjacent rods is equal to or greater than the length of a 10d, as would more likely be the case in actual installations, the mutual sesistance may be taken as ® (aim) — 5” rain? as obtained by use of (9.15) is then (3.28) and the combined resistance Le Iggy tpt Be hile 1+ 5S, =a where D sin xm/m is the distance between grounds 1 and m, the radii which make the angle 2rm/n with each other. Thus, ° 9- Failed 1+ 5] 6.29) 1 a as~ 5ah[ve 1 pawl a woe ‘pgatol <1 ee ah ') Dine t Danae When a is replaced by aza in (3.24) and (3.25), these formulas give tt: _ For large values of , the summation in (3.29) may be replaced by the tual resistance bepween tito parallel grounds. With two ground rat integral between 1 and w — 1 with respect to a of (sin ome/n)", or bywe ee ee kh 2 EARTH CONDUCTION EFFECTS Cun! (2a/r) log Qn/z). The combined resistance is then, GH) where sis the spacing between grounds and xD & ns when m is large. “When the spacing between rods is equal to or ess than the length of = fod, and the latter is smell compared t9 the diameter of the circle, the frst ‘mutual resistance terms in (3.29) should be calculated by the more accurate formula (324) until dja, > 4 alter which the remaining term is obtainet from (3.29) or (30). “The combined resistance of various numbers of typical rods on a circls ‘when the spacing is equal to ths ength of the rods, is given inthe following table in per cent of the resistance of a single rod, and is shown in Fig. 3.2 ee ee ee "i SF 62 AS IS 8S 48% Tn actuct installations the combined resistance may depart considerably from the values shown in this table beceuse of irregularities in the earth resistivity. Thus, the curve in Fig, 3.2 may be regarded only as aa expec- ancy curve, which might be obtsined by taking the average of a larg number of measurements on actual installations. The valnes in the table apply when the ratio of rod length to diameter 120, as for #”-5 fe of 1”=10 fe rods, although the values are not materially changed when the ratio varies in che range between 60 and 240. ‘When several ground rods are placed at equal spacing on a straight ling the current is not the same in all. To obtain the combined resistance, 3 would then be actessary to solve a number of simultaneous equations fo the currents. With soificient accuracy the current may be assumed, however, the same in all rods and the resistance calculated from (3.17), which is based on the average potential ofall the rods. RESISTANCE OF GROUNDING ARRANGEMENTS 79 Lid Porat nner afods (L412 poo?) appochs Coe erroter| (3.23) CONEANGD REMITANCE MH FER CENT OF SINGLE Rl RESIGTANCE E oa a) 5 2 suman OF noes Fin, 32 Variation in combined reetance of rods connected in mahiple when aranged ‘For rods ar a uniform spacing, 5, the combined resistance Rq thus be 00 8 stnight ine or « cca with spacing between rode equal mo length of ede, Dested Ri Bata) given by O38) and Sm ith a =m, | tae idles confined sedenae without maid oface. a cnr 8S by Ct al) br Gwe = feats temic ane nn nnn Sa Red Keg 20 cna et Re. 5 (Bitar Fe ARCS) + (DIR (Ds) Ra (ne ol) 31) When the separation between rods is less than the length of the rads, the first mutual resistance terms of (3.32) are calculated more accurately ‘fom (3.24) until the separation is greater than the length of the rods. ‘The routusl effect of the various ground rods is less when they ars on (6.32) a straight line than on a circle and for this reason the resistance of various When + J so that ons) & p/2ems, (3.1) becomes 8 = *a ee (he brit +4)80 EARTH CONDUCTION EFFECTS Guat ambers of typical rods oa a straight line is slightly smaller than shows in Fig. 3.2. The difference ia insignificant, however, so that the curve shown in Fig, 3.2 may be used for both conditions. When s mumber of rods are arranged at equal spacing to fill «certain area, the combined resistance may be obtained by the wse of simultaneous equations or, with same sacrifice in accuracy whea equal currents art assnmed in all grounds, by methods similar to shose outlined above. Te the formulas above, an insulated connecting lend waa assumed betwees ground rods. Usually the rods are connected by a bare wire which, by itself, may have a resistance comparable to thet of the rods. Thus, wher ‘an extensive ground system is required, it may even be possible to dispens: ‘with the rads azd use « buried wire, a3 considered in the following, 3.6 Buried straigit horizontal wire In many situations where itis desirable to obtain 4 ground of low resist. ance, it may be convenient to install a buried wire ground, cither by plow ing or hand trenching. ‘To obeain the resistance of auch a ground, imagie «plane through the axis of the conductor considered in section 3.2. Th medium, the conductor and she conductor current to one side of the plare may be removed without disturbing the potencial, Since the total cos. ductor current is now 1(0) instead of 2/(0), the resistances of a condacte of length Z at the surface of the earth is cwice as large as thst given by 8.08) oF Ho) = Alcea vTE my +4- Vira] ox ge (he? ), when 1 6 G35 ‘The above fornmula assumes the conductor to be half buried, i.e. th ants of the conductor is assumed to be in the plane of the earth's surface When the conductor is buried at a depth d, the resistance is obtained by assuming two conductors a distance 2d apart in 2 medium of infinite exter in all dicections. By reasoning similar eo that of section 2.4 it then follom that the resistance of a buried wire ground equals. Ry = Kala) + Ria) a a S [lee aire 1], when de? 6x Thus, when a wire is buried at a depth d, its resistance is the same for a conductor at the surface having an equivaient radius (2ad)!!®, RESISTANCE OF GROUNDING ARRANGEMENTS 31 In the following tubie and in Fig. 3.3 are gi is nth nd in are given resistances of a No, 10 wie (@ = 125m) for different lengths, at the surface (d= 0) and buried at a depth of 2 = 30cm (12) in soil having a istivity of meter-ohms. Q eee") 4/1020 50100200 $0000 Fe a 306 S30 15000 meters 0 @ 49 4 We 56 24 129 Se ee 109 so ESISTANCE oF cnouM-OHMS ZS °° ae Uenors Or crouib-wetin 2 SP f0 Fg 33 Vasason of renee fra round with ne fr agnd ra ground athe sr face end at a depth of 30 cm, for an earth resistivity of maenckns a i dismeter of .25 em (410 wire). Shee eae ‘The moewal resistance of two parallel wites at depth « separ » at depth 1 separated by the siseance ai small compared to te length of the wire ic giees be flog 2 + tog 2 Blow) ~ F (062 + tH — 2) 627) where ia is the separation between wires, ale = (4d? + aly)! j dnsace fen one tte eng of ae ie Sa Gate fective separation. ‘The combined resistance ofthe two wires, 2 obtained ied se eeCuan EARTH CONDUCTION EFFECTS ( where the equivalent radius a” of a wire at the surface is f= (ad) Cerra) OF With two wires, each of .125 cm (057) radius, 30 em 12") apart, 1 ‘a depth of 30 cm, the equivalent radius is: 10 cm as. compared with 2.7 cr for a single wire. When two wires are placed in parallel, the resistance! thus seduced about 22% when she wire is 300 meters a4. 30% when th vi ta eel wires are buried close together 0 that (3.57. may be used for their mutual resistance, an equivalent radius may b employed. Thus, for 3 wires of radii ay, 49 and og at different depths, ch equivalent radii with respect to conductors 1, 2 and 3 and the combing quivalens sadius for a wire ax the surface are oh = [(2a,d,)"? Carsatad sets) PS 2h ~ { (2a) (asgala) acta P = [(2agdg)" (arse Corea) 1 a= hab For a greater number of wires the equivalent radius mey be obtained a fairly obvious extension of (3.40). 37 Buried radial wires , Instead of using parallel wires, &t may be preferable to nin the wie radially fiom a conimon point. This arrangement is frequently employe for tadio uansmitting antennas and sometimes to provide a low resistant for transmission line towers. It has che advantage that the initial ug impedance to lightning currents is lower for wxiven direct current resstam than with 2 single or a few perellel wites. | For radial wires the following formula is obtained 82 by use of (3.15) is then Gat; G4 bby use of (5:16): m= Zoey 1+ veo at where, T+ sin m/s aE eg amen ox NO) = E00 sin cain & ( — 1) log (2- 1.707) — log when 7 >: n=? 3 4 6 8 12 100 N@)=7 1.53 245 442 65 TNO He RESISTANCE OF GROUNDING ARRANGEMENTS 83 When the wites are buried ar a depth a, che radius @ is replaced by the equivalent radius 2” = (2a2)"!?_ Tn the above formula it is assumed that the angle between any two adjacent wires is che same, 80 that in the case n= 2 the wires extend in opposite directions ftom a common point. The formula given shove i then the same as thar for a wire of length 2. TF the two wires were at right angles with each other, M(n) would have been 88 instead of .7. ‘As n becomes very large, the value of V(r) approaches 1.22% and the resistance then approaches R. = p/28T%, as compared with 9/42 obtained for a solid plate of zadius 4. The difference arises from the different dis- tribution ofleaksge current in the case of radial wires. Since the current is assumed to enser the earth uniformly along each wire, the density of the leakage current in a plate obtained by making m= < will be inversely propottional to the distance from the center of the plate, which differs ap- preciably feom the actual distribution in 2 solid plate. Actually, as the ruber of wires is increased, more corrent will enter che earth towards the tai of the wires. The mutval effect of wires will then be deszeaseé some- vehae and the 2ctual resistance will be somewhat emaller than calculaced from (BAT). For a very lari. number of wires, M¢n) should be taken there- fare 25 the limiting value 1/4 which would give a resistance more con- sinvent with the aetval current distribution. “The resistances of various numbers of wires of 125 em diameter buried at ‘adepth of 3 meter (12'”) are given in the following table and in Fig. 3.4 for an carth resistivity of 100 meter-ohms, 28 38 i ne 7139 Ohm 2 TA 89 Ds 4 3 sa 29 1s ” a as aa 13 « U 365 20 1.05 s a 33178 Ost “ 2 30157 at « Pate) Ls 083 0.92 “ a8 To obtain the resistance of a buried wire ring, itis necessary to modily che forratlas in section 3.2 and integrate along a circumference rather than along a straight Fine. Assume the center of the ring at the origin of the coordinares with the axis chrough the center of the ring and the x ad y axes in the plane of the ring, as shown in Fig.3.5. The distance from 3EARTH CONDUCTION EFFECTS Cun RESISTANCE OF GROUNDING ARRANGEMENTS 35, wire elemene du toa point in the s-y plane is then (7? + x? — 2rx cos 6)¥2, where, is the radius of the ring and ¢ the angle between r and x. ‘The dis. ‘ance from a wire element to 2 point at the distance x from the xy plane ie (+ 38 +2" — Drv cos @)!. IF 7 is the current entering the wire, the leakage current in a wire element du = rdp is rdp(Z/2er). Ifthe ring is assumed at the surface of the ground, the potential at a point in the ground is then 8 2 do 0 -RL PaaT a iseare O) Bio Evaluation of this integral after substituting ¢ = x — 29 gives . Jo 2 Fir) 3 ven=Z Ties pee 4 ere 43) : where 7s ¢ -/—# > 3 ‘ ls PE a] 2 and FO)» [0 Baty tay ‘tthe complete elliptic integral of the fest ind, tabolated in Jahnke and Enide’s Tables of Functions, ‘The resistance is obcained by dividing by J in (3.43) and taking « = ¢ and 1 = a in the latter expression, a being the conductor radius; iy which ot Case, Exot oF whet - . ns Se canal esters (2 coun ee fe, fore sas aia 00 ethan We ame of ; ; cr ane Since @ Rar = RESISTANCE OF GROUNDING ARRANGEMENTS 87, Te will be noticed that, although the wire has a resistance compara Se 18 when the rode wre nterconsected by a bare wie. Alvi the ground consists of a iong buried wire, the installation of ground 1 ie redistance only some 25 to 30%. found rs reac th 310 Hpuivolent radius of flat conductors Ifa tape were used in place of a round wire, a somewhat lower res « used in oa wer resistance ‘woald he obtained with the same amount of copper. The equivalent zadlus of a zhin eape of width ag is 4 = af PP Day 6.48) ‘This formula is obtained by the average potential i a is 0 ¢ average potencial method, assumin tape to consist of a number of infinitesimal wires and to be long enought ‘that the potential varies logarithmically with distance. ‘The ratio of average potential co current is then proportional ro Sl Vim ig f° LP toe ce — wpa de = tog agi) By way of comparison, if the tape is bent into the form of a low cylinder, the sass of thelattes youll be an a= e4/2n% 1620 Bill Ect of seriaton im arth resstcty with depths As mentioned in section 2.10, when the earth resistivity vari 7 ity varies with depth, the mutual resistance between points on the surface may te approximated, in many instances, by the expression 26 Is has been shown previously chat, with appre eon, the resi ance of a wire may be based om the potential at the mid-paint. Tn the present case th esiatance this btaied fora wire a he seace a aah fot at da EE FR (oa en) exp = He + Sa Ts the latter expression it is permissible to take exp — (u? + a2)}%4 = 1 Deptt ~ Bs mE" (8.49) 35 cP — | 3, which cae the resistance in given by the following expres- G1 Ygsion when da <1 and af: aa eo 391s 63 ms wa 8k 52 26 eee as R= Biog! — [5 - #1072)] 3.51 6 8 68 B & Sa aT LM 0%) Ca ‘where Kis the expanential integral defined in Appendix I and y = 1.781"88 EARTH CONDUCTION EFFECTS cnaes RESISTANCE OF GROUNDING ARRANGEMENTS 89 may be used: earth as the number of rods is increased. When the latter effect is abe |. When the latter effect is appre- Ciable, however, it is because of a fairly small thickness of the upper ver combined with a very low resistivity of the lower layer, in which case it When #//2 <2, the following approxim: = BiG/2) & log 281/2 — H/2 “Che resistance then becomes = Pye SPS 6) a When B1/2> 1, the Ei function in (51) may be neglected and He resistance fs thea sce Pt og WE 4 Pog t : Ro pen + Rb os Approximate values of } for two-layer strnctares were given in section 210. {a Fig. 3.6 ae shown caloulated resistances for a wire 150 meters (300 Jong of 2 em rudius (OB inch) at the surface of = horizonealiy stratifcs ‘Geolayercxcth, for vasious depths, dof the upper layer. Ie will be natiow Thats ohn the suzfree resistivity i low, the resistance af the ground may be appreciably higher shan for a uniform earth of the same sexistvity # at the surface, eves when the surface Jayer is of substantial thickness. I ie evident, then, that knovledge of the surface resistivity alone &s we faffcent fr sla eotimstes of the resistance to be expected for roun Tn the cue of a high surface resistivity up to a moderate depchy sy I smetuiy, ground of substandally smaller resistance may be obtained ly driving one or more rods or pipes into zhe lower Layee, ‘Thus, with S mete: thickness of the upper layer, the resistance of a pipe 10 meters long of Sex 34 Guameer iz ahoot 18 ofme as compared with 170 ohms for a 150-me' sree the surface, and about 130 dams for awe at S0-eM dep probably preferable to drive one ora few Barked cecresse in esti with depth sequen found in seilye, me 7 aga ne ee soilnao shit it may be possible te drive «pipe to considerable depeh withes . Ree oG te 3.12 Eifect of chemical wreament of soil ee eonsive ground fs constructed by driving a farge number Ifthe resistance ofa ground consisting of one or more i chee into the suslace layer, the resistance is aflested in substantalireduced, it may be okaille wise Staidig asst marghio oe Seen iene evarlation iy redtviey with depth as in che case ofesstivity of the soil around the rods by chemical treaxmert with certain the same: manner by vaveton ff TZigle eis determined eainly by thas such as sodium chloride (common salt), ealcum chloride or sod be en a of aasent monber af ros dspends ttnrte. When auch teatmen¢ is employed, is usually where the rei sure ey a ek ipvciotvity wich depen. Thus, whotivty is Very high so thatthe resist ofthe salted sol around the rod Fee ee paepi the ccesaf mural wsmuateebeewooma?be assumed to be negligible in comparison with the surrounding NUS. i pester than for uniform earth andas che number ofrodsisinercaxiearth. Consequently, dhe eect of salting isto increase che radius ries ea cnc ito rapidly. than for uniform cari round rods. ‘The sults have, ofcourse, «tendency to be abcorbed by th Fe oe a cae eeaiviny doors with dapth the oppssurounding each so thatthe redveton in fesistance may not be perma ect is observed, the resistance decreases more rapidly than for ubifornent, but may last a few years. inane at Dy ESISTANGE OF GRCUND- OHNE ae oak ‘iewvesd or urmen Lavee= meters Ec ova en incr esitvly wi depth onthe estan of ‘ground 150 meters long and of A cm diamecer buried at the surface. ae ee i aRESISTANCE OF GROUNDING ARRANGEMENTS 91 CONDUCTION EGFECTS Cmue! - re : | 100) = 2 pg UE + AP + 12 ‘The following table shows the resistances of various numbers of 1f iad i ay meter (5 ft) rods, when the radius is assumed to be increased by means 0 fae salting. The resistance ie shown in per cent of that abtained withor Big! when ac! ar Lo 12s » von 160 100 190100 % cy a uM we ag 2 By a log when d a - Tm cosme f° Ll sue" falre) de (402) where 1 is a numeric, cos = a/ra = (x48)! and Jy is an nth order Bessel function of the first kind. ane ‘As mentioned in 1.10, che primary TI fancticm of the dipole in the air is ‘taken as maf * mm pn) da 423) a where ay = (+ 8)", 40 = dolore)? and _ fel dS Ang The resultant II function will first be derived for a vertical dipole at the ‘eight A above a uniformly conducting earth. The resultant feld may be segarded as the suim of a primary and a sccondary eld, in the following manner: c Inthe sit: Ib, = 1+ Th, 2 >0 In the earth: Th, = 1%, z<0 The Primary field has for simplicity been omitted in the earth, although it sight have been included, asdiscussed later. The secondary and resultant fields must be independent of g, so that with m = 0 in (4012) the resultant fields become sae [eZ + em] 220 7 (408) Te = [het Ireydu <0 MUTUAL IMPEDANCE OF EARTH-RETURN CONDUCTORS 101 vwhere in the Brst integral exp — ag|2— | = expao(s— A) when <2< 4 and exp — ap(z— A) when = > 4. ‘The boundary conditions at = = 0 required that Fors Eig of Boy Buy How = Fhe ot Hayy = Fw Using the scomponents, i follows from (401) that, with » = 76: ls FH,» ae dz ax Oz aad (4.05) Mos 9 Ths ways Inserting (4.04) in (4.05), and omitting the integrals, the fellowing equa. ‘dons are obtained: Ca — age = afr [chem +o] =A (4.06) 07) where ae [0 BB ea “bo aolvieo Foal and RiaP+ GAs Rae + atay ‘The first two terms represent the I function for a perfectly conducting carth, due to the dipole and its image, whereas A represents the effect of the finite conductivity of the earth. If the primary field were assumed to permeate the earth, the integrand of (4.04) for Th, would have contained an additional serm CR eM Jo(ru) dhe. The function fy obtained from the boundary ss : equations would then dilfer by a corresponding amount from the fonction (Re e_—=Een102 EARTH CONDUCTION EFFECTS curt ‘AA previously obtained, s0 that the resultant field would be the same by ‘both methods. ‘The same solution would also be obtained by assuming a resultant field in the tir and in the earth, without initially assiming any primary fald whatever. After the boundary conditions had been satisfied at 2 = 0, there Would then remain one function to be determined, which would be cbrained by observing that for 3» = 3, the solotion would have to agzez wich (4.03). The latter method will be used in the fallowing derivation for a horizontal dipole over a wwo-layer earth. “The dipole is assumed along, the s-avis at the height A above the earth's surface, and the earth is assumed to consist of two horizontal layers Subseripts 0, i and 2 sre used for constants of the air, the upper and the lower layers respectively, while d denores the depth of the upper layer. ‘The field is symmetrical with respect to thes ~ =plane, butnot with respect to the x — y plane, je,, the feld above the earth isdifferent from that below, For these reasons it is nccessary, in order to satisfy boundary conditions, to assurme a wave function with ewo components Il, and Hy. “The resuleant wave functions in the three media are taken as Ba Moxy Moss Th = Ua = Tar Has Boundary conditions at = and at = —d consist in the continuity of the tangential (7) components of E and H. Equations arising from these boundary conditions ean be simplified by differentiation or intcpration with respect to andy, which is permissible by virtue of (402) (i.e.,a diferentia- tion oF an integration of the Jo function gives # solution wich = 1). Using (4.01) with TL, ~ 0, and equating in order He, Hy, Fy, and Fay the following equations are obtzined from tie boundary conditions: 2-0 ues Tet od lor = Thy ith, — vibe {4.08 2 Aly: OTe athe 2 Alle ae Be = ge 409) Mog 5 Mos The _ Oy Alig hy _2Nlae | Tae eta ar as ae Tae ae 10) los ~ 1He vith, = Blse an) In (4.09) the 11, terms which arise on both sides have boen canceled by use of (4.08) and (4.02), and in (411) the 3U/ax terms have been canceled similarly by uve of (4.10) and (4.02). From the two pairs of equations (4.09) and (4-11), ehe s-comporents may be determined separately and then used in finding the =-components, MUTUAL IMPEDANCE OF EARTH-RETURN CONDUCTORS 103 For the x-components, (4.02) applies with » = 0, viz. oe =f" (fre + soe) Jolrw) dt O28 12) the =f" Hert mem pole) du, 4 S50 3) Mae = fo fart fiyeds, Sd (44) ‘The arbitrary functions are then determined from the following equa tions, obtained from (4.09) and (4.14): eo fo — go) = Hab ~ 21) Ue +) = At nd Har (ao ~ gre) = vie fae (4.18) Aer + mel) = The solution of (4.15) is anol 7 yh 2oolen + ae fs (4.16) if Paolo = 22) Loam np yn Ae eg te dlos + a) + (eo ~ ax)(ax — 9) where, ie may be recaled, = a 4 of. “The function fo inay now be determined by noting chat with sh = Yo = yo the selotion must be the same as for 4 woifrm mediam of Tnsnite extent in atl directions. In this case gi 0 and f= fo. To obeain the cate feld at z= —A as from (4.03), fy oust then equal a8 eu) tran. Thexefoe, fun sas BME) 5, an ” ) 4.17) = 14g itt Mle) simp at nares ee Nie may sow be ohttined from (413) and in torn Tye and Ips by use of @ll). “The boundary conditions forthe = components may be sstisfied by taking ae ee a es104 EARTH CONDUCTION EFFECTS Court 7 = Lin 4.02) so that Boe = oo fm Jule) ae 18) The = cosy f (ret + ge) ir de (49) Mae = cos f~ peet™Jalru) du 4.20) where p and g have been used in place of f and x. From boundary conditions (4.08) and (4.10), together with the expres- sions for the » components as already determined, the following equations are obtained for the » and q functions: Hl. + a1) ~ ribo exile: — a2) = ~anripa + nah — DU + 0) Aare + get) = ype @21) aah re = ne) = ening + wo ~ eo + me) The solutions for p, and g, are y p= Baa A + 6) — OE = Dal hee + nn) Le Mae ae b= Wal Git wee + Gt — Dane + nw) ‘AGA + AG Aye Rae 4.22) an where Amani tan’, at = avi — ad As aritani, Ai = ant - ant components of the electric force at = 0 are by (401} Ben at Lit etre) de ‘The tangenti faa + Zoo [0 ui +) tale — alien) ae Fee Lah tan) + aalpy — ail flond ae cose [on tu = ~ 2 [PO an Since i ek _ MUTUAL IMPEDANCE OF EARTH-RETURN CONDUCTORS 105 these expressions may be rewritten as follows: Ba AL” Sit siddotre) ae -Bf[-usm+fe-moroa aan Bee Sf [itt So. - m|piea ee ‘These electric forces may be expressed in the form FO”) , POIrY Faby = 14s [—79) + 22D, 200) (424) where 14sP) = Af" + hein de PO = Etat eat (ou — endo Mole) dee (4.25) SL At Sos — afore ae 00) = [A] 408 - Praccte me EL el a ier ba) + Ger — deta Yolen) ae Am (ot ai)(a $29) + (eo ~ a:)fen ~ anh 1 = (oot + axrd)(or + ari) + Coot — avid) (air — aartde Ba = (aq + an} lerrd + agri) + (aa — 2) (ory — ernie In the same way as shown in Chapter I for a uniform medium, the ‘mutual impedance between wire elements 25 and dr lying in any horiznntal plane z = 4 and including an angle ¢ between their direction is = #00) 2, = ads [Pp eos + 8 2) “nn 43 Karthreurn mutual impedances in general Neglecting propagation effects, as discussed in 4.1, the mutual impedance of two wires J and sin a horizontal plane, extending from 4 to B and from106, EARTH CONDUCTION EFFECTS Onan 410 6 respectively, is obtained by integration of (4.27) and equals “8 Td7O(r) Pam ff [ERE + Pee cose asar 428) iia = Cea + fols, (4.29) Quaren= ff 22 asa = Q(4a) — O(Ad) + O(BE) — O(Ba) (4.30) fata = ff" Povcoseds az 431) ‘The wires are assumed verminated ia che horizontal plane in which they are situated, the circuits being completed by radial flows fram the wire terminals, ‘This approximation is permissible for the usual type of circuit, where the mutual effects of vertical down leads may be neglected in com- parison with that of the horizonta! wire paths. The functions Qir) and P(r), given by (425) and (6.28) for the cate of two layers, are functions of che various propagation constants ae well 23, ofr. Ieis fairly evident that (428) applies to any horizontally stratified carth structure, since P(r} and Q(r) will then have fixed values for a given separation between wirt elements. It is noted that integration of Qfr) is accomplished by inserting the four distances r= 40, ft, Bb and Ba between the wite terminals, ix accordance with (4.30). For infinice dis. tances feten the einai of oe wire and chase he othr, Quansyime Both Qua s)ie») ard Lg, are generally complex-valued and thus do not represent resistance and induetance, as otdinarily defined, es might be implied by the similarity of (4.29) to che usual impedance expression. At zero frequency ial.g. vanishes and Qca_ajcea becomes QPesyiady # real number, the dc mutual resistance of the circuits as considered in Chapter II, with the superscript 0 used here for distinction. For frequen- cies sufficiently low, such that terms involving higher powers of the fre- quency in the expansions of the foxctions in powers of the frequency are negligible, the mutual impedance can be expressed jt the ordinary form 2s Bi = Pao + FoLa-ayu-n + LR] (4.32) Here Qfy2)io») 18 the direet-current mutual resistance while 224 is the ‘Neumann integral of the wires as defined in section 4.11, 2% pyi-a is the cocficlent of in che expansio® of Quayqao abd is equal to the sam of the Neumane integrals of the earth flows with the wites and with each i MUTUAL IMPEDANCE OF EARTH-RETURN CONDUCTORS 107 other, the exrth flows being those for direct cument. The bracketed terms ‘thus give the é-c mutual inductance "3 aoa of the wires with carth return, ‘Thesubscripts (§—) (se) indicates that the mutual inductance 4g beeween wire S with its earth return & and wire 5 with its earth return e, ‘The physical ¢istinction of ca—ayie-» and Lse may be illustrated by the following two cases: In che first, ove wire Js supposed straight and of arbitrary length; the second extends at right angles to it from two ground ing points and is closed at infinity (e., by a segment parallel to the frst wire and at such éistance chat its mutual impedance with the first wite is ‘negligibly small). In this case, in the perpendicular segments cos «= 0» anc in the parallel cegment PF) = 0, since r= =, g9 that Ze, = 0 and the mutual impedanee is given entirely bY Qra-syiet, ies the mutusl impedance depends only on the grownding points. Im the second cases the two perpendicular segments of the second wire extend away from parallel segmone to grounding points at infinity. Here the mutual pedance is given entirely by Lsy, since Q(°) and, therefore, Quayte-8 vvanishes for the limie7 = %. ‘In sections following, the rrutual impedas.cr of straight wires is examined farther, frst on the assumption that at least one wire is lorg enough to be regarded as infinite and then for wires of such lengeh that this condition is not satisfied. For a given allowable error in the mutval inductance, the Gistance « that one wire has to extend beyord the ends of the other to be rogarded a infinite is emaller the fonger the shorter wite. When one of ‘evo parallel wires is of infinicesimal length, anc great accuracy is required, fs in determining the earth resistivicy fom mutual inductance measure. ments, the distance should be such that y# 2 2 as shown in 4.11. Thus, Jor an carth resistivity of 1000 meter-ohms and a frequency of 60 cycles, the dissance « would equal 3300 meters, so that che cotal length of the Jonge wire would have to equal or exceed 6600 meters, abont 4 miles. For an earth resistivity of 100 meter-ohmns « total longt’ of 2100 meters would suffice, wherees for an carch resistivity of 10,000 meter-ohmns 21,000 meters would be required. When the earth resistviey is of the latter order of uagaitude, however, the mutual resistance may be more imporcant than the mutusl inductance, so thar a greater error in ¢he mutual inductance is permissible, Tn raost situations where magnetic induction is large enough to be important, one wire is long enough se thar i is permissible co use formulas for wires of infinite iength in calculating mutwal inductance, although the mutual resistance Qc4-aco- must also be considered. The Griteria mentioned above are important, however, it analyzing che results ‘of mutual impedance measurements, since a small departure in the mutual impedance may correspond to « large errar in she earth resistivity derived from such measurements,108 EARTH CONDUCTION EFFECTS Cun In the following, the murual inductance of the wites rather than the mutual impedance is considered. The mutual inductance contains 2 negative imaginary component, so that the mutual rencrance iiss a real and an imaginary component. In general, the negative imaginary come ponent is concealed in the formulas and does not appear explicitly; but it ‘may be exposed by separating real aad imaginary parts. ‘Thus, log 1/19, 11 = (iwvo)'?, becomes —ie/4+ log|1/7y|, Although real’ and im- aginary parts are not shown separately in the formulas, both components are shown in curves of the unit length mutual impedance. For convenience in practical applications, the coupling is expressed in most of the curves in ‘ohms per kilometer per cycle, racher than in henries per kilometer. 44 Wires of infinite length at she surface of the earth The unit lengeh mutual impedance per cycle, between a straight infinite wire and a second parallel wire both on the surface of the earth, is shown in Fig. 4.1 asa function of 9(f/o)?. In Figs. 4.2 and 4.3 are shown 25- and O.cycle mutual impedance curves obtained from the curves in Fig. 4.1, which are based on formulas derived below. ‘When one wire extenes for an infiite discance along the x-axis in both directions from the origin and the other wire is of unie length, the unit Jeogth mutual inductance for uniform earth obtained by integration of (6.25) becomes | ” PHas tf Pode “EL sigamae fk Lats [ [0 pore «| au Af Sy = pF ape He Kiloas) — v9 k9)1 (4.33) In the above formulas, displacement currents in the air and in the ground are included, expression (4.25) being used for P(r). When displacement ‘currents are neglected, yo = 0 and (4.33) becomes Le =F wk Ge (4.34) MUTUAL IMPEDANCE OF FARTH-RETURN CONDUCTORS 108 song some > EARLS W NETERS 4 steal taeY A ueeR-cns| Scr atguené rw creses vee eee isis FR KLOWETER PER CYCLE ea TF io. 4.1 Momnal Spedance gradient for 4 wie of ifnite Jeng at the surface of & lnifownly condgerng arth. We ay Re oes rem curren & ware ao 50 a SUPARATION IN METERS We, 42 Murua impedance at 25 evel, 17 BDno EARTH CONDUCTION EFFECTS ‘The function (1—2yKi(qp)V/Cap)* is cabulaced in Appendix T for 2 3/85. Expanding the bracket term in (2.33) for small values of 7, the following approximate expression is obtained: baat (wr [2 +} +40] ~ toon? [lob 2, + Fe): w< 25 cont, 635) = 577, . and as usual log = log, (ARGU COMMUNES tH Ons FoR KROMETER oaes er 20 SEPARATION mM METERS Fa, 43 Mural impodanee #t 0 cycles ‘When displacement currents are neglected in the ait, yo = 0,and -tfed+isvo], w (7 cos uy du te ae t (pee CGE a a (4.48) a cos wy du va)” ‘These expreasions apply only as long as nd <1 ‘The first of these integrals is the mutual inductance for uniform earth of resistivity pa. The bracket term in the second integral converges very116 EARTH CONDUCTION EFFECTS REAL pat cuant rare Tt uLt-ouMs Fem HiLOMETER FER evCLE a absnye aca paar peony , 8 MLLI-OHMS FER ALOMETER FER eveLE le 03010) 207 ro Fro, 45° Mutoelimpodance gradient fra wie of infrite lng a Uae surface ‘of twolayer earth when 92 = VOpy,y and din mete. aaa ee) a Sa rapidly when yay € 1, which is the case in the range or separation of more practical interest. The factor cas uy may then be taken as uniey in the important part of the integrasion range. If a new vatlable of integration is used, taking as = (#? + y8)'/* = 1+ x, the following expression is obtained: 2 ¥ Da grap lt writes — FA 449) a ee MUTUAL IMPEDANCE OF EARTH-RETURN CONDUCTORS 117 oA 100" Core gs Lowes Lav RCS A= cawalen" acisnire cept a wots es oa er a a oe oT Fro. 46 Equivalent ean resiiety for ewolayer earth strc, * one ar . ees aang eyloe(i 424 4- il alt ‘An indication of the range of application of this formula is given by che following example: (450) ifgs eo 3 = 00 meen, Pr= 1000 mecerohme J = 60 cydes = 200 merers, B= 75/98"118 EARTH CONDUCTION EFFECTS Cuans “Muraal Impedance fs ps = 1000. sess 05924 5105 lun fk Coneetion Term... 2403 4.0% ob en “Total Mutual Impedance 0995+ 3087 = 130/21" [Mutcal Impedance om Curves, O15 +5105 = s29 fH ‘As mentioned before, the formula applies only as long a rid @ 1. Ts the above example, 7y¢ = 437/45". For a depth of $0 meters, 71d = 1145? and the value calculated as above is .159/61°, which compares with -158/64° ohm/km obtsined from curves. ‘Thus it appears that far low frequencies (449) applies with reasonable accuracy to surface layers of considerable depth, up to 100 meters or so, for a fairly large range of separations: When the effect of the surface layer (Ay) i large, mote accurate results may be obtained by the method given below. ‘When the earth consists ofa thin upper layer of high conductivity and 4 lower layer of zero conductivity? (4.48) becomes with 74 = 0 1» fm cos uy de Tmo h wad - Fa [PAE s(Gy) + oH —ay)] G51) where 8 = wveid/2. When a < 25, a [-i Fev tight +o] 452) aL 83 e ‘The effect of a layer of high resistivity under a warfece layer of low resistivity is obtained by evaluating a correction term to (4.51). For this purpose, (4.48) is written in the form: ) om ny a v ft cosuydu sv “¢ 1 1 bet of et LO Sta Ll Gee me where the bracket term in the second integral converges rapidly when the effect of the lower layer is small. The mutual inductance may now be wrieeen 1 2 (hteeiay) + ee EH—Hyy) — A) (4.53) As C+ Mn+) Floss B= SH ‘The two-layer formulas presented above for a surface layer of maderate thickness may also be used when the latter is composed of several sub- MUTUAL IMPEDANCE OF EARTH-RETURN CONDUCTORS 119 strata. The effective conductivity a1 of the surface layer of thickness ¢ is then obtained from ad = od tall eee od, where of, o!” are the conductivities and 4’, d’”..the thickness of the substrata. Expressions (4.51) and (4.53) may thus be used when the resistivity of the surface layer is less than that of the lower layer. When the surface resistivity is high, its eee isfalely small, unless it extends to a great depth. Thus, if the upper layer is assumed to have infinite resistivity, the formulas applying to uniform earth may be used, with the height of che wires equal to the thickness of the upper layer. For moderate thicknesses it is then seen that, for practical purposes, the upper layer may be neglected. This fs erue as long as 2,4 is much smaller than unity. For instance, with an upper layer resistivity of 10,000 meter-ohms and a lower Jayer resistivity ‘of 1000 meter-chms, it would be petmisible to neglect the upper layer at cycles when the thickness is less than 100 meters, as indicated by the curves in Fig. 4 4B Infinite wire above surface of tao-leyer earth [As in the case of uniform earth, the mutual inductance for wires above the-carth within che range encountered in practical problems mey be obtained by using the radial separation between the wires in place of the horizental separation y- From curves of the mutual inductance of wires fon the surface of a two-layer earth, it is coon thar for large separations the inductance depends mainly on the lower layer resistivity. A formula for the mutual inductarice for large separations may be derived in the same manner a¢ fer uniform earth in 4.5. For large spacings the rerm Jog rfa/ria may be neglected, and the recual inductance becomes HE retin pat {Pw on uy du (658) where ex ae + (a1 = ay) 84 CaF aban) + a aun a Expanding P(e) a8 in the case of uniforin earth, and using the fst two terms in the expansion, Fw) 2-2 fro S24 FOS yf eos? cos ee oe120 EARTH CONDUCTION EFFECTS omar. tan @ = 9/( + As) Le get Ro nm nom _ Abate ate Aye Expression (4.56) is the same 2s (4-42) for uniform entth, as regards the first two terms of the latter expression, except that 71 is replaced by 7. Using (4.56), together with formulas (4.49) and (4.53) for small separa- tions, curves may be calculated with reasonable accuracy for the entite range of separations. When one wire 3 at a large separation A directly above the other, @= 0? and att teen Yh Lee 457) ‘Asan example, consider a surface layer having 2 resistivity of 100 meter- colims and a thickness of 10 meters, and a lower layer having a resistivity ‘of 10,000 meter-ohms. When w = 108, the inductance is only 2% higher than for uniform earth of 100 meter-ohm resistivity, but with » = 10¢ic 4g SS times higher, or about half as great as for uniform earth having a resistivity of 10,000 meter-ohms. In connection with lightning phenom cena, values of w even lower than 10* must be considered, and itis evident that not only the surface resistivity but also the resistivities at greater depths may then be imporrant. 49 Infinite wire — arbitrary horizontal stratification Por the case of twolayer earth, expression (4.47) for the unit length mutual inductance between wires on the surface may be written in the form zor es tas + (ca — ey) (as + a) (@0 F a) + (or = az {00 — a) Lose ati) cos uy die (4.58) where fia = Giaw)® 4.59) MUTUAL IMPEDANCE OF EARTH-RETURN CONDUCTORS 121 where is = (Br — B2)/(B1 + Bs} ion VP al care] Expression (4,59) is the same as that for the sending point impedance of a transmission line composed of an infinite section of characteristic imped- ‘ance #y oh one side end on the other a section of length d and characteristic impedance @ terminsted by an infinite section of characteristic im- pedunce és. _ ‘For n layers, the function dy is replaced by ka..m...ny Which is given by 1 preg dear TF tia. esr Bo + a PA Bikes. Baa BE Basa a Lotta ee? TF teen tyenne amie” hon ina ~ POE Babin amt + Bikini a= Hy nae aes 4.0) Bos, Beam = Gai) Bn Renan = Boot + wept io" _( a-@t) -E ‘These formulas are quite similar to those given for the mutual resistance in section 2.7, By replacing mm. In the case of the mutoal resistance im = @ and with fo = = the same formula would be obtained 2s for the niutual resistance. The reluctance of the air, however, is not infinite, and for this reason the formula for Aiz..m..n has a strucrure different from that for the mutual resistance. . . ‘The unit length impedance and admiteance of the simulative transmis- sion line are, for any section Ba = sie = ar) 2 Yn = a/Bn = ate 4.02)12 EARTH CONDUCTION EFFECTS Cuan4 Thus, Zy is constant while Y, varies with distance through 4 = iavey. For continuous variations of Z and ¥ the following differential equation is ‘obtained for the voltage: o-ya=0 the equation being derived in the sante manner as (2.52), or using (4.62), eg FB + toa) 0 (64) where ¢ = (2). ‘The impedance #(0) of the line at x = 0 is given by 0(0)/4(0), oF (0) 0 7(0) 80) = ~2 oq) = — (iar us JO) 465) ‘The general expression for tit mutual inductance is then » 0 sre aes he ‘where is the characteristic impedance of the line representing the air, as given by (4.60). When displacement currents are neglected in the sir, By = (ian) /3 For uniform earth, v= de and p)=$= Gor P faye = (w+ YP 2, For wires above the surface, the factor ¢~***) aypears in the integrand of (455) and (4.66) and the tsrm = log rfy/nx must be added outside the integral, asin the ease of wires above the surface for uniform earth. 410 Infinite wire — exponential variation of resistivity When the conductivity varies with depth as 2 = 6)" equation (4.64) becomes gs — WP + POA = 0 (67) here 10) = far O31. ‘The solation of (4.67) is Koa [Froe*] 468) ¥ = «kan [Froe#] ~ Kaan [J One" | yon (163) | MUTUAL IMPEDANCE OF EARTH-RETURN CONDUCTORS 123 ‘The recurrence relation Ki(2) = #71K,(z) — Kyyi(z) has been used and K,(@) is « Bessel function of the second kind for imaginary arguments, these rather than those of the first kind being appropriate in the present case By (4.65) and (4.66) with @y = Gier)!/u, the mutual inductance betmeen wires on the surface is then Kosi (4.69) ‘The mutual inductance may be written as that for uniform earth of con- avetivity «(0), with a correction term, which deperds on the rate of ine crease in conductivity and for which curves are presented in che paper referred ta before? ‘When the conductivity decreases with depth, (4.69) is replaced by c Laas r-2n[ - 370] F710) Joo yea (4.70) o where Lays and Zang are Bessel functions of the first kind for imag- inary arguments, 4.11 Finite wires — sniform earth and low frequency For wires at the surface of a uniform earth, with displacement currents in the air neglected, the functions P and Q are Po) = Sf Jot as jo 1 bwer “ler On - 1 20) = LL tole) de = Te will be noted thae the mutual resistance is the same as for dieect carrent. ‘Thus, since (7) has no imaginary component, x38) «0 = Lees Jie the mutual inductance with earth return is the same as between the wires alone. or direct-curent distribution, = 0, the function P(r) becomes (71) (72)124 EARTH CONDUCTION EFFECTS Coan. ffir and the motual impedance is then 1 1 . a-£(£-4 ) + sare, 473) where Z&, is given by the Neuman ‘integral 4-2 ff asa Tay & Jy aS ds (4.74) For the particular case of two straight parallel wires, 0, of lengths ‘S and s, at the separation y and having mid-paints opposite each other, which is the usual arrangement in measurements, the mutual inductance is a2 (Sto ++ She Bag (see Stes (S49? 