INTRODUCTION

Although in our daily life we use A.C. current devices. But rectifier is a
‘Electronic device which converts A.C. power into D.C. power’.

Most of electric devices and circuit are DC source for their operation.Since the
most convenient and economical source of power is domestic AC supply.It
is advantageous to convert alternating voltage into DC voltage is called
rectification.
AIM

To construct a low voltage full wave rectifier using two identical

junction diodes and to calculate the ripple factor filtering.
THEORY
P-N Junction formation
The elements and other things around us (like copper, silver, gold, rubber,
glass, water, oil etc) are classified into Conductors, Semiconductors and
Insulators based on their electrical conductivity. Conductors have high
electrical conductivity, where as insulators has the least electrical conductivity.
Semiconductors are materials that have electrical conductivity in between
conductors and insulators. The most common semiconductors are Germanium
and Silicon. In its naturally occurring form, they are called intrinsic
semiconductors. But an intrinsic semiconductor (a semiconductor in its natural
form) is not suitable for making any electronic device .One primary reason for
this is very low electrical conductivity of an intrinsic semiconductor at room
temperature. Researchers had found a way to manipulate the pure
semiconductor properties and thereby improve its electrical conductivity
several times. This is achieved by a process named doping (by adding a small
amount of impurity to Silicon and Germanium). The newly formed
semiconductor (known as doped semiconductor) is called an Extrinsic
semiconductor. An extrinsic semiconductor can be formed in 2 ways and hence
there are 2 types of extrinsic semiconductor named 1) p-type semiconductor
and 2) n-type semiconductor. A p-type semiconductor is formed by doping
Germanium (Ge) or Silicon (Si) with a trivalent (number of valence
electrons=3) element like Indium, Boron or Aluminium. An n-type
semiconductor is formed by doping Ge or Si with a pentavalent (number of
valence electrons=5) element like Arsenic or Antimony. You may now recall
that Ge and Si are tetravalent ( number of valence electrons=4) elements. This
means an n-type semiconductor will have an excess of electrons or negative
charge carriers(surplus of electrons that can be donated to other elements)
where as a p-type semiconductor will have a surplus of holes or positive charge
carriers (you must understand that in reality a hole or a positive charge is
representation of “absence of an electron” ). So a p-type semiconductor can
accept electrons from a donor (an n-type semiconductor).
PHENOMENA OCCURS DURING FORMATION OF P-N
JUNCTION
Three important phenomena occurs during formation of pn junction; as explained
below.

1) Diffusion

2) Formation of space charge

3) Drift

1 .DIFFUSION
In an n-type semiconductor, the majority carriers are negative charge carriers
or electrons. In a p-type semiconductor, majority carriers are holes or positive
charges. When a junction is formed in a silicon wafer by doping, a
concentration gradient occurs between p-type and n-type materials. This
results in electrons moving from n side to p side and holes moving from p side
to n side through the junction (call it as “initial movement“). When an electron
leaves the n-side region, it leaves behind an ionised donor (a positive charge )
at the n-side. Similarly when a hole is diffused to n-side, it leaves behind an
ionised acceptor (a negative charge) at the p-side. This movement of electrons
from n-side to p-side (n–>p) and the movement of holes from p-side to n-side
is called (p–>n) “diffusion” and it results in a current named as “diffusion
current“.
2. SPACE CHARGE FORMATION
We have seen that an electron moving from n to p (n–>p) leaves behind a
positive charge at the n-side of the junction. Similarly a hole moving from p-
side to n-side (p–>n) leaves behind a negative charge at the p-side of the
junction. When more and more electrons leaves the n-region & more and
more holes leaves the p-region, a region of positive and negative charges is
formed at the junction. Positive charges get accumulated near the n-side
junction and negative charges get accumulated near the p-side junction. This
region is known as “depletion” region. It has been named so because the
region is formed by the “initial movement” of electrons and holes, where
they “depleted” their original positions leaving behind +ve and -ve charges at
the junction.

3. DRIFT
We have seen that there is a layer of -ve charges accumulated at the p-side of
junction and a layer of +ve charges accumulated at the n-side of the junction.
This results in the formation of an electric field directed from positive charge
to negative charge. This electric field causes electrons to move from p side to n
side (p–>n) and the holes to move from n side to p side (n–>p). This motion of
charge carriers due to electric field is known as “drift” The current resulting
from the flow of electrons and holes due to this electric field (generated by
depletion region) is known as “drift current”. If you observe carefully, you can
easily see that drift current is opposite in direction to the diffusion current.