4+ Ste + slog (= oe APP She FS HF + aye — User tape) 4.75) When each straight wire has length 5, 3 = 2 (S+ HNP Sx yay. Beaks [wes 2 +3) | (4.76) and, when onc of them is of infinitesimal length s, FS fog (SEI + 5/2 cam oe Jog a ‘When both straight wires are of equal length, start at a common point and make an angle ¢ with each other, the mutual inductance is 1s sine/2 sm ef ‘The above expressions arc obtained from more general formulas for the ‘mutual inductance of straight wires derived by Campiell.! Expanding (4.71) in a power series of yr, the Grst three terms in the ex- pression are ar | 1 = cov ebeg 478) Po = 20-4 + tom an Hence, the first two terms in the mmeual inductance for wires. of arbitrary paths between end points 4B and ab aro” Tg. > 13.— a “fr ABab cos ¢ (80) ‘where « is the angle between the straight lines 4 and ab. MUTUAL IMPEDANCE OF EARTH-RETURN CONDUCTORS 125 For straight wires the formulas given above for Z%, may be used, in which case 4B = Sand.e+—s. Thus, when the wires are parallel and ene wire is of short lengeh, a convenient arrangement for tet purposes, the ‘mutual inductance is Los =| tog SALAM F S72 _ 1S z [ise aie (a1) ay 4 1. REAL PART MIOHENRIES PCR METER WAGINARY FART a 2 3 ao 2 8 ‘Fro, 47 Approsimate evaluation of morval inductance fr wies of Exit Ig. (Curve 1. Tndustanee for infisee lng ‘Cure 2. Indastance Fer direct current dstibucon. Garve 3, Inductance with frst ova tues of expansion. Curve. Appnonimate inductance based mn limiting curves 1, 2, and 2, ‘By comparison, the formula for wires of infinite length is, when zy < .25, wf 2 ru | log = — on] tole In Fig. 47 is shown the unit length mutual inductance as caleulated fram (4.81) and (4.82) as a function of 78 for various values of xy. By drawing transition curves as indicated by the dashed lines, Fairly accurate values of the mutual inductance may be obtained withoue the use of elaborate as cy 4.82)196 EARTH CONDUCTION EFFECTS Cue.$ MUTUAL IMPEDANCE OF EARTH-RETURN CONDUCTORS 127 formulas. From the curves in Fig. 4.7 it will be noted that the infinit: | ‘The murwal induetance £°(r) is largest when the earth is assumed to length formulas may be used with negligible error when 7S > 4, consist of 2 thin conducting sheath near the surface, # = O and y= —1,in 4.12 Finite wires — rue layer earth ened lowe froqueney which cate Z°() = 7- For sufficiently low frequencies, the earth-retura In order to apply the method just described to finite wires and two-layer | mutual inductance of two paralicl wires of lengths 5 and s with opposite earth, the function P(7) and Q(F) are expanded in powersof iw adiscuseal_ mit eints In this case hooks, when 1s small compared to 5, jm connection with (4.32), the first tems in che expansion being | is 2 ; ARO Y 00) = Pe) + a) a teoe-0~ Eftog SAH Ey] Gas PO) = PG) + Pali ; ORO eS fn place of (4.77) for uniform earth. ; In the above expressions, 9 (r) is the direct-current mutual resistance When the surface layer may be represented by a thin conducting sheath, function deals wich in Chapter Il, and P(r) = dan/4er the longitudinal | the sume method as used in section 4.11 may be used to evaluate Palle). ‘The later consists ofthe correction term for uniform earth, together with a term depending on the resistivities of the ewe layers. ae | Pao) = — [7+ a] (36) here =" iog® +0 +8 log EP — ot + 72-18] 87 ar ‘The correction tarm A; is evaluated in a similar manner as in section 4.7 for wires of infinite length, Jo(ru) being assomed unity, instead of cos uy for wires of infinite length, and the formula applies when yor <1. I 00 OOO ys fo Fro. 48 Fonction 2%). impedance function applying for direct-current distribution in a uniform | Equation (4.80) for the mutual inductance of ewo wires is then earth Pun) it correction com de tothe elec of the froquncy on | replaned by the eurrent distribution in the earth. For uniform earth, Po(i) equal to a D the second term in (4.79). Lissyn = Lay + Layo — i + Ar} ABaboosy (4.88) ‘The induceance £°(r) resulting from the earth return current is zero for uniform earth aa considered in the preceding section. For a two-layer | where Lluamce-n = ~ D(Ba) ~ 1°46) + LBB) is cvtained earth this function i Es from the carves in Fig. 48. Syn Ef ean nO 2H Sle) = 3 ‘Equation (4.88) applic a long as the effect ofthe upper layer is not too vote dF a (498) great, i.e, a5 Jong as Z2 5. The mutual resistance at high frequencies is of interest in connection with lightning strokes to the earth near buried cable, When the strokes are sufficiently close to be of any concern, however, 71r-1. Equation (497) 3 now abrained as Z. = 2f + 21". To derive (4.98), (4.96) is written as 1 Fe teat rot Af yH <1 and yr <1, the main contribution to the Jatter integral will he for values of w >| 7|. It fs therefore perinissible xo approximate a by ay i? + 98 /2x, in which case, Ba [0 yen) de awe | 1 pan i eer ai \ aaa TL wep hone Wika che appsoximation Jo(r#) & 1, evaluation ofthe integral gives ie (1 = wa ates where Btie defined asin Appendix Land @ = 7H/2. Fort < 5, expanton ofthe last bracket serm gives (e+ (1+ dB)BIGR) — (0 — sys) (E58) — BH(—Hp) — Fe + AEH) — BHD) ~ Fy log (1.22- Pa HE) + Ih | With the latter approximation, (4.98) és obtained. Expressions (4.97) and (4.98) may be weieten in she forms 2, min + ei EiCG3) ~ PRI —i8)] = FOR yr) a Unto + fan) MUTUAL IMPEDANCE OF EARTH-RETURN CONDUCTORS 133 where, fora <1 and rif <1, +1) Foi-3 and, for yi > 1, FEM + yr oeN~ £iGell ‘The function F may be evaluated by the method of approximation shown in Fig. 4.10 for yr = 1/45°, by drawing a transition curve between the art fy, Ltd» 3 (oe REAL COMPONENTS a ee ee CE) tg a CTE SET MITE TIS EIT BLED VK Bro. AID Pumaren RoyE, 90} for = 145%. Cacve 1. P from formule for [yi] <1. Carve 2 F or formulas for || > 1. Carve 3. Appuesiation to # C7 47) fanctions obtained from the limiting formulas applying for #7 <1 and WH>L 415 Mutual impedance of earticel conductors ‘The mutual impedance of eyo vertical wires extending from 0 to H and fromm 0 to & as shown in Fig, 4.11 is of interest in connection with antennas. The mutual ianpedance in this case contains only the Ast two terms of (4.92) and becomes ze [fanaa [neon ey a ff in aa 00) + mW) + THEA) — Most 4.100)134 EARTH CONDUCTION EFFECTS unt which differs from (4.93) by the last two terms. These terms may be evaluated by the same method as outlined in connection with (4.97) and, assuming that 2 is infinitesimal, their sum becomes, for 7H>> 1, ein) ats ae When this term is included in (4.97), the mutual impedance increment for ‘two vertical conductors in close proximity becomes en Lf iw YAP ome no pattie) [eee a B60] aon where N= Lt (Lt H8/r?) pore Fro. 4.11 Congnctor arvangesent sumed in evaluation of increment in mutual Smpedance of tuo vertical conductoe due w Snivecomisetvity of earth, When 7if <1 and or < 1, the last two terms in (4.100) become marie (aa) ae (oe +1) - ‘When these terms are included in (4.98), the impodance increment becomes an fo $A), 1dDs- a (oes +Ht ) 1 R ata) (4.102), + 21H + Mog G+ &) = hog b ~ Hog Ht) 4.16 Transient coupling of earthercturn cirenits In some problems transient coupling may be of greater importance then steady state coupling as in the case of short circuits on direct-current fh MUTUAL IMPEDANCE OF EARTH-RETURN CONDUCTORS 135 railways. Tewas shown previously that the mutnal impedance for a given radial separation between the wires is substantially independent: of their height, and that the formula for wires on the surface of the earth ordinarily is adequate. Formulas and curves based on this assumption for unit step current and suddenly applied sinusoidal current have been published in the papers referred to previously for one wire of infinite lengeh'*" and for wires of finite lengch.”* ‘The transient coupling is forinally given by (1.131), when F(p) = ial represents the steady state mutual impedance derived in preceding sec- tions. Thus, for a straight wire of infinite length on the surface of the carth, F(p) as obtained from (4.34) is, with iav/y* = I/o, ¢ = earth conductivity, Fo) = S30 wk oul (4.103) wo i} "The corresponding time finction is 108) 4.105) In these expressions displacement current in the air and in the earth have been neglected, and the formulas are thus applicable only for fairly slow transients of the kind ordinarily encountered in power systems, but not for surges as dealt with in a later chapter. With thie limitation, the transient voltage for an arbitrary current may be evaluated from (1135). For wires of finite length, the transient coupling is obtained by operation solution of the fanetions Q(p) and P(r) given by (4.71) and (4.72). The corresponding tine Functions are O68) = Or) = 1/2r0r 1 sop U2 ny 2 —] Pos) = xl) -(e)"¢ ‘The voltage for wires of arbicrary path is obtained with these fonctions in (4.28) ‘Transient currents may frequently be approximated by TG) = et — ey and for this reason the response to a current ¢“ is of particular is For a current of this form and a unit step transient response as given by (402), the following expression is obtained frou (1.135): ZB tet— pti rer + 2(8,a1)] ro (4.107)136 EARTH CONDUCTION ERRECTS count where 8 = s2r0a/4 and Mya) = ae" as ec Ohobst ay (4.108) Fer sinall values of , integration of a by parts gives! eotet [OO _ Yor)? + Catt | Gant + Gan + Cant 7 ($ ets ] (4.103) For large valucs of #, 245 evaluated by numerical integration, To avoid the multiplier a in (£.107), itis preferable to refer the voleage to the rave of change of the current ac“**, rather than to the current é" In Fig. 4.12 arc shown curves for the voltage in response to a current of the form 1 — <¥ referred to rate of change in current Z(t) = 1000 «-*# amperes per second as a function of & for various valucs of y (E/s)"!? = J(s)"". Kor convenience in practical applications, the exponent SOk = @ has been used. As an example, assume a wire one kilometer long at a separation of 300 meters (approx. 1000 ft) from a conductor carrying a current 500 ¢, a = 60 per second, and that the resistivity is 1000 meter-ohms. In this case 4 = a/$0 = 1.2 and I(t) = 30,000 *, y(k/p)!!® = 300 (1.2/1000)" = 104. ‘The maximum voltage is obtained st brex 4 milliseconds, ¢ = 3.33 ‘milliseconds, and equals 44 X 30 & 13 volts. The transient voltage for sinusoidal current is obtained with adequate accuracy by approximating the first quarter cycle by 1) = 1(1— e~*), where I is the peak sinusoidal current and a & uw, the radian frequen ‘Thus, for 60 cycles a = 375, and the rate of change in current is 375/¢ With p = 1000 meter-ohms, y = 300 meters and I= 1000 amperes, the ‘maximum transient coupling obtained with & = 375/80 = 7.50 is about US volts per km. This peak voltage is obtained after xbout 1 mill. second, or about + of the first quarter cycle, and the approximate ex- pression assumed for the current is rather accurate in this interval. By ‘way of comparison, the steady state 60-cycle voltage obtained under the same condition is about 170 volts. In the following table, the transient and 60-cycle steady state peak voltages per km are compared for small, intermediate and wide separations, for a peak current of 1000 amperes. Separation: 30300750 Meters too 10002800 Fee ‘Teansients m5 os ” Steady Ste; = S170 | i MUTUAL IMPEDANCE OF EARTH-RETURN CONDUCTORS 137 (TE, outs ca KLOMETER TEATS TE BOE SS OAT BS BEAT AE AA e-HILLISECORDS. SEE C SUR Ow BSE BWR We -MLLISECONGS Fis, $412 Indvetion fom a ansiont curent of he frm 1 — "in stright eondocror offi leach atthe surface ofa homogeneous earth veltege reverted 10 rateof change CFournent FU) m1 spy eee138 FARTH CONDUCTION EFFECTS uses ‘The voltage during the transient stage is thus less than the steady state voltage, unless the eurrent contains a transient term. In the latter case the transient voleage may slso be obtained by the same method of approx! ‘mation as employed above. Tt may be noted that the steady state voltage will serve as a rough measure for the transient voltage, which will be some- ‘what greater than chat shown in the table when the transient component of the current is included, ANT Ground eects in rodtotion ‘The wave frnction of vertical and horizontal dipoles, uatd as a pointof departure in the preceding study of the induction field of earth retaza circuits, were originally derived to investigate the field at large distances, the radiation field”. The integrals representing the wave functions have been evaluated, in that connection, by series expansions," which have been employed to obtain attenuation charts for radio transmission 5” ‘The attenuation of radio waves depends, however, also on other facto than the finite conductivity of the earth, such as its curvarare™” and various ‘onaspherie effess.** The following is confined to a brief general discus. sion of ground effects in radi Radio ground wave attenuation charts are ordinarily based on assumed values of uniform earth resistivity and dielectric constant for the terrain between transmitter and receiver. In the frequency range of practical ‘nspartance, the effect of the earth depends largely on its characteristics near the surface. The current intensity within the earth diminishes, with increasing depth = as exp (—72), where y= [fox(o-+ éon)]!!?, Thus with « = 10", ¢ = 10% mho/meter, e = 10 and « = 88,54 107 fa/meter, +7 & 36/45" per meter, so chat in this case the current density at a depth of 30 meters is about 8% of that at the surface. When the conductivity is low, however, the waves may penetrate to substantial depths, perhaps 103 | ‘meters or so.” It is evidene that, except for transmission over large bodies | of water, the surface characteristics of the earth will vary to an appreciable ‘extent and that a certain average value of resistivity must be assumed. Aside from the characteristics of the intervening terrain, the trans mission effieacy depends on the local characteristics of the earth and. the grounding arrangements at transmieser and receiver. The resistivity and dielectric constant at the transmitter affect the induction feld and thus the antenna input impedance. Hence, the fraction of antenna input power appearing 25 radiation depends on the characteristics of the earth at the transmitter, on the grounding arrangement and method of energization, = discussed in Chapter V. In a similar manner the ground characteristis and antenna arrangements at the receiver affects the reception efficacy, since the antenna output voltage depends on the relation of radiation re. MUTUAL IMPEDANCE OF FARTH-RETURN CONDUCTORS 139 sistance to total antenna impedance. However, in the ease of a receiver it is ordinarily practicable to employ edditional electronic amplification rather than effective grounding because of the low power level. ‘The polar diagram of the field intensity in the vertical plane from a ‘vertical or horizontal dipole is affected by the characteristics of the earth? ‘The directivity in the vertical plane of trensmizters and receivers thus depends on the earth resistivity and dielectric constant, and to this extent the characteristics of the earth also affect sky wave transmission. ‘As aresalt of the fnite conductivity of the earth, the electric force from vertical dipole is not perpendicular ro the earth’s suefar: but has a certain forward tilt in che direction of transmission, At Jarge distances this tilt is siven by a8 ek G)T Ey a where 79 and 7 are the propagation constant of the sit and the earth, Eis the horizontal and E, the vertical component of the electric field. |For low resistivities or frequencies, Fa/E, approaches ore as (wrotge)!2/45°, where ty and so is the inductivity and capacitivity of free space and p the resis. tivity of the earch. For sufficiently high resistivities or requencles, Ea/R is measurabie, as is the departare in the phase angle from 45° due to the capacisivity of the earth. ‘The earth resistiviey and the dielectric consteat say thus be determined from measurements of the vertical and horizontal eld incensities of a remote transmitter and the phase angle between them? The use of radio frequencies for geophysics! exploration has beer investigated," but the methods discussed in Chapter IT are preferable from vations standpoints ifthe earth resistivity alone is desired. G.110)CHAPTER V Propacatton Cuanacrenstics oy Earra-Returx Coxpucrors SA Introduction Tn extensive grounded conductors, such as cable, buried pipes, and rail way tracks, currents may arise as a resule of magmetic induction, earth potential differences, or variation in contact potential between conductan and earth. Magnetic induction may be dae to exposures to power lines « to magnetic coupling wich lightning channels. arth potential diferencs ray he acessioned by a-c or che retum current in the earth, associated either with power systems or natural phenomena. such as lightning die charges, disturbances in the magnccic field of the earth, or variation in the narure of the soil. Differences in contact potential between 2 condueea and earth may arise from vatiation in the environment of the conductor et its material. ‘Annumber of problems associated with such currents are discussed in late chapters. Approximate formulas are given there together with methods of derivation of such formulas for various conditions of impressed fields ard changes in the umber and size or cheractesiatis of the conductors. Pa the purpose of establishing approximate engineering fermmulas, the presext chapter is confined to a more *igarous stutly of propagation along conductors of infinite length for certain basic conditions of impressed fies. Tr tur out that the exponential [aw of propagation is noc as accurate for grounded conductors as for completely metallic cirnits or for insulated earth-reeusr | conductors, although, with properly chosen parameters as established her, | it #2 a satisfactory approximation in most practical problems. more accurate solution is not ordinarily justified in view of the uncertainty inthe basic constants ~— ecrth resistivity and leakage conductance. Second ap. proximations to the propagation characteristics derived herein are in. portant mainly in thet they account for propagation phenomena af lary: distances which cannot be explained on basis of the exponential law of ropaxstion used i various practical problems in later chapters. ‘Tiicozetical solutions have been obtained for the propagation of direst current along a conductor in intimate contact with the earth, for the cu when current enters the conductory direcly (Ollendorf], and when current enters the earth at at electrode nese che conductor [Noether"]; whereas te interchange of current between two parallel conductors in direct contact 0 i PROPAGATION CHARACTERISTICS it with the earth has been considered by Gibrat.? The more general eave dealt with here, of conductors not necessarily in direct contact with the ground bue Having a contact leakance, as in cable or pipes with protective coverings or in rails om tes, has also been investigated,* for the general condition of an arbitrary earth potential along the conductor and for a amber of special cases, such as current entering the condactor or an elee- trode near the conductor, or « parallel or crossing conductor, and for direct and alternating current. ‘The fondamental equations and formulas derived here apply equally well, and in some cases with certaim simplifications, to aerial conductors in free space or with earth return, the propagation and iinpedance character- istics of which are also cealr with briefly here. Of interest in connection with the effcscy of anteanas aze the ground losses dure to the finite con- ductivity of the earth jn zelation to the radiated power, for which appro. ‘mate formulas are derived in this chapter. $.2 Fundamental equations In section 3.2 equations have been given for the resistance to ground of conductors of such short length that che voltage gradient along the con- ductors may be neglected. ‘The conductors were also assumed to be in direct contact with the earth, For grounded conductors of great Iengrh it ‘necessary to consider the longitudinal woltege gradient and for most types of such conductors it #s also necessary to take into account contact admit- tance between the conductors and ground due to covering provided for corrosion or mechanical protection ar, in the case of railway tracks, to ties and rack ballast. ‘Ler the x axis extend slong the conductor and let V(«) and Ufs,y) be the condsetar potential and the potential in the earth or in space at the separa- tion 7, respectively. The electric force along the surface of the conductor is then Bele) =~ EV (9) ~ fuels) Gon) and in the earth of in space adjacent to the conductor at y = @, where a is the conductor radius, Fels) = ~ 2 Oe) — wh) 607} ‘The electric force along the conductor is also given by E,{x) = Zl) (5.03) where Zig the unit length internal impedance of the conductor.12 EARTH CONDUCTION EFFECTS Cma5 From the above equations, with dol) = de(x), since there is no mag. netic flux between the conductor and the earth adjacent to it, a a Zd(e) — Eel) = — FV) + FU toa) (5.08) The above resultant electric force Z, next to the conductor and resultant potentials ¥ and U may be written as the sum of an impressed ot primary, and a secondary component Z.= E+E" very 05) u-v40" The secondary electric forces or potentials are caused by current in the ‘conductor, the potential between the conductor, and an adjacent point in the earth or in space having the following relation to che leakage current dl jas. Vg) = U" ea) = = YO dfs where ¥; is the unit length admittance of the conductor insulation. Inserting (5.05) and (5.06) in (5.04), the following equation is obtained: #I(a) ey = pi ~ Ble) + EMS) = —BMe) (5.00) ye (6.09) swhere 2 is the toral impressed force along the conductor which is related to the impressed electric force Z’ (+) in the earth next to the conductor by: EM) = Ee) -2v'® — Uma) (5.08) For a wire of infinite Tength, the secondary electric force due to current ‘long the eatire length of the conductor is BM a) = = [TGP ada ff, TOs) dr (5:09) where 2") = dl(n}/dr and See = [= P+ PP. In (6.09), P(e.) is the anal electric farce at the surface of the conductor at for unie total axial current at z, while Q(ir) isthe earth potential at + for unit total radial corrent caving the conductor at r. In other word PGrz) is the longitudinal mutual impedance of collinear condkictor elements due to longitudinal conductor current, while Ole) is the transverse or PROPAGATION CHARACTERISTICS 1463 radial rmutual impedance of such elements due to radial current. for P and Q are desived in Chapter LV. Toserting (5.09) in (5.07), the following integro-differential equation is obtained for the current Efe + [i rena] - are Formulas — [LP de = BH) (5.10) where the prime indicates differentiation. ‘To obtain a solution of (5.10}, the current is assumed to be represented by a Fourier integral as tis) = ff neo ae any Inserting (5.11) in (5.10) the following two integrals arise: ® on To Peude =f" J" see PG) du de = [Moneta du where plug) =f" PIE + 9h do 6.12) “The simplification is « consequence of the substicution 7 — x =. Gi) Zl renetenide 2 fo fo tartare Qin) de ae =o fl odes de where stag) = Luce + Aye de as) Inserting (8.11), (5.12) and (5.13) in (5.10), the last equation becomes Lo senwe de 2 Be) 4)146 EARTH CONDUCTION EFFECTS Cun | Y= unit length admittance of conductor insulation | O(7) = radial mutual impedence of two conductor elements | separated by the distance r = {o! + 92) P(r) = longitudinal mutual irapedanee of collinear conductor elements separated by the distance ¢ = (¢ + y#)}/# ‘The use of an equivalent radius for a wire below the surface, a8 speciieé | above, is justified in the same manner as for the resistance of grounds, ‘when ie is observed that g(u.y) and p (uy) vary logarithmically with y in the range of depths of interest. Inserting (8.30) in (5.25), the general solution may also be written in the following synoptic form: Tix) Ua) — Me) -f Eo) Mwy) ~ Ulery) doe where l(t) Fo(e) and Uo(x) are given by integeale (5.25), (5:26) and (5.27), with a) = 1/2n. As will be seen later, ehe quantities are, respon: ively, the curzent, the conductor potential and the potential in theearth ot in space at « when unit voleage is applied across a break in the conductor at the origin. Ine = 0) Fox e)ido 6.31) Coke — 0} SA. Approvimate solution for single conductor ‘The usual differential equacion of propagation is obtained from (5.10) | by assuming hae 1(7) and Z'(r) are constant and equal to I(x) and I’¢e), respectively, in the range in which P(s) and @(+) have appreciable values, | Equation (5:10) then becomes [re f_ z]76) = —B x) de G33 where wrert+ floe+amiae G3) Zo tt [Me + aide 634) | With the above approximations, A(u) of (5.25) becomes A(u) = Z+ W2/Y, in which case the solution of (5.32) is represented by (S31) with Jo(x) = ef 2K, T= (ZY), K = (2/¥)", Equation (5.32) is | identical with (1.43), and the general solution in terms of an exponential | mode of propagetion is also given by (J.44), as regards current and con- ductor potential. PROPAGATION CHARACTERISTICS “7 The integrals in (5.35) and (5.34) may not always converge, depending on the variation in P and Q with 2 as the latter approaches infinity. In practical epplications the integrals arc frequently taken between finite limits —//2 and é/2, so chat the unit length external admitranee and im- pedance are obtained for a basc length / and wary with the latter. How- ‘ever, since the variation with /is logarithmic, it is not very great and the results are not, therefore, eritcally dependene on the choice of base length. When the effect of current induced in the earth is taken into account, the integral in (5.54) converges ard is evaluated for various earth structures, in Chapter 1V. When the current varies rapidly as is frequently the case along, buried conduetors, it may no longer be permissible to cmplay the approximation of negligible variation used in deriving (5.32), (5.33) and (5.34). In the solution represented by these expressions, the functions 9(¥,2) and p(a,e) discussed in 5.3 were evaluated, in effect, by taking » 0. An improved approximation in terms of an exponential mode of propagation but with somewhat different expressions for admittance, impedance and propagation constant ig then obtained by the method outlined below, Since in the important part of the integration range o(v2) and plua) given by (5.28) and (5.29) vary nearly logarithmically with i, large varia tions in u produce small changes in these functions. For ¢his reason itis permissible to represent these functions by a(4,) and p(f,a), where gis a constant so choren that it gives a good approximation to (ue) and “pltia) in the important part of che integration sange. With this approxi- mation, fg = &**/2K in (5.31) with T= 2@Y@r? K = (26)xor" YY) = [¥r" + qi 2p) = 2+ ple) ‘The constant f is so chosen that the correction terms discussed in the next section are alequately small. With sufficient accuracy for mest prastical applications, 8 may be taken equal to P, in which case a transcendental ‘equation for P is obtained, which is derived below for the case of a conductor at the surface of a uniform earth. When the earth is uniform and displacement currents are neglected in the air, the functions P and Q as derived in £11 are 6.38) where y= liarle + fa)148 EARTH CONDUCTION EFFECTS oun § ‘The functions p and g arc then 69) = Fe ay Bello D 4 1 aa. 1) — Ferien ON eo es ($37) plug) = Soll «IK wy) ~ 07 +4)" KOV EE] atts) = SK) — OP RW FR] wie 185+ ': Be eGR Te 628) where Ko and Kz ate Bessel functions for imaginary arguments as defined in Appendix 1, and the approximations are valid as long as Ty and 9G? + T2)! are less than 01 or so ‘The equation for the propagation constant then becomes of ya 1 Las? jun 1.856 TY + log] — 2, + [ Tet 8 Te ] A+ oe Maar rae 659) The equations for the unit length admittance and self impedance are 1 2. ve = (ee ed te 2) * 40) 20) = 2+ hee Ia Gan With P and X determined as above, the transmission line equations of section 1.6 may be used in engineering problems dealt with in later chapters, SS Successive approximations for single conductor In certain problems greater accuracy may be required than provided by the first approximation considered above. Equation (5.10) or its equivalent and the solurion of this equation as given by (5.25) may then be solved by suecessive approximations in the following way. The cur- rent is frst assumed to be given by Me) = Le) + Tate) G2) where J; (#) satisfics the equation [rm zo] Anfs) = ~E°@) G43) PROPAGATION CHARACTERISTICS 49 where ¥(P) and Z(P) are determined as above, with @ = I’ or, in the case cf uniform earth, by (5.39). Inserting (5.43) in (5.10), the resulting equation may be separated in two parts, one of which is identical with (S43) and another of the same form for Za(z) but with a different electric force E(x) on the right-hand side. ‘The second term Za(x) may now be assumed to be of the form 19) = Tae) + Fal) at) where the fst term sais the equation & [Poss 20)] aw = -He (545) ‘The procedure may next be repeated to obrain an equation for Tag(s) = Tams () + Leann), exc. “The first approximation for the current obtained in the ebove manner is given by (ula = oP fue dee ne- Laetg ae OL Sa ss 1 pie ties! ‘ -am lo. a where the characteristic impedance K(T) is given by KQ) = T/¥@)= (Zay/rayr? (S47) ‘The current J2(*) is given by the following summation: ape Blade du 20-2 aesan sas) where fu*ig(t 2) ~ g(use)) + pia) — plsa))* eal) = [Slee — pees Fe = pleat 8.49) ‘Suecessive terms in this summation correspond to Zax (x), Fzzt (x) ete. 5.6 Solution for two parallel conductors For the case of two parallel conductors, 1 and 2, along which the impressed forces are E{(x) and (x), the following expressions were obtained in 5.2 for the currents: nw= fo dehn Aut tee gy Aids = Ate 50 toy = [7 B= Ei pw ed AO = J a a150 EARTH CONDUCTION EFFECTS Gur. where Lf rey eiw d= JE ER ae = (6.51) aL fi aweme AL = 81% + o(uan)) + Zia + plese) Aa = WYia + glayeall + Zea + Pree) (5.52) Aaa = Pylams) + puera) play) and o(ug) being defined as before. Using similar approximations to those for single conductors the latter equations may be written aoVW@+r, f= mney Aee Feet rh, Te = Zar ¥ery® (6.53) Ae — VW +I). Tie = ZallYai? where Yt maz) and Zz = pCa) ‘The value of F in the latter two expressions is taken in this case as the geometric mean of the values obtained for conductors 1 and 2 respectively, from the equations 1a inn, slit on Ter |e Rae Fen 18s + ” “Pm Page With these approximations, (5.50) may be transformed into ma a ta) = ils f(y hg) at - out ae a satay = fe fa Fg) et - tad oe where 71 and 72 are obtained fram the condition At DO? + oD = + Tw? + TD — ate’, PROPAGATION CHARACTERISTICS 13 where = ¥a¥a /¥it< 1 and $n. (cay -at a3 p+ 1-0 = 2) is) (5.56) “The folowing relations obsain: v= and, when «= 0, no-M, wel ‘The currents may then be expressed 25 Le) wml (eect Bs Eimear = (Fa potent Baan where Ki = (4/¥1)' Ka = (Z_/¥2)? 6.58) Ey is the impressed electric force along the path of conductor I in presence of conductor 2, due partly to the primary field EY and partly to the field resulting from currents in conductor 2, Ey being correspondingly defined. These forces are given by Ye “ ive Fy00) > PG fF tetera) ~ aun beni de = = gil [es mw - Eesw]en a vs apf astnaten) — anata net de (5.60) gia [le + ee Fete fe ae where & and of are given in terms of che primary electric forces EY and E8 by 1p dt) = ES Ane do Ae (.61) aw = EL Bor a The trivial case of x = 1 corresponds to two adjacent conductors, both oe eed152 EARTH CONDUCTION EFFECTS cua.5 in direct, contact with the carth. In this case Ayg— Ade =[7(2-+4+73)+ TWHY TYE" and a single propagation constant is then obtained, 78 = Tinea} +19). 527 Series energization ‘As mentioned fh 5.3, the general solution may be expressed in terms of the current or potential obtained at a point # when a voltage is applied cross 2 break in the conductor at the etigin. This case of series or longi- tedinal energization, shown in Fig. 5.1 together with certsin other methods ‘of energization to be considered Inter, may thus be regarded as besie to the propagation of currents in grounded or aerial conductors, and, therefore, ‘propagation charactecitics will be examined for this ease. ‘The impressed clectric force is required in this ease to vanish at all points except near «= 0. Such an electric force may be represented by the expression sy fies ead Be) = 6.) which gives an electric force E(O) in the interval —/< x < jand 2et0 out- side this interval. The expression for €"(u) appearingin (5.25) is accordingly eying ul ul (6.63) As J approaches zeto, sin uj/il = 1 and when 77(0) designates tke limie approached by H(0}/as K(0) becomes infinite at the same time as / becomes 2er0, the expression for (2) becomes Pn) = du ota) = 70 6.60 (0) being the potestal of the conden tone df th beak at which the voltage is applied and 27’(0) the voltage across the break. ‘Since there is in this case no other impressed potential (2. U® = 0), he current, conductor potential end earch porencal as obtained from (5.25), (5.26) and (5.27) are. 1-72 Pe 665) rey = 20 =O) po ee (56) vty) 222 LC 6.7) where g and 4 are defined as in section 5.3, (ue PROPAGATION CHARACTERISTICS 153 en zy. xa, ‘SERIES ENERGIZATION onan a 1 = CONDUCTIVE. ENENGIZATION InpucTvE EWEAGIZETION Fic, 5 Fourbuiemethods ofenergiation Canductos shown dashed are aasomed to hhave zero attention, ‘With 27(0) = 1, these equations” define the quantities £y(x), Vo(x) and Uo(&) appearing in ($31). ‘The first approximations obtained in the manner outlined in section 54 are Ie) = wo = 171 (6.68) (5.69) Pe) = vote = £I0)K (Ce!se EARTH CONDUCTION ESFECIS Caae.$ r Ue, 0+ _ x (60) = 10 Fag KENT (570) where I and Y(P) are obtained from (6.39) aed (8.40) and Hue) > He aye) — 2-291 ee G7 up) = on = [ata Formalas and tables for the functions & ane © are given in Appendix I. Equation (5.70) for the potential in the earth or in space is derived as follows: Por Dey) = — Z0¥Q) + suptuy>) L.ger em 00 ee ae or J oye! ae soem flemaco are Equation (5.72) applies for buried conductors, for conductors in free space, ot for horizontal aerial conductors. With Q(s) = [2w(o-+ dox)s}, 5 = (P+ ¥?)", in (5.723, equation (5.70) is obtained, applying to aerial or buried. conductors near the surface of the earth, with displacement currents neglected in the air. Under the same conditions, the fellowing formulas are obtained for the second approximations in current and Potential, when p{T'ys) — p(¥,2) is neglected in (5.49), which is permissitle at low frequencies whee P< 7: engoe] 6m) Tae) = 10 OS {ii + Dede Ein) (1 = rele PE —Pe) + jel} 6.73) Foals) = FO) Gre ap Tag (TmeIMEA) Taf ™Ei(—Tx) + fx) — 24 (5.74) where x O and Jay(—s) = Iaxla), Paul—*) = — Parle). “These terms may be neglected in comparison with the first terms except for large values of Tx. For sufficiently large values of Px, however, they become large in comparison with the first approximations, For lerge ee PROPAGATION CHARACTERISTICS values of ste bracket term of (5.73) vanishes as —8/(Tx)* and of (5.74) as 4/0)? For direct current, the mode of propagation is strictly exponential only when g = 2, in which case Y= r= Gj; and T= (Colt), Gr and Ry ‘being the direce-current lee'tance and longitudinal resistance. For alter nating exrrent, an exponential mode of propagation is possible only for the potential but 2ot for the current ard only for a conductor iinbedded in a ‘medium of iafinite extent in all directions and with Z;¥; = 7, or for = conductor of zero resistance in free space, as discussed in $.12. The largest departure from the exponential mode of propagation is obtained for a 19 T 158 aei/20 Pisa te 17 88s Cr ee TST Tic. 52 Curent propagation with seria eacgzation of t eanductor indirect contact with the earth, when Ta 10-4 Curve chowe Se eporovimation, oponentil propagation. (Carve 2 conection terra — yy abd exer 3 second epprovimation Ih + Ze. ‘The admittance as conductar in direct contact with the earth, ¥i siven by (6.40) then becomes ¥ = xiet ion)/Ko(e) (5.75) At x ="0, the ratio of conductor voltage to current is then given by the following expression, when the first and second approximations are used: 20 ere oo TO)" VO) © Baw -F ime) xo Ber a] 1 (5.76) maa [ ~ x where K(D) is the charaeterisric impedance defined by (5.47) and Ko is the Bessel function. ‘The second bracket rerm of (5.76) is uewally fairly mall, in the order of 05 or so. The ratio of voltage to current at # = O's,156 EARTH CONDUCTION EFFECTS Cuan § thus substantially equal to K(P), even when the conductor is in direct contact with the soil. Although the second approximation terms are not imporeane fer stuall values of Fx, they are predominating at large values, as will be seem from Fig. 5.2, which shows the first and second approximations as a finetion of 1's for conduetors in direct contact with the earth. For large values of Tx, therefore, the ratio of voltage to current is not constant and cannot be represented by a characteristic impedance. 5.8. Shut enrgination With series energization as discussed in the preceding section, the current is continuous at the point of energization, while the voltage ie discontins- ous, -+7/(0) on one side and — (0) on the other side of the point of ener~ ization. For shunt or transverse energization also shown in Fig. 5.1 and now to be considered, a current 270) will be assumed to enter the conductor at the origin over an insulated wire extending to infinity. The voltage i then continaous 2 the origin, while there isa discontinuity in the current, the current in one direction being +1(0) and in the other 10). The solution for shunt energization may be obtained from that of series energi- zation by the use of the following proposition, which follows from. the reciprocal theoreins Jee) _ Vex) TO) ~ FO) where the quantities on the left-hand side apply for shunt and these on the right-hand side for series energization. ‘The above proposition is a special case of a more general relation illustrated in Fig. 5.3, waich holds egard- less of Veriation in soil resistivity azd conductor constants, provided that propagation for shunt energizaton is taken in one direction between. two points and for series energization in the opposite direction. In view of these relationships, series and shunt energization may be regarded as mates. From (5.77) it follows that 6m) TO) oa) = — ASV + alone} (6.78) ‘The current and the potentials are thus given by 1 "2 5 sO + ote) de 5279) vay —1Q fo Zt plu) LEO + ate da (5.80) PROPAGATION CHARACTERISTICS IST ci om * Zit ple) je Ulay) = ‘Btu aeny eo de (5.81) where g and A are defined as in section 5.3. ‘The first approximations are in this case given by Me) = (ere (5.82) Poa) = TO)K MT 6.83) r Viey) = 10) GOs) 84) where Qe Ry) = HET eT) + PETTY] 6.85) ie Yayo? CCURMENT AT WHEN a 42D b ARE CONNECTED TO “EG agin Jab W009 *Vag 6 GENERATOR VOLTAGE AEGUIRED TO PRODLCE J, Y= 2aty Weed Yan 2 vt Fic. £3. Relation of coment propestion fr thant esergizaon 10 valtge pronegson for ‘sre enration 1) Pa To? Fora priform ender and wifrmlycondueng earth J = 200) and # = 2FO)- and the function 4 is defined as before. Formulas and tables for ® are given in Appendix 1. The second erm: in the approximations for the current and conductor potential are, on the same basic assumptions as mentioned for series energization, YO) Jae) 10 T+ io) Tele EH(—te) + de] ~ 200 — (nee EHD) (5.86) (erent niee _—=“eet158 EARTH CONDUCTION EFFECTS Cuan 5 6 Fara) = 10} = ((l — Pde B(x) (2) = LO) 5 jg) Mt — eB) ~ (+ Dayle Bi(—T) + fal + e-POD} (5.87) where 2 0 and fax(—x) = ~Inn(z), Var(—s) = Van() For large values of Pv the bracket tert of (5.86) vanishes as 4/(T)® and that of (5.87) as 4/T'x. The second approximations are only important for lerge values of T' and may then predominate over the fst approxima. tions. With shunc energizstion, che current is propagated in the same manner 28 the conductor potential with series ene"gizat‘on, the propagation being exponential for the same conditions as discussed in 5.7. ‘The largest departures from the exponential mode of propagation obtains when the conductor is in direct contact with the earth, Gy= ©. The second ap- proximation are not importane except for large values of Ts. ‘Using zhe frst and second approtimations, the ratio of woltage to current atx = 0 becomes vO) _ ree yo) TO) ~ Ya) * Inet few) ~ xe thet =] 1 =xofiigto] 38) Comparison of (5.88) and (5.76) shows that the second approximations ze af equal magnitude but apposite signs for shunt and series energization. ‘These terms correspond zo the mutual impedance between the conductors extending in opposite directions from the origin and equals TY/2r(e + fae). By way of comparison, the corresponding mutual resistanee between tio conductors of shore length Jas obtained from {3.14} is (p//) “log 2. Ifa shunt and a series energization are superposed, the current on one side of the point of energization would be zero and on the other side 27(0). The ratio of voltage to current ia this case would equal K(P), since the mutual cffects would cancel at x = 0. The second approximation terms, however, wool not cancel at other points along the conductor. 59 Conductive energization In addition to the cases of series and shunt energization, the case of conductive energization due to current entering the earth at an clectrode sear the conductor as shown in Fig. 5.1 is important, When drainage is applied 20 buried conductors, the return is usually at a ground electrode in the vicinity of the conductor, rather than at & very remote point as ‘sgumed in the discussion of shunt energization. ‘The eect of the prox- Inmity of the elecisode, therefore, anust be considered, and this is also true PROPAGATION CHARACTERISTICS 159 in connection with other problems such at the effcee of lightning strokes to ground near a buried cable or the effect of the proximity of groonds shen measurements are made of the impedance to ground of a conductor of of its propagation characteristics. When a current J enters the earth at an electrode at the distance yy from the conductor, the impressed carth potential along the conductor is given by UN) = 106) om + DF (5.89) ‘When g(u,y1) is defined by (5.28), with y = 95, it follows that gin = Ef etunet ae 6m) ‘The impressed electric force along the conductor is then a ifr isu Be) = — Bora) = — ZS inatoret an 591) Hence ¢*{2) appearing in (5.25), (5.26) and (5.27) equals Ou) = =f iaptuyn) GBR) ‘The current, the conductor and earth potentials are then given by = xatuys) so dy 5 1) fA 693) 1 fe weluo NYT" + ote) ve = vee 2 Sater et ae ay nL fb re ey yl de 694) Be Ate) een toy) = Weg) — Lf PAE ey + a(WaleC yn 99) — well) ce ay (695) aw) where q and A are defined as in section 5.3 ‘The first approximations arc iva) Inla + fou) errr 1 vetatys) “2 Kg(Pa) + (o + tow) /¥i Ie) = (6.96)10 EARTH CONDUCTION EFFECTS ome. 5 m Pe) ae aay TE) (697) Tee) = Pee) — as allie — othety9) (5.98) ir = OS) — pg ME — MOsTSIL where the first of formulas (5.98) applies when y < 43, the second when > Ry = OPEN, sm OF + 57)! and) ¥eko(ty) Fe Foe) + ¥.Kols) (5.993 1m being given by the same formula as a when y is replaced by J. For ‘conductor in direct contact with the esrth, ¥y= ©, 9= I when y =a and U(za) then becomes equal to V(x). With yx = a, the integral of (5.93) is the same as that of (5.67), and equation (5.96) chus follows from (5.70). Also, with yi = 9, the integral of ($.94) is the same as thar of (5.81), 20 that (597) follows from (5.84). Expression (5.98) for the earth potential is obtained when it is assumed that y is suficiently small such that g(w,y) does not vary appreciably in the integration range and may be taken outside the integral of (5.95) as a(t\9) = =a Kelty). The earth potential then becomes ale + tr) Bea) = Oe) = Es + CHIN) ou gy “A(w) G10) ‘The integral of (5.100) ig the detivative with respect to x of that in ($.93)s so that the last term in (5.98) is obtained by differentiation of the term of (5:96) corresponding to the integral of (5.93). When 3 is smaller than 3, gayi) is taken outside the integral and set equal to KyiEy). ‘OF importance in corrosion drainage problems discussed in Chapter VI is the leakage current @¥(x)/de along the conductor. Differentiating (5.96) the following expression is obtained for this current with iw = 0 and Fa G Wen) ‘no Tin= B/Pa — a(raty.)) (5.101) PROPAGATION CHARACTERISTICS 161 ‘The maximum leakage current is obtained at » = 0 and is given by TG) FQ) = NA — 20TH) (5.102) ‘When Ty, < 01, only the first term of (5.102) needs to be considered and the mexiznom leakage current then becomes 10) = GOYA/Aroyy) = GE) Wey) I 1 poet st080 oe + * kere) By weft Kaho) These formulas show that, when the electrode is sufficiently close to the conductor sq that Ty, SOL, the maximum leakage current is pro- portional to the impressed earth potential U°(x,y)) at the conductor and to the unit length leakance G of the conductor. The leakage cursent is inversely proportional to the eleccrode separation and, when the conductor is in sufficiently good contact with the earth so that *¢/G; is much smaller than Ko(P2), which is the case when (Gi/¢) > 3, the leakage current is practically independent of the earth conductivity ‘When Ty; > 1, the last bracket term in (5.102) vanishes as 1/77, — (1ty,}? and the leakage current at x = 0 then becomes , WG@) Tie eee 10) Regs? 7 re BC — 104) whore R is the unit length conductor resistance. For larger electrode spacings the leakage current is thus inversely pro- portional to the exrth conduetivity, the conductor resistance and to the third power of the electrode seperation. SAO Inductive enorgination Tn certain problems, a grounded conductor parallels an insulated wire carrying alternating current, as in electrified railways or transmistion lines ‘with aerial or buried ground wire. The current in the grounded conductor is then due pardy to shunt energization and partly to energization by induction as shown in Fig. $.1. Consider an insulated wire parallei to the grounded conductor and let current J onter the insulated wire at x = 0, over an insulated perpendic- ‘lar wine to a vemate point. At opposite sides of «= 0 the currents in the insulated wire will then have opposite direction and equal 1/2. The162 EARTH CONDUCTION EFFECTS case 5 impressed electric force slong the grounded conductor is ° Te Be ATL poe Lf pare 6108 where - en +3, 92 being fhe separation of the insulated ‘the grounded conductors. By change of the variable of integration, and with = @& = 7, Be=—Lf rma frie] — 6108 where n = (94 + yf)! 2. From (5.29) it follows that 1 pe Pin) = xf peone aa .107) Inserting (8.107) in (5.106) ard integrating, Pay hf sowonee” au Hence, 1 e@ = Zh ru 6.102) ‘The current, conductor potential and earth posentie! ate then \ nL ft BOM sony Te) gd. fu Aw)’ a 6-109 I p> puss ree of POST 4 (ue) du ane) df= plea Deeg) = = Ff PE? otusyem ate an) “The firs approxirstions are toy = he 24) (6.112) Pe ~ — Laken! a3) 7 ves) = ~ 14 ons, : ey) 2 xe pian oly) (S114) whee 2) of ” Zteta) (5.115) PAT) and p(Tys) being given by (5.38). PROPAGATION CHARACTERISTICS 163 5.11 Effect of eorth resistivity variation swith depth ‘As mentioned in 2.10, the mutual resistance when the resistivity varies with depth may be approximated by O10) = ste oa + (os = ma] (116) ip being the earth resistivity for small spacing, op that for large spacings fand} a suitable constant. The fonction g(x,y) then becomes, when r= (o? + 9°}, Slot ty eee) de 2 Kotuy) + 2 Kel + 22 (5.17) where Ko is 2 zero order Bestel function of the second kind for imaginary arguments, as defined in Appendix I “The admiteance of « conductor of radius « is chen a yo = v4 Kora) += Kolo EAM] 6.118) and equation (5.39) for the propagation constant is replaced by refi 4 2 xottay + ESP Kala +9! (6.119) Bit Thee Se oa ‘where 92 = ier/oy and py is the equivalent catth resistivity as regards the inductance of the conductor, as obtained from formulas or curves for two- layer earth given in Chapter IV. ‘The function # is replaced by pee pyle MN ae aust) = 2 eerie t (a 4 when (+ bly 1 (8.120) when by > 1 (5.121) = Bewedy) + ALP aot ds, T+ det = Rereny) + moray) Dire164 RARTH CONDUCTION EFFECTS cue § The functions W and 0 are replaced by functions % and 2, which have the same relationships to & as 0he former functions have to. ‘Thus, when the matual resistance measured between point electrodes on the surface of the carth can be approximated by (5.116), the various relationships given above may be used in place of corresponding quantities for uniform earth, For a condueror in direct contact with the earth, the earth potential at the separation y for shunt energization of a conductor is UGy) = 10) Q(Cely) 6.122) i re +0) When the conductor is in direct contacr with the carth, the conductor potential is obtained by taking y ~ a, and the easth potential, therefore, may be written as My xTy) (Tx) Alouga line perpendicular to the conductor ar the point of energization, she ratio of earth potential rm conductor potential is thus (when (Pt 8)y <1): = LOD) _ es OES) + (on — pO + 4)3] VO) ~ of O,0a)+ (n1 — 02)HO + Pal (when dy 2 1): p= LON, PONY) + i — pode MOOTY) FO) ~ pe2(0,0a) + (or = madOHO + Ba] 5.12 Infinite conductor in fee space “To Facilitate later diseussion of horizontal and vertfeal aerial conductors, the equations developed in preceding sections will be applied here to am infinite cencer-driven aerial wire of zero resistance (Z; = 0) in direst contact with the air (Fe = =). As imentioned before, this method of energization is basic to the general solution as given by (5.41). Far a wie in free space the functions P,Q, p and y defined in $3 become Vey) = Ke) 5.123) G.124) iy Pe = “or 6.128) 20 = a PROPAGATION CHARACTERISTICS 165, pls) = S20 Kalu? + Pa) 7 (5.126) lua) = Kyle? + B)7a) ato Wor a centerriven conductor of infinite length the potential is then by 666) i eee Pa) = 2 pe rom san where | “y= fol) — f= Rpr 1d = mpff being the wavelength. ‘The current obtained from (5.65) becomes vO) f= Dricange™™ du Of areata | oh VO) - aye x ¢ (5.129) | where 7 a K=5-(2) Kolree) = OKo2r02) (3) oss) 1a = [0 7 3 z ‘The voltage applied across a center-iriven serial is 2/(0) and the input impedance 2X. The method of approximation discussed previously has teen employed to obtain the frst approximation to the characteristic impedance. : _ “The above formulas show that with series energization the potential is pcopagated without sttetuation a5

.L, the effect of displacement current in the air is noticeable and may have to be taken into account, depending on whether |v |2>1or|yh| <1. If |yA|>1, the current penetrates to a depth small compared to the height of the con ductor so that the earth may be regarded as of infinite conductivity and the formulas in 5.13 apply. However, if |7i| <1, the current paneteates tocconsiderable depth and the effec of induced current in the earth prevails cover displacement cursent in the air, s0 thae the conventional transmission fine equations apply. Thus, with &=10 meters, = 10", ¢ = 107, (wo |= 33nd 7A = 3.6/45°, Incaguation (4.38)rrfy = 2yh = 7.2/45°. The fanction #, representing the effect of the fisite conduccivity of the arth, may then be neglected and the propagation characteristics approx mated by the formula in 5.13. Wich 5 = 10 meters, = 10, nob | = Land yh s+ 61/48". In this ease-yriy = 1.22/45° and it is more ‘important to retain the function # than to take account of displacement currents in the air. The impedance formulas in Chapter IV may in this ‘ase be used in conjunction with the conventional transmission line equa- tions.168 BARTH CONDUCTION EFFECTS Gnu. the frequency is sufciensly high and the conductors near the surfae of the earth, the finite conductivity of tke latter affects both the longi tudinal impedance and he tianoverse adimieeance- As discussed in $5, he longitudinal impedsrce is virtually the same as for a conductor at the surface and thus given by (5.1), provided that 24(9"-+1))44.25. The ssimittance fonction (5.38) in ths ease is wiven by (40), and tbe equation for the propagation constant by (5.9), with Ye ¢ Cee 2 6.159) Drie a which is the unit lengeh capacitance of & conductor of radius @ at the height 4 above a perfectly conducting earth, and with « = A in the second term of (640), which approximates the effect of the finite conductivity of the earth, ‘The approsimation consists in assuming the conductor at the center of a semi-cylindrical hallow of radius & along the surface of the earth in evalaating the effect of the finite conductivity, a permissible assomprion when the height is small and the effeer of the earth noticeable. Chasis for the correction due tw finite earth conductivity and dielectric constant have been given by Wise,’ on the assumption that the propags- tion constant for free space is 2 satisfactory first approximation in evaleat. ing cartection terms, This corresponds to evaluating the admittance function (5.28) with for w and using the expression for @ applying to a conductor above the surface of the earth as derived in Chapter LV [y; ~ 72 3a (426)). Both approximations yield substantially the same results for stuai] heights and typical earth resistivities, but che approximation en ployed here is more accurate witen the earth resfotivicy is very high. SAS Impedance of vertical antennas The current distribution along x vertied! conductor extending. from 2 =0 toz~ Zand energized between its lower end and a perfectly con ducting earth, as shown in Fig, $.5, is the same as for a center-driven con- ductor of length 2/ in free space, whereas the impedance is half as gress Fora bare conductor (¥; = ) of infinite camduetivity (Zs = 0) extending from # = —1.t0.x = 1, (5.10) is seplaced by -2firoawes Laorca= Be) 610) For the particular case of a eenter-driven conductor, E"(s) is zero except in an infinitesimal interval —3 8 i PROPAGATION CHARACTERISTICS 169 obtained by integration of the first term and becomes: Pod = fee de a4 The second tern may now be written x = L M(e)P(s) de (5.142) [As shown in 5.12, the potential along a center-driven infinite conductor fn fice space is propagated as eS" = cosge — isin Bx, Te follows that ifx0 i Fo, $5. Seer engin of vee conduct above prety cada crth for a center-driven conductor of finite length the resultant of eransmitted and refccted potentials may be written P(x) = A cos fix + B sin Bs (S43) where and B are constants deserminable from the boundary conditions V = P near x= 5 and [=O at x = AP” being the impressed potential, Wish (5.143) in (5.121) and (5.142) two integrsl equations are obtained, from either of which the current distribution may be determined. The letter of these integral equations, formulated by Hallén,® bas been used extensively ia theoretical investigations of antenna currents and imped fnees, ‘The equation may be solved by successive approximations. tlthoueh the results obtained for the zesonane impedance neat = 0/2 by. fast and second approximations differ to an appreciable extent, for the reason that the second approximations do not correct for an improperly thovcn first approximation.’ The resonant point is obtained with /slightly mailer than 4/2 and the impedance is finite because the current diseribu- tion is not stricely sinueoidal, =n ‘Although the current propapation along an infinite conductor is not actually exponential, the current distribution along a conductor obeained by assuming that transmitted and reflected currents are exponentially ates eh ne ee a ee ee ee170 EARTH CONDUCTION EFFECTS Propagated is an adcquate engineering approximation, except near the resonant points. With such a distribution, the electric force E°(s) obtained from (5.140) does not vanish outside the interval 6 fx, as in the formulas above. The formula in this case is derived by observing that fore conductor with zero attenuation the unit lengeh impedance increment die to the finite conductivity af the earth as obtained from (4.38) is Z,= (iav/2e)F rr), where rly = 2, and the formula applies provide! that 7? 23, as shown in 4.11. If, furthermore, 2yh > 5, 1 is giver by 42), 0 that the increment for a conductor of length / is Z.= (ies/rvdilhe For a simascidal current distsibution the effective increment becomes 707 (fow/2ey)i/h. Although this formula give virtually the same valne #5 (5.156) when {= A, itis rather approximate ‘and does not imply an actual equivalence of the two cases. Caan! CHAPTER VI D-C Eaxra Connvcrioy axp Coxnosiow Prorzcrion, 6.1 Introduction Corrosion of buried metallic structures, such a9 pipe lines and cable sheaths, is always due to or accompanied by an interchange of current becween the corroding conduetors and the envionment, The current interchange may be due to potential differences occasioned by stray current in the earch from direct-currene power sources with ground return used foe traction, protective drainage, or other purposes. Stray-current corrosion cecurring where current is discharged from a buried conductor is referred to as ancadic corrceion. Cozrosion associated with bur nor dizectly due to stray currents may also be encountered on lead structures in sections where carrenes enter the structure, as a result of the accomietion of certain clectrolysis producrs which may dissolve lead, in which case ie is referred to 4s cathodic corrosion. An interchange of eusrent may also be set up by ‘rlvanic action due to direct contact between conductors of different metals, tr may be occasioned by variations along the conductor in its contact paten- tial with respect to the environment, resulting from heterogeneities in the environment or in the conductor material. Currents due to such variations sxe here referred to a3 hoterogenetic, Such currents and the resultant heterogenetic corrosion may be occasioned by phenomena referred to 3s concentzation cell effect, differential aeration, and local action. Tn con- centration cell effect the estcosive action is due 20 variation in the concen ‘cation rather than in the nature of the conatiwents of the environment. In differential aeration the underlying cause 's variation in the oxygen content of the environment while local action is due to impurities in the ictal or variations in the surface struceure. In the case of buried serue- tures, variation in che nature of the sol is an additional faetor in hetero genetic corrosion. In recent years, the abandonment of street reikway systems and of pro- cective drainage of exposed cable and pipe lines to negative busses has resulted in an increase in heterogenetic corrosion. Except where the eavironment is rather uniform or the conductors are provided with ade~ ‘quate protective coating, corrosion failures on this account may be eX countered and cannot be accurately predicted by any recognized test method, although experience as well as theoretica) considerations indicate m ina eT pe eeev8 FARTH CONDUCTION EFFECTS Casas that heterogenetic corrosion failures are likely to predominate where the resistivity af the environment is low. To prevent or minimize corrosion, various remedial measures may be applied on existing installations, such as forced drainage, insulating joine in the conductors or bonds between adjacent conductors, and precautionary measures such as protective coating or change of route may be taken where conditions seem to warrant it. The effectiveness of any of the variois remedial measures depends on the conductor longitudinal resiscance, on the Jeakage conductance of the conductor covering, on the resistivity and strac re of the earth, on the spacing and location of drainage poincs, insulating joints or bonds, on the separation of drainage grounds from the conductor and the proximity of ether grounded conductors. Theoretical formolas and curves presented here for certain basic conditions reveal general re lationships between these various factors. Such relationships cannot readily be secured from field tests because of the inherent lack of vontral knowledge of all the factors involved. Although these general relatians may aid in the solution of specific corcosion problems, a field survey i usually required, which may involve rather extensive tests in complicated situations. Basie considerations in connection with the performance of such tests and the interpretatien of tesules are outlined here, together With the more important electrochemical factors in corrosion. Reference is made to electrochemical literature for the basic phycics of contaee porentiel besween mecals and electrolytes for experimental data and theoretical laws on contact potential and the mechanism of corrotion*4 Many of the varied factors in corrosion of buried struc ‘sores, such a8 differential aeration and earth resistivity, as indicated by corrosion experience on buried pipe lines and cable, are discussed in « umber of publications,**"" together with the resules of tests intended to establish the importance of various effects, such as polatization charas teristics of various types of soll." 6.2 Corrosion characiristics of conductor encironnsents ‘Current between the metallic electrodes of an electrolytic circuit is always associated with electrochemical diects at the surface of the electrodes and within the electrolyte, which may give rise to substantial changes in the cireuie characeeriatics. The initial open-circuit electromotive force and resistance of an electrolytic cell may be regarded as its primary characte istics which, in the absence of secondary cficcts, would determine the ccurrent through the cell when the circuit is closed, Departures from the initial electromotive force and circuit resistance resulting from current through the electrolyte may be regarded as secondary characteristics of the electrolytic cell D-C FARTH CONDUCTION — CORROSION PROTECTION 173 ‘The primary characteristics of soil environments are the resistivity, tex- ture and chemical constitution of the envirorment, vatiatians in which are responsible for heterogenetic currents and nonuniform discharge of stray current. The electromotive forces of local cells depend on the chemistry and texture of the toil or other environment, and the current in response to such forces on the resistivity of the environment. Experience on pipe lines indicates that severe corrosion predominates in sections where there is low carth resistivity and, in the case of cable, where the Ieskage resistance of the table ducts is low. Furthermore, the resistivity, texture or chemical con- stitution of the environment usually varies along the conductors, so that contact with the conductor surface is not uaform and local corrosion cells inay be established or stray current discharged with extreme variation in current density. Where the environment is uniform, however, corrosion snay not oceur even when the resistivity is quite low and, where the resist ity is high, corrosion may not be encountered even when the environment is heterogeneous. “The secondary characteristics of electrolytic environments depend partly on a residual increase in circuit resistance due to film formation at the turface of the conductors and partly on a concurrent counter-electromotive force referred to as concentration polarization, which diminishes rapidly swith the interruption of the current so that the initial open circuit voltage would be fally restored if it were not for film formation. Both of these GHects arise from the aecamulation of electrolysis products s¢ the anode and the cathode and, because they increase with the current intensity, they tend to counteract extreme variztions in the intensity of the lezkage current and resultant localized corrosion. Constituents in the environ iment promoting the formation of high sesistance film may ot necessarily ve tise to substantial concentration polarization, and conversely. The fo components of the total polarization are thus more or less independent. For a given current intensity, cathodic polarization is ordinarily more pronounced then anodie polarization. As will be shown later on, however, severe corrosion is likely to be caused by current between small anodic and lange cathodic aress, so that the current intensity atthe anode ie very much greater than at the cathode. Anodic polarizacion or film formation is then {ikaly 9 be more important in limiting corrosion, even if the cathodic polarization should be considerably moze pronounced for equal current intensities The volt ampere polarization curve of the soil for the metal in question may thus be regarded a8 an indicatica of its secondary coerosion character- intie which, together with the primary charactoristice, indicates its cor- riveness. Measurements on different types of soil,’"° indicate that concentration polarization would not be expected to be & decisive factor in180 EARTH CONDUCTION EFFECTS cus preventing corrosion, although it has a limiting effect. ‘The more imp tant factor is usually the formation or lack of formation of protective film which may not be indicated by polarization curves observed over relative short periods of time. An increase in the acidity of an environment gee! erally accelerates corrosion because of greater solubilityof corrosion producs| land resultant lack of film formation. Thus, for a given earth resistivity corrosion is more likely in acid than in alkaline soil. For example, silicate and sulphates form protective film on isad so that corrosion would bein hibieed with a uniform distribution ofthese constituents in the sal, although 2 heterogeneous distribution might create concentration eels and hereby contribute to corrosion. Since nieraees do not form protective film on lead and are effective depolarizers of eathodie areas, their presence in. the sal does not retard the corresive action Another secondary elect of a dilferene nature, which may give rise & corrosion of lead in cathodic sections, may be encountered in the presence of alkali and alkali earth salts in the ground, such as the salts of sodium, potassium and calcium. The discharge of hydrogen ions at a cathode when ies highly negative decreases the hydrogen ion concentration ofthe environment and may make it sufficiently alkaline to dissolve lead by chemical action during periods when the strocvure is lose cathodic. Be cause of this secondary effect, it may not always be permissible to apqlt sufficient drainage to highly negative busses with variable potential fr complete protection throughout a cable network. Considering the variery of effects that may be encountered in corrosion of buried conductors and which tena to localize corrosion, itis evident that Faraday's law on electrochemical conversion may aot provide much dance, even if various secondary factors in the electrochemical conve sion provess were known and thus the corrosion efficiency. While in the ‘ase of stray current the total consumption of the conductor materia within a given seetion might then be determined with reasonable accuracy ‘on the basis of measured eurrents, the distribution of corroded metal is ‘ordinarily of much greater importance than the total quaatiey involved. By Faraday’s law, the weight in grams of metal decomposed by a charge Dis W = 04/Fn (6001) where is the atomic weight, » the valence of the metal ions and F= 96,500 coulombs. The charge Q may also be weiteen = Ii, where Ie the eurrent in amperes and ¢ the time in seconds. The weigh of coerodal metal may be substantially smaller than obtsined from (6.01), since par of the electrical energy may be used in electrochemical processes causing changes in the electrolyte. The weight of corroded metal in relation ta that obtained from (6.01) is referred to as the corrosion efficiency. fe ee ee ee D-C EARTH CONDUCTION — CORROSION PROTECTION 181 633 Intensity of heterogenetc currents ‘The intensity of such currents depends on the nature and degre of heterogeneities in the conductor material and in the environment, which sve responsible for the electromotive forces sustaining the currents, and on the resistivity of the environment, which determines the resistance of the dleotrolytic cells. Impurities in the metal are disregarded here, although cometimes important, and attention is confined to the effect of variations jn the environments. = "An ideal concentration cell is formed when two identical metallic elec. ‘trodes ate immersed in a liquid solution coneaining salts of the metal ions at two different concentrations but no other positive or metallic ions. The Alectromotive force of such a cell is so divested that, when the circuit is closed, current in the exsemnal metallic cirenit is from the electrode in the concentrated to that in the dilute solution in which the electrode is thus ‘anodic and corrodes. For dilute solutions, the ion coagentration is sub- stantially proportional to the cobductivity provided by the ions, and the lectromotive farce becornes™* VaPi- Veale ° 602) ea log svhere log = logy a = .025/n, 2 is the valence of the metal ions, ¢ and ¢o Tedhefon concentrations at sleetrodes and 2, and oy the eondsctvities f the solution. are etal cll as assumed above, which ib known as reverie cl there is n0 chessical reaction 2¢ the surface of the metal or within the dlecrrolyte. When the circuit's closed, so that there is current through the cell, no new electrolysis products are formed an there #8 no film forma ton or polarization, Such ideal celle are not representative of these nvountered in corrosion of buried conductors, in which contace obtains Yecwgen more or less gerated and usvally oxidized metal surfaces and environments containing a variety of ion specics. As a result of chemical teactions at the metal surfaces, the magnitude of the electromotive force may be substantially smaller or greater than that obtained from (6.02) in terms of the conductivities ofthe environment, whereas the polarity may be the same or the opposite. There is thus no simple relationship beeween the electromotive force of soil concentration cells and variation im the conductivity of the environment alone, a¢ for ideal cells. In general, however, an ancdie condition appears more often to be associated with a decrease than with an increase in the resistivity of the envisoament.Eee 182 EARTH CONDUCTION ERFECTS Differential aeration is another type of heterogeneity at the surface of buried conductors. Experiments with electrodes in solutions indicate tha the potential between an acrated electrode and one from which oxygen i excluded may be in the order of 1 vole,* while tests on soil samples indicate values which in some instances are as high 25 5 volt," with the aerated conductor usually catholic. Local differential aeration is regarded as one of the more common causes of heterogeneric corrosion. Lead is thus cor roded beneath the point of contact with a large grain of sand in an environ. ment containing oxygen and water vapor,® such as coil. Pitting of the ‘conductor surface is likely to be aggravaced by differential aeration because of the lack of oxygen at the batcom of pits. Carrent due te differential aeration would tend to enter a buried conduc. tor where the environment consists of porous soil to be discharged where Gran Flo. 61 Conceneration cell with cument incerchange slang condustor betwecn pockets wt terrain of different resiity. the conductor is in intimate contact with compact soil. Electromotive forces duc to differential eration are superposed on those dne to concer. tration cell effects and may be of the same or of opposite direction. The condition of the environment along buried conductors is generally so com- plex that the two effects cannot readily be distinguished. In the fellowing analysis of the importance of the physical extent and character of hetero- ‘gencitis, it will be assumed that a certain electromotive force exists a8 2 result of either one or both of these efects. Consider first a conductor as shown in Fig. 6.1 of length s = s1 +45 and let the resistivities in sections 1, and se be py and ps. ‘The current between the two sections in response to an electromotive foree Via is then Se ya Cs % " ) 603) 2 (iog 2 — where the denominator is the sum of the resistances to ground of the t¥o sections, as obtained from (3.36), with a” = (2da)}/3, d= depth of con- ductor, a= conductor radius, In the absence of secondary effects, the tunit length leakage current in the anodic section, here assumed to be i 7 ‘D-C EARTH CONDUCTION — CORROSION PROTECTION 183 6.08) Pus (2-22) ensity in the anodic section is obtained when the latter has che lower resistivity and is much shorter than the cathodic ection, ica A < pay 41Ksta. AAs an example, with = 10, = 100 meters, d= 1 meter, 1 = 10, 44 ~ 100 meter-ohms, a= 01 meter and Fig 1 volt, the leakage current ia the anodic section becomes 3.0 ‘Fea. 62 Localized curene interchange due to concentration eel effect. ailiamy meter, corresponding to about .48 milliemperes/dm?. Tho cnrent density is subecenally smaler than that resulting from a local hetcrogencity giving rise to the same electromotive force end in which the resistivities are the same, as considered later. Although cor: sion fram currents along conductors betweet. Pockets or terrain of diferent character would thus appear to be a lesser problem, it may become impor- tant when the resistivity in the anodic section is very tow. Thus, with A= 1, 62 = 10 meter-ohms in the above example, the current intensity in the anodic section becomes 4.8 miiamperes/dm?. / Consider next 2 local irregularity of higher resistivity in the enviren~ sent, of small dimensions compared to the conductor radius, as indicated in Fig, 62, and ler the electromotive force arising from this iregularity again be Pig. If the irregularity is assumed to have the form of a dise cf thicknese d and radius r, the resistance through the die and the soil to a remote point is aa a first approximation R = pyd/x7 + pa/4r, where silt the resistivity of the dise andl pe that of the soil outside. The current density through the dise then becomes, in the absence of secondary effects, -—_Vns IA FEF oareh (6.05)1 EARTH CONDUCTION EFFECTS Thus, with Ya Cuan 1 volt, py = 100, pa = 10, 2 =F = .002 meter, J=AG ampere/m? = 46 milliamperes/dm®, If the resistivities an. reversed, such that py = 10 and pg = 100, the current intensity becomes J = 587 milliamperes/dm*. ‘These carsent densities are nearly ten times Greater than those obtained in the previous exemple and itis evident, there fore, that earrents duc to Jocal cells are of greater importance than currents along the conductor between pockets or terrain of different characte, the resistivity 's sufficiently low, severe corrosion due to loca! isregular- ic, 63. Leceliza curren interchange duc to dileretial session. ities of the above type might well oovur, waless retarded by the secondary ffccts discussed in 6.2. Th Fig. 65 is shown & type of heterogencity which would be expected t0 give rise to severe corrosion. It is assumed that the catbodic area is much greater then the atodic area, so that the current due to differential aeration is not reduced by diminution of oxygen in the cathodic section and is determined iatgely by the resistance of the anodic contact srea, If the latter is assumed to have a radius r, small compared to the diameter ‘of the conductor, the resistance through the soil to a remote point is as 4 first approximation o/4r, p being the resistivity in the vicinity of the anodic area. In the absence of secondary effects, the cursent intensity for a cel potential is then ae Toa Assuming ¥ = .1 volt, r= .002 meter and p = 19 meter-ohms, J = 64 ampetes/m* ~ 6% miliamperes/din’. As che cell potential may be higher, particularly if concentration cell effect and differential aeration are additive, cor since the radius and the resistivity may be smaller, the current intensity may be higher than in this example. Because of the large cathodic area and the low cathodic current intensity, cathodic polarization is unlikely (6.06) 1D-C EARTH CONDUCTION — CORROSION PROTECTION 184 to be an importane factor in limiting the current, which will be determined largely by the resistance through the environment near the anode and by ss0dit polarization. The corsosion cells shown in Figs. 6.2 and 6.3 aze to be regarded as ngular cells of high clectromotive foree agsl small anode area, super Imposed on the vast numher of cells comprising the conductor surface, of substantially smaller cleesromotive forces and with anodic and cathodic areas of more or ess comparable size, Tn spite of their great number, these «ells are unlikely co cause severe corrosion since the anodic current inteusity is limited to a greater extent by the resistance through the environment and by pronounced cathodic polarization, then for the singular type of cell dis cussed above. Fletersgenctic corrosion is usually arrested if a conducter is made reasonably cathodic by protective drainage (Sect. 6.13). In spite of the ery high current intensities which may obtain in locel culls, effective protection may be established in this manner with modsrate drainage current density — sufficient to canse adequate polarization or film forma- tion in cathodic sections of the conductor. ‘The character of the local cells ate then altered and hence their eleevromotive forces may thea be appreci= ably reduced or elimizated. This principle of protection differs feom that twiderlying cathodic protection against strey current corrosion, where the drainage currents opposing the stray cutrents will have high densities at the same points as the latter, because both depend in the same manner on the leakage conductance. The distribution of drainage currents as determined by the leskeage conductance is, however, wsually a favatable factor also in protection against heterogenetic corsosion, in that the con ductor is nore often anodic where the résistivity of the environment is Low than where it is high, so that the drainage current density is likely to be higher where the conductor is anodic. 64 Basie equations for sray current ‘As showa in Chapter V, when 2 long conductor is enenpized in seriés or in shone, as ilustrated in Fig. 5.1, the attenuation of current and potential Jn to a Sitst approximation exponential excepe at large distances from the point of energizasion. The following relations obtain between the carrent, fx) and the potential to a remote ground #(x) and the leakage current 1G) = dl/as: = Toye te = 2D ore Ta} = Te ee Vis) = FO = LOK 607; Pia) = THO) = 7 ONGET i ek186 EARTH CONDUCTION EFFECTS where the propagation constant P and the characteristic resistance K are related t0 the unit length longitudinal resistance R and the unit length leakage conductence G by Cann T= RGs KK = (R/G)YF (6.08) The leakage conductance, as given by ($40), is 6 [ort + hog 2) (6.08) where G;= leakage conductance of conductor insulation or coating ‘p= catth resistivity af = equivalent conductor radius ‘The equivalent conductor radius is obtained in the same manner as in calculating the resistance of grounds. For a single conductor of radius a, w" a 1 -PER venER a = = 10 o oF = 1 8 Fie. 64 Propaenon comtat aaa feta of R/ for vaio alse of 2 = Unit length sesisanos of condactor, om meter 9 — Barth ressiviey, metetobims Ge = Unit lenge contaerleskance, ro /entes at a depth d, the equivalent radius is given by a! = (2ad)"”*, For twe conductors (3.39) may be used and for three conductors (3.40), ‘The equation for the propagation constant I = (RG)? is then : 1 [cr + be] =e 6.10) The colution of this equation is given by the curves in Fig. 6.4 fot a condnctor of Lem radius at a depth of 30cm, After P has been determined from these curves, G may be calculated from (6.09) and the characteristic resistance from K = (R/G)"*, D-C EARTH CONDUCTION — CORROSION PROTECTION 187 ‘The resistance to a remote ground as measured at one end of a long conductor equals the characteristic resistance. More generally, for a con- ductor of length + the resistance to a remore ground a5 measured at one and equals R~ Koaht: =k whenTet at) me when Peet When Ts 1, the above formula becomes inaccurate, since the disribue tion of the leakage cusrent will not thea be exponential 9s assumed in calcalating G from (6.09) but will instead tend to be uniform, as assumed in the calculation of ehe resistance of grounds, Tor this reason the form. la giver in Chapter ITT shoolal be used in this case. “The resistance measured across a break in 2 long conduetor, such as an insulating joint, may be taken, for practical purposes, as twice the charac- twrictic resistance, although (5.76) indicates it will be slightly smailer. ‘The resistance to ground measured ar a considerable distance from one end of a conductor so that the current divides equally of opposite disec- tions may be taken as half the characteristic resistance, but #t actually is somewhat greater, as shown by (5.88)- Ta general, the clectric force causing stray current or heterogenetic cur rent is distributed along the conductor, rather than concentrated at one int xsin the above cases of series and shunt energization. The impressed fo primary electric field intensity is chen given by (5.08) as PW) =F) — GM) — Vee) 12) ‘where E? is the component due to stray current in the exrrh and the semainder is the electric force due to variations in the contact potential along the condactor. #7” is the impressed potential of the conductor ele- ment and U’ the impressed earth potential next to the conductor, i¢., tr a radial separation equal to the conductor radius 4. The difference meen these two impressed potential isthe contact potential, i, the potential diference which would be obtained if a conduetor element were jsolated from the remainder of che circuit. The effect of differences in ‘contact potential was discussed in 6.3 and is diareyarded here. Tora conductor of fritelengrh che current an potential n reponse t longitudinal field E°(x) is given by (1.443, which ‘contains two integration constants 4 and B to be determined from the boundary conditions at the ends of the conductor or at source points, as discussed in Chapter I. For188 EARTH CONDUCTION EFFECTS Cane «4 conductor of infinite length, the boundary conditions af infinity requir that the current vanish, provided that E° is confined to a Snite interval Hence B = —Q(#) and d— —P(— 2). The current is then EP eas ef Berna 72K, ‘which is identical with (5.46). The conductor porential F(e) is obtained fom (144). The loakege Ie= (6.13) SB@ eM eel dy current J’(x) = —GP(x) is Iw = ofS ff Boras & f 7 Biota] 1g While the above equations for conductor current and potential ordinarily are satisfactory approximations, even when the earth resistivity or leakage conductance varies appreciably along the conducter, this is not true for the leakage current 1"(x). The voltage gradient along the conductor is usually rather small, so that the variation in conduetor potential over a Gistance of 100 meters or so is inappreciable. Within such a sectien there ‘may be, however, a considerable variation from point co peint in the leakage conductance, cue to variation in the resistivity of the earth or of the conductor coating, and the leakage current will vary almost proportior- arely. ‘The average leakage current given by (6.14) is ordinarily of lew importance than fiuctuations along the conductor from the average which is responsible for loestized corzosion. If che leakage conductance atic as Gfw}, a firse approximazion to the resultant variation in leakage curren: is obtained by replacing in (6.14) @ by G(x). 6.5 Stray conduction iv proximity zones In the following sections vertain basic cases of stray conduction are considered, such a8 an energized ground near a foag conductor, rwo parallel and two crossing conductors. Before proceeding with these epecial cuss, certain general Consicerations will be discussed regarding stray current it proximity zones. ‘Assume an impressed electric ficlé intensity E%(s) along the conductor in which case the leakage current is given by (6.14). If the r2te of propa gation along the conductor is small compared to the rate at which £%() changes with », the exponentials, in effect, may be noglected in the integre tion; the leakage current then becomes 1G) = GU%G) 645) D-CEARTH CONDUCTION — CORROSION PROTECTION 139 where U® is the impressed earth potential at x. Thus, in a zone where the clectrie foree diminishes rapidly in comparison with the rate of attenuation along the conductor, the leakage current follows the same law as though the conductor elements were connected over an insulated wire to a remote Gound. ‘This was previously concluded in connection with equation (6.103) for an energized electrode near a long conductor, and is also true in the zone where two conductors eross. ‘As a frst approximation, the earth potential and the electric force along. 