BIASING
The process of applying an external voltage is called as “biasing”. There are
two ways in which we can bias a pn junction diode.

1) Forward bias
2) Reverse bias
The basic difference between a forward bias and reverse bias is in the
direction of applying external voltage. The direction of external voltage
applied in reverse bias is opposite to that of external voltage applied in
forward bias
FORWARD BIASING A P-N JUNCTION DIODE
We know a diode has a depletion region with a fixed barrier potential. This
depletion region has a predefined width, say W. This width will vary for a
Silicon diode and a Germanium diode. The width highly depends on the type of
semiconductor used to make pn junction, the level of doping etc. When we
apply voltage to the terminals of diode, the width of depletion region slowly
starts decreasing. The reason for this is, in forward bias we apply voltage in a
direction opposite to that of barrier potential. We know the p-side of diode is
connected to positive terminal and n-side of diode is connected to negative
terminal of battery. So the electrons in n-side gets pushed towards the
junction (by force of repulsion) and the holes in p-side gets pushed towards
the junction. As the applied voltage increases from 0 volts to 0.7 volts,
the depletion region width reduces from ‘W’ to zero. This means depletion
region vanishes at 0.7 volts of applied voltage. This results in increased
diffusion of electrons from n-side to p-side region and the increased diffusion
of holes from p-side to n-side region. In other words, “minority carrier”
injection happens on both p-side (in a normal diode (without bias) electrons
are a minority on p-side) and n-side (holes are a minority on n-side) of the
diode.
REVERSE BIASING A P-N JUNCTION DIODE

By reverse biasing, we mean, applying an external voltage which is opposite

in direction to forward bias. So here we connect positive terminal of battery to
n-side of the diode and negative terminal of the battery to p-side of the diode.
This completes the reverse bias circuit for pn junction diode.

Analysing the revere bias characteristics

Here the interesting thing to note is that, diode does not conduct with change
in applied voltage. The current remains constant at a negligibly small value (in
the range of micro amps) for a long range of change in applied voltage. When
the voltage is raised above a particular point, say 80 volts, the current suddenly
shoots (increases suddenly). This is called as “reverse current” and this
particular value of applied voltage, where reverse current through diode
increases suddenly is known as “break down voltage“.

.
P-N JUNCTION GRAPH
HALF WAVE RECTIFIER

Half-Wave Rectifier Circuit Diagram

A simple Half Wave Rectifier is nothing more than a single pn junction

diode connected in series to the load resistor. As you know a diode is to
electric current like a one-way valve is to water, it allows electric current to
flow in only one direction. This property of the diode is very useful in
creating simple rectifiers which are used to convert AC to DC.

If you look at the above diagram, we are giving an alternating current as

input. Input voltage is given to a step-down transformer and the resulting
reduced output of the transformer is given to the diode ‘D’ and load resistor
RL. The output voltage is measured across load resistor RL.

As part of our “Basic Electronics Tutorial” series, we have seen that

rectification is the most important application of a PN junction diode. The
process of rectification is converting alternating current (AC) to direct
current (DC).
WORKING OF A HALF WAVE RECTIFIER
The half-wave rectifier circuit using a semiconductor diode (D) with a load
resistance RL but no smoothing filter is given in the figure. The diode is
connected in series with the secondary of the transformer and the load
resistance RL. The primary of the transformer is being connected to the ac
supply mains.

The ac voltage across the secondary winding changes polarities after every half
cycle of the input wave. During the positive half-cycles of the input ac voltage
i.e. when the upper end of the secondary winding is positive w.r.t. its lower
end, the diode is forward biased and therefore conducts current. If the forward
resistance of the diode is assumed to be zero (in practice, however, a small
resistance exists) the input voltage during the positive half-cycles is directly
applied to the load resistance RL, making its upper-end positive w.r.t. its lower
end. The waveforms of the output current and output voltage are of the same
shape as that of the input ac voltage.

During the negative half cycles of the input ac voltage i.e. when the lower end
of the secondary winding is positive w.r.t. its upper end, the diode is reverse
biased and so does not conduct. Thus during the negative half cycles of the
input ac voltage, the current through and the voltage across the load remains
zero. The reverse current, being very small in magnitude, is neglected. Thus for
the negative half cycles, no power is delivered to the load.