4 Fine parallel to a conductor energized to a remate ground decay expo- nentally with increasing distance from a point on the fine opposite chat ‘where current enters the conductor. If second conductor is placed along the line, attenuation along this conductor canzot be nedlected, because the rate of attenuation slong the conductor may be comparable to that of the clectri force. In the integration the two attenuaticn constants will add, 0 that the leakage current into the second conductor opposite the point where the first conductor is energized will be smaller than that obsined fear (6.15) by the factor Ty/ (Pa + Ta), where Fy and D's are the propaga- tion constants of the two condvetors In the zone near a slanting crossing, the leakage cerrent will follow some intermediate formula, since the rate of decay of the electric force along: the second conductor will be less rapi¢ than for conductors crossing, at right angles and more rapid than for parallel conductors. 6.6 Stray detween point electrade ond a long conductor ‘The current in a conductor near an energize point electrode is given by the following formule developed in scetion 5.9, which may also be obtained from (6.13) when £(x) isthe earth potertial gradient along the conductor due to current from the energized ground: Fast) 2 ejple + Kola) Tis the current through the eneraized ground, the separation of the ground, » the distance along the conductor from a point opposite the ground. The functions Ko and ¥ are defined in Appendix I. ‘The forrnula spplies except when Tx and Py are both very small, ia which case Wis replaced by & “Xo{Ly). Tn Fig. 6 are shown curves of ¥(Ua0y) together with TK y(Fy). ‘The curves shown in the latcer figure for Ty = 10 to 10°* approximate the condition of an energized electrode in direct contact with a conductor. Thus, for an earth resistivity of 100 meter-ohms and a conduetar resistance of 6 ohm/krm (1 ohm/mile) the propagation constant obtained from Fig. {64 for 2 conductor in dicect contact with the earth is 14-10 per meter. Te) (6.16) |e, ee ee ee ee ee190 PARTH CONDUCTION EFFECTS For a conductor sadius a= y= 1 em, Ty = 14+ UO® whereas, fort separation of 100 meters, Ty = 14 ‘The curves show that the stray current from an electrode at the latter separation i rather small compared zo the current obtained with direct contact. Thus, if the conductor in the above example were energized to an electrode at a separation of 100 meters, as might be the cae in a protective drainage arrangement, the proximity effect of the electrode would be negligible. ‘This would not be true, however, if the conductor were energized t0 an clectrode at a separs cates tion of 1 meter, in which case 'y = 1.4- 10-* and the maximum conductor | re ™ Rie. 65. Slid cuswes show fanctian a's, Ty), Dashed curves show faneson THK AT3) to he use for wnat values of Ua set Ty we current would be reduced approximately $0 per cent by the proximity ofthe electrode, Ih order thet 2 conductor may be regarded asin direct contact wich dhe earth, it is necessary that in (6.16) */aG: is much smaller than Ko(Te), which is the case when pGj2 3. Ie may not always be appropriate 19 regard the conductor as in direct contact with the soil as in she irsrante of cable in duct, particularly when the earch resistivity is low. The leak- lance of the duct may then be small enough so that the term r/pGein (6.16) may not be neglected, the eect of un energized electrode chen. being smaller. Thus, for an earth resistivity of 100 meter-ohms, and & leakage conductance G; of 10 mho/meter, ai = 1. For a conductor as cot sidered previously, with « resistance of 6 ohio /km, the prapagation eam D-C FARTH CONDUCTION ~ CORROSION PROTECTION 191 sant obtained from Pig. 66 is in this case 7+ 10" per meter. The maxi tum current entering the conductor as obtained from (6.16) is about 25% of that for a conductor in direct contact with the earch, and ic is evident that the elfect of an. energized electrode would not be particularly great, even if it ig wt a sepsration as small as 1 meter or s0. Fig. 66 shows the manner in which the current varies along a con~ auctor in direct contact with the earch, when the conductor resistance is ‘échm/km, the separation of the ground io 100 mevers, and the earth resistivity 100 and 1000 meter-chms, The eurves apply for a conductor radius of 1 em and would be about 25% higher for a radius of 10cm. Te will be noticed that ie the section opposite the enasgized electrode the ceroucton cunseNt -AuPERES, 0} ST zy Tay BOO 8 Tes Distance ALONG couOUCTOR FAO POINT CPPOSTE GROUND va, 66 Content entering a coudhctar in diect contact with the earth and loctnt at Segaention of 8 snetere eum. a round dchoreing Lsmpere ineo the earth Resntarce “Peandociar £2 olmjto (1 ohen/aile). Barth reigtivity 100 end 1000 meter ohms 25 Sndleated on eerves. Condor dsmeter 1 em. 7 zo current fs picked up at about the same rate for both resiativities for a dis- ance of about 100 meters. The maximary leakage current opposite the round as Calculated from formula (6.102) in section $9 ie 3 and 35 friliampere per meter for p= 100 and 1000 meter-chms, respectively, when the current in the energized ground is 1 ampere. With imperfect contact with the earth there would be, however, a greater increase in the Tealage current with resistivity, ‘Thas, with a coaring having a Jeakance of 6 mho/timy the leakage carrent would be about .09 and .3 milliampere per meter for » ~ 100 2nd 1000, respectively. “The maximuan current is about ewice as great for 1000 as for 100 meter ‘ohms, but a greater increase with resistivity would obtain if the conductor were nor in perfect contact with the ground. For the higher resistivicy, the current is discharged, however, long the conductor at # slightly -192, EARTH CONDUCTION EFFECTS cue6 slower rate. For a conductor not in direct contact with the ground, the leakage current along the section where current is discharged would gener- ally be smaller the lower the resistivity. ‘The conductor potential oppesite the energized ground, which equals the resistance drop along the conductor to a remote point, is proportional to the ares under the curves shown in the figure and, for conductors in direct contact with the earth, is approximately proportional to the square root of the earth resistivity. ‘This follows from the eixcumatance that T as a first approximation is inversely proportional to the square reot of the earth resistivity, when the conductor isin direct contact with the earth. 6.7 Say derwcen parallel conductors ‘Where two conductors are in proximity, 2s when they run along opposite sides of a road, an interchange of current may take place between them, partioularly if forced drainage is applied to one conduetor of an insulating Joine is inserted, as diseussed later, Consider the latver case fist, and assume that a voltage 27% (0) i applied across a break in one of two parallel conductors. The Functions ef and appeating in (6.50) are then AW) = MrO/rs BU =0 FO 2, and AaB — Sane ‘alusoa) ‘The current in the second conductor as obtained from (5.55) is then, when yi and 72 are defined by (5.56), FOGG, ee tne = FREE LG Bag) ene te = OEE tyatgermen) — nilrarransd) — 6.) ‘The maximum current is obvained at x = 0 and, for the particular case cof vwo similar conductors sufficiently far apart so that 72 = 9921, the current equals FOG ots FAG) = 2OT ara) With £(0) = ¥O}G/Y, the above relation beeames 1) 16 LO)” 2G eo! D-C EARTH CONDUCTION — CORROSION PROTECTION 193 where G is the conductor leakance given by (6.09) and Gig their mutual Jeakage conductance given by Gg ~ 20@.raz) (6.19) Pigg Ml? 28a = whea Ts <1 ‘Thus, if conductor 1 carries a current ,(0) and an insulating joint is inserted, the current J2(0) transferred to conductor 2 is given by (6.18), provided that the conductors are similar and are some distance apart so thar the mode of propagation along one conductor is not materially affected by the presence of the other. For two similar conductors, in direct con- tact with the soil and each having a resistance of .6chm per km, (1 ohm/mile), a radius of 2.§ em and a depth of 30 cm the transfer ratio 2{(0)/1,(0) for various separations is as follo Separation 10 $0100 meters “p= 10, 25 te aD palo, 27 es For conductors not in direct contact with the soil, such as cable in duct, the transfer ratia may be substantially smaller than indicated in the table ‘Consider next shunt energization of one conductor, as in the case cf forced drainage to a remoce drainage ground. The functions ef and of af (5.50) are then ae BO ia Ia + atean) Be) — OR egies) aa OGG f(t) serena de tafe) = BOBS (7 (5 8 — ya) tua) SiGe = LO) Gy, eramew) — Yorsmes)| (6.20) Fale} = 10) Pg ireonsmesd raklrwrsratsa)] (621) ‘The maximum voltage is obtained at x = 0, and for two similar conductors >ee 194 EARTH CONDUCTION EFFECTS Cane, 6 some distance apart so that 71 = ye = T equals FO} = 1:0) 72 ara} (622) If the conductors are some distance apart so that the reaction of the current in the second conductor on that in the first conductor is small, then. 40) = PiQN/G and 6 62m) where Gye is given by (6.19) Ic will be noticed thet the voltage transfer ratio for the above shunt energization of the conductor is given by the samme expression a5 the curzent transfer ratio for series energization of one conductor. ‘The table abore for the eurrent transfer ratio thus also applies to the voltage transfer ratio for the eondisions seared. A remote return electrode was assumed in the above discussion. If the lectrode is located near the conductors, the current due to the proximity of the return eleetrocie is obtained as diseussed in section 6,6 and is super. posed on the current given by (6.201. 68 Parelel conductors in close prosinity When the ewo conductors are in close proximity and in good contace with the earth, they as a first approximation may be combined into a single conductor, as regards propagation in the conductors with return in the earth. The constants of the two conductors 1 and 2 in parallel, as indi- cated by the notation 1:2, are then Raa = Reef (Ry + Ra) (Gr" = GahyGs" — Gat) Gr + Ge = 2am) Tha = (RiaGia)® Kia = (Rra/Gra)* For conductors in direct contact with the earth, the leakance may also be ‘obtained from the formula for a single conductor by use of an equivalent radins as obtained from (3.39) and is not usually materially greater than for asingle conductor, Thus, for two similar conductors of 4-cin diameter 25 cm apart and in direct contact with the soil, the combined lezkence iy only about 5% greater than for one of the conductors. For a given con ductor potential the combined leakage current at any point is proportional to the leakance, and thus only slightly greater than for one conductor Gua = (6.28) ‘D-C EARTH CONDUCTION — CORROSION PROTECTION 195 alone. The leakage current of each conductor is thus materially reduced, so that the conductors tend mutsally vo protect each other against cor- rosion. This ig trae even if the conductors are of differant metal, and in the presence of heterogeneities in the terrain. Current will enter the earth from both conductors where the resistivity is low and, because of mutual cffects, the current from each will be less than if the other conductor were absent. However, if two adjacent conductors of different metal are in contact at gas of moze polnts, corrosion of one conductor will be intensified as a result of the difference in galvanic potential, and this effect may pre- vail over the mutual shielding. Currents due to locel cells of small dimen- sions compared to the conductor diameter are not affected by the presence of other conductors. If parallel conductors are ingerconnected!, the current exchange at the Interconnection due to difference in galvanic porential will be gradually discharged to earth along one of the conductors and revuzn along the other. Tet V4 be the potential difference between conductors 1 and 2. Whes the conductors are interconnected, the current in each direction is Finaf Kina aed the current in the interconnection is Wroa Kia where Kino is the characteristic resistence of one conductor with return in the other, the conductors heing essumed ro extend indefinitely in both Girections from the point of interconnection. ‘The current at the distance x from the interconnection is then (6.25) ha= Laat) = = (6.26) where I'1_2 is the propagation constant of conductor J with return in 2. ‘The leakage current a2 obtained by diferentiatin of (6.26) i, with a Has) = Pudi Oe 6.07) Tn the above expressions Pras (Raa) Kia = (Rina/Gi-2)* Rea Rt Rs Gc — Gr" + Get = 2G (6.28) For conductors in direet contact wich che earch, che acif and mutual196 EARTH CONDUCTION EFFECTS Cuan 6 leakage conductances and the series conductance G2 are obtained from where Ds ands are obtained from (5.54), af = (2das)™!, af = (2450), ‘ig is the distance Between conductors and afz the distazien fram one com. ductor to tie image of the other. The formulas for the equivalent radii and separations fallow from considerations set farth in section 3.6. 6.9 Stray between crossing conductors Let it be assumed that both conductors are located on the surface of the earth and thet conductoz 2 mnakes a semicircle of radius a,2 under conductor 1 at the crossing. This simplifes the mathematical treatment and for physical reasons it is evident that the resule will be much the same asif there Were a difference azo in the depth of the conductors or if some other type of crossing is aimulated by a semicircle, _ When a current /4(0) enters conductor 2 at the crossitg, the earth poten- rial along a line perpendicular to this conductor is given by Py Vy) ~ LO)" 20.7 ,3) 6) For values of y the range where the earth potential is of main interest, Q(O,Ty} may be replaced by log (1.12/Tyy). The electric force obtained by differentiation of ¥(Q,y) is then FQ) = no? ae 631) Along conductor 2 the electric force is then given by (6.31) when y > ai and is zero when »- trode @ lead duct slug placed in an empty duct and connected to the cable until it has assumed the same surface condition as the latter. 626 Cathodie Protection Tests ‘As is evident from the preceding discussion, the noed for corrosion pro- tection cannot always be established by measurements of conductor carrents, of potential betwoon the conductor and ground, or of earth or vential gradients, unless substantial stray carrent is involved. Even with siray currents it may sometimes be dificult to determine the adequacy of takodie protection by the above type of mezsurements. A criterion of the relative extent of anodic and cathodic surface areas and the minimum current required for cathode protection is provided by the variation in polarization voleage with drainage current. As the drainage current is212 EARTH CONDUCTION EFFECTS Cunt increased from a low value, there is for a while impreceptible change it polarization voltage, since the drainage current has a low density at the surface of the conductor and tends to concentrate on anadie areas, wher polarization ordinarily is much less pronounced than in cathodic area. With farther increase in drainage current, a marked increase may le cbscrved in che polarization voltage as virtually the entire surface becomes cathodic. This cirtumstance provides the basis for a test method by whieh she need for cathodic protection and the approximate drainage current may be determined, This test method has not #5 yet, however, receive! general acceptance. ‘Areliable criterion on the need for and the amount of cathodic protection required in a given case should indicate not only the total protective curreat needed, which is an index to the total anodic current, but also the currest density at the anodic areas. If anodes and cathodes are more or les uniformly distributed, corrosion may ocaur at such a slow rete 3s to be of no concern, unless the indicated protective current is large. If, however, there are singular corrosion cells of comparatively high electromotive force and smail anodic areas, such as those shown in Figs. 6.2 and 6.3, ther influence on the conductor potential isso small that their presence may not be detected. Such cells may thus continue to exist even though polariza tion tests indicate that virtually the entire surface is cathodic. 6.17 Stray current correlation surveys For adequate corrosion mitigation in situations involving a proximity of ‘wo or more grounded metallic strsctures, it may be necessary 20 eondct tests to correlate the currents or potentials of the various conductors. 4s an example, consider three conductors as shown in Fig. 610, and assume that current enters one of the conductors in the locality under Consideratca as 2 result of drainage at some point or for other reasons, in which cae current would be discharged from the other two conductors. With the conductors interconnected at poines 1, 2and 3, current would eater al conductors, unless they were of different ttatcrial so that the interconnee tions would give rise to galvanic action. In the latter case, it might be preferable not to interconnect the conduetors, or to apply an electromative foree in series with the connection to overcome the galvanic potenti! difference, or possibly to insert an insulating joint in the offending conduct “The effect of interconnections may be determined on ehe basis of measute- ments as indicated in Fig, 6.10. Simoltaneous observations are rwade of the voltages V%, V2, and 72, obtaining between the terminals indicazod by the subscripts, and of the voltages to ground V2, 7% and 7%. Point «is cone of several points on conductar J at which observations are made ofthe voltage to ground or of the gradienc in the earth normal to the conduct D-C EARTH CONDUCTION — CORROSION PROTECTION 213 and in a similar menner 2 and c represent one of several observation points on the other two conductors. In addition to the voltages, measurements are made of the self- and mutual resistances between the various test points, The mutual resistance Rizo would be obtained by observing the change in voltage te ground at point # as a result of unit current between gt etieen (2 [13 |2a | a0] bel evo NONE [vag [Se [¥a | Vue! ¥ ual V5 | i=2 [igcns (Prats [Rua [Riasan [Riaito [Raaico | ia Po fambouleass 2-3 PRessoo)Ras:0e) Trg 610 Quarsies meavatedin comelation rest these conductor. terminals 1 and 2. The current might be obtained by inserting an am- meter between I and 2, or preferably by inserting a battery in series so as to obtain increased current and potential readings. ‘With a direct connection between points I and 2, the change in potential to ground at point a would equal Pog = V2o + P¥aRizaol Rosse (648) and a corresponding expression would apply to points 3 and ¢ with 8 ot ¢ replacing a, or for a bond between | and 3 or between 2 and 3. ‘With bonds between conductors ! and 3 and 2 and 3 the currents in the interconnections would be obtained from the following simultaneous equa- tons: JigRisas + LasRosas = Pg 6.49) TypRasaa + TasRasaa = V5 “The veltage between points and ground would then equal Vay = Von TeaRiaeae + FasRas.00 6.50) with similar expressions for points & and ¢.as EARTH CONDUCTION EFFECTS If forced drainage is applied between some of the points, say between 1 and 3, the currents would be obtained from (6.49), provided thet Rians includes the internal resistance of the drainage source and 1“) includes the applied electromotive force. In some situations a solid connection between two points, say 1 and 2of Vig. 6.10, may result in an anodic condition of one conductor. It may then be necessary to insert a suitable resistance R in the interconnection, in which case Riza of equation (6.48) is replaced by Rissa + R. Thus, ifit is desirable to keep point @ of conduetor J at zero potential, the value of Ris determined from the resultant equation with Vay = 0. cans CHAPTER VIL Pows Sverew Eaxrst Coxpverton axp Inpyetive INTERFERENCE TA Introduction In power system operation the earth may serve as a return conductor during normat operation or at the time of faulrs, as @ result of which sub- stantial conductive and inductive coupling may obtain between such systems and communication circuits, even wher they have a fairly large separation. This may give rise to various disturbances in communieation circuits, such as noise, service interruption due to permanent grounding of protectors, false sighals, cistortion of telegraph signals, damage to equipment, or hazard to personnel. The type of incerference that may be encountered and its severity depend not only on the mutual coupling of the power and communication circuits, but also on certain influence characteristics of the power system, which are vesponsible for the wave shape of the interfering current or voltage, and on the susceptibility of the communication circuit to disturbances of various kinds. Power system disturhences in communication circuits may be divided jnto low-frequency and roise-frequency interference. In mest eases low Srequency disturbances are associated with abuormal operating conditions, hich may give rise to severe voltages having disruptive effects in exposed communication circuits. ‘The voltages may ordinarily be predicted within engineering accuracy by methods outlined herein. Nolse-frequency dis- turbances, on the other hand, are of interest mainly in conuection with normal operating conditions, and the magnitude of the fundamental voltage is of secondary importance to that of various harmonics. The resultant interference with the intelligibility of telephone transmission depends on such a variety of factors, both in the communiestion and the power systems, that noise estimates necessarily make use, to a large extent, of empirical methods. These methods are not dealt with here, but various factors affecting noise-lrequency interference are discussed briefly. In Chapter IV, formulas and curves were presented for mutual imped ances of circuits grounded oaly 2¢ the end points; in Chapter ¥ consider- sion was given to the propagation characteristics of extensive grounded conductors under various idealized conditions not ordinarily encountered in power systems. In these systems, several phase wises may be involved, a5216 EARTH CONDUCTION EFFECTS Coan swith return in a number of extensive grounded conductors, such as railway tracks and serial or buried ground wires or neutralizing wires. In evalu ating the effect of these return conductors on coupling and on impedances and fault currents of the systems with which they are associated, it is necessary to introduce a number of engineering approximations, based ot the more rigorous treatment of various idealized cases in Chapter V. An outline is presented here of basic principles and formulas involved in such studies and in problems concerning the shielding effect of other grounded soneductors, such as cable sheaths and pipe lines; also certain protective measures in power and communication systems are discussed briefly. Various questions regarding inductive inserference and corrective measures are dealt with more exhaustively in published Engineering Reports,’ which will be referred to for additional detail. The determination and application of corrective measures in power and communication aystems against commnication cireuit disturbances are refered to as inductive coordination. Various factors requiring consideration in connection low-frequency and noise-frequency coordination are discussed in publica. tions,?#* containing additional bibliographies. 7.2 Coupling and circuit terminology Coupling of cireuits with return in the earth and in grounded conductors may be classified at transverse ot longitudinal coupling. Transverse, sleccric, capacitive or admittance coupling is due to the electric force in the air normal to the conductor and the earth, eccasioned by conductor charges and proportiona) to the conductor potential. Longieudinal or impedance coupling is due to the electric force in the axial direction and say consist partly of magnetic or inductive coupling due to time varia- tion of conductor current and partly of resistive coupling due to earth Potential differences. For a given frequency, the longitudinal coupling is proportional ta conductor current. ‘Ordinarily one or several pairs af exposed conductors are involved, and there may then be difference in either che transverse or the longitudinal coupling — or both— of the two sides of a metalic cireuit, the effects of which are referred to as direct metalliccireuit induction. In addition, 8 current may be set up in a metallic circuit by a transverse or longitudinal voltage to ground because of unbalance in the longitudinal impedances or the admittance to ground of the two sides of the circuit and their assoc ated apparatus. The current in the metallic cireuit in this case may be regarded as the difference of the longitudinal currents to ground in the two sides of the circuit, and hence this efect is referred to as longitudinal. sircuit induction. Transverse induction and direct metallic-cireuit induc tion are substantially independent of earth resi ae en POWER SYSTEM EARTH CONDUCTION 27 ‘communication circuits are in sufficient proximity for such induction to be of impoctance. In the following, the exposed conductor is designated x, the grounded return conductors, shield wires, ete, 1,2,3..., and the insulated phase wires or trolleys, 4,4¢-.-. Consider at first a single phtse wire and «single grounded retstn conductor, together with an exposed wire, as shown in Fig. 7.1. The voltage Y appearing berween the exposed wire PHASE. WIRE. Me, sew onouc TO» —+ p exposed we ie se" a buASE WIRE IMAGE Fre. 71 Configurttiona nomenclature. and ground, Gut to transverse induction, and the longitudinal electrie lerce £, dune to magnetic induction, are then given by. Va Jal Vort IfYie (701) En Wat hte (7.02) where J, and Ji atc unit length charging curzents in araperes per meter, Tgand 1; longitadinal currenes. The admittances and impedances in the above equations are the primary quantities for earth retarn in terms of which corresponding quantities ¥° and Z? with return in the earth and rounded renirn conductors will be expressed later 00. Equation (7.01) or its equivalent is frequently written in terms of the unit length con. ductor charges Qe and Qi as = QaPor-+ QPim where Pos = ioe ind Piz = io¥je are referred to as the potential coefficients. While this procedure may be preferable for static conditions, the charging currents rather that the charges are usually of primary interest in ac systems. For this reagon, equations for traneverse voltages are here written in terms of charging currents, but may readily be transformed into cor218 EARTH CONDUCTION EFFECTS Coa. responding equations in terms of charges and potential coefficients ‘The unit length mutual admittance is given by 1 ren * You = (5 tg 793) where « = 8.854107" farad per meter is the capacitivity of free space, ‘rhe is the distance from x to the image of , 4@, or Vice versa, and raz is the dis. tance between @ and x. A corresponding expression may be written for Yn ‘The earth-veturn mutual impedances Zep and Zi» are given by formulas in Chapter TV and depend to a considerable extent on earth resistivity, For a perfectly conducting earth, or for finite earth resistivity but very high frequencies, che mutual impedances are given by for) the Zoe = Flan = 04) where » = 1.257 10 henries per meter is the inductivity of free space For such high frequencies that (7.04) applies, YerZae = (ia/o)®, where 2 = (1/o)!/¥is the velocity of propagation along the conductors. Expres sions (7.03) and (7.04) are generalizations of (1.31) and (1.32) in which 2his replaced by rl. and a by ran since the point under consideration ie at rather than at the surface of the conductor. When the exposed circuit consists of a pair with one conductor at separt- tions ras and ris, the other at separations rae and rar the metallic voltages due to transverse and longitudinal induction are BAW = Jo /¥eo = W/¥o0 + LAVre — Vie) — 7.05) Em BY = IylZun — Zoe) + Ia aa ~ Zee) (7.06) where pa nt ig tis Yon” Yan ~ Tate 8 read aay Pas — Lag = 5 7.08) with similar expressions for conductor ?. ‘The longitudinal impedance dif ference actually depends to sotte extent on the earth resistivity, but the effect is negligible for typical spacings of conductors and for such separn, tons that the directnetallic cireuit induction nceds to be corsidered Jn caleulating longitudinal induction, it's convenient to regard the power transmission system as composed of a metallic circuit and an exsth-securn ireuie. The current Z, may be assumed to return in conductor 1, with ¢ current Jn + 1, = J, of opposite direction in conductor 1 aad return in ehe earth, as shown in Fig, 7.2, The current Z, so defined is the total earth, POWER SYSTEM EARTH CONDUCTION 19 return current across a plane perpendicular to the system at a given point, ja the following referred to as the earth current. The longitudinal electrie force may then be written E= [Lie t Talos — 22) 7.09) with Zan ~ tre = log" 7.10) where the last term in (7.09) is the longitudinal voltage due to the metallic current in the transmission system and acedis only be considered when the separation is small, as is evident from (7.10), = PHASE WIRE Te de {GROUNDED CONDUCTOR = Taare lo. 72 Decemposcion ef circuit consisting of a phase wiee with return ip a ground ‘conductor and in che earth ineo 2 metallic sitet carrying curt Tq and aa earth rere ng carrent Zo Gree serving current Le ‘When the transinission system consists of sever! phase wires and return conductors, the voleages are obtained by ax. extensian of the above eqs cons, This, for three phase wires and three grounded return conductars, (7.01) and {7.02} ate zeplaced by V = JulYoat JulViat Jef¥oa+ IifVue t+ Jal¥ae+ JafYon (ll) B= Llant hte + Iles + Indan + Salas + Tahoe am) In caleulasing the longitudinal induction, even for circuits at fairly closesep- aration, it is usually permissible to replace (7.12) by the product of the earth current and the mutual impedance obtained by taking the average seperation to the vazious conductors of the return system. In unbalanced three-phase systems che sum of the phase wire currents, Zu ++ Jy + Ios ‘Fig. 7.7_ System composed of bic crits chown in Ft. 7.3. The earth curtent and earth ‘potential ct Qs cbtsined by auding the reals for each of she eompenent sections for the fllowing: SeuienO-L a= 525 x= 198 T= 100 rey 7 vr =LIS T= M0 BS woes AIS ra —am0 earth current over each section is multiplied by he inductive coupling factor for the section, as obtained from formulas or curves in Chapter IV, and the varions inerements are added to obtain the total inductive coup” ling. The resistive coupling equals the Giference in earth potential atthe end poines of the exposed circuit. When the above method is used to calculate coupling for faults to the return system on transmission lines, che currents J are the zero sequence currents in the phase wites for various sections. Since the disvances to the various sources of supply 2re ordinarily much greater than for reilway propulsion systems, inductive coupling usually presiominates aver resistive coupling because of earth potential difference, except for telephone circuits entering power stations where ground potential may be appreciable during abnormal operating conditions. A common cause of transmission line outages is exeassive lightning voltages, which give rise to fashovers ‘bceween phase wires and towers or ground wires, With present lightning protection measures, sich as ground wires and low resistance to ground, of towers, che resiseance to ground az the feule point is likely zo be small.28 EARTH CONDUCTION EFFECTS pa ew. —- nf fonlomarioy eS iN 6 ! x9 \ \ i \ | | CHPORERT ere NENT ferent oO 23 6 5 67 6 8 MULES ALONG TRACK Pie, 78 Earth carrent dstibajon curve ee For other types of faults, however, such as fallen phase wires, the resistance at the fanlt point may be quite high and must be taken into accoune.? In the basic circuit used above, the return conductors were assumed £0 be of infinite length and veithout any discontinuities. In certain cases the finite length of the conductors may need consideration, or there may be discontinuities resulting from change in the size or the number of con- ductors which may have to be taken into account. When more accurate results are required than ean be obtained by the approximate method ee A Se cms. POWER SYSTEM EARTH CONDUCTION 29 mentioned above, the problem may be solved by application of the trans- mission line equation to conductors with series and shunt discontinuities, ts diseussed in 1.6. The effect of certain shunt and series discontinultics may also be obtained by superposition methods. 1.6 Return-system potentials For the basic circuit shown in Fig. 7.3, the potential of the retuen system atx’ is obtained by superpesition in the same manner as the earth potential and the earth current and ecuals Ha ZO adKla(ee’) — al" (7.26) | where the various quantities are defined in 7.4 and 7.5. "The rerera-systern potential at 2 getterator or substation at times of fault to ground is frequently of interest, since it is imposed on communica tion or signal cireuies fom the station to remote points. For the basic cireuit in Fig. 7.3, the return-system potential at the station is obtained with x’ = Oand 2” = 4, the length of the energized section, and equals I Va - 70 ~ v)Kalts) az) =A FO = WK, wheat. ‘A generating station may have a low resistance ground by virue of the building steucrure, or a low-resistance ground may have been specially provided. If the impedance of such a ground is Zo, and the potential ‘eithout the ground as obtained from (7.27) is V, the current chrough the gaund when connected is V/(Zo-+ K/2). ‘The potential across the ground is Vy ~ FZq/(Ze+ K/2), 50 that the gotential of che return fystem in presence of 4 station ground of impedance Zo is 2K weg mee) {If che return system extends in one direction fom the station, rather than in both directions as in Fig, 7.3 the potential is 2K Fee Rn aed ‘The latter expression is obv2ined by writing in (7.28) the fraction Zof (By + K) as 2i/(Z5 + K), where 2 = KZo/(K + 2p} is the imped- ‘ance of the station ground in paralle! with the return system in one direc Vo= 1 (7.28) %=- 7.29) i ee20 EARTH CONDUCTION ERRECTS Coan tion. ‘Fhe potential is thus obtained for 2 retarn system in one direction grounded through 2, which in (7.29) is designated Zo. Without return conductors, «= 0, f= © and K= =, so thar Vo = —Iés. With return conductors, nowever, such as ground wire, or railroad tracks, the potential of the station ground is reduced, since ‘only a fraction of the current Z returns chrough the station ground, even though its impedance ie much smaller than that of the rerurn system to ground. Thus, if Zo is much smaller than K, the potential becomes Yo = —I%(1 ~ u)a(Ts), which shows that only the fraction (1 — z)a(T3) ‘of J reeurns through the station ground. The remainder of he current i ‘confined t0 che rerum conductors, partly by inductive coupling as repre. sented by the factor (I — x) and partly by 2 finite rate of propagation of current into the earth, as represented by the factor a(T's). 1.7 Skisléing from extensive gronded conductors Aside from grounded conductors which are part of the Power reer system, a8 considered hitherto, other conductors grounded either con- tinuously or only at the ends may be in sufficient proximity to cither the power system or the exposed circuit to require consideration, as discussed in the following. The currents impressed in such conductors by long tudinal and cransverse coupling with a power cireuie reduce voltages in near-by exposed circuits and thus provide shielding. In most situations where longitudinal voleages are sufficient in magnitude to be of concern, the circuits are of such length that resistive coupling is of secondary importance compared to inductive coupling. For power and communica. tion cireuits in close proximity, shielding against electric induction as discussed at the end of this section may be mporvant. 8 shielding arrange- ment that is efective from the standpoint of magnetic induction is at least equally effective as regards electric induction, but the convesse is rok trac. "The simple ease of a conductor grounded only ak the ends will demon strate certain fundamental aspects of shielding against longitudinal voltages. Consider a primary circuit, 0, a parallel exposed or secondary circuit, x, ‘anda shielding conductor, +. Let V2 be the impressed voltage in the exposed circuit due to inductive and resistive coupling without aay shield. ing conductor and let 2 be that in the shielding cireuit. The current in the shielding circuit is then —72/Zer, where Za is the self-impedance of the shielding conductor with earth return, including the impedance of the grounds at the ends. The voleage impressed in the exposed circuit by the shielding current is ~72Zn/Zsw where Zea is the mutual impedance between the shielding and the exposed circuits and includes inductive as POWER SYSTEM EARTH CONDUCTION a y= where the second term is the shielding voltage. en - ‘The impressed voltages may be expressed in terms of the current in the primary cit 38 F2 = Tolan, 79 = FoZon where Zoe and Zo are ral impedances, in which case (7.30) may be written Zudos tite(t ocZoe ost = Toluan = Vn where the shield factor » is given by 7 eee (2.32) Calg evident that the shielding effect will be 28 same a long as Za2>, reniains constant, It fellows thar « conductor will have te ame effect whether iti located a given distance from the primary or fom Shesecondary circuit, provided thar the earth is niform so that the teal impedances vary in a fixed manner with separation, ana also provide thar inductive coupling slone is involved. ‘When the shielding and the secondary conductors are exposed to the same field, VE= V2 ar Zaz = Zon (7.32) becomes Lay ~ Zn Zn ‘This expression applies ta a shield wire near a telephone line ard ao to able sheath shielding, In the latter instance, the expression may de farther simplified because of the circumstance that the sheath and the able condnetors are both Linked with the magnetic fux external to the Cable sheath. For low frequencies, it is thus permissible to wrise Bun = Zan = Rea — Rez where Ray is the total direct-current resistance of the sheath and the Terminal grounds end Ryy ig che mutual resistance between the sheath- arth and the conductor-earth circuits. The ease of higher Frequencies where this simplification is not permissible 's discussed in the next section, ‘Two special eases may require further discussion. - "First let the terminals of the sheath aid the inside conductors exince, jin which case Re, equals the resistance of the terminal grounds and From (7.32) it 733)ee eC 232 EARTH CONDUCTION EFFECTS Cua? Rus — Ras the resistance of the sheath, R. ‘The shidlé factor ig then 17 RZ a3 cis noticed that this shield factor is improved by increasing Zs, without at the same time increasing R, wich may be accomplished by increasing the resistance of the terminal grounds (although this measure would not 23/40* ohms for a cable of 6S.cm diamerer containing 300 19 gauge pairs and. having a sheath re- sistance of 37 ohm/km. With s = 80 km, T's = 1.28/47° and feanh To $8.0 that the attenuation effect is not particularly great. For a 19-gange pair in sach a cable the propagetion constant with return in the sheath and238 FARTH CONDUCTION EFFECTS the other pairs is about .02/45° per kim and the charecterstic impedance about 700/41° ohms. Jn Jong table cieuits more impartant effect than atteauation is che tendency of equipntent with relatively low impedance to ground at termi- nals or repeater points to limit the rerminal voltages on the circuits with which they are azsaclated and on other circuits. The impedance ta ground of such equipmene is ordinarily small compared to the longitudinal impedance of a pair of eable conductors between two voice repeater sta- sions, Hence, the terminal voltages may be a fraction of the longitudinal impressed voltage. Furthetmore, che current in the cable conductors associated with grounded equipment will provide shielding and thus limie the voltages in other circuits. These effects are less pronounced for ope= wire lines of comparable length on account of their smaller impedances in relation to that of the terminal equipment. On short open-wire or cable cirenits the effect is usually negligible, partly on account of the small longitudinal circuit impedances, and partly because of the limited use of circuits with low impedance paths to ground at low frequencies. cunt 7A Franrmission system admitionces ond impedances Jn section 7.3 it was assumed that the phase wire charging and long tudicel currents were known, in which case the return system currents could be obtained from (7.17) and (7.48) and, in tar, the electric acd magnetic induction from (7.11) and (7.12). The present objective i to derive transmission line admittance and impedance diagrams as shown in Fig. 7.12, from which the charging carrents and the longitudinal load or fault currents may be determined when the phase voleages and generator impedances tre known. In the above diagram the earth and the return system are represented by single neutral conductor, 0, and the first objective will be to derive the equivalent direct admittances between the various phase conductors and between these conductors and the recura system. The equarions given below also apply to cable with several phase wires, except that the various admietances are then usually obtained by measurements on the cable rather than by calculation based on the cor figuration of the system, as for aerial wires. ‘Consider at first one phase wire und three return conductors, the charging ‘currents in which have been determined in terms of the phase wire charging current by solution of (7.17). The voltage due to electric induction for a isolated conductor at any point x as obtained from (7.01) is then 1 Ai 1 1 rarlttntint tn] oo = SAV POWER SYSTEM EARTH CONDUCTION 29 ‘phere Y%, is the mutual admittance with revurn in the earth and the various return conductors. Assume that the mutual admittances ¥is and Ye have also been determined by the solution of similar sets of siemuleancous wpations for phase wires 4 and c. —_ wie admiteance diagram would then be ax shown i Fig. 7.43) and the charging cuszents in the three phase wires would be obtained from the Jollowing set of simaltancous equations, Which are related to the correspond- Yee tee i ab Pa 2a . Pie Pee rs Fie, 7.12 Acmisuace and impedance diagrams. The earth and gtoended conductors “are vepresenied by 2 aeutzal spaducror 0. ing equations in terms of conductor charges and potential coefficient 28 liscussed in 7.2, eT am Illa WLS Td ym Jal Pet [iVe+ JlVe 781) Vo= JlVeet Jb Yeet Sel Yee a YS=¥i, YR=YR, FRA YS ‘The self. and mutual admittances are those obtaining with conductors a,b anc msalaied from ground and other return conductors. If rumer- “Sal values are inserted in (7.41) for the various self. and muteal admir- tances, the solution of the equations for the currents in terms of the voltages wil come aut in the form Ja= VY ot VG, + VY Tea VY t VV + VY To = PV ag V8 + VY Ce (42)20 EARTH CONDUCTION EFFECTS Cuan? Inspection of (7.42) shows that You is she admittance of conductor « when 4 and ¢ are at zero potentis! or grounded, with « corresponding ce Yae | Nbc i. Fog, 713. Self and ravi sdittance Gagram. The cath und grounded fonlaccore ate fegresnind by niton for ¥fy and ¥2. Voy = Yi and ¥2.=P2, are the admit. tances of « to the grounded conductor, 2 and «, respectively, ie, ¥%, and S represent the currebts in com ductors 8 and ¢ when @ i raised te unit potential. _ From the standpoiat of ‘visualizx tion and necwork simulation it is referable to transform the star ad- rmittance representation in Fig, 7.13 into an equivalent diagram of direct admictances. This may be 2ccom- plished by the usual network transfor. sextrl eondctor 0 mation theorems or by writing the solution af (741), as gi Rages ti (7.413, as given by (7.42), Ja Po¥20+ Vo Vi¥2o + Us - HIV Ju = Pa¥bo + Ws Va¥hat Py — Ved¥ he Tia VN 09+ Ve~ VW be + Vo ~ Vi)¥% where ¥2o, Vig and ¥%o are the direct admitrances to the return, 0, and Yiu = Yio» Yoo = YEa, YB, Y9e= ¥2y are the direct admittance between the various phate wires. Comparison of (7.12) an . the following relations: meme aie ¥e an ¥ae~ Fog PE. = V2 Yao + Vit Ye Yio = Viet oot YR. ‘To obtain the longitudinal impedance, consider a phase wire and three return conductors, the currents in which have been determined in terms of the phase wire current by solution of (7.18). The longitudinal electric force for an isolated conductor at point x is then 0.33) (7.44) =12, where Z2. is the mutual impedance with return in the earth and retutn conductors, The selfimpedance Z° is obtained by taking x = a in the | tts POWER SYSTEM EARTH CONDUCTION formule for 22. To obtain the self and mutual impedances 22, Z, 2, Z, etc, for other phase wires, itis necessary to solve a set of simul taneous equations for each wire. In deriving the above longitudinal impedances, the transmission systetn ‘was assumed to be of infinite length so that only inductive coupling between the various conductors needed consideration. Actually, there may be appreciable current in the return system because of resistive coupling. mt ‘Let the average current in the return system, 0, be designated Ig, The unit length self- and mutual impedances with return in 0 are then Bg = Bas ~ Ean + #2 Cap ~ Fn) as) 2 = 2, 2a +39 Coo ~ in) With a single return conductor and a system of infinite length, To/Ta = 2sa/ Za in which case Zia = Loa ~ Zinl Zon Dy = Lan — Linlao/ Zoo which is che same result a8 woutd be obtained from (7.44). Tf the length of the phase wire ia diminished toward zero, however, the current in the return system will approach that in the phase wire, so chat Iola = 1. ‘The impedances are then Bly = Laas + Boo — Zoo By ~ Lan — Zan + Loe — 20 ‘The unit length impedances given by (7.47) are usually somewhat larger than those obtsined from (7.46), The latter equation, however, may also bbe used for phase wires of short length, since the impedance is then small compared to that of the power source and the net effect on the current inappreciable. ‘Although the equations (7.45) assume a single return conduetor, they may be used as an approximation when thete are several conductors in the return system. Zoo is then the selfimpedance of all rezurn conductors in Parallel, whereas Zap and Zz» are the average mutual impedances of the various return conductors with a and 5. The impedance of several phase ‘vires in parallel may be required in calculating faults to ground and is obtained from a set of simultaneons equations similar to (7-21) with Zy1, Yaa, ete, replaced by 22, Zip, ete. Zero-sequence impedances of trans- (7.46) 74?)me EARTH CONDUCTION EFFECTS cor nission lines may be determined as outlined above and are dealt with ia Engincering Report No. 37.! TLL Methods of fauit current calculetion Fauie curtent determination in extensive interconnected power systems ‘may be a rather laborious procedure, even when caleulsting boatds are used for this purpose. With the latter method, the system is represented ord- sarily by one or more equivalent networks of the type used in calculations, rather than by a misiature of the system itself. Methods used te desive equivalent diagrams are outlined here, together with cereain network theorers that facilitate the calealation of load and fault current distribu. tion within the equivalent networks. ‘The impedances of transformers and generators are usually expressed in er cent, p, of the scated rating of the equipment. This percentzie repre sents the regulation at the speciied rating, and ie follows thar the im: pedance equals Z = p27/1OW, when Fis in voles and the rating His in vole-amperss. The resistance of generators is usually negligible compered vo the rexctance, The reactance of @ synchronous machine during short cireult varies from an initially low value, known as the “subtransien:” reactance, to a relatively large sustained value, passing through an inte mediate value known asthe “transient” reactance. The eilects responsible for the suberansient reactance disappear within the first few cycles 50 thar it is sufficiently accurate for most purposes to use the subtransient reactance in computing current in networks employing high-speed crevk, breakers or when maximum values of short circuit currents aze desired, and rouse the transient reactance to determine the curren after some $ to 1Seycles. In some instances faule currents may last for 100 eysies or mere! and are then decermived by the steady stare reacrances. As discussed in 4.16;it is ordinarily a permissible approximation to deal with pes velages induced by power system transient currents on 2 steady state basis, ever when their duration is bur a fraction of a eycle. A power system may contain several voltages, and in setting up aa ‘equivalent diagram itis necessary to transform the varions impedances t the common voltage basc used in the equivalent diagram. Thus, if the actual or rated voltage of the component network under consideration is Y; and the actuz! impedance at this voltage is Z,, the impedance Z 2 the common voltape base V is Z~ Z,(¥/¥1}*. Whea the current in this component network af determined from the equivalent diagram is J, che sectual current is fy = IV /F;, When shere is a mutual impedance Muy between wo circuits having nominal vokages 7 and V2, the equivalent mutual impedance an the voltage base Vis M = AMy/*/Vi¥'s. The base voltage selected is usually that ofthe circuit of chief faterest in the problem YOWER SYSTEM EARTH CONDUCTION m3 se hand. Thus, for tratsmission line faults to grourd it would be the ‘eleage to ground of the phase wiress in trolley short circuit ar load currents it would be the nominal trolley voltage. “The shove wiles sufice £0 derive equivalent networks for single phase systems, with one phase conductor or with several phase conductors at the same potential. A single-phase three-wice system, which is sometimes used ‘ox tailsay electrifications, consists of two-phase conductors at different po- tentials with return in a neutral conductor. Two methods of representa- tion, shown in Rigg. 7.14 and 7.15, may be used for such systems. In one case the system is regatded a8 made up of a troley-raileireuit and a metallic volley feeder Grcuit, which isthe preferable methad in most instances since ir requires consideration ofa single earth-return circuit. Tn the other ease the network is regarded «8 made up of a trolley-rail and a feeder-ral circu ‘The equivalent impedasoes of the eransformers in the above figure are ob- tained from the zelations Zan ~ Haasan + Eu Zan = MEasae + Gents — Zawtt) Bay ~ Wane + Larss ~ Zrrcted Bh = BLavae + Zinzer — Zerted Big = Bite + Bieter — Zante) Bye = ¥(Zancay tb Penge ~ Zarate) where Zaasers and Zane and Zya.e7 are the leakage impedances between the high tension winding and those of the trolley-rail feeder-rail and trolley- fander circuits, and Zinyr the leakage impedance between the troiley-rail, ‘and feeder-rail windings all on zhe common veltage base used in the net- work diagram. For chetiee systems it is customary in calculating faults between 2 phase wire and ground to use 2 ynethod based on the decomposition of the ‘network into metallic circuits and circuits with return in the earth and grounded revamn conductors, a method that nay also be used for faults on ‘ne of several parallel branches of 2 single-phase system. The basic principle may be demonstrated by the simple circuit shown in Fig. 7.16, here the three symmetrical branches are supplied by three identical generators, For a fault to ground on branch a, the fale earrene would equal of (Zan Zp)s hese Zagis the earth-return impedance of one branch and Z, the associsted generator impedance. With grounded revarn eon ductors, Za, is replaced by 22, and similarly for other conductor impedances in the above and later equations — Zev) as)wt EARTH CONDUCTION EFFECTS aunt ‘The network impedance for a fault under the above condition may alse he determined by assuming at first all electromotive forces removed and the three branches to be interconnected at the fault point. With a currest Zep r 4e v4 y te TerTert Ter Tee ‘ Nehudy woe a OEY terae soe leper 2. Te a ; GOP tae Zerray © TROLLEY RAIL SELFHMPCORNCE Zryery © FEEDER-RAIL SELF ~IMPEDRNCE Lagrag = TROLLEY-FEEDER SELF-AMPEDANCE ‘© TROLLEY-RAIL: FEEOEA-RAIL MUTUAL IMPEDANCE * TROLLEY-RAIL: TROLLEY-FEEDER MUTURL IMPEDANCE Fro, 714 Theeeoirestlmay cevaifcation oystem and equivalent teley ails elle fer agra, 4a in the earth-return circuit thus established, and with Zyp— Zue oo account of the symmetry assumed, the voltage drop along branch a equals % zi Plant tg + Usa) ~ "2g where Zoo = Lau + Ey + Was C49) The current Zo/3 in branches } and ¢ may next be canceled by equal and opposite currents in the interconnection at the faule point. The addi. Sonal voltaue drop in branch a due to the superposed currents would equal he F Olay + 2g — Lay = Zee) POWER SYSTEM EARTH CONDUCTION us where, with Zas = Zar Em Zag By = Zan 7.50) The impedance of the faulied branch may now be written Zou + Zy = Yo + 22) and the fault current Wa 0" Fm (7.51) =r he Duncan TROLLEY=RAIL SELF-IMPEDANCE, Depser+ FEFDER-RAIL SELF IMPEDANCE Tupsve= TROLLEY -FEEDER SELF-IMPEDANCE Zens pra TROLLEV-RAIL: FEEDER-RAIL, MUTUAL IMPEDANCE Debseg THOLLEY-RAML:TROLLEY-FEEDER MUTUAL IMPEDANCE ia 745. Thrtewicerilnay elecrfeason spot and equivalent tolleyo: earn diagram. impedance Zp equals three times the parailel impedance of the three Peeeeetieh cart serurn, wherens 2 the impedeher cf branch « with respect to ground or a neutral poing, with metallic return in the other two branches, ie. the voltage between branch a and ground for unit current in fe with retwn in b and ¢. Relation (7.51) may be extended to symmetrical networks of any com plexity, as long as only single-phase generators are involved, and also ro networks with impedance and voltage asymmetry. As itis useful only for symmetrical networks and in particular for three-phase systems, only the latter application will be considered further.26 EARTH CONDUCTION EFFECTS cunt Ifin the above example the voltages were so related that med 8 three-phase system, Z, would be the metallic impedance sie . the neutral point as used in calculation of regulation for symmetrical loads, ‘When the three generators are replaced by a three-phase generator, how. ver, a certain modification is required. The single phase system super ‘imposed to cancel the current in phases } and ¢ would then give rise to an oscillating magnetic field within the generator, which would interact with -—o——_______. © vy A = Wa 7s “eh oS Tat “iat co i Fro. 7.16 Composiion of untymmessical srwork feu condition, f, Gum eymnetcd rk sown smait Bend meale rit G ‘The vag of th neat te aches a atthe fale point are asters aul sf pose the earrent divin I no pec the current division incest th she rotating magnetic field. For the purpose of analyzing this interaction, it is customary to regard the single phase field as composed of two oppo. sitely rotating magnetic fields, each equal to half the single-phase feld. The component rotating with the three-phase field is referred to es the Positive sequence, the other as the negative sequence field. The asso Giated reaction in the three-phase winding difer and are referred to asthe Positive phase sequence and negative phase sequence impedances. The impedance 22, in the above expressions is accordingly equal tothe sam of the positive and negative sequence impedances, and the fault currene may be expressed as Wo poe OT Btat (7.52) POWER SYSTEM EARTH CONDUCTION ur where Mo is the voltage from phase to ground, Zp is the zero sequence, Zy the positive sequence and Zz the negative sequence impedance, the lattor two impedances being equal for transformers and transmission lines. In accordance with the principles outlined above, « symmetrical three- phase eystem may be represented by three impediznce diagrams, one for cach sequence, from which each of the three impectances may be determined, and thus che total zero sequence or return system fault cutrent. ‘The zero sequence current in various other sections of the system may next be determined from the zero sequence diagram and, in turn, the carth current by methods outlined previously. If the indivicual phase wire currents should be required, which ordinavily is not the case in connection with low frequency induction, the positive and sane negative sequence carrents T and Ja E aot mast be determined from the respective “ 1 sequence networks. The calculation of | gox couramixs KeTHoeR fault currents in three-phase systems by the above method of symmecsical nents ig well covered in litera ture@M21204 and not considered — farther here. . i Se ‘The foult current magnitude and dis EN uiburion may be obtained from the equivalent disgrams by the use of si- rmulteneous equations ar by che custom ary methods of network reduction, which may involve representation of certain portions by equivalent multiterminal networks. A method that considerably simplifies the calculation of faults on ote of several parallel branches, particularly when they are linked by a mutual iinpedance, will be ontlined here. ‘When there are several branches between two points and their self and mutual impedances can be assumed proportional to distance, as in the case of several trolleys between substations or a twin three-phase system, itis convenient to combine them into a single brarch, both in computstions and on a calculating board. The aewwork impedances and the current Gistribution may then be obtained for loads or faults at the points of inter- ‘connection and, in tur, for intermediate points, in the following manner: Consider a network as shown in Fig. 7.17 with two parallel branches extending from x = 0 to x = + and some other branch, m, in which the current for unit load current at x ~ 0 equals in(0), and with the load at y= sequals in(e). The current in branch m for a unit current load at then’ Fie, 717, Baul at an intemesicee ‘eint on parallel branches. inte) = (1 - =) 4400) + inte) 753) 3 78 EARTH CONDUCTION EFFECTS Cunt ‘This relationship states that the current in branch 1 varies linearly with from in(0) to ia(¢) a5 the unit current load is moved from x ~0 to = 5. The proposition may be verified when it i considered that the current in branch m may be regarded as the sum of two components, ont Proportional to the current jg, from 0 to xin the faulted branch, the other to the current iss in the faulted branch, with fox + dae = 1. ‘When the load is moved, it may be proved, by using an equivalent three-point repre. sentation for the connected network, that the currents ioe and fay Vary linearly with x. By use of (7.53), the current distribution in any branch may readily be obtained for a unit current fond at intermediate points. Since the current distribution will then be known for all branches of the network, the voltage Grop through the network may be calculated, and hence the network impedance Z(x) at x. ‘The latter is related to the network impedances 200) and Z(s) and to the mutual or transfer impedance Z(0,:) between 0 and + as follows254617 20) = (1-2) 20+ (2) 204 a(- iz + 20) 5%) where Z; is the impedance of the faulted branch or of several faulted branches in parallel, as the case maybe. The impedance Z(0,s) equals the voltage drop through the network up to point Q, (or s) for unit amount load at (or 0). Ie thus differs from 2(0) or Z(s) by the drop in the faulted branch for unit loads at O and s, respectively. Tf the network self. and transfer impedances and the current distribution are known for faults at various points, the current magnitude and distri tion are readily cbeained for simultaneous leads or faults at two or more of these points. Thus, with faults to ground at points x and y, indicated in Fig. 7.18, the currents are obtained from Eee) + LyZlmyz) = Pe FZ y) + IyZQ) = Py where Z(«) and Z(y) are the network self-impedances at x and y, and Ze) the transfer impedance between and y, These impedances are obtained from the solutions for single fault at x and y, Z(sy) being the voltage drop through the network up to peint y on the phase in question for unit currene at x, or vice versa. 7.55) 7.12 Protective devices for communication systems There are certain protective devices usually applicd in communication systems on cireuits liable to excessive voltages of any nature. Protecton POWER SYSTEM EARTH CONDUCTION m9 ‘used in various forms and combinations for different plant and exposure Conditions. ‘The central office protector includes a discharge gup that operates at approximately 380 volts and is intended to provide protection againse lightning discharges and voltages resalting from accidental con- tace with power circuits or from low-frequency induction. ‘There are also certain specific devices used in particular situations. To prevent acoustic shock to operators from induced voltages, varistors may be connected across the operators’ receivers. The metallic-ireuit velt- ages resulting rom unbalanced protector gap operation are thereby reduced to tolerable values. The zesistance of such varistors is high at normal cirevit voltages, so that they do not interfere seriously with transmission; bot, as the voltage increases, the resistance decreases to such a small valle that the varistors efectively shunt the receiver to excessive voltages. = UK CONCEALING NETWORK ye Voy Ee te ‘he, 118 Twosdaulancu fas on re phate tens Details regarding a device of chis character are given in Engineering rt No, 28.2 7 obi pcs of allt iain while working on open wire lines involved in exposures, “relay pro- ‘ectors” may be installed at the ends of exposures and, if the exposures are severe, at intermediate points. This device includes protector gaps in combination wth relays thet operate to shortcreit the gaps during the fischarge and are electrically interlocked to secure simultaneous operation. dee el aly ie a eh ee cucage, a8 well as objectionable voltages between wires chat might other- wise result from difference in protector operation, is prevented. Det of relay protectors are given in Engineering Report No. 41. When ordinary protector gaps or relay protectors operate, they may interfere with transmission on certain types of circuits because of the temporary ahort iru between wires, This eflct may be overcome by grounding the protectors through « balanced drainage cul the two wind- ings of which are so connected that the impedance to ground is low w! that between wires is high. This, at the same time, insures balanced tperation of the two gaps, Such an arrangement, referred to 2s protector280 EARTH CONDUCTION ERFECTS Curt drainage, has been used mainly to prevent transinission disturbances from distant Fightning discharges and is supplemented with the relays of the relay protecer seross the gaps, where low-frequency induction is alo Tt was shown previously that improved shielding could be secured by increasing the coupling between a shield wire and exposed conductor. fs the case of cable, tape armor has been used for this purpose, alehough lumped loading by T:1 transformers inserted in the cable at suitable intervals might also he used. These transformers would have the primary winding in series with the cable sheath and a separate secondary winding in series with cach cable condueter. On account of the large number of secondary windings required, and for other reasons, they are not used fer Jarge cables, but have been used on open wire lines with one wire or a pai, grounded at suitable ineeryals and connected to the primaries of the trans formers located about midway between grounding points. ‘The ratio 2ex{uy i {7.33) would thea approach unity, provided that transformer are employed which have close coupling and a high impedance compared to that of the primary ground return cizeuit. A substantial reduction in ‘the maximum volcage between the lines and ground would thus be secured singe most ofthe induced voltage enh section would appear across the tcansformer primary and secondaries, Thus, the exposure would become, In fet, sctonalzed. — ‘A main. application of neutralizing transformers has been for the pro- tection of communication cizeuits entering power stations and subject high voltages due to rise in the potentisl of the power station ground during abnormal operating conditions. Where 2 cable is not used, or if the cable sheath is not satisfactory for use as a primary conductor, a special primary wire may be instalied from the station to a sufficient’y emote ground of fairly low resistances that mest of the ground potenti! tise is impressed across the transformer primary. The transforme: chen substantislly eliminates excessive voleages between the line and grounded structures within the station, thereby eliminating the posstbility of hazard to personnel and protector grounding during abnormal operating condi tions, wlien maintenance or restoration of power service is likely to require vuainterrupted communication facilities. Neutralizing transformers are discussed in greater detail in Bagineering Report No, 44.2 Neutralizing transformers have been employed on telegraph lines fat limitation of fundamental frequency and also third-harmonic 25-cydle A neutralizing transformer arrangement employing an amplifer in the primary cirenie controlled by the induced voltage in a pilot wie has been “usod on telegraph cleus exposed to severe 28-pce incvetion. POWER SYSTEM EARTH CONDUCTION 251 143. Protective measures in power systems In the development of power system operating practice, unbalanced ‘currents and voltages and the rate of occurrence of abnormal conditions ave been reduced by the increased use of ground wires on transinission Tines for lightning protection, while the duration of faults and the portion of the power systems involved during abnormal operation has been limi by improved cireuit breaker ‘and relay practice. These protective measures against outages of the power systems at the same time have reduced inductive effects in exposed communications circuits. Tn eatly power systems, operation without a neutral ground was pre- dominant practice everywhere. In the United States, grounding of the neutral directly or through some resistance was gradually adopted, while jn Europe such practice has been less extensive, Ix a few countries, extensive use has been made of neutral grounding through @ resonant reactor or Petersen oxil for the purpose of extinguishing flashovers to ground without interrupting the faulted circuit. With the neutral isolated, fod with a fault to ground or one phase, there is a charging current in the ‘other cwo phases with secur in the earth and through the fault over the stounded phese wire to the neutral. This charging, current, which would maintain che arc at the fault point, may be compensated by 2 neutral reactor resonant with the capacitance to ground of the power system. Such reactors have also been used on some systems in the United States with certain modifications to permit clearance of permanent faults by shunting the reactor to facilitate operation of relays as in 2 grounded rextral system. Most faults are self-clearing, however, by virtue of the Jow fault current, which is also a definite advantage from the standpoint of inductive interference. From the standpoint of inductive interference, double faults axsume importance because the zero sequence current through exposures Jocated teeween the faults may be substantially greater than {or single feules. Systems operating with a neutral grounded through & resonant reactor are less Ekely 0 experience double favles than systems with isolated neutral, but they have « greater liability rowaed double faults than systems with solidly grounded neutral. Where permanent faules with resonant reactors te cleared promptly by the typeof device mentioned above, however, there should be little likelihood of double faults. ‘Various considerations in the use of neutral impedance for fault current limitgcion are dealt with in Engineering Reports No. 27 and 305 the in- ductive coordination aspects of the usc of resonant neutral reactors are discussed in Report No, 42+| 282 EARTH CONDUCTION EFFECTS ome.) TAA Basie factors in noise frequency induction As mentioned in 7.1, noise-freauency interference depends on such + variety of factors in both the comraunication and the power systems thee alse estimates are based largely 9a empisiel cnethoc, The vero factors in nvise-trequeney induction, classified as influence, coupling ani ‘septivenes fstorn are discuned brofy here a, influence factors depend on the voltage and current wave sha which is afected by the desig of motors and generators: the degree of st, wration of transformers; and the character and method of operation of slectzonie apparatus connected to the power eystem. ‘The wave shape TELEPHONE mFLUENC 1 eS es WE Bor a awh z PReOUEMerCcLES Pen secon” OP “BE AA Fa, 719 Breauency weighting charscerste varies from point to point in the power system, dependi : : ower sys ling on the relative Jocations af equipment producing or absorbing harmonies, the degree of tine attenuation of the various harmonies, and conditions with regerd wo rose nance in the systema. When the harmonics have a metalic path, thes dfs is les than when an eehsetum path i involved ain the case of tpl armonien in star-connected transformers with grounded neutral, fn th case of three-phase systems, the influence factors alto depend on th : of loud unbalance among the phases. eo An over-all mexsure of the wave shape quality from a noise induet sth telephone infence factor of vltage and cure amy Jn arriving at ths factor, the various hazraonie compares, of the wave are weighted in accordance with the interfering elece whack for the present Bell System telephone set is shown in Fig 7.19. The TIE is the ratio of the soot sum square of the weighted sms values of ell the ee ee POWER SYSTEM EARTH CONDUCTION 253 1 the harmonic components to the root sum square of all the harmonies (j sms value of the wave). The coupling factors depend on the types of power and telephone circuits involved. Longitudinal-circuit induction is usually of greater importance than metalic-cireuit induction, partly because the latter diminishes rapidly with increasing separation and partly because it may be substantially re- duced by properly coordinated transpositions when necessary. For cable cireuits, magnetic longitadinal-cirenit induction is usually the most im. portant type, as the grounded cable sheath provides very effective shielding against electric induction and metallic-circuit induction is reduced to a large extent by the twisted conductors. Where the sheath is grounded through a low ienpedance, the shielding afforded against magnetic tongitudi- nal-crcuie induction ig also ordinarily quite substantial and improves with frequency. From the above it may be concluded, in general, chat cable circuits are less susceptive to noise than are open wire lines. ‘The susceptiveness factors depend on the type of telephone circuit in- volved and on the level of the telephone signal at the point where the noise js introduced. Since, with properly transposed open wire lines or with cable, longitudinal-circuit induction js usually of main importance, the balance of the telephone line and equipment to ground requires careful con- sideration, Cable pairs, becanse of their close spacing and frequent trans- positions, are ordinarily better balanced than open wire pairs. If series or shunt unbalances are Present in the pairs or i equipment connected to them, their effect may control the noise. Methods for estimating noise are cealt with in Engineering Reports 16 and 17,! and diverse factars af importance in connection with power circuit influence, telephone circuit suscepdvencss and mutual coupling are dis- cussed in several other repars.CHAPTER ViTT Sonor Cuanactexrsmics oF Eaari-Rerunw Coxpverors 81 Introduction ‘The surge impedance and propagation characteristics of aerial and buried ‘conductors are basic quantities in the analysis of lightning disturbances in Power and communication systems. Lightning protection of transmission lines ehus may require consideration of the surge characteristics of insulated Phase wires, of periodically grounded aeriel shield wires, of buried ground wires, and of the mutual effects between these various conductors, In the Protection of cable, the surge characteristics must be considered for the in. sulated cable conductors and the sheath, which may be continuously of periodically grounded and may be interconnected with other grounded con. Guctors. The surge characteristics depend on a number of factors to be analyzed here: the resistivity and dielectric constant of the earth; the depth or height of the conductors; their diameter, length and separation; the resistance and spacing of grounds; and the ionization of the air or the soil which may take place at the surface of conductors traversed by high voltage surges. ‘The surge characteristics of earth-retam circuits are also of interest in connection with switching surges in power systems resulting from the sud. den interruption of current or application of voltage. Surges of such origin usually have a much smaller intensity than lightning surges and are hence of less practical significance. Transient disturhances in power systems of long duration compared to surges as dealt with here may induce voltages in exposed communication circuits, as discussed in 4.16, 8.2 Relation of highfrequency and surge characteristics _ Asurge or traveling wave is an electrical disturbance of such short dura. tion that it is necessary to consider the time required for propagation in the Sreuit. When an electric circuit is subjected to a disturbance, as when 2 Potential js suddenly applied or « switch is opened or closed in an energized circuig, there is an initial surge state in which various reflections take place before the circuit conditions are recognized at the point of disturbance and «= steady state condition is reached. ‘The latter condition is characterized by a fixed impedance ratio of voleage to current for the fundamental and each harmonic component, provided that the circuit is finear. 254 (eet a oe SURGE CHARACTERISTICS 255 Ciceuita or networks sre referred to as having small. dimensions clec- trically if the physical dimensions are much smaller than a wave length of the applied voltae, ot if the time required for propagation through the cireuit is small compared to the natural period of ascillation. Tn such ci cuits it is generally permissible to neglect the initial surge stave and to use the customary methods of cireuit analysis, employing lumped constants in dealing with the transient and steady state conditions. ‘The transient and surge responses of & circuit may be evaluated when its steady state performance is known for sinusoidal currents throughout the frequency range, using the customary methods of operational caleulus or Fourier integral analysis outlined in Chapter Lin such analysis, itis con venicat to consider fist the response to a unit step voltage or current, equal t0 0 for s <1 and wnicy for # > 0, or the response to a unit impulse. The latter is an impulse of infinitesimal duration and such intensity that the area under the impulse is unity. Although the response to x unit impulse ‘may have advantage from an analytical standpoint, it is customary to specify the cizcuit performance in terms of unit step applied voltage or current, When the circuit impedance is high compared 0 that of the source, a unit step applied voltage may be simulated experimentally since the voltage drop at the source is negligible. When the circuit impedance is low, however, a unit step current is more readily supplied. ‘The current jn response to a unic step voleage is usually referred to as the indicial ‘edmittance, or the indicial transfer admittance if the voltage and current are taken at cifferent points in the circuit. The voltage response to a unit step current correspondingly would be referred to as the indicial impedance, and she ratio of voleages or of enrrents at two different points as the indicial ‘ranetir ratio. Tn dealing with surge phenomena itis usually necessary to consider only the upper part of the frequency range, rather than the total spectrum implied in the strict evaluation of the indicial characteristics. The initial surge response to unit step current before the steady state condition is reached will be referred to a9 the surge impedance characteristic $(), and the ratio between two currents or two voltages at different points in the Greuit separated by the distance x as the surge propagation characteristic P(x). 83 Propagation constant for buried bare conductors In deating with the propagation constant at high frequencics it is per- missible to neglect the internal impedance of the conductor in comparison with the external impedance. For a conductor in direct contact with and half buried ir the earth, ix, with its axis in the plane of the earth's surface,256 EARTH CONDUCTION EFFECTS Cun ‘equation (5.39) for che propagation constant then becomes a 1p log LB5/a0® + PM ear eon) This equation is substantially satisfied with T° = >/2. Insert the latter valme in (8.01), the right-hand logarithmic ratio taste log (1.52/ay)/log (1.58/ay), which is practically unity up to several million cycles. Inserting the expression for 75 the high- tion constant becomes T= Lato fay where 0 = velocity of propagation = (2/sx)*/? meters per second 2 = indoerivity of earth = L257 + 10~ henries per meter © = capacitivity of earth = €+8.854 107! fazads per meter p= earth resistivity, meter-ohms € = dielectric consrant of earch In the above expression for the propagation constant, displacement cur- rents in the air were neglected in comparison with those in the earth, in order to avoid complications which would otherwise arise. This assump- tion is permissible, however, as the dielectric constant of the earth is from 4 to 80 times that of free space. As an improved approximation, displacr. ‘ment currents in the air may be taken into account by taking ¢ equal to the sam of the dielectric constants of the earth and the ai Expression (8.02) may be derived directly in a fairly simple manner if induced currents is the earth are neglected so that a direct-current distribu. tion obtains. 4s discassed in 3.2 the unit length leakage conductance, inductanee and capacitance of a wire at the surface of the earth are then omit) eZ (0%-1) Go ete nd (ee 1)" where wg is the capacitivity of the air = 8854-10" ferad/meter. The propagation constant I = [iwZ(G + ivC)]"/? is then equal to (8.02), with 2 = D/rle+ a). The logarithmic terms involving / excel in the expression for I’ so that the appropriate approximate formula is obtained, (8.08) x _ SURGE CHARACTERISTICS wt which is not the case when the characteristic impedance is derived in the above manner, Neither docs the above derivation indicate that the “exponential mode of propagation is an approximation nor under what conditions it applies. These are discussed in Chapter V. “As mentioned in 46, the inductance of a wire decreases slightly as the depth of the wire is increased. The high-frequency propagation constant increases with the depth, however, bec2use of the increase in the leakage conductance and capacitance. From (3.26) it is seen that the increase ix Ieskege conductance with depth, 4, snay be trken into account by sing & conductor radius a" = (2ed)", and this is also true of the capacitance of thewire, Poe depths ordinarily encountered, the following approximation, therefore, may be used. r (a 2/a\e Jog 1.12/T (8.04) For a wire at infinite depth, as disexssed in 8.7, the propagation constant jsf — 7, and the velocity of propagation » = (I/m)!#. ‘The maximum increase in propagation constant with depch would thus be 41%, Te will be noticed that for a conductor at the surface of the earth the propagation constant i independent of the conductor radius, When feveral conductors aze energized in parallel, their equivalent radius is greater than for a single conductor, but the propagation constant remains changed. ‘The reason for this is that the inductance of the conductors in ‘parallel is lest than that of a single conductor by the same amount as the tdmittance is greater. Also, with series or metclic-ircsit energization, to that the currents are opposite in the two conductors, the current propaga- tion is the same as for a single conductor because the series inductance is Increased to the same extent as the series admittance is decreased. From these propositions it follows that, when one of several parallel conductors js energized to a remote point, the currentis propagated 2s though the other ceanductors were absent, since they carry no cuzrent, This will be realized when two conductors are first assumed to be energized in parallel and the ‘arrent is newt canceled in one by 2 generator inserted between the con ductors at che point of energization. Since propagation ts the same for parallel and series energization, the curreat js canceled throughout the Iength of the disconnected conductor. This is due co che fact ehat the ‘cess force along the second conductor resulting from magnetic induction {sequal and opposite to that arising from earth porentinh difference. ‘These ‘propositions apply strictly only for conductors at infinite deprh, but are good approximations for conductors at or near the surface. ‘Since the propagation canstant is the same far each of several parallel conductors, proviced that che internal impedances are negligible, the258 EARTH CONDUCTION EFFECTS Cut division of current between the conductors when energized in parallel may be determined from a set of simultaneous equations involving only the self and mutual reactances of the conductors but not their character. jstic impedances or propagation constant. For three conductors these ‘equations are AXu + Ma + IsXig =F SiXig + ToXaa + SaXaa = ¥ Liki + aXe + TeX = 7 hthth=! where Xi > tas, Xig = deli, etc, and the currents and potentials are those at any point x along the conductors. For two conductors the current division is given by. Lan ~ lon Tit ln ~ Was tay = Las Tt Lag Bag (8.05) Aw) Ts) (8.05) Ine) = 1) where I(x) = 1(0)eT* Ir will be noticed that only the inductances for series energization of the conductors are involved, ixey Ly, — Lazy Zan — Lia and their som In, ~ Lan + La ~ Laz which is" true also for Tore than two parallel conductors. For smell separations between the conductors, such that ‘vai, 1, these inductances depend to a negligible extent on the earth resistivity, so that they may be taken equal zo the completely metallic cireait inductances, as given by ~ fas = 2 log? ius ae ‘eg: a (8.07) When the conductors are in close proximity, and the resistance of some cor all of the conductors is high, it may not be permissible to neglect the internal impedances in comparison with the reactances of the fairly small metallic loops formed by the conductors. For two parallel conductors, it would then be necessary to determine the propagation constants from (5.56), and the division of current from (5.57), which would introduce considerable complications. As a first approximation, however, the effect of the internal impedances an the current division between conductors in close proximity may be calculated by replacing the reactances in (8.05) with cheself and mutual impedances. ‘The current division thus obvained applies. to conductors interconnected at frequent intervals, « condition 259 ‘hich is approached by conductors in close proximity and in direct con. tact with the soi, : "The various propositions mentioned above regarding the propagation of high-frequency current in parallel conductors and the division of current slso apply to surge currents of the duretion ordinarily encountered in lightning strokes. The current ia lightning strokes, however, may have long duration component of small magnitnde which is ordinarily of secondary importance as regerds the peak value of lightning voltages and to which the above propositions do not apply, SURGE CHARACTERISTICS 84 Surge current propagation tx long buried conductors ‘As mentioned befeze, the mode of propagation of « unis step current will be referred to as the current propagation characteristic P(vf), where 2 is the distance from the point of transmission. The operational equivalent of Pag) is exp (—P), wheze I is the function of fo = p given by (8.02). ‘The solution of the operational equivalent ist (8.08) ® where @ = (w? — 22)! fa Bessel fonction defined in Appendix F and ae = 1/2pxa = (e/a) ?