Thus the output voltage (VL) developed across load resistance RL is a series of
positive half cycles of alternating voltage, with intervening very small constant
negative voltage levels, It is obvious from the figure that the output is not a
steady dc, but only a pulsating dc wave. To make the output wave smooth and
useful in a DC power supply, we have to use a filter across the load. Since only
half-cycles of the input wave are used, it is called a half wave rectifier.
 FULL WAVE RECTIFIER – WORKING &
OPERATION

The working & operation of a full wave bridge rectifier is pretty simple. The
circuit diagrams and waveforms we have given below will help you understand
the operation of a bridge rectifier perfectly. In the circuit diagram, 4 diodes
are arranged in the form of a bridge. The transformer secondary is connected
to two diametrically opposite points of the bridge at points A & C. The load
resistance RL is connected to bridge through points B and D.
 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

Full Wave Bridge Rectifier – Circuit Diagram with Input and Output Wave Forms
During the first half cycle
During the first half cycle of the input voltage, the upper end of the
transformer secondary winding is positive with respect to the lower end. Thus
during the first half cycle diodes D1 and D3 are forward biased and current
flows through arm AB, enters the load resistance RL, and returns back flowing
through arm DC. During this half of each input cycle, the diodes D2 and D4 are
reverse biased and current is not allowed to flow in arms AD and BC. The flow
of current is indicated by solid arrows in the figure above. We have developed
another diagram below to help you understand the current flow quickly. See
the diagram below – the green arrows indicate the beginning of current flow
from the source (transformer secondary) to the load resistance. The red
arrows indicate the return path of current from load resistance to the source,
thus completing the circuit.

Flow of current in Bridge Rectifier

During the second half cycle
During the second half cycle of the input voltage, the lower end of the
transformer secondary winding is positive with respect to the upper end. Thus
diodes D2 and D4 become forward biased and current flows through arm CB,
enters the load resistance RL, and returns back to the source flowing through
arm DA. The flow of current has been shown by dotted arrows in the figure.
Thus the direction of flow of current through the load resistance RL remains
the same during both half cycles of the input supply voltage. See the diagram
below – the green arrows indicate the beginning of current flow from the
source (transformer secondary) to the load resistance. The red arrows indicate
the return path of current from load resistance to the source, thus completing
the circuit.

Path of current in 2nd Half Cycle

Peak Inverse Voltage of a Full wave bridge

rectifier:
At any instant when the transformer secondary voltage attains positive peak
value Vmax, diodes D1 and D3 will be forward biased (conducting) and the
diodes D2 and D4 will be reverse biased (non conducting). If we consider ideal
diodes in bridge, the forward biased diodes D1 and D3 will have zero
resistance. This means voltage drop across the conducting diodes will be zero.
This will result in the entire transformer secondary voltage being developed
across load resistance RL.
CIRCUIT DAIGRAM
 WORKING

Positive Half Cycle:

During the positive cycle of the AC input, the upper corner of the bridge is
comparatively positive where diode D1 and D2 are connected. In addition, the
lower corner of the bridge is comparatively negative where diode D3 and D4
are connected.

In this situation, the diode D2 is forward biased as its anode is connected to

comparatively higher potential and diode D1 is reversed biased as its cathode
is connected to the comparatively higher voltage. Similarly, at the lower
corner, the diode D3 is forward biased as its cathode is connected
comparatively lower voltage and diode D4 is reversed biased as its anode is
connected to the comparatively higher voltage.

For the positive cycle, the current flows from the upper corner of the bridge
through diode D2, then through the load resistor from point a towards point b
and diode D3, completing its path to the lower corner.
Negative Cycle:

During the negative cycle of the AC input, the upper corner of the bridge is
comparatively negative where diode D1 and D2 are connected. In addition, the
lower corner of the bridge is comparatively positive where diode D3 and D4
are connected.

In this situation, the diode D1 is forward biased as its cathode is connected to

comparatively lower potential and diode D2 is reversed biased as its anode is
connected to the comparatively lower voltage. Similarly, at the lower corner,
the diode D4 is forward biased as its anode is connected to a comparatively
higher voltage and diode D3 is reversed biased as its cathode is connected to
the comparatively higher voltage.

For the negative cycle, the current flows from the lower corner of the bridge
through diode D4, then through the load resistor from point a towards point b
and diode D1, completing its path to the higher corner.

full bridge rectifier current flow during negative half cycle

Note that during both cycles, the current flow in the load is from point a
towards point b and the current is unidirectional like DC rather than AC.