/4p ‘The sscond expression (8.08) is obsained from the firse by using the cond:- tion P(g) = 1 for = When art — ax <1 the following formula may be used: Paneer tS ee) (8.09) When ate ~ exe > Land at 3 x, the following formula is adequate: Ped) © erfe fax 2aery 4%, = erfe f(o/8 00)" where erfe (2) is the error function complement defined in Appendix I. Expression (809) is obtained by noting that, when aw <1, B10) Tylon) ~ ase /2; whereas (8.10) is derived as follows: When ait — ax > 1, Iy(aw) approaches Gres) oe aa yoo and when 93, (aw) approaches (2eaw260 EARTH CONDUCTION ERFECTS Hence, Peed) = = extent? fatten gy we fe ae = crf lela 1a Fe eA tem etc tar49) where Z = ax(2aa), Curves of P(w,t) shown in Fig. 8.1 indicate that, when af > 2x, expres. sion (810), which neglets displacement eursenes in the ground, is ade- 5 ‘7 | FE SS cy aR i i 2 T i” A c I ay ee Ie. 81 Popegton of neste cme in «fed conduct finite Inet. Dat ‘curve sh 1, displacemen® currents may Be nn mms,264 EARTH CONDUCTION EFFECTS Coan neglected, and the surge impedance characteristic obtained by opetational solution of (8.15) is then 509 = EE) ep AG KH/16—) ats ‘where Xo(z) is the Besse! famction defined én Appendix I. In the range of validity of (8.18) z= 7%r/16pr < .10, in which ease Ko(z) & log, (1.12/2). 2 a sta.2),29] x aad ons Ga a aa) [Pic ay TIME IN MicROSECONSS Fro. f4 Surge impedance chuocteile at midpoint of buried conductor of infite length, Curves 1 and 2ealsleted from feemaas for amall acd lar Sines. Rati of conductor a = 005 meter DepthaFeoaduster d = Oend 3 meter Eanhreseviy p= J00Dmeteraime Dieleisicconseest € = 10 For small values of time, such that as <1, displacement currents must be included and the surge impedance is given by. se) = PE roe fg SE 1B) Ting MEM we aye He) ase} where a = (29/x)4/4p, ‘The variation in S(¢,t} with zis shown in Fig. 84 for a representative case fs indicated in the figure, Near the intersection or carves 1 and 2 ealew. lated from (8.19) and (8.18), respectively, the surge impedance is obtained by drawing a transition curve as shown, That the surge impedance char- 8.19) i SURGE CHARACTERISTICS 265 acteristic is initially zero arises from the circumstance that the inductance is zero for very high frequencies as a result of current induced in the earth. ‘The above formulas are derived by observing that 22300) ax ‘The time function of this operation equivalent is zero for ¢< #/o and for 1 > xfo 480) _ Zeta (620) ele glee? — 32/2) 2 Ree uoanrs De ea aS icndseconos ro, HS. Condyeser potential fer midpoint and endpoint energization of & krsr conductor fof 5 em rime a2 0 em depth. Far an ear ressdvity of 000 meterolane. (Carve L. Surge curent. ‘Curve 7 Potential for midpoint energization. ‘Curve 3: Botti for endpoine exegiation ‘where Jo is the Bessel fonction defined in Appendix 1. Thus, Loan? — w2/eP)9) 1 MB gmate Shy) = — @/aihe aye G2) fered cts fete epeyign ty PEER AIA) Integration of (8.2) with the latter approximation for Jy gives (8.19). Expression (8.18) is cerived by observing that for eT Jolao( — 32/c2)*7| approaches (2raot)"! exp aot (1 — x*/201*) so that Lg pe eae Std) = 5p Gn/tne)" Gree 022)266 EARTH CONDUCTION EFFECTS Coun which gives (8.18) upon evaluation of the integral. ‘The same result obsaited in a simpler way by neglecting displacement currents in the operational equivalent (8,20). From curves for S(eJ) derived a4 above, the surge potential of the ‘conductor in response to a current of arbitrary wave shape may be eval. vated by use of (135) In Fig. 8.5 is shown the conductor potential thus obtained with mid point and with end-point energization for a current of Aainly steep wave front. The surge impedance derived by taking the ratio nwt 0 8S teas Saag MICROSECONDS: od Fro. 86 Sure inpeee fo it p cura in a emacer of $ om ea leg a2 ph ofa an. Fak ens Touran Bee ‘Curve 1. Curent enterng micpoints Coyre 2 Comrnt entering cade. of instantaneous potential to cutrent is not markedly different from that for unit step coment and fies been shown to be in adequate agrecmons? ‘with the surge impedance obtained experimentally « 8.7 Sunge impedance characteristic of short buried conductors From Fig. 8. 5 it is seen that the crest potential is reached before the crest ‘surrent, a condition which may not obtain except for fairly long con- ductors. This may be demonstrated by reference to Fig. 8.6, which shows the mid-point and end-point impedances for @ conducror 100 meters Jong, While the initial end-point impedance is ewior the mid peine impedance, in both cases the impedances far large values of time approach eee SURGE CHARACTERISTICS 267 the same directcurrent resistance of 24 ohms, caleulated from formulas siven in Chapter TIT. For tid-point enetaization, the variation in current with time at the center of each half of the conductor, 2s shown in Fig. 8.3, indicates that « ‘uniform distribution is attained in abovt 1.5 microseconds, ‘The frst reflection from the far end reaches the point of energization within .75 microsecond, and the direct-current resistance value is attained after two cor three reflections, as indicated in Fig. 8.6. For a current as shown in Fig. 8.5, 2 maximum conductor potential of 25 kw is reached at about the same time as the crest of the current. In this instance it would thus be permissible to use the direct-current retistance as a eriterion for the maxi- mum potential to be expected. ‘With end.point energization, however, it is seer from Fig. 8.6 that the sorge impedance within the frst three microseconds is not materially dif= ferent from chat for a long conductor, and the conductor potential would accordingly be much the same as shown in Fig. 8.5, If the direct-current rettane were wel as eiterin in thi case, che tor would be appre For an earth resistivity of 100 meter-ohos, cather than 1000 aa assumed fn the above example, the dircet-current resiseance would decrease ten Himes while the surge impedance would decrease only about V10 times. For this reston, the direct-current resistance would no longer be a satis. factory criterion even for mid-point energization, unless the conductor were substantially shorter than 100 meters, sbout $0 merers or <0. ‘The direet-current resistance of grewads depends to some extent on con- tact resistance between the conductor and the earth, which for high- frequency and surge current is bridged by a fairly Lange capacitive admit. tance. The surge impedance is accordingly somewhat lower than that measured with direct or low-frequency current, If the current intensity in the earth next to the conductor is sufficiently high, che surge resistance, furthermore, may be substantiel'y reduced by ionization of the soil as, discussed helow. 8.8 Effect of sil ionization om surge characteristics In dealing with high-voltage soil ionization effects, distinction must be made between the internal breakdown voltage gredient and the surface breakdown gradient, as for dielecerics in general. Measurement of the former by snaezs of completely buried spheres? indicates that itis in the nier of 10 to 20 kv/em, while the latter is substantially smaller, from 1 t© 5 lev/em, as inferred from measurements in which surface ionization predominates. ‘Assume that a current J—= J(0) enters the exrth over a point electrode168 EARTH CONDUCTION EFFECTS Caan snd that ionization is confined to the surface on Co surface on account of the lower break: dowa gradient there than within the ground, A conducting, hear pe is then formed as a result of the ionization, and the electric intensity a the sistance r, as obtained from formulas in Chapter THI, is Ei) = Jo/s* 82) ‘The radius of the conducting plane is extended uncif E(+) equals the surface breakdown gradient Ko, the comesponding radius as obtaine an ie o sponding radius as obtained from ry = (JoltEo}? (8.24) The resistance to ground of the point clectrode is then Bo = (eEo/4]i" 6.25) ‘The resistance Ro is a function of time since J = ). sia no tJ = 70 Aca, rising than a falling current. Furthermore, as a result of irregularities along the surface, streamers will ordinarily be formed rather than 2 homo geneous conducting plane, and the conductivity of the latter may not actually, ‘be high enough to be regarded as infinite in comperison with that of the soil. Experimental resules indicate that these various factors may be taken to account by using an equivalent or effective value for Fo, which also gives approximate agreement as regarcs the arcing distance between electrodes on the surface of the earth, Asan example, assume p — 100 metrohsy fy = 10 wly/mete and 8 crest current of amperes, The resistance at the crest of the ig thea Ro — 17 ohms, in substantial agrecment with an emer value obtained for the current and the resistivity assumed above.® In the ‘experiments referred to, the soil consisted of clay. Appt ately the same value of Ey is obtained for this type of soil from other measurements in which smaller currents were discharged over small electrodes, but which ae values as high as 5000 volt/cm for high resistivity soil, such 2s Consider next a current J entering @ vertical yand rod of lens ‘The radial current intensity at the distance r is then 7/2 and the ee field intensity E(r} = Jo/2rrl. Tonization within che earth will occur uatil E() = 2G, the breakdown voltage gradient for internal ionization. ‘The effective conductor radius is accordingly | 24> Joftells (6.26) and the resistance to ground obtained fram (3.25) ay 8 = £(Ioe# 1) 27) ee SURGE CHARACTERISTICS 2169 “The latter resistance is smaller than chat without ionization by the factor vetl ;; 2 (6.28) bog ‘san example, eure 9 = 100, f= 3 meters, «= 125 emmy B= 108 ‘volts/meter and J = 10,000 amperes, in which case ap c= 1 meter. The resistance to ground obtained from (8.27) is then about 20 ohms and the reduction factor q = .65. In a measurement of surge resistance under approximately the same conditions as assumed in this example, @ surge resistance of about 11 ohms was obtained,” indicating that surface ioniza- tion must also have come into play. Although the combined effect of surface and internal ionization is not readily evaluated, it appears that if turface ionization alone provides a resistance of 17 ohms and internal joniaation 20 ohms, as in the above two examples, a resistance in the order of 11 ohms as observed might be expected when both come into play. For a horizontal conductor of length, 2, buried at a depth, d, substan- tially greater than the conductor radius, 2, the ionization radius is again fiven by (6-26). The resistance is obtained from (3.36) with a= ay and the reduction factor becomes = ede - 1 7 jog Bifa’ —1 where of = (2tod)*!? and a! = (2ad)"?, ‘As an example, when p = 1000 meter-ohms, Ej = 10° volts/meter, 1100 meters, J = 100,000 amperes, do = 16 meter. With d= 3 meter and 2 = 02 meter, 9 = 80. Thus, for severe lightning currents and high earch resistivities, a reduction in resistance may be experienced even when the conductors are fairly long. For conductors of great length, such as cable sheaths, the effect of soil ionization is smaller than indicated by the above examples and may ordinarily be neglected. ‘The surge impedance of a Jong conductor varies ts the square root of the admittance to ground, rather than directly with the admittance, a8 for short conductors. Furthermore, the reduction in ‘admittance is not very great since the unit length leakage current is fairly small for long conductors. 89 Propagation characteristics of insulated buried conductors The discussion hitherto has been confined to buried conductors in direct contact with the earth, such as made grounds, pipe lines and cable sheaths. ‘Although cable sheaths may be provided with a biturainous costing for 29)270 EARTH CONDUCTION EFFECTS Cua, § cerrosion protection, as discussed ia Chapter VI, they may be regarded as in direct contact with the earth, since che leakage conductance of such coatings is quite high. This is not true, however, when insulative rabber, Tike coatings are employed. Buried power and communication cireuits consiating ofa single ora pair of conductor insulated fom the ground by some form of rubber and without an outside shield may also be encountered, In the case of insulated buried conductors, equation ($.39) for the earth, return propagstion constant becomes 1 i ag IME] fang 8S be tts or | 3 eae Pe Because of the finite value of the admitzance Y; of the conductor inswa- tion, the solution for the propagation constant becomes considerably mory complicated than for a conductor in direct contact with the earth, The Propagation constant may be obtained by successive approximations ‘based on trial anderror. It cannot always be assumed that the admittance ¥; is the same as the admittance to a remote grourd, as the second term in the leftchand bracket may predominate over ¥;*, ‘Thus, for a com, ductor of i-cm radius with insulation of 1mm thi ‘kness and dielectric constant 3, Yr 1600 ohms/meter when w = 10°, while (iue/r7*) log (1.12/aT) 2¢ 3000 chins/meter for an earth resistivity of 1000 meter- ‘ohms. The admittance to a remote ground would thus be only some 20% of Yi. For very high frequencies the conductar assumed above may be regarded as in substantially direct contact with the earth. For low fre. quencies or earth resistivities, however, the conductor would be effectively insulated, since ¥ would then approxch Yj. Lightning strokes to buried insulated. conductors or to the earth neer such conductors ordinarily give to such high potentials beeween the conductor and ground that the insuatic is punctured at numerous pelvis For this reason the conductors may be regarded a in dincct or pera contact with the earth, as will be evident from the following considerations, Assume that a voltage V is applied between short’ ‘insulated conductor of Jength / and a remote ground, and that the applied voleage is greater thea the breakdown voltage Za ofthe insulation. Arcing wil then take pce ‘at numerous equidistant points, provided that the insulation and the earth are assumed uniform. The voltage between the conductor and adjacent points in the ground increases rapidly from zero at = point where arcing occurs to a maximum value midway between two Punctures in the insula. tion, the maximum value being equal to the breakdown voltage of the insulation. Midway between two arcing points, the earth potential referred to infnity may with negligible ertor be calculated as though the total leakage current, J, through the numerous arcs were uniformly distrib 8.30) SURGE, CHARACTERISTICS am tuted along the conductor. ‘The earth potential accordingly sould equal 1/G2, where G is the unit length leekence for a conductor in direct contact with the eareh. The potential of the conductor to a remote ground is accordingly 7 = %p-+J/Gl. The unit lngth leakage current i then f~e-ros 31) When / is much greater than 9, the conductor is thus virtually in direct, contact with the eath. : For a long conductor and / > Mo the unit length leakage and charging: current becomes ali/ds = GV — 9) ~ Ca¥ /dt, and the unit length. longitudinal voltage drop d?//de = —LdI/dr. The current accordingly may be regarded as made up of two components, one of which is propa- gated as for a conductor in direct contact with che earth and uni length eakance G, the other as for an insulated conductor of unit length capaci- tance C, The current may be written as (Chapter IX, reference 14) Us} = aPi(xg) + BPs) (8.32) where P4 isthe propagation characteristic for an insulsted conductor ancl , var for a grounded conduct, with PrOy) and PQs) ~ Le The second term decays rapidly with increasing distance, so that for large Aiseances che current is given by the first term. The constants and B axe determined from che boundary conditions 10) 24+ Band Mee) > of Ka Pale), where Ke is the charscteriatic impedance of the ineulated conductor and Fo/K; is the maximura current wihout break down. Heace, ea) K When (0) < Mo/K: the second tert vanishes and the current is propa- fared as for an insulated conductor. For lightning strokes, 1(0) > Vo/Ke, sw that the current propagation is virtually the same as for a conductor in irect contact with che carth until the current hes attemnated to the value Vo) Kz which the conductor can carry without breakdown of the irsulation, 10) = Fe rion + [10-2] Pass) 3) 8:10 Propagation constant of insulated aerial conductors ‘The sation constant of a buried conductor in direct contact with or ineolerat from the earth i acted bythe ite conductivity of the earth, mainly by its influence on the admittance of the conductor. Although for typical acrial conductors this effect is neghgible because of the small cepacitance to ground, the frte conductivity gives rise to an increase in the longitudinal impedance and to resistance losses jn the earth, AB 22m EARTH CONDUCTION EFFECTS cman result, the current is attenuated to a greater extent than for a perfectly conducting earth, and the characteristic impedance is increased. For conductors of the Kind ordinarily encountered, the rate of autentaticn Gepends to 2 greater extent on the earth resistivity ehan on the conduct resfatance. The external inductance of an serial conductor as given by (4.8) involves « fairly complicazed function # representing the effect of the finite conductivity of the earth. The latter function, however, with satis. factory accuracy for engineering purposes, may be approximated by llpg Loe W = Non 4) where A is the height of the conductor above ground and 24 = rfz. For values of 74< 1, the first and dominant term in the expansion of (8.34) is identical with the first term of (4.40), whereas, for values of ‘7A2 1, the first verm in the expansion of (8.34) is identical with (4.42) with @ = 0. Inserting (8.34) in (4.38), the following expression is obtained for the external inductance, with riz = a: a og 21) = an leg 7a For very high frequencies or low earth resistivities such that 74> 1, (8.35) ‘ives the usual expression for the extemal inductance of a wire above a perfectly conducting earth: (8.35) ie Lage eo) For low frequencies or high earth resistivities, such that yA €1, (8.38) becomes 837) which differs from che usual expression obtained from (441) when the first three terms of the latter expression are used, in that the factor 2 of the logarithm in (8.37) would be replaced by 1.85. The zesultant err ordinarily would be lew than 2%, The frequency range involved in Tighening serge phenomena is usually such that reither (8.36) nor (8.37) applies throughout the range. ‘The capacitance to ground of the conductor is = ane (tog 2) 6.38) where to = 8.854 +10"? farad per teter is the capacitivity of free space. SURGE CHARACTERISTICS m3 The capacitance given by (8.38) is the electrostatic capacitance, and the inductance given by (8.36) che manetostatic inductance far & per fectly conducting earth, as derived in Chapter I, At very high frequencies the cayasixance and inductance are both modified by displacement curzents in the air, and in the rigorous expreasiona log 24/2 would be replaced. by KoCyoa) ~ Kol4ro}). 10 = #2(eora)!”? as discussed in $.13. This modi- fication will not affect the propagation constant for a conductor of zero resistance. It implies, however, that the surge impedance for wnit steP current, instead of having the fixed value (L/C)*? determined by the static Zand C for #= 0, will rapidly attain this value after reflections have been reccived from the surface of the earth. Before the first reliec- ‘ion ig received, the surge impedance is determined by the term Ko(va) alone and is the same as for a conductor in free space. Although for conductors at substantial height, say 40 meters, it may take in the order ‘of .2 microsceond for the lateral steady stats condition to be reached; ordinarily this is not 2 factor of importance in practical problems and wil! be neglected henceforth. or high froquencies the internal impedance of a conductot of radivs aie, (8.39) where ps is che resistivity of the conductor material and y = 1.287 + 10-* hrenties per meter, for unit permeabilicy. The longieudinal impedance increment due to the finive conductivity of che earth is iaw/2n\WF, the frst term in the expansion of which at high frequencies is (zove)"9/2eh, ‘This term ordinarily is much greater than (8.39), for the reason that (ofee)'? > A/a. Thus, for copper a= 1.7+ 10°, so that for an earth resistivity even as low as 10 meter-chms, (p/p))+!® = 24-10%, as compared to A/a = 10" for a conductor at a height of 10 meters having 2 rading as small as 1 mum. Normally (o/o,) will be greater and A/a smaller than in this example. Although the effect of the conductor resistance may be neglected ordinarily, ie will be retained in the formula for the propagation constant it order to demonstrate the effect of the conduecr resistance on ‘he prepagation of surges, . Since the velocity of propagation refers to the toe of a wave, it depends on the high-frequency self inductance. As the frequency increases, the internal inductance (yps/iw)"/#/2ee obtained from (8.39) becomes negli- sible in comparison with che external inductance, which thus determines she velocity of prepagetion. At sufficiently high frequencies, the external inductance is the same as for a conductor over a perfectly conducting plane, so thar the velocity of propagation along a horizontal conductor ‘over a finitely conducting earth, © = (I/LC)"%, is the same as that of By = (isp) /2eaBS EARTH CONDUCTION EFFECTS Curt 4 wave it fee space or of a wave along a conductor in froe space, as cea with in 5.12. Inserting (8.35), (8.38) and (8.39) in the formula for the propagation constant T= (Z¥)"", with Z = Z;-+ieL and ¥ = iv, the following expression is obtained: T= r°H(p) 40) where I° = 7» is the propagation constant for a perfectly conducting earth and a conductor of zero resistance: TO = iu(soro)!? = po and nor-[ta a2) Gul S8 rgd)” am alt F(t py" {og tees + z=) (42) B= Hose), B= ale/osh™ ‘The approximation represerited by (8.42) is permissible, since the second bracket term of (8.41) is ordinarily smalier than unity. 8.11 Surge current propagation olang aerial conductors The operational equivalent of the surge propagation characteristic equals exp (—T), where P is given by (8.40). ‘The solutions of the oper ational equivalent are as follows: For smal! times: if uo, DY Pes) = etfe [(ss.08 Log 2) ] (043) For large times: ae 14(2V(2 where fy = ¢— =/0 > 0 and 1 = €/(8-+ 6). The formula for small times is obtained by taking 2 large in (42), in which ease the last bracke: term of this expression becomes 1/A,p'®. The operational expression for the propagation characteristic then becomes i Tey =P ~Tll = Cig og ay ~ exp ~ px/o- exp [px (20P, log 24/a)] ea ee SURGE CHARACTERISTICS m5 the solution of which ie (8.43). For large times corresponding to small values of p, the approximation 1 + gp'/? 1 has been used, The opera tional equivalent may then be written 1D) — oy — pe/s-exp | —?*— -qan) FED = exp — pate [ (tose — zs Px o_o + Hig aaa (ee? aan) for small values of p. The solution of the latter expression is (B44), Blew ~ peo A it 1) =: Pit) = “UNE IK micROSECONDS Rio. 87 Weve font of uni sep exmrene ater propegation fr ¢ distance of 10 km (62 tiles) alg copper souacers ef mm and 1 em ran Enrthmaisvity 0 = 100 mees-ohms, Weigh of eonducter, & = 10 meter. (Caluulted fom farmlas fr arate. (Coeulnced fom formulas fe Lge Gea. Figure 8.7 shows the wave frent of a unit step surge after it has traveled a distance of 10,000 meters (6.2 miles) along conductors of L-mm and l-cm radi, when the earth resistivity ia 100 meter-ohms. It will be noticed that there is comparatively minor difference in the propagation charac- teristics of the two conductors. Te is evident thet the formals for small values of time, which has been used in ane study of the effect of the earth,® Goes pot adequately represent the entire wave front distortion. Figure 8.8 shove the wave front for various earth resistivities for @ con ductor of L-mm radius, The curves indicate that, for a perfectly conduct276 EARTH CONDUCTION FFFECTS Cunt ing earth, p = 0, the wave front distortion due to the conductor resistance is emall Compared to that resulting from the Snice conductivity of the earth, 25 represented by the other curves. The above formulas and curves indicate that the distortion depents mainly on the height of the conductor and on the earth resistivity, whereas the conductor size may be neglected as in the case of buried conductor. When a surge is transmitted over a group of parallel conductors, it will thus be distorted and attenuated to practically the same extent as when it i transmitted over a single wire at the same height, provided thst the con- ductor potential is so limited that ionization effeces may be disregarded. 4 IT e ‘3 a4 ie | sf) | { | x1 yes a ee me ee ‘wey micROSecoNns Fic. 88 Whuve front of unit step current after propagation for = distance of 10 km (62 niles) along «copper conductor of I mm radvas as Reghe of 10 meses for vatious ear resistivities ap indicated on curven ‘Neglecting the minor effect of conductor size, it will be seen from (8.42) thar for a given ratio 2i/a, the propagation chacacteristic remains un- changed as long as ¢ is constant. The effect of the ratio 28/a is Isirty ‘mall, so that the effect of height on wave front distortion is satisfactorily represented by 8. ‘Thus, when the height is increased from 10 meters t2 30 meters, the effect is about che satne as though the earth resistviey were decreased about 10 times. For conductors af magnetic rather than nonmagnetic material, as 26 sumed hitherto, the permeability is not ordinarily of meach importance fer currents of high intensity, such 2s lighening currents. ‘The feld strength t the surface of such conductors is then s0 intense that the steel become saturated and the permeability may be regarded as unity, Alchough the resistivity of magnecic material is high, the resistance of magnetic can. SURGE CHARACTERISTICS mt ductors of the size and type originally wsed, such as steel ground wires, ray be neglected, in comparison with the exteroal reactance. 8.12 Surge impedance characterises of aerial conductors “The characteristic impedance of an insuleted serial conductor is given by K = PG) 8.45) where K? ig the characteristic impedance for a perfectly conducting earth ‘and zero conductor resistance and (5) is defined as before Kes zy" tog = 60 og (346) sco OHM 2 mo Tas sie fu wecrostcouss tho. 89. Sup nels charceti for ant np caret far nase off mm and Wc aatnaat tHe of 1 meters sore pond when earth ess i 109 nts chins ‘ron feral fr ea es ro frase ge ine “The surge impedance characteristic coresponding to (8.48) is For small times: a soy = f+ ret (p82) | @47) For large times: = oly 2fedte/e dt? + log (Laat ¥/2) 30 Oe where $4 = K ig the surge impedance for a perfectly conducting earth and (ero consactor resistance. These forrmulas are derived by using the same approximations in H7(p) for small and large p, as discussed in 8.17. Figure 6.9 shows che suge chazacteristies lor conductors of 1-tam snd Lem radit at a height of 10 meters and for an earch resistivity of 100 (8.48)78 EARTH CONDUCTION EFFECTS Cue meter-ohms, Tt will be noticed thar the effect of the finite conducti of the earth is not particularly great for times less thea Oe ‘Since most lightning currents reach their crest value in lesa than 10 micro. ‘seconds, the crest canductor potentials ordinarily may be based on the surge impedance S®. As in case of the propagation charscteriatie, the effect of the conductor resistances ‘s negligible for the type of conductor ordinarily employed, ‘When 2 surge current is applied te one of two parallel conductors, the ‘other canductor will carry no current, provided thar the resistivity of the conductors and of the earth is zero, ‘This follows from considerations similar to those given for buried conductors. The propagation constant ‘of the two conductors in parallel is the same as for energization between the ‘two conductors and equal to T° = iw/s. ‘Thus, when it is aseumed ‘that the conductors are first energized in parallel, and that the current is next canceled in the interconnection at the point of energization, it fullows that aw will be canceled throughout the length of the disconnected ‘Since there is no current in the exposed conductor, it follows that it has the same potential as the point x in z ie ec Tee point space occupied hy the conductor, _ Vex eS (ua) Lfoo\? hy £ (2) ee om) | where ra is the separation between the conductors and rh that between 2 conductors and rh that be: one sock andthe image of he ote, “With sficiensacuracy engineering problems, this formula may also be used for the impedane aa when the earth hes a finite conductivity. a a | ‘When there are several insulated conductors a, 4 ¢, and grounded ductors 1,2, 3, the potential at wis given by V = TaSa0 + TSig + LSez + LiSte + TaSze + TaSze (8.51) ‘This equation is similar to ecustion (7.12) for the longitudinal e ion (7. longitudinal indvoed voltage in an exposed conductor, except that the se and mutual inp ances are replaced by the self and mutual susge impedances. ‘The surge lnptlances in the piesence of the grounded conductors 1, 2 and 3 ar ermined in the same manner as outlined in Chapter VIT for the longi- ‘tudinal impedanecs with return in grounded conductors. The cursents in she grounded conductors are thus obtained from & sot of equations like G8) whereas the self and mutual surge impedances in the presence of fe grounded conductors are obtained in the same manner as Z% from SURGE CHARACTERISTICS 79 equation (7.44). For low-frequeney current, the condition of zero poten= tial of a grounded conductor ordinarily is satisfied when ie is well grounded at the ends. For surge currents, however, it is necessary that the con- ductors are grounded at frequent intervals, so that reflections from the nearest grounds reach the point of transmission Jong before the currents or ‘voltages under consideration reach their crest values. A 100-meter spacing ‘would thus be adequate for a wave reaching its crest in 2 microseconds or to, as the first reflection would occur within 3 microsecond. A comespond- ing similitude as discussed above obtains between (8.51) and (7.11) for cleceric induction, The coefficients of (8.51) are, in fact, the geometric mean of those in (7.11) and (7.12), its Sax = (Zes/Yox)!!? and similarly for the other surge impedances. ‘The surge currents and potentials in a system of parallel insulated con- ductors are related by a s2t of simultaneous equations similar to those for Tougitudinal voltages. Thus, for three conductors, Te8o0+ TeSta + TeSen = Fe LeSay + ToSna + LeSen = Vo (8.52) TaSec + TaSte+ IeSee = Pe where the currents and potentials are fimetions of time and the surge impedances may be either those with grounded conductors absent or those in the presence of grounded conductors, obtained as outlined above. From these equations the surge impedance of the conductors in parallel may be obtained, with Ve = Vs= Ve=Vend ie + hyp tle=l ‘Ac mentioned before, equations (8.49) to (8.52) apply only for conductors of negligible resistance and for a perfectly conducting earth, the effect of the finite conductivity of the earth being substantially greater than that of the finite conductor resistance. When a transmission line is provided ‘with ground wires, the effect of the finite conductivity of the earth is reduced, since only 2 fraction of the current returns io the earth. In general, the treatment based on a perfectly conducting earth js satisfactory as regards the calculation of surge impedances and crest voltages whereas the effect of the finite conductivity on attenuation and wave front distor tion may not be neglected. “The finite conductivity of the earth gives rise to an induced surge in an exposed conductor, as demonstrated by the following example. If two conductors are assumed to be energized in parallel and the earth iy js assumed to be 1000 meter-ohms, the wave front at a distance of 10,000 meters would be as indicated in Fig. 8.10. When the current in one conductor is next canceled at the point of energizstion, a substantially undistorted wave will travel along the metallic circuit. This will cancel280 EARTH CONDUCTION EFFECTS Cant the current at the point of energization but not at remote Y no points. Thus at a distance of 10,000 meters the current in the exposed conductor would have the form shown in Fig. 8.10. The step at the front is characteristic of surges which have traveled along onc of several parallel transmission lines, wea Fie, £10. Wave font dittrten and indoced et a and indeed curent a = distance of 10,00 meters from ‘uint of transmission, when uni sep enrrent is applied to ane of two peralel contac Marth resisvity 1000 meterohms, conductor height 10 met fee apes me il ter, condoctor separation 4 Curent in each condactar when energie in paralih 2% Suparposed metalic coment of oppaaie polacy in te & * Sapereed meal ‘oppuice plac ondvetors oud tranemited 5, Resoltane current in enersied eomcnctar. 4, Resultant current in exposed condactor, 8:13 Rifect of corona on propagation characteristics The voltage gradient normal to a conduct ed by a hi 0 a conductor traversed by a high-wol sarge may exezed the dielectric seength of the sit and gee tin es oe tion, usually referred to as corona, as a result of which the wave may be spprecably distorted and attemusted, For alternating curren, the corn power lass in waets per meter is given by the following empirical Form Peek? for normal etmespherie pressure and 25° Ge Shs forma br (8.53) Vo = Eoa log (2/2) SURGE CHARACTERISTICS 1 ‘where fis the frequency in c1ps., / the peak voltage, My the peak voltage at which corona is initiated, Zo — 3+ 10° volts per meter is the dielectric serength of air for a uniform feld, @is the conductor radius in meters, and A the height in meters. It is generally assumed that the losses for positive polarity are 70% and those for negative polarity 30% of the total, so that the factor 12 should be replaced by 8.4 in considering a pnsitive half eycle or transient and by 3.6 fer one of negative polarity. The circumstance that & has a component which is independent of fre ‘quency indicates that there is a leakage current due to ion drift in the electric field, To demonstrate that this component may be neglected, let it be asswned that a short conduetot of unit length capacitance Cis charged to a positive porential greater than Vo, and that the epplied emf. is then suddenly removed. The losses at time s would chen equal GV (i) — Vol, where G = 2.14/25)" -10~* mho/meter. The potential 7() — Vo is obtained accordingly from the usual formula for the discharge of a con- denser through aresistance {/Gas (0) — Fo = (¥(0) — Volexp (—Gi/C), where (0) isthe potential at ¢= 0. For a conductor of Lem radius at @ beight of 10 meters, G = 4.7 -10~? and C= 7.3 + 107 farad/meter, and the discharge would require about 03 second. Thus, if such an isolated ‘conductor section were charged to a potential above the corona limit and then suddenly connected to a iong line having no other losses, the resultant surge would travel for a distance of 9000 km during the above interval defore being attenuated to Vp. Tt is evident, therefore, that the leakage current may be neglected. ‘The proportionality of the remainder of the corona loss with frequency implies that the ions are rapidly neutralized by recombination, so that the ionization energy is lost in heat and light radiation and must therefore be supplied during each half cycle. The time for recombination must be substantially lese than 10 microseconds, since the formula applies with fair precision even at the maximum frequency of 100 ke used in corona fess experiments. ‘Because of the conducting cotona envelope, there is an increase ix che capacitance of the conductor, slehough the conductivity is too small in comparison with that of the conductor to affect the longitudinal impedance. ‘The energy stored in this additional capacitance is negligible in comparison with the energy required for ionization. Since only this stored energy ean be recaptured by the surge upon collapse of the ionization, the time re- quired for recombination is of secondary importance, a further reason for ‘which is that, even if the fons were not neutralized by recombination, they ‘would not all be discharged on the conductor as some would be repelled by their mutual electrostatic forces. If a short conducter of capacitance C is charged to a potential ¥, the282 EARTH CONDUCTION EFFECTS ‘energy in the electric field is C?2/2. For e conductor 2s considered in the previous example, the ionization energy given by (8.83) is about five time: sreater than the electric field cneruy. It is thus evident that the effect of the ionization energy on attenuation is likely to be appreciable, as ehe electromagnetic encrzy of the surge will be rapidly depleted in corana. Equations from which attenuation and wave front diatartion due to foniza tion legses may be determined have been. rived in the marner ontlincd ‘When the potential at point « is increased from 7 V+ (a¥//0) dt, the ionization energy equals : [rs Lan rp ae Cuan é If the wave had not been attenuated, the potential at x after the intemnal at would have been the same aa at point x — odt, or F — o(0¥/ax) at, where » is the velocity of propagation of the wave without attenuation, ‘Neglecting the effect of jonization on the capacitance of the conductor, the energy of the electric field may be taken equal to that of the magnetic field, so that the total electromagnetic energy would equal CY,” The clectromagnetic energy loss is then al Pal ely Fel -e[r+ Za] Equating the electromagnetic energy loss to the ionization energy, the following equation is obtained when 7 > Vp: . wae (835) : = , idan ryn For ¥ $ Vo the equerian is that of a wave propagation with the velocity + without attoncstions i 8.55) Equation (8.54) shows that a point at the potential V will move forward with a reduced velocity 2/[1 + #0 — Ve/V\/C). The covona effect may be evaluated in the manner demonstrated in Fig. 8.11 for three surges with the same wave front but wich diferent rail, In this example, the surge i assumed to have positive polarity and the ratio of the initial crest voltage to the corona voltage is caken as 5. The conduetar is assumed to have a radius of 1 em and to be at 2 height of 10 meters. Under this condition, £/C — 2.6 and Pq = 227,000 volts. After | i ee SURGE CHARACTERISTICS 283, an interval of 20 microseconds, the toe of the wave has traveled for a distance of 3-10*-20- 10? = 6000 meters. The point ¥= 4¥% has traveled for @ distance of only 2050 meters, as indicated in the figure. The velocity of the tail ofthe waves is not affected by corona, since the porential js falling and no ionization energy is required. ‘The resultant waves after 20 microseconds, therefore, are obtained by intetsection of the distorted wave front with the cals of the waves. Te isevident that attenuation of the crest depends to a considerable extent on the slope of the tail and that it may not be particularly great for waves of long duration, although the ‘uaz0 MacnosecoNos #000 metens at Fro §f Attention and distortion du to corana hen rio of fitfal crest eltaga 29 ‘corona vege Yo equa, Srtheeesumes ith sme nfat wavefront but diferent cls, 1, 2usec en crest, 40} sect halvaloe 2 Ase tocrest, 2 see halbvelue 3. 2aawe ments JO ste halFwalue save front distortion may be appreciable. For a surge of negative polarity the corona eect would be less than for the positive surge assumed in the example. ‘The electric forse E, normal to the conductor ar the racial separation rt A, is obtained from ¥ = Brlog Qhir) (856) which gives the corona voltage Vo with r= a.and Z= Ko. This expres- sion may be used to calculate the corona radius # and the additional capaci- tance, when E is the electric force at the edge of the corona envelope. Experiments have indicated that the additional capacitance may be ac- counted. for by assuming Z = 1.5-10° volts/meter"®, The conductor capacitance with corona is obtained accordingly by substituting r for a in (8.38). Since the inductance is not affected by corona, the surgeimpedance with corona and a perfectly conducting earth is = (2)"(0 og BY” esr ‘When the conductor potential is five times the corona veltage, the corona, radius ig 1S em for a conductor of I-cm radius at a height of 10 meters. The284 EARTH CONDUCTION EFFECTS conductor capacitance is increased by a factor of 1.55 while che surge im- pedance is decreased by s factor (1.55)-¥!? = 80, The velocity of propa- gation would decrease by # factor of .80, as compared with a factor of about -3, as 2 resale of ionization Tosses alone. Ie is thus evident that the addi- tional distortion of the wave due to the increased expacitance may be neglected. 8.14 Reflection points ix aerial conductors Consider a point at a great distance from the ends of a long aerial con- Guctor carrying a curcent J? and having a potential 7° = KI, where K is the characteristic impedance. Let it be assumed that a generator is in serted in series with the line so as to cancel the current. The net voltages ‘on opposite sides of this generator are then KYo KJp, where the second term is the voltages produced by the generator and the positive sign applies to the terminal toward the source of transmission. ‘The voltage is thus doubled at the open end of a line. 1 the open end of the line is next assumed terminated in an impedance Z, she current through the latter will equal 27°/(Z + K) and the voltage across the impedance will be 27°Z/(Z+ K). The wave transmitted into the impedance thus differs from the initial or incident wave ¥® by the ‘transmission factor Ae W/E+ K) (8.58) “The trenemitted wave may be regarded as the sum of the incident wave and a reflected wave, so that the refection factor w obtained from It u = Nis, w= Z-KY/(K+2Z) (8.59) ‘These formulas apply for change in the charaterietic impedance of a line from K to Ky, with Z = Xi. This type of discontinuity is usually referred to as a series discontinuity. Another type frequently encountered is 4 shont discontinuity, such as a ground at a great distance from the end of a condueter. The current through such a shunt ie V°(Z-+ (K/2)] = 2P/(K + 22), and the voltage across Z is ¥°22/(K + 22), s0 that the ‘transmission factor equals A= 22/(K + 22) (8.60) and the reflection factor p= —K/(K +22) et) A reffection point, such as 3 series or shunt discontinuity, may be re garded as the origin of a voleage and current wave: = bone Ta taht ee a ani. SURGE CHARACTERISTICS BS where #! is the distance from the reflection point and the positive sign of the reflected current applies on the side of the discontinuity away from the routce, The resultant voltage and current waves at 2 point # may be ‘written as the sum of the incident voltage and current waves and the waves reflected from the discontinuity at #1: Vox) = Pe} + aera at (662) = PEt WEP > He) = 9) = nye ev | = Peay) + oem aa where Py = T in the case of a shunt discontinuity and 1 + » is the erans- eels a he point of transmission on a conductor with ‘The voltage and current at the point of transinission on a conductor wit isoontinutis or 2 any other eine, nay be expresed na closed form or a8 fn infinite series obtained by expansion of the closed form. As an example, consider a conductor of length + grounded through Z at the ofigin a7 point of cransmission and through Z, acthe other end. The voltage at the origin, 13s obtained from the customary transmission line equations, ia Zo A+ ues =p (8,64) VOT RI = me ¢ _p fs ite pate atte OF eI none ie Zo pats any gl t ml + mle Hos (t + woe $=) where po = Co— KK + Zoi m= Be KK + Za). nthe above equation 1° = °K is the voltage for a conductor of infinite leegth without any grounds, whereas ¥*Za/(K + Zo) is the voltage trans- mitted with a ground at the point of transmission only. This latter voleage jg modified by the reflected fraction js which has traveled a total distance 2.” Becanse of reflection a the origin, he otage rcv ae this pine modified into ie (1 + a). ‘The fraction of the voltage originally transmitee hich is reflected from the origin is agar. and. the second reflection will Tefie, cherefore, from the ftat by chis factor, while the third will differ by che factor (nous) cts. ; Fae acne the vltage may be obtained for si te et- rent and, in tum, for a current of arbitrery wave shape by the methods out-286. EARTH CONDUCTION EFFECTS Cran 8 lined in Chapter I. In general the reflection factors will be ic Dn 9e funct fat Cees ee hf we Rain characteristic impedance varies with the frequency. For a conductor of zero resistance and for a perfectly conducting earth, however, the formulas permit a sitaplc solution even for a current of arbitrary wave shape, pro- vided that the ground connections are pure resistances,” Since the charac, teristic impedance is then a pure resistance, the reflection factor will be peer of Fpaneney and, furthermore, there will be no attenuation of the voltage without ground connections. For a Volt Or) = POR = JOU), the vleage a the pont of tranamiaton een 2 FER Ot all + wo 20/0) F naut + ay) PCE — Ae/9) + ---] where the voliage is given by the first term for ¢< 2s/s, by the firat two. terms when s/s <# < 4i/s, by the first three terms w ay i/s <£ < 4s/s, by the first three terms when 4e/o << 6efa, vo (8.65) 8.15 derial conductors with uniformly spaced grounds Aerial shield wires of transmission lines ere grounded throu, ty ela intrvale and the sheath of tral cable may sso ee peek connections of reasonably uniform spacing. ‘The surge characteristics will be considereei here for aerial conductors grounded through equal resiseances % at uniform intervals s. The effect of the finite conductivity of the earth fon the longitudinal impedance will be neglected, as the resultant effect on the surge characteristics is small in camparison with that of the ground connections. For lightning surges, the propagation and impedance charac- teristics of grounded aerial conductors may be affected in considerable measure by corona, by the variation in the resistance of ground connections ith current and by fashovers to grounded strates isolated from the aerial conductor. These effec considered here, but are discusted reece 18 are not considered here, but are di the spacing is short, so that reflections occur long before the voltage or currents reached, it is permissible to regard the leskage provided bby che ground connections as uniformly acihane Teams ie for buried cable may then be used, with I = (iaLG)", where Z is given by (8.36) and G = 1/Rs. The propagation constant may then be written 2 (Sm) ‘The propagation characteristic for unit step current is ubtained ia the same 3.66) SURGE CHARACTERISTICS 287 manner as for a conductor in direct contact with the earth and is Plas) = erfe [x(o/8o'e)*7] 67) swhere e! may be regarded as the equivalent earth resistivity for a conductor jn direct contact with the earth and is (8.68) ‘When the spacing is too large for the above simplification, the surge impedance may be derived by expanding the impedance formula for sinusoidal current, in the same manner as for a single ground in section 8.14. For » conductor of infinite extent in both directions, the impedance to ground at a ground connection would then be of the form K_28 a lz +R where the factor 4; is determined by the first reflection from the first ground at the distance s, az by the second reflection from the first ground ‘and the first reflection from the second ground, etc. The derivation of the formula for sinusoidal current is rather laborious and somewhat com- plicated in the present case, but it is not essential as the terms in the ‘expansion may be derived from the reflection and transmission factors, in asimilar manner as demonstrated for a single ground in section 8.14. The derivation of the factors ;, 4g ++ - 4m is facilitated by the use of a lattice reflection diagram," as shown in Fig. 8.12, where the conductor is assumed to extend in one direction and to have 2 resistance 2® to ground at the point of transmission. The impedance for this condition is twice as large ‘as for a conductor of infinite extent in both directions. ‘The reflection factors at each ground connection are w= ~ K/(X + 2) whereas the transmission factor is \ = 2R/(K + 28), as indicated in the diagram. ‘The reception factor for a wave arriving at the point of transmis- sion is 2A whereas the reflection factor at chis point is (2R — K)/(2R + K) = yo. It is seen from the diagram that the first reflected wave gives rise to a received wave at the point of transmission equal to —2Au times the transmitted wave so that 4; = 2. The first reflected wave is again reflected at the point of transmission into a transmitted wave uy which is reflected into mou? at the first ground and combines with a reflected wave dwa from the second ground. The combined received wave thus differs from the originally transmitted wave by the factor 4 = 2Muoi + ud”). With the common factor A, the impedance formula may be written in the AE dy et dae +] (8.69)288 BARTH CONDUCTION EFFECTS mote convenient form Z= MEW HEM + Bets Bete...) (6.70) nae. 8 for unt sp curren cteing + conde havi aly spec pounds, cee ak 28 MORE Meee OA TN where the coefficient B,, may be expressed in terms of previously obtained coefficients Bm 1, Baa **+ By, by the following formulas which includes a sufficient number of terms of practical purposes, Be = 1600" B awa + Bana + (P+ Bro FEM PB a + (GP + + AGE + Bs 4G ERY GE + NIB oH with Bo = 1/nos Bs = by By = pou? + ur? ‘The impedance in one direction at point midway betwoen two ground connections detived in a similar manner is " ai Z= KUL + 2G $ Cpe ACHP @7) “1 @72) SURGE CHARACTERISTICS 289 where Cy = 1, Cr = ay Co = at Co = uP + m8, and lor m > 3 Cu = OC a + Om + AMCs FIG EP + Gs FIG EMP + GE + NIC 0 too} For a conductor of zero resistance and for a perfectly conducting earth, so ‘that there is no attenvation, the formulas permit a simple solution even for currents of arbitrary wave shape, in the manner outlined in section 8.14. For « transmitted voltage 7%) = J(0)S® when the line extends in one direction and ¥°(¢) = J(#)$%/2 when it extends in both directions. The voltage for tranémission at a ground is then (8.73) FO) = MPO + WB HG — 2/2) + BV ~ 45/0) +o) B74) and for transmission midway between ground connection VQ) = PO) 2G — 6/0) + 2G Be) Hove BIS) For a stroke at ground on a line extending in both directions, the impressed voltage may be taken as 7°) = JOR, rather chan J(5°/2, in which case (8.74) is replaced by: ro Fam BING ~ Bele) + BAPE HD 676) Some of the cocficients in the last three expressions are given ia the following table for three ratios of surge impedance to ground resistance. n Sad SR =4 SR = 40 =Bo GBB 1 deg) 66? R67 —SRGT—<9SDA STA 2 9 = ONS 3 0399 © —1g08 “hom = .g70ks7iz8 — 86601 40369 034 051329536193 DO 5 0d 054 HH] OTST INE 6 9 oe eH 84 7 O1l ore 1 O83 = TOTCHAPTER IX Tronmmine Proreerton oF Casi ano Traxstassron Lanns 9A Introduction Lightning protection of power transmissian circuits has alwa broblem receiving muck attention, particularly after high-vatvage Ines ftme into use. Most of che data on lightning currents and voltages hive teen obtained in conrection vith the protection of such Lines" agence utages during lightning storms. Je was originally thought that gon: chiages Were due to high-voltage surges resulting from the release of bound SIR Se lines when nen-by clouds were discharged, and protec measures, tuck as aczial ground wites, were designed on this bath. Ts Yew ws ac sultaaad by inc oberenooe ee ano HG of lightning discharges ard of the facidence of strokes t» transmission ne ground structures, which indicated that direct strokes were lasoeh responsible, at least for high-volcage lines. Ground wine amangemenn, Tr desiemec eccordinaly to intercept stzokes to the phase wires, rather than to reduce induced voltages, and to prevent Pashovers by provi Sdesquate clearance and s fairly low tesistarce fo ground at trustees Ja the communication eld lightning protection of transmission circuits became increasingly imporcant with the extended ure of cable, bork send imposed an cable conductors are much smaller than for because of eable sheath shielding, they may exceed the dioleree wien of the cable insulation, which is comparatively small, and catse pesmeneeg resi fallures, such open or shore circuits, or contact with adjacent pag seoath the sheath. “Cable of sm size x particularly lable to lighting image on account of the high sheath resistance, but the protection © laste size cable may niso pres problem in teritries where the caret Tesivity and the incidence of thunderstorms are high, Lightning furs, ais Sinetienced as ftcausntly on buried a8 on aerial cable, bur they we ore Pa problem on buried cable, on accoune ofthe greater diftculiy with uk seston and repair. Ordinarily, protective messuree are employed on longedistance facilities to the extent that enly diteet strokes to te gh ave important as in the case of transmission lines, The fundamental principles and considerations are much the same in th Proreccion of power tansinission Ties and communication eabie, assuming 200 7 ee LIGHTNING PROTECTION wt that direct strokes are of main iimportance in both cases. ‘To minimize the voltage between the ground wires and the transmission lines, or beeween the sheath and the conductors of an aerial cable, it is, in the First place, de- sirable to provide one or more low-impedance paths ro ground for the lightning current at or near the stroke point. This may be accomplished by providing tower footing grounds of adequately low resistance or fre- quent connection to ground on an aerial cable sheath. This principle is not practicable for buried cable, where the voltage between the sheath and the cable conductors is limited by reducing the longitudinal voleage drop, either by increasing the sheath conductivity ar by the use of shield wires to reduce the shetth current, This latter method is also effective for serial cable or for transinission lines, where additional ground wires will reduce the voltage between phase wires and ground wires. Other protective measures consist of increased spacing between the transmission lines and the ground wire structure, and increased insulation in cable between the conductors and the sheath. Another principle which may be employed far buried cable is to prevent lightning current from entering the shesth by spaced shield wires which intercept lightning strokes, or by an outside concentric shield over the sheath and adequately insulated from it, The cficacy of protective measures may be evaluated by methods of analysis outlined here, which involve various considerations regarding the mechanism of lightning strokes, the wave shape and crest values of lightning currents, the incidence of lightning strokes tousther with the surge charac- teristics of aerial and buried conductors as discussed in Chapter VIN. The discussion will be confined largely to direct strokes, with a brief considera- tion of induced voltages due to discharges to ground or between clouds, which may be of some importance for low-voleage cireuits, Aside from the measures mentioned above, which are designed to prevent breakdown of transmission Hines or cable at or near the lightning seroke, ‘other measures ere required to protect equipment against excessive voltages due to traveling waves thet may originate if breakdown occars or as a result of induction. Such measures usvally consist of protective gaps in various forms and combinations, as discussed for communication equipment in Chapter VIL. > 9.2 Mechanism of lightning discharges Photographic observations! indicate a lightning discharge is usvally initiated in the cloud by 2 so-called “ stspped leader,” except in the case of discharges to sufficiently tall steactures? where this leader is iniviated at che ground end, ‘The stepped leader process consists of a series of periodic dis- charges along a path prefonized by a “‘pilocserearner” advancing into virgin air aca low velocity, as indicated in Fig. 9.1. The time interval between292 EARTH CONDUCTION EFFECTS coun. LIGHTNING PROTECTION 293 steps in the leader's in the order of 50 microseconds and dur the les ny advance for 3) mes oo ns a aig ach ep poe te feader reaches the ground or the cloud in the case of « tall structure, a heavy current“ return stroke” from the gros the cloud at abou 1/10 she veloy of ligt The mais cine ok soren in the return seroke, which usualy lst for less than a millisecond, may be followed by a low current lasting for perhaps .1 second or so. ‘There may then be & second leader, which originates in a different cloud charge center and follows the same pach but does not exhibit the stepped character of the Sirstleader. ‘The second return stroke may be followed by a third leader and $2 065 the average number of strokes in mulsiple discharges being about 4. Single-strake discharges are, however, most common, discharges having current at the base of a lightaing channel, except that the current would be smaller in the ratio of the velocities. The impedance ofa lightning channel during the initial stage of the discharge before the channel reaches the cloud. would be sxperted accordingly to be in the order of $000 ohms. In accordance with the above mecheniam of lightning discharges, there are two basic stages to be considered. During the fist stage, until the re- 1m stroke is initiated, the path of the Lightning discharge and ite attrac- tion by aerial eonductors are determined by atmospheric conditions and by the elecrzie field in ehe cir which, on account of the comparatively low veloci- ties of the leaders, for practical purposes may be considered static with relation to any effect of the earth. The electric field intensity at the surface of the earth may be regarded as normal to the lattes, and the finite con- ductivity of the earth, as well as the surface breakdown gradient discussed in 88, fy of no importance. During the second ot earth conduction stage, however, after initiation of the return stroke, the finite conductivity of the earth and its surface breakdown gradient are of decisive importance in that chey determine the potential gradient along the susface due to current in the earth from the hase of the lightning channel and. the Férmation of streamers along che surface when the gradient becomes excessive. Such phenomena a5 the Bashing of strokes to objects near vertical conductors struck by lightning, ‘within the zone of protection determined by model experiments in which the earth is simulated by plane metal electrode, are readily explained when the Gite conductivity of the earth is taken into account, as is light- ning damage to buried cable and the prevalence of lightning outages on power lines through territory of high earth resistivity STEPPED LeAoe Welw 9 96 he bos see —f_— 2 see EET MiG. 91 Mechanism of lighting strokes with approxinese time relations and velocities relation ¢ that of ihe 9.3. Strokes to aerial conductors The crest values of curtents in lightning discharges vary over wide limits. The magoitude of ighening currents may be derived from the intensity of magnetization of “ magnetic links,” consisting of small bundles of short steel wires mounted at various distances from the conductor in which the current is to be measured. Magnetic link measurements of currene in the ground structures of transmission ines? indicate that a rela- tionship a2 shown in Fig. 9.2 exists berwoun the crest currents and the percentage of dischaxges in which they occur. In the same gure is showa, the crest ontrent distribution for stzokes to buried structures, which is rived by methods discussed lager from the curve for strokes to erens. zission line ground structures. ‘The curve for transmission line ground structures represents the sum of the crest currents rveasured in towers near lightning stroke, which in some inctances may be considerably in excess of the crest current in the ‘more than 6 strokes being quite rare although discharges with. strokes have been observed. In some 80% ofall lightning discharces ve spokes have be 80% of all lightning discharges the A considerable portion of the cloud charge is towered into the chat system formed by the intial leader, which may have seven! branche poe sonar with ine earth, a dschatge of ehe channel into the cath initiated. annel were a charged conductor, the discha ould proceed upward wit she veloceyoighe andthe sure inpecanee of ‘the channel might then bein theorderof S00hms. However, the lightning Shatmnel may not be so regarded since the velocity of prolangation of the channel and the Tpasmitude of the current is limited by the rate at which ions combine at the tip of the channel to neutralize the charge alo ies i uniformly charged eonductor were diacharged se toc coe the current would equal go, where gs the charge per unit length and # the velocity of light. A corresponding relationship would abtain for the298 EARTH CONDUCTION EFFECTS cos. lightning channel for the reason that the currents in ground wires and in towers some distance from a lightning stroke have slower wave fronts than che current in a tower struck by lightning. The resultant ezror in rest current depends on the wave shape of the current, on the resistance to ground of towers, on the span length, and on the number and size of the ground wires. For intense lightning strokes the error is likely to be Jess than for snoderate strokes, for the reason that the resistance of 2 tower struck by lightning may be apprecizbly reduced by soil ionization, so THI 2 gt s Ee rt 5 oq Be & B a 4 i a c) PERCENTAGE OF LIGHTNING STROKES IN WHICH CURRENT EXCEEDS OROINATE: Ria 92. Distribution of ert currents in Sighening other. Carve 1, Currents in seroes to transmisin line ground structure, based on 4410 mentors. ‘nent, TFL Sn U.S. a 1699 in Europe. (Curve 2. Garrents in srokes to buried sructoresdeeved from curve 3, that the currents in adjacent towers are reduced and are of less importance. Because of such errors and limitetions in the accuracies of magnetic links, the curves shown in Fig, 9.2 are of necessiey approximate, in spite of the large number of measurements on which they are based. A rather limited amount of published data on wave shape indicates that the current reaches its crest value in 5 to 10 microseconds and that it decays to half its maximum in 25 to 100 microseconds, the average being bout 50 microseconds.® However, these times to halfwvalue may not be representative since initial currents of much longer duration, several hundred microseconds to half-value, have been recorded on several occa- sions in buried telephone cable in territory where lighening is severe. The crest values of lightning voltages in power and communication circuits, LIGHTNING PROTECTION 95 i lepend largely on the mag- and hence the liability to insulation flashovers, depend large titade and wave shape of che current peak lghering ores. The severity of lighening damage, however, depends in a large measure on So qn the long-duration txil of the wave, which by far may cxceed that in the peak, ‘This is ordinarily an imporeant factor both in runication and power system protection. “Magnetic link measurements indicate that che gronnd wires of high serson transmission fine systems willbe struck by lightning abowt 1 i 200 miles per year,’ on the average, the minimum incidence in the year being about onehelf and the raaximom about 1.6 times the Fra. 93 Average numberof days per year on which thunderstorms our a value, The above average incidence is based on observations Covering about 1600 mile-years aad applies for lines eraversing aress where some 35 chunderstarm days are expected per Year, as indicated by Teta issued by the U, S. Weather Bureau and collected over a period o W years” (Gee Fig. 93.) 94 Siokes to ground Seas 1e above data on strokes to transmission Tines may be used to estimat the rticof lightning stokes to ground, provided thatthe width of thezone Suikin which a transmission line will attract lightning can be determined, ‘Based on laboratory observations on smallacale models,10101? a line above ground will attract lghining strokes within an average distance op Gach side of the line which is about 3.5 times che height when the ————eo A 296 EARTH CONDUCTION ERFECTS cua.9 positive and about 5.5 times the height when the cloud is negative. If the average height of a transmission line ground structure above ground is taken as 70 fect, a 10-mile line, therefore, will attract positive strokes (Le, strokes originating from a postive cloud) within an area of about 93 square miles and negative strokes within an area of approximately 14.$ square miles. A 100-km line would attract positive strokes within an area of 1S square km and negative strokes within 23.5 square km. About 15% of the strokes to transmission line growed structures have positive polasity,* so that the average rate of pasitive strokes to ground ‘world be about 1.8 and that of negative strokes about 6.6 per square mile per year. The rate of positive and negative strokes to ground would thus be about 8.4 per square mile per year in areas where the yearly number of thunderstorm days ie about 35, corresponding to about 24 strokes per square mile, or 92 per square km, during 10 thunderstorm days. Based on the above data, the ratio of negative to positive strokes to ground in open country would be 3.6. The ratio of negative to positive strokes has been determined by various investigators in different ways? The ratio derived from measurement of field changes during thunder storms varies between 21 and 6.5, that obtained from voltages observed in antennas is about 2.9, whereas point discharge recorder meastrements indicate a ratio of 3.3, and the magnetization of basalt rocks struck by lightning indicates a ratio of 2.25. The above data were obtained in the temperate zone; in the tropics nearly all strokes have nogative polarity. From equation (8.25) itis seen that when the earth resistivity is taken as high 2s 5000 meter-ohms and the breakdown voltage of the soil as high as $000 voits/em, the resistance encountered by the channel in the ground for a current of 25,000 amperes is about 160 ohms and for a current of 100,000 amperes about 40 ohms. Since the resistance of the lightning channel would be expected to be in the order of 50) chins as discussed in 9.2, the resistance encountered in the ground will not limit the current noticeably. The crest-cortent distribution curve for strokes to eransmis- sion line ground structures may thus be used algo in the case of strokes to ground, although a different distribution curve is obtained for those of the strokes to ground which arc to buried condwewrs of considerable length, such as cable. 9.5 Mechanism of strokes to buried conductors ‘As the stepped leader of a lightning discharge approaches the earth, charges aceumalate in the ground underneath the leader and the resulting current in the ground will give rise to a potentsl difference between points in the ground under the leader and remote points. Hence, when the tip of the leader hae approsched within 10 meters off the ground and the leader 4 LIGHTNING PROTECTION wT current is ascumed to be as high as 500 amperes and the earth resistivity to be 1000 metse-chms, a point directly under che leader will have & po- tential of 8000 volts with respect to a remote ground, The potential {racient along the surface of the ground would be affected, of course, by the presence of a butied conductor. The total potential involved, however, is So small shat the efoct of « buried conductor on the path of the leader would be ently negligible compared to the effect of irregularities in the surface of the earth. As the tip of the leader contacts the ground, the potential rmaay be lorge enough so that the leader may are to a cable located within 1 merer of 30 of the leader. Only after the return stroke is initiated, howevess is the potential lange enougtso that arcing will occur for appre- ciable distances. eh gl spoil nnn is not necessarily equal to the radius r of the conducting plane as considered in 88. Streamers will extend in various directions beyond ro 0 that joni zation of the col increases the conductivity for a greater distance, ro being the effective radius of an equivalent circolar plane of high conductivity. "The potential difference between 2 conducting plane of radius ro and a jit at the distance ris a v, A 4-452 Oa nd * nt (9.01) 4 ‘Let it be assumed that streamers extend beyond ry until the average voltage gridient between ro and 7 equals 41. The potential difference is a Fa ala ~ 7) (9.02) From (9.01) and (9.02), wher = Ey is the surface breakdown gradient defined in 8.8, ae? 03) neogiand @ 1 latter expression applies when the field is assumed to have a radial ee Shout the lighering channel. When a busied cable ie pesent, however, ths symmetry is disturbed. The potential of the cable t the poine nearest to Lightning stroke #3 estimated from formulas ia Chapter ‘may be less than 20% of the earth potential at the same point if the cable ‘vere absent. As a first approsimation the cable, therefore, may be con- Tidered to have zeto potential. The potential difference between the plane considered above and the cable is then del 4 Pon 04)298 EARTH CONDUCTION EFFECTS curs . Unig oe from “ channel to the cable, the potential difference From G04} and Gos), 7A a =n(i+8) nea(iee (06) ‘The arcing distance calculated in this manner will be the maxim whereas that calelated from (9.03) will he she mieiinum digeances ‘From measurements made of the efective corona radius ofa conductor in sir, itis found that the latter may be determined on the assumption that breakdown occurs until ep 14,000 volts/em. On the other hand, itis known that arcing between two conductors a considerable distance apart will occur when the average gradient is about 10,000 volts/em. For air the ratio m/e thas about 14. For breaklown in che ai, the ionization need not be very dense in order that the corona envelope may be garded as conducting with ration to displacement currents, "For breeKicws the earth, however, the ionization must be mach more complete in order to provide substantially better conduictivity than the soil. The ratio ¢o/¢s is, therefore, Es greater. Ifa ratio of 2 is assumed for soil, itis sean 'y comparison of (9.03) and (9.05) thac the presence of a cabl the arcing diseance as much a8 50%. Sot The arcing distance given by (9.03) and (9.06) may be waitten in the form n= Jee r= (Joy an (9.07) GI GIO) When ¢o/ey — 2, the following values are obtained where 9.08) 29 = 250,000 500,000 volts/meter eerie Tae ges. 21-10% In the following g = 2.5-10°® has been taken i fo as been as representative for low-resistivity soil and g = 1.5+ 10" for high-resistivity soil, When the curent ie expressed in Kiloamperes, the corresponding values are 08 and ‘The distance to which a stroke may arc is taken accordingly as 100 meter-ohms 1p & 1000 meter-ohms “O8CFo}* meter = ONG PEF meter 2677p)! foe 993) where J is in kiloamperes. = 1SCJa)" fect LIGHTNING PROTECTION 29 Furrows as long as 190 meters have been found in the path of ares from trees to grounded conductors, and furrows 20 meters long are not uncom- ‘mon. There appears to be no such evidens of arcing in the ease of strokes to the earth rather than to trees. It is probable that after a streamer contacts the conductor, a Rashover to the latter will occur in this case directly along a shorter path through the air rather than along the surface of the earth. ‘The same mechanism that accounts for strokes to buried ‘conductors is also effective i tending to localize strokes to high conductivity soil pockets or outcrops of metal ore. If the internal breakciown gradient of the soil is greater than the surface breakdown gradient by the factor &, ionization within the ground would occur 25 a frst approximation to a depth d = r/k™” below the base of the Tighening channel. For low resistivity soil, & may be in the order of 10, so that dr. For high resistivity soil, & may be as low as 2, in which case Jr. Tt is evident chat in high resistivity territory the depth of the buried conductors, within the Tinits ordinarily employed, less than ‘2 meters, has negligible effect on the incidence of severe strokes to the ‘conductors. In low resistivity areas, however, the effect of the depth is not entirely negligible. Tn wooded territory strokes may be conducted over tree roots, in which case the depth is of secondary importance. “The flashing of strokes toward well-grounded conductors may account. for many instances when strokes have occurred within the protective zone ‘of an aerial conductor as established by model tests in which the earch is simulated by a plane metal electrode. A stroke to a tree or to ground foatside the zone of protection may thus are to a well-grounded object within the protective zone. The stroke may next find a shorter path to these objects through the air or may even fash to the protective aerial eonductor. If the protective conductor is struck by lightning and its resistance to ground is high, arcing may occur for considerable distances to better grounded objects within or outside the zone or protection apply- ing to a perfectly conducting earth. ‘These exceptions to the validity of protective 2one are thus more likely to be encountered the higher the earth resistivity, the less extensive the grounding arrangement of the protective conductor, and the lower the resistance to ground of metallic objects ‘within the zone. 9.6 Crest currents for strokes to buried conductors Let Po(i) denote the probability that the crest current in a lightning stroke ¢0 4 transmission fine ground structure exceeds i. The function Po(i) is represented by curve 1 of Fig. 9.2 and may also be assumed to apply in che case of strokes to ground. ‘This is justified whem it is assumed that trarismissian line ground structares would be expected to afford the300 EARTH CONDUCTION EFFECIS cur. same attraction as compared to the earth, regardless of the current ia the lightning strokes, and because the resistance encountered in the ground, js insufficient to limie materially the crest current, as discussed in 94. For sttokes to ground near buried conductors, however, the likelihood that the stroke will arc to the conductor is proportional to the square root of the current, as indicated by (9.09). The crest current distribution function for strokes to buried conduesors accordingly may be written. PO - cf" eR@ a @.10) where P’ is the derivative of Po, and Pi(¢) di ropresents the probability of a current in the inverval between # and i+ ai, and Ci? the probabiliey that the current will arc to a buried conductor. For strokes 20 trans- ‘mission Line ground structutes the probability was assumed to be constant aad independent of current such et the fsegral of PA) i would equal PoC). “The constant C must be such chat P(0) = 1, 80 that the following expres- we [ Lt aera] / [ ferme a] on) Pu) From Fig. 9.2 je is seen chat Po(d) is nearly « straight line on semi-log paper and, therefore, may be approximated by Poli) =e @.12) With # = 3.8 10 per ampere, 2 straight line is obtained which coincides with curve | at # = O.and # = 100,000 amperes. With (9.12) in @.11), the following expression is obtained for curve 2 of Fig. os Pia 2% Ft ene (i 9.7 Expectancy of srokes to buried conductors If Nis the number of lightning strokes to ground per unit of area, and 4 the length of the cable, the number of lightning strokes on both sides of the cable within 9 andy + dy is aN = 2N: dy A lightning stroke at the distance y will are to the cable when the crest ‘current exceeds a certain minimum value é which is zelated ta the distance vy (907) or 6.13) is 2 9.14) LIGHTNING PROTECTION 3h .¢ fraction of all lightning strokes which has a crest current in excess i designated, ss above, Fo(@). The number of lightning strokes to the cable in the two strips y to y + dy, and having crest currents in excess of d, is the . - dn = dNPo(i) = 2NsPoli) dy and the total number of strokes to the ‘cable with crest current in excess: of fis ne Wr f Poti) ay @.5) i i jon is obeained Inserting (9.12) and @.14) in (9.15), the following expression is ol forthe oral number of strokes to the cable, pean frees an ~wia(f) Fr ow “The cable accordingly will ateract Eghtning strokes within an equivalent dintazce i = pi(e vem ot (2) Using the velues for ¢ given in section 9.5, che following expressions are obtained for the equivalent distance: @.17) pS 100 meterohins p 2 1000 meterohme 3x = 3865p meters yo Mp meters (9.18) clay feet = Te? feet ‘These arcing distances are roughly equal to those obtained by taking J = 25ka in (609). In the above derivation the earth was assumed to tea plane surface without protruding objects. A tree or other tall object placed at random may ateract a lighsning stroke toward a cable oF may avert it from the cable, so that the net effect of a large number of trees the incidence of strokes to cable slong a route of subtanillngeh i! small, This is also true for variations in -_ eee 9.5 che depth of conductors, within the Limits ordinasly employed, would not be expected to limit the incidence of stokes to the cacerors when the cazth resistivity is high. Tn low-resistivity territory setbout trees, however, the number of strokes to « cable would be expected wr be somewhat smaller than that obtained by use of the above equivalent distance.wor EARTH CONDUCTION EFFECTS 9.8 Basic vakage equations for long conductors Lightning current in a cable sheath gives rise to an impressed electri force along the inner surface of the sheach, aid to a resuleant voltage between the sheath and the cable conductors. Similarly, current in the aerial ground wire structure of transmission lines causes an impressed electric force in the cizcuit consisting of the ground wires with return in the phase wires. In the latter case the electric force is due to inductive coupling betwenn the ground wires and the phase wires, the resistive coupling being negligibie by comparison, Assume that the cable sheath or the ground wire system is of infinite Jengeh, and that the impressed electric force is symmetrical with respect to the origin such that £%(«) = —E"(—x), which would be the case for 2 direct stroke ot for a stroke to ground opposite the origin. The eurrent js the cable couductots or in the phase wires must then be zero at the origin, and the following expression is obtained from {1.44} for the voltoge between the sheath and the cable conductors or the ground wires and the phase wires: reatfem [roreds [ema] 1 : =e remy [" wort a Cran 9.19) where Tp is the propagation constant of the cable conductors with return in the sheath and the earth or of the phase wires with return in the ground wires and the eatth, as the case may be. ‘Since attenuation along the sheath or the ground wire system is rather rapid, the impressed electric force will be confined to such a short interval that attenuation in the cable conductors or phase wires may be neglectedi by comparison. The exponential factors accordingly may be taken as unity jn evaluating the resultant voltages in the range where the voltages are sofiicencly large to be important. The resultant voltage is then Hea = fi Be) de— (0) 2c = Pe) where 7°(¢) is the impressed voltage. If the voleage between transmission Line and ground exceeds the dielectric strength of the insulation so that e lashover takes place, a current will enter the line and a traveling wave will be set up. With flashover at = 0, the current enteting the line will equal (9.20) a) v0) 10) - —22@)__ 270) O° Ri) + et om LIGHTNING PROTECTION 303 wwhere & is the resistance of che ground connection at which a feshover ‘occurs, and Ke is the characteristic impedance of the line. ‘The current propagated in each direction will equal (1/2)/(0)e"™ and the voltage between line and ground will be V(x) = P% a) — @ Kor — 1(0)Ros 10) = (0) — PP (Kee + ae) 0.22) YO) ggg te PCs) ~ Fag, ot + rool where Roe is the mutual resistance between the ground connection and the point # in the ground below point x on the line, and op = Ro. The volt- age V(x) will thus increase from zero at « = 0 to the following value for lange values of such that (2) = 0: Ko = e 23) 3) = PO) = og, 0.23) Equations (9.21) zo (9:23) also apply in the ease of a flashover between tzansmission line and the ground wire system, or between the conductors and the sheath of a cable, except that in these cases the resistance Ry may be neglected. while Ky and Ty is the characteristic impedance and propaga~ tion constant of the phase wires with return in the ground wires and the earth or of the cable conductors with return in the sheath and the earth, as the case may be. 9.9 Foltages in buried cable for direct sirokes ‘As shown in Chapter VIIT 2 surge curvent of the type encountered in Jightning strokes may travel for an appreciable distance along 2 buried conductor before it is discharged into the earth, Particularly if the earth resistivity is high, For direct strokes to the cable or near-by strokes ¢0 ground, the resultant voltage between the sheath and the core conductore may exceed the dielectric strength of che insulation of telephone cable, although ordinary high-voltage power cable would be substantially immune to lightning failure on this account, because of the much heavier insulation. Aside from ordinary telephone cable, other types have been used to a limited fextene, such as rubber insulated conductors with a shield wire or with an outside concentric shield of steel ot copper. In spite of the substantial in suletion, lighening damage may also be encountered with this tyBe of con struction, because of the high resistance of the shield. It is assumed in the following that the current is propagated from the cable up she lightning channel with infisite velocity. The voleage between304 EARTH CONDUCTION EFRECTS Cuarg sheath and cable conductors abcained ia this manner reaches a crest value in 50 to 100 microseconds, or after the current has traveled from the ground to theclond. The error resulting from the assumption of infinite velocity is thus probably quite small as regards the crest voltage, although the wave front will be somewhat slower when the actual velocity of propagation is con. sidered. “It is also assuined that current ia the sheath due to magnetc coupling between the vertical lightning channel and the sheath may be neglestad, 28 discussed further at the end of this section. Under the assumptions stated above, when a sinusoidal current J enters the sheath of a buried eable at a point remote from the ends, the current ia the sheath at the distance * from the otigin is () Let te) = fe 6.24 where the propagation constant F of the sheath-earth circuit is given by (6.02). ‘The resultant electric force along the inner surface of the sheath is BH) = Lag Where Zpeis the internal surface G11). Wich (9.25) in (9.19), sinusoidal current becomes Ue) (9.25) impedance with external return, given by the voltage between sheath and core for Lee ngs a Fg Oe Te) where the propagation constant ly than T and may be taken as Ty = [Ra + slg)! 1 = 5 Miia + Ref Le) Ro = unit length resistance of core-sheath circuit, ohms/meter Lo = unit length inductance of core-sheath cireuit, hy/meter Cy = unit length capacitance of core sheath circuit, fA/meter = U/labo}!” ‘The largest voltage is obtained for « = 0 and equals (9.26) of the core-sheath circuits much smalie: J ie 0) 25s Te can be demonstrated that, ip evaluating the maximum vokage in re sponse to typical ligheaing currents, i s permissible to neglect the effect 6 9.27} LIGHTNING PROTECTION 05 ccurrent in the sheath ad of the finite velocity of propagation in the Sheth euch ad ue thus cvaiaé* Th maybe doe by erlang the voltage fer uni impulse current, using the limiting values of (9.27) for Jarge and small iw to obtain the corresponding response 7”(@) for small and large values of time. The result is shown in Fig, 9.4 for a cable having the constants indicated and on which measurements were made in a locality ‘where the earth resistivity was 400 meter-ohms, as asswmed in the ealeula- o0cy 5 rurownersee. 5 7 = -wlcaaseconos Bro, 94 Appronince olen for T. 14 Calcuased rom formula for seal times, 2. Celeulved fom formula for large Cine. 3. Transition curve giving approximate soletion for T°). Barth ceatvity P= 00 meterchms Radiy of exile @=1S0n Sheath thicknee 3 = 24mm Sheschresincance R= $2 X10 ohrafmeter heath cap, Co = 96 X10"? Fifreter Ro ~ R= 92 X10 chm/meret veesiey m= 2 X10 meter/se, earch velocity = 1X 108 eer/ere, tion. ‘The voltage in responce to 2 representative lighting currens, as obtained by murserica! integration in accordance with (1.135), is shown in Fig. 9.5, together with that calculated with the simplifying assumption mentioned above and used in the following derivation, With these simplifications, D = (oa)? e= 1/2 To = Gans? f= Rab ‘The voltage between sheath and core due to unit impulse current is chen y R PO = Tar RR (9.28)6 EARTH CONDUCTION EFFECTS Cnr. The wave shape of the current in Eghtning strokes may be approxima: by an expression of the Jorm a) Ie 9.23) With a = 013 -10%, 6 = .5-10%, and I= 1150, @ current of 1000 amperes crest and of the wave shape used in the measurements referred t0 above is obtained. This current reaches ies erest in 10 microseconds znd Gecays to its half-yalue in 65 microseconcis, In view of observations men- tioned in 9.3, this current may aot necessarily be zepresentative of the average wave shape of lightning stroke currents, Fermulas and curves 0 Tet = ey 1% leo 9 ou 008 ae ° yours SURGE CURRENT dl ‘010 2 30-20 30 8 70 85 36 WOT TD 10 aed ge OD OMT ED TT Fig 95 Gemparson of measured, shown by dasued curve, and calculated voltage berween sesh ard ere conductor show by cares | an arg oerabte a given in ig ° an | 1 Caen om bemlnncding skin era hath an Ste wa shin eticinshath ana why of 2 Gallnd fun mus bodon de ateantsoldeatca gees Se a of propagation. sheath anc assuring inftite veloc derived here an this basis may readily be extended ti 3 1ay readily be ext p other wave shay In the following, far ennvetence the volages tre ferme fou nest ae ‘oF 1000 amperes. For a curzent as given by (9.29), the voltage is I PO = oe PHVA — HH] — (50) Wary «hy 30) where Me = ~ie eh a) = Fae few 631) Since 64 is only about 2.59% of a, s % of al, propagation in the core-shesth iréuit may be neglected in comparison with propagation along the sheath. LIGHTNING PROTECTION 307 ‘earth circuit, so that it is permissible to rake the voltage proportional to the square root of the earth resistivity. Furthermore, from (9.30) itis teen thar when a and b are divided by the same factor & so that the wave shape ef the current remains the same but the duration of the current is increased & times, the voltage is increased VE times. ‘Thus, if the surge ‘carrent had reached its erest value in 20 microseconds and its half-value in 190 microseconds, the voltage would be increased by V2, and the crest voltage would have been reached after 320 rather than 60 microseconds. Te follows that for a given charge, the crest voltage is proportional to the square root of the crest current and that for 2 given crest current it is proportional to che square root ofthe charge. It also is fairly evident thet the steepness of the wave front of the current within the limits ordinarily encountered has a negligible effect on the crest voltage. Figure 9.5 shows the voltage obtained from (9.30) for the cable constants and earth resistivity assumed in Fig. 9.4. If the breakdown voltage of the core insulation is assumed to be 2000 volts, the cable used in the above Gample would be able to withstand stroke current of about 30,000 timperes before the insulation is punctured. From Fig. 9:2 itis seen that in about 50% of al strokes to buried couductors the crest current exceeds 30,000 amperes. For a current reaching its half-value in 260 rather than 465 microseconds, however, so that # = 4, the voltage between sheath and ore would reach 2000 voles for a crest current of 15,000 amperes, which is fncountered in 78% of ell strokes, ‘When there are two cables, each will provide shielding for the other, and the shielding effect may be calculated as for shield wires (Section 9.12). When the cables are of equal or nearly equal size and are close together, the parallel resistance of the two sheatiss may be used in calculating the voleage, ‘hich is then practically the same in both cables. With the simplifications mentioned before, the voltage at the distance + along the cable from the lightning stroke becomes ee ‘The corresponding function 7” is Rye Fe 8} @) ‘The veltage due to a sunge current /(), as obtained from (1.135), may be expressed as Vixg) Toe) = itt giltg Betty (9.33) [ot 2r(ah 5) — oes) O58) 2e— A)308 EARTH CONDUCTION EFRECTS here, with ¢ = aly or ll, H00)~ f70~ 9 (2) mma For a current as given by (9.29) integral serms of error fonctions cera ae 3 eo so 0 = wa Bs -wlefoscconns Bia 95 Fonetionsigs) when Je) = Tet 1S x14, 1 = 150 ampe tables are available at prosent. Curves for the funct ‘mumezical integration, aze shown in Fig, ema SIS 10-4, 210%, 3104) 5.104 ang 10 Ifa breakdown of the insulation gce expression is obtained from (6.22) for Pes x0 ‘the voleage along the cable: In this case the voltage due ro unit impulse current fs Res 112 ; Teas) — me) [rete — prey Re\t Poles) = SS alata) — gta i Cuan 9 (935) may be expressed in for which, however, no ion g, as obtained by 14s 2H 2M rs at the stroke point, the following 0.36) 9.37) LIGHTNING PROTECTION 0 Jn Fig. 97 the crest values of (ey) end M(x), calculated for the cable considered before, are plotted agsinst =, togecher with those observed in tests. When the voltage "0/7 az che point where current enters the sheath is great enough to break down che insulation of a core conductor, the latter will be in contact with the sheach by virtue of arcing. Under this condition, che voleage Vo(s) between this condactor and the sheath will increase wich distance along the cable as shown in Fig. 9.7. A maxim is reached a fairly short distance from the original fault, and beyond this point the voltsge slowly decresses. After 4 puncvure of the inculation where current enters tho shes, or at a weak spot in the insulation near by, 1007-7 4 LTA vw z ER CENT OF MAM DISSES ETS PD Sa eS iecomerens io, 9:7 Vasiation in vlunge betwee sheath and core laag cable for an earth resstivicy ‘F400 meter sas. 1. Condsctor not connected to sheath, 2 Condactar connected th sheath et point hase curcent enters sheath, ‘other faifores may occur, not necessarily at the point where Vo(zf) is largest, bur sometimes at points nearer or much farther away where the insulation may be weaker. A single lightning stroke cay chus cause insa- Istion failures over 2 considerable distance along the cable, ‘As mentioned in 9.2 a current of iow value anc long duration may exist in the lightaing channel after the main discharge, This current is usually of euch long duration that the resiscance of the sheath muse be considered in calculating the current propagation along the cable. The propagation constant in that case becomes iar nears (245) (2)" rate racic? =(F +2) (F R, Land G being the unit length resistance, inductance and leakance of the sheath-earth cizeuit. Neglactiag propagation in the core-sheath circuit, che voltage berween eore and sheath at the stroke point due to a sinusoidal 9.38)wee a EARTH CONDUCTION EFFECTS onan.9 current jy becomes _ hk a 8:0) = B= A(£) "Re + woe 039) ‘The corresponding voltage for u step current J; dx Ze Pon) = ne (ee) ” et ayy (9.40) For large values of time, when Ri/L > 1, (9.40) becomes eZ \oe Od) ~ pe(Z5 oa) ‘The latter expression is valid when 4 i " ion is valid when # exceeds about 2 miliseconds thus applies for the long duration current ofa lighting stokes cove Weer Usually Taste for about 10 to 100 milliseconds. For a current of Tes bees the evoaheath valgs for a ele an asumed fy the pe ious examples is about 700 vols. In may strokes the long dneat Re iny be several hndied ampere, anda substantial coe oe ee eat eercen core and sheath which may le for 1 seconds“ This though his current component does nor increase the crest voleage, iy substantially increases the likelihood of permanent failure and the senec ofthe damage when th ination is panctred, 7 mentioned before, in the preceding analysis only the resistive couplh bere Hehning channel end eal sheath ws conde ac eco by the tenn in (4.97), whereas no cognizance was inductive coupling represented by the rernining tama and ge ko Hon ao toa 26] For direct strokes r 4, 60 that the impressed elecerie the sheath aay be taken ax BM(p) apy sheath at «= 0 given by Fo) = [7 Bier ar (942) tield intensity aon, ~déx/dr. ‘The potential of she =, TS So-en]e (9.43) — be | r “A516 +) es(1+2)- ‘The voltage between sheath P th and core conductors differs from ial (0) of the sheath by the shield factor Zyelivlaey Siar > LIGHTNING PROTECTION aL inductance of the sheath is Zoe (e/2n) og (1.12/Ta). With y = V2r, the voltage between sheath and core thus obtained may be expressed in ‘erms of the veltege (/(0) due to resistive coupling as U0) = VON O44) where VULTT log 2415-1] 7 = Jog 1-12/Ma Sig Late (48) The crest voltage for dircet strokes is obtained after about ¢ = 100 microseconds and, in evaluating 9, it is permissible to employ the same approximation as diseussed in the next section ford, ie. faa 1/4, ‘Thus, for p = 1000 meter-chas, a= 2em and # = 10, = 07. The voltage may thus be increased by about 7% because of magnetic coupling between the lightning channel and the sheath, This increase in the voltage as a result of magnetic coupling may be disregarded in view of the unfavor- able assumptions employed in the equations neglecting magnetic coupling, namely: infinite velocity of propagstion along the lightning channel, negligible arcenwation along the core-sheath circuit, and negligible skin effect in the sheath. For strokes to around, as considered in the next stetion, the voltage due to resistive coupling diminishes with increasing separation at a more rapid rate than that due to inductive covpllag. For cis reason the inductive coupling is relatively more important than for direct strokes, but have been neglected in the following since the voltages for strokes to graund are substantially smaller and hence of less significance. 9.40 Valtage in Buried cable for strokes 10 ground Let it be assumed that he current enters the ground at the distance y from a buried cable and that it does not are to the latter. The current in the ground along the cable will give rise to current in the sheath and to voltages between sheath and core conductors. If the earth is assumed to have uniform conducciviey, che earch potential at the distance * from the point where current enters the ground is Fem JQ0¢) = Jo/ter where p is the earth resistivity, and 7 the distance (=" +77)". The sheath current and potential im this case are given by (5.96) and (5.97). If propagation along the coresheath cireait is neglected, to voltage between sheath and cable conductors differs from the sheath potential by the factor Zne/Z, ‘The voltage opposite the paint where the (9.46)a2 EARTH CONDUCTION ERFECTS Current enters the ground thus becomes Cuan 00) = 7222 ny) Thy (9.47) = Fe Soars) Comparison with (9.27) shows th i stroke By the Fane 27? thse che voleage is smaller than for a direct xt») = Boers (48) With @* ce Plog (1/na) and with (0,09) 2 tog 2D, y wig LEE AG) ee (ve 4 ') fe ete) (949) Where D = (:7/2p)"9 = (ya), ‘The voltage for a stroke xt the stan. js i ora diece stroke, y =a, by 7 NY °C BNE Io term ofthe VO9) = VOR)NTyy na) The rigorous solution of the time fimction correp © fimeti on ae ‘be rather complicated. Since, howeret, A is the ee aioe on eh of wich rues kgnrchiically with P and chu vases only ‘With , an approximate solution is ir i wat tat imeeg Aaa ae ely sth : eens ¢ Solution of 2° lay pis (0) + log 1/AY"/mn p being the Uossrithmic derivative ofthe gamma function. For representative tole, can t@ <1,¢< 10), y is less than 5%, af log I/t, s0 that a good TPemimation is obtained by replacing fw by 1/1 in log p, which inthe lustration simulates the factor Ay). With this 4pproximation, P@rys) = YO.ap Ny o/2pe)4] (9.51) sn nai easing, the earch was assumed to have aifom resstvey 2 Ren com ete rest eas the surface along cable may ‘bstant per OF sm ant resistivity at dey ‘eg Hehrng vlog for det sats wil ton dented nx ony he re he "2, but on an equivalent resistivity which be determined as discussed below. Also the voleages fer srokes teensy ee LIGHTNING PROTECHION 313 insulation failures for strokes to ground at # consideruble distance trom the cable even if che resistivicy near the surface is fairly low, provided that the resistivity for depths beyond 20 meters or so is very high. On the other hand, if the resistivity at depths beyond 20 meters or so is very low, failures due to strokes to ground are unlikely, even if the resistivity near she surface is high. ‘When the mutual resistance between small electrodts as used in earth- resistivity measurements can be approximated by equation (5.116), which ip the case for rwo.layer structures, the voleage for # stroke to ground may ‘again be represented by an equation of the same forma as (9.51), except that 2s given in this case by equations (5.124) for small and large separations. In the fatter equations the following approximations may be used Ry) = tog EE (9.82) #00 $3] = log @s3) where & is defined in section 2.10. For a stroke to ground at the distance y the voltage then beeoznes = p0apy PR OEDI tox = pr HOC + bl POD = POA RO ra) + a= AMET Da — 5? sthoce Myth) isthe voeage for an equivalent eatth resistivity obtained from the following relation: PAOLA) = afe(0,To) + (mr — AHN +2)e} (9.55) This equation follows from (5.118) with ¥; = ©,K,(Te) = o(OTs), Kea? + 1°)| = 80,0 + Bal ‘In applying the above expressions, a rough value of py is first asstumed in calculating (0,02) and (0,(T + 4)a] and a more accurate value next ob- tained from (9.55), If the value of a, thus obtained differs materially from the assumed value, a second calelation may be required. In expression (9,52) the resistivity rs is to be used in calculating I’, the latter being taken 28 (o/2ed)#, wheres the time-to-cres vale ofthe voltage as before Figure8 shows the manner in which the valeage decreases with increas- ing separation for three assumed earth structures. The resistivities and the depth of the upper layer are selected such that the equivalent earth resistiv- ity—and thus the voltage in the eae of a dircestroke-—is the stein all cases and equal t0 1000 mererohms. Iz will be moticed chat, where the resistivity of the lower layer is high, the voltage due to a stroke at a distanceais EARTH CONDUCTION EFFECTS cue. 9 of 60 meters is $0% and, at a distance of 300 m, 25% of che voleage due to a direct stroke. When the cable is small, insulation failures may thus be oc- casioned by strokes to ground at considerable distances from the cable, although the resistivity near the surface to depths of say 20 meters is only moderately high. Tes seca, however, that, when the earth resistivity of the lower layer is, Jow, failures due to strckes t pround not arcing to the cable are rather un- likely, even witen the earth resistivity near the surface is rather high. On account of the higher surface resistivity, however, a greater number of strokes would be expected to arc to the cable for a given equivalent re- tg 08 ol I rast a a Eas DISTANCE FROM CABLE-WETERS Pre 98 Redaction ia voltage Between shasth and cote with increaing distance from eitle to peint whore coment evens ground Equivalent euch reievity 1000 eter i all ext. we 4. Upper layer of 400 meters aad 10 rats depth. Low layer of 4000 mecerchoes and infite depth. 12. Uriferalyccndoctng eat 1000 meter-chne- 3. Uzper layer of 1800 meter-chrs and 10 tae Sept, Lower Inger of 159 motenohm and ininice dept. siotvity than when the conductivity is uniformly distributed. On the ‘thet hand, many strokes that would arc to the cable iF the earth were uniformly conducting may channel through the surfsce layer to the good conducting lower layer, 99 shat the incidence of direct strokes is reduced on this account. Experience indicares that the latter factor tends to pre- dominate so that ligheniag damage ordinarily is not severe when the re sistivity is low ar depths beyond 10 meters ar $0. 9M Froltages in buried cable for discharges bebacen clouds Toevaluate voltages arising from discharges between clouds, the lightning, ‘channel is here assumed to parallel the cable as shown in Fig. 9.9. Because ‘of magnetic induetion, the lightring current will give rise to an impressed LIGHTNING PROTECTION sus ee i ‘along the cable sheath, As an approximation it may ers (Sarees mo nase rc oni he es ion of th ea hat the electric foree in the exposed section due to a sinusci = EO) «YM, where Mis the unt length mutual impedance of ‘Shelightning channel end the sheath. The resulsant sheath current (+) is obtained from (1.44), the constants 4 and B being dexerined Lb aber. ing the voltage between sheath and ground is zero at x = ¢ ie deci fence along the core is given by E(x) = RY(e), and the voleage between ri care conductors and thesheat i obtained by a second tappiiono 4) fe constants and B being determined from che condition a te coe must equal zero at = 7/2. The voltage betees sheath and eore 3 ——-| a ia 99 Comene induce in sheath-earh dret by Gocharpe bermee cloods ' cconduetors at the distance along the cable beyond one end or the other of the Lightning channel projection on the cable 3s chen aie Se RoATes Le = ete a — et) 9.56) Ue) = (a - oF a-e] aie sign of the voltage beyond one end of che chanel being opposite co that cond the other end. = eines a gy the last bracket term may be neglected. Atcenuation alona the core sheath circuit within a distance representative ofthe Teng Se he small so that | e"" 52Tor. With these modifications, Ts JRMUsS te 9.57) ve = shew! 9.57) ‘The earth rerum impedances M- and Z are obtained from (4.43) and (4.36), respectively, ia vie (0.58) M5, GE aoa és v2 ie 59) B= 78 Gea? where ais defined as before, Ais the height of the Lightning channel and yre 316 BARTH CONDUCTION EFFECTS the horizontal separation of lightai i ning channel from cable. ‘The for M holds when e232 + 52) > §, condivion which ie the important part of the frequency range. Inserting (9.58) and (9.59) in (9.57), Cons. = Akal Ue) = EES (2 0.6) where, eee = Oe ae Comparison of (9.60) with (9.92) and (9:34) shows that in this case Pot) = Rat? Ha a) ees) (9.62) An the above solution, « was ed : » # Was assumed constant. Actually, it chan lightly with frequency and, for reasons mentioned belo ic «ee cncuah for practical purposes ta replace ia with 1// when calculating é ¢ maximum voltage is obtained at x = 9, i.¢., at @ point opposite one Genel of the Sightning channel, and comparison with (9.34) shows sh hi voli ies fom thar obeained in the case of a direct stroke by 45 Since a? so that mn 1a} it (928), The above factor has the following apprecmnens waec ee oh welt Pap 63} Since each cloud has an equal and oppositely charged image at the dis. tance & below the surfuce ofthe ground, the elcrie field betwese cloud od ground is subscancally equal to that between the clouds whens ay Fors tetas to take place between clouds, rather than to the earth the magth s, re, would have to be less than 2; so that with» factor would not be expected to exceed y= 28. ‘Thus, fr the cable previously considered in 9, slurs due to discharges between clout nach not be expected except for eutrents in ences of 100,000 amperes Se ieumans channel spreximately above and paral tothe eae jghlaximum voleages of opposite signs are obtained at the ewe cade of lining hance “ge athe ipo ng sero. Av the docs + from one end of the lightning channel increases, the voluae seen rather slowly in che same manner as shown in Fig. 917 for Peay LIGHTNING PROTECTION ar G12 Protective measteres for bursed cable One method of reducing lightning failures is to incresse the insulation between the cable conductors and the sheath, no extra inselation being required between individual cable conductors as long as they ate confined within the sheath and do not extend to outside points at other than sheath potential, as for cable of the type considered here. To be effective, not only the exble itself but also various accessories, such as cable stubs, loading-coil cases and gas alarm contactor terminals, must be provided with increased insulation between the conductors aud sheath or ground. For a cable of the size assumed in the example in sterion 9.9, an increase in the dielectric strength from 2000 ro 4000 volts would increase the stroke current which would cause insulation failure from 30,000 to 60,000 amperes. From: ‘Fig. 9.2 itis seen that the pumber of strokes that could cause failure is chen reduced fram 50% to 20% of the total number of strokes to the cables, so ran ERROR ee Be Fie, 910 Poson of sid wines, $, im wlason co cal C. Shi wine ngalled afer [SME on et with eae om ih that the number of failures would be reduced 2.5 times. If, however, the time to half-value of the current is 260 microseconds, rather than 65 as ascumed above, the cursene would be increased from 15,000 amperes encomntered in 75% of all strokes t0 30,000 amperes encountered in 30%, so that the number of failures would be reduced only 1.5 times. Lightning currents along the sheath of busied cable and resultant vole- ages hetween sheath and cable conducrows may be reduced by shield sires installed along the cable as indicated in Fig. 9.10. A direct stroke will first make contact with one of the shield wites or the sheath. ‘The voltage between this shield wire and other shield wires or the sheath will then be large enough so that they may be regarded ax interconnected at the stroke point as a result of arcing. As discussed in section 8.3, the propagation constant will be substantially the same for the shield wires as for che sheath, 0 that in calculating the division of gurrent they may be regarded. a2 interconnected ar frequent intervals. In the case of one shield wire the sheath current thus becomes J fant pn 22 + Za — ie = Ie) =SIB EARTH CONDUCTION EFFECTS cuun.9 where / is the cotal current at x = 0, and 2y = Ri + teby = vnir length impedance of sheath Lax = Re + fend length impeciance of shield wire length mutual impedance of sheath and shield wire ‘The voltage between sheath and core conductors at # then becomes JR Lan — 2, 2 FOF ant (1 > NEBR ths Ho) y R G65} 2 RB ptyayy powenan(s i 9 = Cox ~ Lya}/(Lar + Lag ~ 2x) 10 = Ref (Lan = Las) B= Ret Fa) (Lay + Lag — Una} ‘The function 7” is in this case where renlk 1)" ea — fy On raer gel) + pam] 065 Where the function Ais defined atin section 9. ‘When the shield wire is at a. sufficient distance from the sheath, so that Fear bg eet may be neploted, the self and mutual inductances ane 67) = Ly = 2 tog®® Lan bay = Flog: where» = 1.257. 10-* henries per meter 11g = rains of sheach Pag = radius of shield wire "1a = distance between sheath and shield wire, With more than one shield wire, the geometric mean radi cir ic ee is, and ri their geometric mean separation fom LIGHTNING PROTECTION m9 The surge voltage for a curenc as given by (9.29} is Ra [a= pan be 20 pas HOA) = aE BBL a ay MN — area) fo = Ba) = 8) aia, | acer srs aa ‘When ao = fo, the voltage with shield wires differs from that cbtained. without shield wires by the factory. With two wires of 4.mm (,165-inch) diameter, 30 cm (12 inches) apart and 25 cm (10 inches) above the cable considered before, ay = 1.3+10?, = 1.5: 10%, and = .47. In this ‘case ap differs only slightly from Ao, $0 that the voltage is reduced by the factor 9. With two wires of 2.5.mm (.104inch) diameter, = 32-10", fo = 23-10, and 9 = 49. When the reduction factor is determined more aceurately by calculating the crest voltage with shield wires from (9.68) and comparing it with the eret voltage without shield wires, a value of .52 is obtained as compared with .47 for the larger wires. It is thus seen that, within certain limita, the voltage reduction provided by shield. wires depends to a comparatively small extent on the size of the wires, the resistance of the smaller wires assumed above being about 2.5 times greater than that of the larger wires, Shield wires may also be installed at such 4 separation from the cable that when they are struck by lightning the voleage will be insufficient for arcing to take place to the cable. For reasons mentioned in section 83, there will be negligible current in the sheath and inappreciable voltage ‘between the sheath and the cable conductors. The voltage between the shield wire and the sheath may be determined in this case from the surge impedance formulas given in section 8.6. To prevent arcing to the cable of heavy lightning strokes, the separation ordinarily wauld have to be two ‘or three meters where the resistivity is high. For this reason shield wires to intercept lightning stokes appear impracticable in most stations. xtra core insulation and shield wires reduce failures due to excesive voltages only and have certain limitations from practical standpoints. Even with these measures an excessive rate of damage may be encountered in high resistivity territory, not only because of excessive voltages but also because of holes fared in the shesth, Denting of che sheath from ges pressure generated by the heat from the lightning are and resultant crush- ing of the core may also he encountered. Armored cable with bonds between armor and sheath only st splices may be subject to frequent damage on the latter account even in low-resistivity areas, as 2 result of arcing between the tape armor snd che sheath, which are separated by320 EARTH CONDUCTION EFFECTS Cuae, 9 paper and asphalt for corrosion protection of the sheath. Tape armor Tra Ligh eiaow os oat oes nga may bes een the krmor and the sheath even for fairly small lightning current. A cable may also be subject to corrosive and to damage from rodents. In ae lighting isnot x problem, coroson may eu tee cable oro gud ce oa ee rotection from the various standpoints mentioned above may be afforded ‘if the sheath is provided ‘with on insulative See wee oe Ce aa concentric shield of fairly low resistance, ‘such as 2 copper shield. A high dicleceric strength is requin 5 arcing between the outside shield and the sheath, which ae denting ‘or fusing of holes in the sheath, and may be secured with a reason- able thickness of insulation, if the outside shield has a fairly low resistance. If che sheath and the shield are invluted except for banda at infrequent intervals, current in the sheath and voltage between the sheath and core conductors may be virtually climinated, even if the sheath has substantial resistance. With an outside shield of low resistance, bonding to the sheath at Convenient intervals as at every splice point, may also be permis tible, depending on the earth resietivity and the resistance of the sheath, Where such bonding is not permisible, however, itis necesary that the various suniliary equipment connected to the sheath also be properly iso- Jated from ground, As an example, consider a cable with an outside shield having a resistance af chim per mile, 35 chin/km, ina ternary where ths earth rentvey is as high as 2000 meter-ohms, The voltage across the insulation between ‘the outside shield and the sheath is obtained in the same manner as thac between the sheath and the core conductors of an ordinary cable and would equal 10 ky for a 150-ka stroke to the outside shield. Thus, with 2 diclectric strengch in excess of 10 ky, lightxing damage would be su>- stantially eliminated, as a current of 150 ka is exceeded in less than 1% of all strokes to busied conductors. Cable of this type employing thermo- plastic insulation between the sheath and an outer corrugated copper $Nid ef eiskrn has bar ed on several Bel Systm own able routes. Lately, cable has been developed with a substantial chick of polyethylene insulation over the core and with a wee eee aaa han employed on paperinsulated cable. The dielectric strength of the polyethylene insulation is substantial, in excess of 25 kv for lightning ‘oleages. To take full advantage ofthis diclecerc srengeh, itis nesesary to provide equivalent diclectric strength in the various cable accessories, such as cable stubs, loading coil cases and gas alarm contactor terminals, LIGHTNING PROTECTION 32 Cable of this type, with ucoessories of high diclectric strength and with a modified type of tape armor in continuous contact with the sheath, €0 dusid sheath denting due to arcing between the tapes and the sheath, is Few coming into use. ‘The lightning and mechanical protection afforded by this type of conseruction is more reliable and less costly than that secured with thermoplastic insulation over the sheath snd an outside Copper shield, althoogh shield wires may be required when the earch renstivity is high, because of the fairly high sheath resistance. Beemuse of the tape armor, there is negligible lability to holes in the sheath when shield wires are employed. 9.13 Lightning rouble expectancy for buried cable ‘The number of failures to be expected as a result of direct strokes to fa cable may be estimated by rst finding the number of direct strokes t0 the cable and, in tur, the percentage of such strokes that would cause jnsulation failuce. ‘The incidence of direct strokes may be estimated on the basis of the rate of strokes to ground given in 94 and equivalent istance 9, derived in 9.7 within which the eable will attract hghtning Serokes, Thus, with 35 thunderstorm days per year and an earth resistivity fof 1000 meter-obms, 7 direct strokes would be expected per 100 miles in ‘one year. If the insulation strength of the eable were 2000 voles and its Sheath resistance 1 ohm per mile, insulation failure due to direct strokes Would be expected for a current exceeding about 30 ka, which is encoun- tered in about 50% of all lightning strokes. The cable would thus be lable to failures as a result of direct strokes at an average rate of 3.5 times ‘per 100 miles per year. If the insulation strength were 4000 volts, or if the cable were provided with shield wires so thst the sheath current were Teduced 50%, fallares would not be expected except for currents in exesss ‘of 60 ka, which are encountered in about 20% of the strokes. The failures ‘would thus be reduced about 2.5 times. Figure 9.11 shows curves of che lightning trouble expectancy as a result ‘of both direct strokes and strokes to ground when the dielectrie strength Of the insulation is 2000 vats. These curves may alsa be used when extra ‘core insulation and shield wires are used. Thus, wher. the core insulation fs doubled, the effect is the same as if the sheath resistance is halved. If the shield wires reduce the voltage by the factor 1, the effect is the same fs if the sheath resistance is reduced by this factor. It will be noticed thaz, for the example considered above, the number of failures expected in one yest is about 6 per 100 miles per year #s compared to 3.§ due to direct strokes only. With 4000.volt insulation, there is « smaller differ- fence, 1.7 as compared to 14 failures per 100 miles per year, sinee strokes to ground are less important.302 EARTH CONDUCTION EFFECTS cman. 9 The curves in Fig. 9.11 are based on ligheni in whi ; if 9.11 are based on lightning currents in which the tine to half-vaue is about 68 miswsesondy as represented by (0.29). eames eacan (0.305, the time to hal-valueis increased y Sie Jy the voltages are incrossed by V# and the effect isthe same as if the sheath resistance were increased by VE Thus, with k= 4, to 100 sqLes r Pakio HADENS TOR AY 25 on /Wice of OCCASIONS OF FAI .y r 1 MILE =1.01 8 loo 200 = 500 1000 2000 eee tion failures duc to cxecssive voltages would be oxy 10) wl ‘De Sony rae gsr louse ont ae» note strength of 2000 volts, Dashed fins represents fullatize cable. See 5000 the time to halfevalte is 260 microsecond’, th showa in Fi ; ) microseconds, the eurve shown in Fig. 97 eee the above example, The incidence of lightning failutes would chen be ingens above Sen he tory whee he cstntmesruemenia red t0 in 9.3 were made, lightning trouble has been substantially mote severe than indicated by the curves in Fig, 9.7, which is coasstent wich the observed longer durations of the current ia this tervitory. LIGHTNING PROTECTION 333 “The derivation of the curves in Fig. 9.11 has been given elsewhere, !* together with the results of oscillographie observations of lightning voltages ral lightning trouble experience on certain routes, The character of the Voltages observed varied widely from sharp transients of @ few mil vecomis? duration to slowly changing voltages lasting .2 seconds from one sire value to the next, voltages duc to multiple discharges being quite common, The intervals between voltage peaks, which were duc mainly fo discharges between clouds, were in the order of o1 second in dhe majority io the canes, Ol the disturbances, 90% lasted for more then -1 second Sov for more chan vt, and 10% for more thar 1.25 second, the maxima Guration being 2.3 seconds. 9.14 Voltages for strokes to aerial cable rience indicates that the incidence of lightning damage is no greater for ausial than for buried cable of the same size chzough similar rervitory rrrarnce failures are more readily located and repaired en serial cable, Tighizing proectinn is generelly less of a problem, A number of ftors aaemnsible for this somewhat wcexpected situation will be eonsideret briefy. er cable routes ordinarily ore shielded 0 a considerable extent by he presence of trees, which usually extend above the cable and divert ee Fes co thatthe incidence of direct strokes to the cable is much smaller jan mould otherwise be expected. With a ightning stroke of average {Ravnctaysfashovee is ikely to oecor across a pole to gromd. | Because of it Toneaton, the resistance eneountered by the current in dhe ground i ScNinarily much smaller than that afforded by the sheath, so thet the Greater part of the carent is diverted inco che earth. The voltages Sereen ahe sheath and the cable conductors are consequently occasioned by small corenes traveling long the sheath over grenc distances. When bY Steulation is panccured, che corrent through the puncture is then wre amaller on acooune of the higher impedance of the fault circuit Than would be the ease if the volkage were due to a lange current over & Shore distance, as in the case of buried cable. ‘The likelthood of « perma rent failure is accordingly much reduced. “The analysis of voltages in aerial cableis complicated by the irregularity of ground connections on the sheath and by the variations in the resistance Speck ground connections with current. Aerial cable is usually sup Sonted on wooden poles which are guyed at certain intervals, | Alehoug | Par'Suy artes may not always be in dizect concace with the sheath, the “Ieatance is exdinasily such that Aashovers to the guy wires will oecar faa considerable distance in each direction from a lightsing stroke fo 1 eat co that ir will be grounded through the guy anchors. Thening stroke, particularly when the earth Jn order to calculate the volt ri " voltage expected with « grounded sheath, itis Gonvctient £0 consider at fat che voleae for an insulated cable,” Pet ne the voltage is given by (9.26), with the following, eed Ge constants P and Py of che sheathearth and T= fey, py (Ry + haa Yay ]t® Z = unit length induceance of shesth-eanh cre © = uait lengch capacitance of sheath earth create Ro = unit length resiscance of core-sheath creuie Zo = unit length inductance of eare sheath ehrovit Gp = unit length capacitance of core sheath eiraie For sypcal cable, P< Ty, thar (9.26) may be approximated by FEC p00 To Ue) = & ~ae *) 0.695 For unit impolee current the cottesponding voltage is ep) = ete 10[ Bc — argo] 8 where ai 070) where Jo is a Hessel function defined in Append: { and P= LEH oy = (1/Lgty)'® The above expression applies when t — x/o and ¢ than zero, “When 1—/oy <0, the frst tom i ech posh seater PEELE 0 the second set i neglected. eee 'or an arbitrary current, the voltage may be eval wer _ Ber an nf may be evaluated by cal integration in accordsnes with (1.135). The voltage thos coenenaat quently used on long-distance raures. Ie will be noced ee thee ‘we rather high and that they atteouate slowly. aan Assume nexe that the core insulation is punctured he waage between the sath end the cor conduston fc saan ‘ay be evaluated by assuming that a voltage equal and opposite to thes wn io Fig. 9.12 far. ~ Dis impressed between the sheath and the ere genductors, The voltage would then be zero at the stroke point aad would increase slowly wich increasing discance. IF che imipressed voltage -_— se LIGHTNING PROTECTION 32s were not attenuated, the voltage at a distance of 2 miles would equal the difference between the curves shown fore =Oand.x = 2miles, Actually, fon account of attenuation of the impressed voltage, it would be less. As the distance is increased, the voltage will reach a maximum value, which may be substentially smaller than the original voltage at the stroke point, and will chen decay as the distance is inereased further. Thus, if the voltage a¢ the stroke point were just sufficient to cause a puncture in the insulation, = second puncture would not occur, and a permanent ey ReaneuUSSeseSeeeaes | oS . ree | = 4 1 r bites @ a ! 1 Ty a ; { rT P 1 : oa Try TREES } | 4 | PK I Tyt ty LO Pree od os mcaasteones Fra, 9332 Voltage beewoen cheath and core of an seria! cable jsulated from ground 1 distances of O, 2, 2,5 and 10 ales frm pone whete surge curren: eaters sheath, ‘indicted on cartes. Resistance of lad sheath: <6 hm/ mile (378 oh /m). failure would be unlikely. If the original voleage at the stroke point were substantially in excess of the dielectric strength of the insulation, a second breakdown might not occur within several miles of the stroke point. In the latter case the current through the puncture would be much smaller thas for the sane initial voltage at the stroke point in a buried cable, where the distance between the two fault poims is much smaller, and consequently the impedance of the core-sheath circuit between therm, 30 that the faule currents much greater. For this reason, ics not permissible to assume that a puncture ofthe insulation is likely to result in @ permanent failure, as in the case of the buried cable. Voltages substantially in excess326 EARTH CONDUCTION EFFECTS Cnr. 9 of the diclectric strength may be toletated withor of the ay be tolerated without damage to the ins tion, if these voltages are due to small sheath aon t faa tance, a3 in the above case. alate Consider next 4 fashover to grovnd at the stroke poi the current entering the earth is ed s f=J SHR ony where J is the stroke current, § the surge imped 7 the surge impedance of the sheath, an & the sescance encounered by the arent in the each, When the ltter resistance, as given by (8.25), is inserted in (9.71), the followin ‘exquation is obtained for the current entering the sheath: 7 F~ f= EP UL + RADY + GAD 6.72) where & = ph s/S*. Since &/4J 1, the sheath current may be taken as J-T= (pi? (9.73) ‘The voltage between sheath and core 's accordingly ve = #8 fe aperine eo) where 1) = Pens given by (9:70). ‘or a surge current (0) as given by (9.29) and a cable as assumed in the wpe sample, the rset voltage obtained by aumerical integration of Ua asyLa7 ‘Thus, with » = 100 meter-ohms, Ey = 2-10* rohms, Hy = 2-10° volts per meter and S = Saisie ee eeetaeae a y¢ 4100 volts and che total current entering the sheath, as obtained fom (275), would be 3500 amperes. ‘The volrge mould thus be caused by rena a 1750 amperes traveling in opposite direccians from the stroke eit fr gr ctson fe bende fhe nua sou ot fraction us current would cntet the Puncture and a ¢ breton ‘would be rather unlikely. ra 1 impulee Mashover voltage of a pole is in the order of 200 ee eee would thus be from J to 2 millton volts or lees, so that with a surge i see ofthe sheath of 200 ohms i each ‘inion fins the sok pees rer to ground, as assumed above, would be expected for a eee Eat 5000 to 10,000 amperes. There is then the possibilicy that a current. soe LIGHTNING PROTECTION a7 latter erest value or less may cause cable damage, as the current would not bbe diverted into the earth at the stroke point, but might travel for an appredable distance slong the sheath to grotind, such a6 a guy wire wether. The distance between sheath grounds is ordinarily such that, ander the most unfavorable condition of a stroke midway between grounds, ‘The voleage due to the resistance drop in the sheath would be insufficient to Causecable failure. Thus, for astroke midway between twa sheath grounds G00 meters apart on a cable ag assumed in the previous example, the Geleage developed by the current berween the stroke point and the grounds Tor a 10,000-ampere stroke would be 600 volts. The actual voltage at the seroke point would be somewhat greater due co current in the sheath beyond the grounds but probably would not exceed the dielectric serenath of the core insulation. For 2 substantially higher earth resistivity than assumed in the above examples of for a cable of small size, lightning voltages would be likely to sxtced the dielectric serength of the insulation. Thus, for a cable having Ghioe the redstance or for @ cable of the same resistance but an earth Tusstivity of 400 metenohms, the voleage between the sheath and the core cergiucters would he in the order of 4100 volts fora stroke current of 25,000 Gmperea when Ey © 210° volts/meter. No account is taken here of the $revenee of sheath grounds, whick would reduce the voltage to some extent, ‘Tfehe seroke current were doubled, the voltage would be increased 2 times to. 5700 volts. For 2 stroke current of 50,000 amperes and an earth Tesiseivity of 400 meter-ohms, the toral current entering the sheath would Fe abour $000 amperes and the current in each direction from the stroke point 2500 amperes. It is questionable whether a current of this order of Fragnitude would cause permanent failure, even ifthe core insulation were pponceured, 9.15 Protective mearures for long-distance aerial cable Tn the protection of aerial communicatian cable itis desicable to promore ‘the favorable aacaral tendencies discussed above, which tend to limit the frequency and the extent of core insulation failures. “This may be accom- plished by providing one or more low-resitance paths to ground near the Fiahening stroke, by Means of wires installed between the top and the base of the poles and which at the same time protect the latter against splintering by lightning. Such wires are better omiceed in wooded sections, however, mice they may then counteract the favorable shielding effect of trees by ‘providing paths by which strokes to wrees may reach the cable. Por optimum effect of such wires, itis desirable, on one hand, that the current be conducted over a large number of wires, because their combined fesintance to ground is chen low so that the current into the earch is large.